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MODULE 1
GEOMETRY
Rev. 00 1.3
Oct 2006
For Training Purposes Only
Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Rev. 00 i 1.3
Oct 2006
For Training Purposes Only
Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Rev. 00 1 1.3
Oct 2006
For Training Purposes Only
Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
GEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION
Plane geometry is further divided into
The word geometry is derived from geo, a Greek word meaning
earth, and metria, meaning measurement. Ancient Egyptians Theoretical geometry consisting of theorems
were perhaps the first people to study geometry. They were and
mainly concerned with problems of finding areas of rectangular
Practical geometry consisting of problems.
figures. Later Babylonians also studied the problems of finding
areas of various rectilinear figures. Both the Egyptians and
Babylonians used geometry for practical purposes. However,
Any separate geometrical operation, whether a discussion or a
they did not develop it as a systematic science.
construction, is called a proposition.
It is desirable to tell the importance of the study of geometry.
A theorem is a proposition in which a geometrical fact is proved
Primarily geometry teaches you how to reason. The habit of
by methodical reasoning.
correct thinking acquired in its study is beneficial to all. By its
study you will be able to converse more logically and read with a A problem is a proposition in which a geometrical figure is to be
greater understanding. actually constructed.
So we may say that geometry literally means the measurement In this section we shall not enter into the details of plane or solid
of the earth or land. Actually, geometry deals with the geometry. However, we shall examine the fundamentals, of
measurement of areas, volumes, and distances, so the name, each.
geometry, is descriptive of the mathematical science, which it
denotes.
There are two general types of geometry: that dealing with
plane surfaces, called plane geometry, and that dealing with
three-dimensional objects, called solid geometry.
Rev. 00 2 1.3
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Line
Straight Line
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Solid: A solid, in the geometric sense, is that which has Broken Line: A line consisting of a number of different
three dimensions, that is, length, breadth, and segments of straight lines.
thickness.
Broken Line
Equal Lines: Two lines are equal if, when placed one upon the
other, all corresponding points coincide.
Angle
Right Angle
Curved Line
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Acute Angle: An angle which is less than a right angle. Reflex Angle: It is any angle that is larger than a straight angle
Vertex
Acute angle
Reflex Angles
Vertex of an Angle: The common point from which the two sides
of an angle proceed
Bisector: A bisector is a point, line, or surface, which
divides a magnitude into two equal parts.
Bisector
Obtuse Angle
Straight Angle
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Vertical Angles: Two angles with the same vertex and with sides Circle: A closed curve all portions of which are in the
that are prolongations of the sides of each other. same plane and equidistant from the same point.
Chord Radius
Arc
Diameter Sector
Vertical Angles
Circumference
Circle
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Parallel Lines. Lines in the same plane, which can never Obtuse Triangle. A triangle having one angle greater than 90.
intersect no matter, how far they are extended.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Right Triangle. A triangle having one angle equal to 90. Scalene Triangle. A triangle which has no two sides equal.
90
Scalene Triangle
Right Triangle
Equilateral Triangle
Isosceles Triangle
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Square. A plane figure bounded by four equal sides and having Trapezium. A four-sided plane figure with two parallel sides and
four right angles. two sides which are not parallel.
90 90
90 90 Trapezium
Square
Rectangle. A four-sided plane figure having four right angles.
Parallelogram. A four-sided plane figure whose opposite sides
are equal and parallel. 90 90
90 90
Parallelogram.
Rectangle
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Therefore
Since
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
A B
G D
K
H
E
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
DRAWING A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT TO A LINE DIVIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL
PARTS.
Let the line to be divided be AB. Assume that we need to divide
In this case we are going to draw a perpendicular to a line from a
AB into 5 equal parts. Draw another line from A or B. Divide the
given point. The point given is P and the straight line is AB. From
second line in to 5 equal parts using the compass. This can be
the point P use the compass to strike arcs at A and B, using the
done by setting the compass to a fixed length and marking this
same radius in each case. Then from the points A and B,
set distance along the line. Then connect the open end of AB to
maintaining the adjustment of the compass, strike intersecting
the last marked point on the second line. After that draw lines
arcs at C. Connect the points P and C with a straight line. The
parallel to the connecting lines starting from the other marked
line PC is perpendicular to AB.
points to meet AB.
P
C
t
s
r
q
90
A p
B
A B
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
A A F
C
C D X
O B B E
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Let the given triangle be ABC. Draw a straight line DX. Using AB
as a radius and D as the center, draw an arc cutting DX at E.
