Introduction

Electrical engineering is the application of electricity and electromagnetism in useful devices. In other words,
electrical engineers design and build electrical devices. Electrical engineers use physics (particularly
electromagnetism) and mathematics to analyze and design electrical circuits from huge muilt-ton generators to
microscopic chips whose components cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Why is Electricity called Electricity?

It comes from the Greek word "electron." However, to the Greeks that word didn't mean what it does to us; it meant the
material we call amber. It's called that because one of the first noticed electrical phenomena was that if you rubbed
a piece of amber with a cloth you could build up a static charge and make a small spark.

What is applied voltage?

Any voltage that is fed into or "applied" to an electrical circuit is referred to as an "applied voltage".

Will the resistance of a copper conductor

decrease with an increase in the applied voltage?
If all environmental conditions remain constant then the resistance will not change appreciably with applied
voltage, but the current will increase. An increase in current will raise the temperature of the conductor which
will increase the resistance somewhat. No, the resistance of a copper conductor does not vary according to
applied voltage. It is constant for a given wire size, and only varies with temperature. Of course, current
through a conductor causes it to heat, so current, not voltage, indirectly causes a change in resistance.

What is single phase and 3 phase power system?

single phase motor have a single winding and in three phase motor have a three winding
Answer A three-phase alternator (generator) has three stator windings, physically displaced from each other by 120
degrees. When the field winding rotates, it induces three, separate, voltages into each winding which are then
displaced from each other by 120 electrical degrees.

Depending on the way in which the alternator's windings are connected, you then have either three or four external
wires that will connect that alternator to the load (usually via three-phase transformers). Three of these wires are
'hot' and called 'line conductors' and the fourth is called a 'neutral conductor'.

The potential of each line conductor is displaced from the other line conductors by 120 degrees, and the potential
difference between each line conductor is called a 'line voltage'. The potential difference between any line
conductor and the neutral is called a 'phase voltage'. For a four-wire system, the line voltage is 1.732 time the value
of the line voltage.

A single phase connection is obtained by connecting a single-phase load either between any two line conductors of
the three-phase system, or between one of the line conductors and the neutral conductor -depending on the level of
voltage required.

Alternatively, a single-phase system could comprise an alternator with just one winding, and supplying two
conductors, a line conductor and a neutral conductor.

Answer: Single-phase is a pair of conductors providing ac power, with the voltage following a sine-wave of

Page 1
 Introduction

variation with time, usually with a frequency of 50 or 60 cycles per second (Hz). Three-phase uses three single-
phase supplies with the sine-waves peaking 120 degrees apart during one 360-degree cycle.

That is useful because it means that the instantaneous sum of the three currents is zero, and therefore the three
neutral wires can be replaced by one wire that is common to all three circuits and no net current flows in the
neutral provided the three circuits supply equal currents. When that happens no power is lost in the neutral, and the
transmission losses have been halved when compared with three separate single-phase supplies.

In many cases the neutral wire is retained in case the three circuits have to supply unequal currents, which is a
three-phase four-wire system. Alternatively when the load is balanced (equal currents in the three circuits) the
neutral can be omitted altogether and that is a three-phase three-wire system.

Power distribution worldwide uses three-phase for efficient transmission, except for low-power low-voltage
supplies (120/240v) as used for residential properties and small businesses.

What are the advantages of three phase to single

phase electric power distribution systems?
This Answer is the same as the for the Question 'Why is power for a country's mains grid usually generated as 3-phase
electricity not single phase?'

Single phase power has a sine wave voltage that crosses zero before reversing its polarity. In the region near the
zero-crossing there is not much power. At zero there is none at all. So single phase loads often need some trickery
to deliver output in this area. Often it is just the inertia of the motor or appliance.

Three phase power is always delivering power on one of its phases, and is thus preferred for machines, motors and
appliances that use lots of power.

Three phase power generation is preferred if the application needs very high power, or nees relatively small power
output but with with weight restrictions - as in automobiles, where the power is generated in a 3-phase alternator
and then converted to DC using rectifiers!

Use of DC (Direct Current) is the next step up for smooth high-power devices but requires rectification, regulation
and smoothing to be useful.