Using AC as a radius and D as a center, draw an arc in the
vicinity of F. Using CB as the radius and B as a center, draw an
arc to intersect the other arc at F. Draw the lines DF and EF.
DEF is the duplicate triangle.
C F
A B D E X
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS
.
There are various specific relationships among angles, which
should be observed and understood. Some of these are given in
the following statements:
When the sum of two angles is 90, the angles are said
to be complementary, or complements of each other
When the sum of the angles is 180, the angles are said
to be supplementary or supplements of each other.
When two straight lines cross each other, vertical angles
are formed and the vertical angles are equal.
When a straight line meets another, supplementary
angles are formed.
Complements of an angle are equal
Supplements of an angle are equal
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
As previously explained, parallel lines are lines in the same Alternate interior angles are equal.
plane, which cannot meet, no matter how far they are extended. Alternate exterior angles are equal.
A straight line, which cuts across a pair of parallel lines, is called Corresponding angles are equal.
a transversal. The transversal makes angles with the parallel
lines as shown below Exterior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
a b
c d supplementary.
A few other facts concerning parallel lines are as follows
e f
g h If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are
parallel to each other.
Through a given point only one line can be drawn parallel
to another.
In the foregoing diagram the angles are named according to their
position in the diagram. If two straight lines in the same plane cannot intersect,
regardless of how far they are extended, they are
Angles a,b,g, and h are called exterior angles.
parallel.
Angles c,d,e, and f are called interior angles.
Two intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to a third
The pairs of angles a and h, and b and g are called line.
alternate exterior angles.
A straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is
The pairs of angles c and f, and e and d are called also perpendicular to the other.
alternate interior angles
The pairs a and e, b and f, c and g, d and h are called
corresponding angles, or they may be referred to as
interior-exterior angles.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
TRIANGLES
According to their construction and dimensions, triangles have If three sides of one triangle are equal respectively to three sides
certain relationships with one another. The conditions of of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
congruency are particularly important to remember. These may
be stated as below. A D
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are
equal respectively to two angles and the included, side of
another triangle, the triangles are congruent. That is, they
are identical in size and shape.
B C E F
A D
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
B C
Base
D C
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane, closed figure bounded by straight lines RULES OF POLYGON
joined end to end. Hence, a polygon may have any number of
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to
sides from three upward. Polygons are given names descriptive
180 times the number of sides less two. Thus if a
of their characteristic number of sides. A four-sided figure is a
polygon has n number of sides the sum of interior angles
quadrilateral, a five-sided figure is a pentagon, a six-sided figure
are
is a hexagon, a seven-sided figure is a heptagon etc.
180 (n-2)
A regular polygon has all sides and angles equal.
Hence for a pentagon the sum of interior angles is
180 (5-2) = 180x3 = 540
B
b
When a regular polygon has n sides, each interior angle
a C is equal to:
A
c 2(n 2)
x90 where n = the number of sides.
n
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
CIRCLES
A circle is a closed curve such that all points on the curve are RULES FOR CIRCLES
equidistant from a fixed point within the circle.
In the same circle or in equal circles, equal central angles
intercept equal arcs and equal arcs subtend equal central
angles.
A X
B P Y
Lets see some useful terms related to circle. We have already O
discussed some of these terms at the beginning of this module
A minor arc is one of less than 180.
A major arc is one of more than 180. All radii of the same circle or of equal circles are equal.
A semicircle is an arc of 180. In the same circle or equal circles, equal chords subtend
equal arcs.
A quadrant is a sector with an arc of 90.
A line perpendicular; to a chord and passing through the
A chord is a straight line in a circle connecting two points
center of a circle bisects the chord and the arcs
on the circle.
subtended by it
A tangent is a straight line of unlimited length, which has
only one point in common with a circle.
A secant is a straight line, which intersects a circle.
O
An inscribed angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is
on the circle.
A central angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is at A B
the center of the circle.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
RULES FOR CIRCLES (Cont..) If tangents are drawn from an external point to a circle;
they are equal and make equal angles with the line
A line is tangent to a circle, if it is perpendicular to a
joining the external point and the center of the circle.
radius at the point where the radius meets the circle.
O
C
O
90
B
A
B
C O B
2a
O
B
C
A
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
D
C
A B
O
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Rev. 00 24 1.3
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Y axis
7
B
6
5
A
4
3
2
1
C X axis
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
D
-3
-4
E
-5
-6
F -7
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
GRAPHS
The term graph is normally applied to the line, straight or DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
curved, which defines the relationship between two or more
quantities. A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting a 4.5
pair or number of related values as points on a piece of graph
20
paper and then drawing a "smooth curve through the plotted 4.0
19
points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x and y as 18
SPEED-KNOTS X 100
3.0
other symbols most relevant to our particular problem. 13
12
For example, if the speed or time of flight of an airplane 2.5 11
changes, the distance traveled in a given time will change. This 10
9
is illustrated in the graph in the next column. If any two of the 2.O
8
variables are known, the approximate value of the other can be 7
quickly determined. The dotted line indicates how distance is 1.5 6
5
determined when speed and time are known. The value shown 4
is 937.5 nautical miles. 1.0
3
2
0.5 1
1 2 3 4 5
TIME - HOURS
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
UNITS COMPLETED
100
65
95
60
90
55
85
50
80
45
75
40
70
UNITS COMPLETED
35
65
30
60
55 25
20
50
45 15
40 10
35 5
30
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
25 MONTH
20
15 Bar graph
10
5
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTH
Broken line graph
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS/FUNCTIONS. By using the graph, now we can find corresponding values of the
variables in the equation. When the equation x y = 5 is plotted
Graphs are often used to solve mathematical problems.
on the same graph, the line for the equation intersects the first
Equations with variables such as x and y can be plotted on a
line at a point where x = 6.5 and y = 1.5. These values satisfy
graph. It will provide a visual indication of the values of each
both equations.
variable as the other changes. Such a graph is shown below.
The first equation plotted on this graphs is x + y = 8. We already It is apparent, then, that simultaneous equations can be solved
know that when x is given a value of 0, y = 8. In the same graphically. For example simultaneous equations 2x+3y=6 and
manner, when y is given a value of 0, x = 8. It should be 4x+5y= 9 are solved graphically in the graph below.
understood that when the equation is of first degree; that is the
In the first equation, x = 0, y = 2, and when y = 0, x = 3 and in
variables in the equation are of power 1, the line of the graph is a
4
straight line. Therefore the line drawn between the plotted points the second equation, when x = 0, y = 1 or 1.8 and when y = 0,
provides all the values of x for any value of y and vice versa. 5
1
X = 2 or 2.25. When the lines are plotted on the graph, they
4
intersect at a point where x = -1.5 and y = 3. These values
8 satisfy both equations.
7 Y axis Y axis
6
5
X+Y=8 5
4
3 6.5,1.5 4
2 3
1
X axis 2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
-1
-2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X axis
-3 X-Y=5 -1
-4 -2
-5 -3
-6
-4
-7
-8 -5
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
LEASE 3.1%
WAGES & SALERIES 46 4%
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
A
C C
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Also In the same triangle, the functions of the angle B are the co
B functions of angle A. That is,
sin B = cos A
c
a cos B =sin A
tan B = cot A
A C cot B = tan A
b
sec B =cosec A
adjacent b
The cotangent of angle A, called cot A, is = cosec B = sec A
opposite a
These relationships can easily be shown by noting the sides
hypotenous c
The secant of angle A, called sec A, is = adjacent to and opposite to angle B.
adjacent b
hypotenous c
The cosecant of angle A, called cosec A, is =
opposite a
The importance of the foregoing functions in the fact that a
particular function always has the same value for the same
angle. For example, sin 50 is always equal to 0.7660. This
means that in a right triangle, which has an acute angle of 50,
the sine of 50 will always be 0.7660 regardless of the size of the
triangle.
The table "Trigonometric Functions" in the Appendix of this book
may be used to determine the values of the functions of any
angle.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
6
c c= = 7.32
a 0.8192
35
A C
b
From the table of functions we find tan 35 = 0.7002
Then
deg. Deg min Sin Cos Tan Cose
a a
35.0 35 0 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 = 0.7002 or = 0.7002
b 6
35.1 35 6 0.5750 0.8181 0.7028
35.2 35 12 0.5764 0.8171 0.7054 a = 4.2012
35.3 35 18 0.5779 0.8161 0.7080
35.4 35 24 0.5793 0.8151 0.7107
35.5 35 30 0.5807 0.8141 0.7133
Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180, the other acute
35.6 35 36 0.5821 0.8131 0.7159
angle of the triangle is 55.
35.7 35 42 0.5835 0.8121 0.7186
35.8 35 48 0.5850 0.8111 0.7212 The sides of the triangle are 4.2012, 6, and 7.32. We can verify
35.9 those answers by the formula a2 + b2 = c2 , which shows that the
square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum
of the other two sides.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
If the sides of a right triangle are known, the angles can also be From the table of functions
determined. This is shown in the problem below. In this triangle
0.4706 = sin 284' (approximately)
ABC, side a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17.