Another problem with DC is that, for efficient long distance transmission, it cannot be simply converted to much
higher voltages than the voltage at which it was generated at the power station.

Similarly DC cannot - simply by using transformers - be converted down to safer, much lower AC mains voltages
for use by consumers.

Conversion of DC to AC requires the use of expensive high-power electronic "power inverter" systems and the
opposite - the conversion of high-power AC to DC - requires the use of very big power rectifiers.

AC (Alternating Current) is used for high power generation and distribution because it can easily be transformed,
using transformers, to achieve very efficient power transmission over very long distances and can then be
transformed down to low voltages for distribution to consumers.

Page 2
 Introduction

Two phase, and higher multi-phases are also used, but very rarely, for a few very specialised applications.

<><><>

A three phase system provides constant torque, whereas single phase does not.

With three phase you will get more power per kilogram of metal to generate electrical energy.

Answer
For a given load, a three-phase supply uses less copper than a single-phase system. In other words, it's more
economical!

Why three phase system is better than single

phase in electricity?
There are three reasons. The first and, perhaps, most important reason is economy as, for a given load, a three-phase
systems uses around 75% of the volume of copper required by a single-phase system. The second reason is that a
three-phase system provides essentially continuous power, whereas single-phase provides pulsating power. The
third reason is that three-phase induction motors are self-starting, whereas single-phase motors are not.

What is a Single phase three wire system?

A single-phase, three-wire, system describes a standard North American residential supply, in which the
secondary winding of the supply transformer is centre tapped and earthed, providing the neutral, while
opposite ends of the secondary winding provide the two line conductors. Loads connected between the line
conductors are at a nominal voltage of 240 V, whereas loads connected between either line conductor and the neutral
are at a nominal voltage of 120 V.

This is quite unlike the European and UK residential supply, which is considered to be a single-phase,two-wire,
system ('earth' or 'ground' conductors are never included as part of the conductor count!) which comprises a line
conductor and a neutral conductor having a nominal voltage of 230 V between them

How many hours of power is 3200 milliamps with

an output of 5 volt by 100 milliamps?
Some basic electrical terms / units that you should know (because I think youre missing
information in the question):

A device (also called an electrical load) consumes power (measured in watts).

Power (watts) = Voltage (volts) x Current (amps)

One helpful analogy: if power is the amount (mass) of water that flows under a bridge, then
voltage is how fast the water flows and current is how wide the river is. A very fast moving,
yet thin stream can be dangerous to cross, a wide, slow-moving river is generally safer, so
long as its not a flood.

Page 3
 Introduction

A batterys capacity is normally listed or measured in one of two ways:

1. Watt-hours - if a battery is rated at 100Wh (watt-hours) then it can output 100

watts for 1 hour, or 50 watts for 2 hours, 1 watt for 100 hours, etc.
2. Amp-hours with a listed voltage - for example, a 3200mAh, 7.2V ( 3.2Ah x
7.2V = 23.04Wh) battery.
If the device has a regulator and used 5V x 100mA (0.5W) then the device would
run for around (23.04Wh / 0.5W = ) 46 hours.
If the battery was a 2400mAh, 11.1V (26.64Wh) then that same device would last
for a little over 53 hours.
Also note that if you stick something like a 12 volt battery (regardless of its amp-hours) into
a device thats not rated for 12 volts (for example, a bit of electronics designed to take in 5
volts) youll likely fry it. To handle different voltages, devices use voltage regulators or buck-
boost converters.

Now, given that youre asking about a 3200mAh battery and a 5 volt x 100mAh device, are
you talking about a USB power bank / battery, powering some USB device?
If so youre fine - store-bought USB power banks / batteries have a built-in 5V regulator.

As for how long itll last, unless it states a watt-hours value, well have to assume that theyve
converted the mAh to be relative to a 5V output. In that case itll last for theoretically 32
hours, although keep in mind your device might not draw exactly 100mA and the battery
will stop supplying power when its around 80% depleted - if LiPo batteries (which USB
power bank are) are emptied too much they get damaged and wont charge properly.
So realistically expect something more like 25 hours.