Then angle A = 28 4 ' ( approximately)
B
c=
a= 8
C A
b
a 8
Then sin A = = = 0.4706
b 17
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
Y
a E Since AO is equal to 1, the sine of angle a is AB. Continuing with
the same process and reasoning.
A C
OB
Cos a =
AO
a
X X
O B OB = AO cos a
Since AO = 1 Cos a = OB.
Similarly..
CX
Y Tan a = = CX
OX
EY
Cot a = = EY
OY
In the circle shown, diameters XX and YY are drawn with radii
OY and OX and another radius, AO, all equal to 1. AB is then OC
drawn from the end of the radius OA and perpendicular to OX. Sec a = = OC
OX
OA is extended to E, where it intersects the tangent
(perpendicular) drawn to OY. CX is drawn tangent to the circle at OE
Cosec a = = OE
X and perpendicular to OX. There are now three similar OY
triangles: ABO, CXO and OYE. The angle designated a is the
same in all three triangles. By arranging the functions so that the
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
CHANGES IN VALUES OF FUNCTIONS The values of the functions as the angle changes from 0 to 90
If we study the unit circle shown in Figure below very carefully, are as follows.
we can visualize what will happen to each function as the angle
sin a, 0 to 1
a increases or decreases.
cos a, 1 to 0
Y
a E tan a 0 to
C cot a, to 0
A
sec a, 1 to
a cosec a, to 1
X X
O B
As angle a increases;
Sin a will increase to I.
Cos a will decrease to 0.
Tan a will increase to infinity ()
Cot a will decrease to 0.
Sec a will increase to infinity ()
Cosec a will decrease to 1
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
cos A =. b Co tangent 3 1 1
c
3
a
Sin A a c a
Then = c = = = tan A Secant 2 2 2
Cos A b c b b
c 3
In a similar manner it can be shown that Co secant 2 2 2
sin A = tan A cos A 3
cos A = sin A cot A
There are numerous other relationships which can be worked
out and if it is desired and become thoroughly proficient in the
use of trigonometry, a substantial amount of study and practice
should be given to this type of work.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
c b
c b
B C
B C D a
a
The law of cosines may also be written as
The law of sines may be written
BA2 = AC2 + BC2 2AC.BC.cos
a = b c
=
Sin A Sin B Sin C Or c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
a Sin A
or =
b Sin B
a Sin A
and =
c Sin C
b Sin B
and =
c Sin C
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
c b
B C
a
The law of tangents may be written 90
( A B)
a b tan 2
=
a + b tan ( A + B )
2
sin (90 + ) = cos
Tan(90 + ) = -cot
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES The perpendicular distance of the point from the y-axis, that is
the value of x, is known as the abscissa; the perpendicular
distance of the point from the x-axis, the y value, is known as the
CARTESIAN COORDINATES
ordinate.
Cartesian and polar coordinates are discussed with graphs of
their type. First we concentrate on the conventional x -y or Y- axis
X(abscissa)
Cartesian coordinate (also known as rectangular coordinates) P(x,y)
The system in which a point is located in a plane by specifying Point B, x= -3, y=5 is indicated by (-3, 5)
its distance from two axes drawn at right angles (that is, the x
and y-axes) is known as the Cartesian system of coordinates. X value Y value
(abscissa) (ordinate)
The values of x and y defining a point are known as cartesian
coordinates.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
The various areas into which the x and y axes divide the graph POLAR COORDINATES.
plane are known as quadrants
A second useful way of defining the position of a point is by
Y + means of polar coordinates, r and . The point P in figure below
is defined by the radial distance r = OP from the origin O and the
1st quadrant
angle = POX, which is the angle the radial line makes with
2ndquadrant
(-,+) (+,+) the x-axis. Plots made using polar coordinates are known as
polar diagrams. Such diagrams are very useful in graphing
certain forms of data.
Y
+
r cos
- O X P(r sin , r cos )
r
r sin
th
rd
3 quadrant 4 quadrant
(-,-) (+,-)
O X
-
In the 1st quadrant x and y values are both positive (+, +)
In the 2nd quadrant x values are negative, y values are positive
( -, + )
In the 3rd quadrant x values and y values are both negative (-, -)
The mathematical convention used to indicate the polar
In the 4th quadrant x values are positive, y values are negative coordinates of a point is (r sin , r cos ), e.g.
( + , -) If the radius (r) of a Point B, is 3 units and angle () it makes
with x axis is 30, then point B polar coordinates are
3 sin 30 and 3 cos 30
Rev. 00 40 1.3
Oct 2006
For Training Purposes Only