You are not asking a logical question.

If asking how many hours one can get from 3200 maHr battery when drawing 5V at 100 ma
then the answer is 3200maHr/100ma= 32 Hrs. The battery will run for 32 hours at this
current draw.

I am assuming the battery can supply 5 or more volts. There are no 5V batteries so would
use a regulator to either step up or step down the voltage to 5V.
Im pretty sure youre referring to some kind of power bank or battery. In that case youll get
around 32 hours of power.

Potential difference is usually called Voltage. Is it

valid to talk of "Amperage"? Or "current"
These sorts of things vary with your location and your field. Most everyone who works with
electronic circuits and speaks American English says voltage instead of electrical
potential or just potential. People do occasionally say high tension for high voltage,
but in my experience thats most common in colloquial speech and it seems perhaps a bit
old-fashioned. Apparently its also common in the context of vacuum tubes. Physicists might
be more likely to talk about potential instead of voltage outside of the context of circuits.

My guess is that voltage caught on because its easier to say than potential and less likely
to be confused with something else, like mechanical tension or potential energy. The use of

Page 4
 Introduction

the symbol V for voltage does make for awkward mathematical expressions (like V = 5 V
meaning the electrical potential is five volts), which is why the symbol U is used instead in
some countries (but generally not in the U.S.).

In some languages the word usually used for voltage is the same as the word for mechanical
tension. For example, in French voltage is tension, and in German both voltage and tension
are Spannung. Its not unusual to see the word tension used for voltageand similarly
intensity instead of currentused by speakers of those languages when they are speaking
or writing in English.

The word amperage is much less commonly used, but its not unheard of and most people
would understand you if you said it. Its more common to use the word current, and
except in very unusual situations (perhaps youre trying to sell your harebrained scheme to
use rivers for electrical transmission to a room full of hydrologists) theres no way that
anyone would think you were talking about the flow rate of water in a stream.

The difference between amperage and current is similar to the difference between
mileage and distance, with the exception that the ampere is almost universally used as
the unit of current, while miles are only used in a few countries.
To be a little more specific, Engineers usually use the term voltage. This is very common in
the electronics Industry for at least the last 60 years that I have been involved. Engineers
also use the term current the same way.

Also, in my experience, EMF is almost never used when discussing circuits.

We may frequently use the term potential difference in certain kinds of circumstances.
Thinking about it a little more, we are more likely to say potential difference when were
referring to two different places buried deep in a circuit.

Also in my experience, hobbyists tend to use the term amperage.

This may seem strange. If volts are the measure of voltage, one could easily assume that
amps are a measure of amperage.

However, this is just the convention usage. Many of these terms just come about by accident
and the way people start using them catches on. It doesn't have to make any sense. We talk
the way we talk and you just gotta get used to it.

In addition, resistors have resistance, but they do not have ohmage. Power is rarely
referred to by engineers as wattage. I don't think I've ever heard of anyone use the term
ohmage', but wattage' is fairly common.

There are many terms that are used merely out of convention and don't necessarily have to
make sense or follow any rules.

A read-only memory ROM is also a Random Access Memory, however we use RAM to refer
to read/write memory.

A dipole antenna almost always refers to a half wave antenna, even though dipole only
refers to the fact that there are two halves of it and can be any length.

Page 5
 Introduction

We are so used to using these terms that we never really think about how they come about,
everybody just knows what we're talking about. If you and your friends use amperage that's
perfectly okay. There's really no right and wrong and if you say amperage or even if you say
ohmage somebody else will know what you're talking about more than likely, but they may
correct you on ohmage'. :-)

Regards
Potential difference is also called Tension, which is to my knowledge better than voltage. Amperage
is also acceptable but not so common and actually a more general word/ you can have a water
current! Amperage in that case is unmistakably an electrical current.

What happens if the inductance of coil is doubled,

then XL at any particular frequency?
XL = 2 x pi x f x L

If L is doubled, XL will increase but its actual value depends on L and f.

If you pick a value for L, you can plot XL over a range of frequencies.

That's all I can offer with the limited information given.

Well XL=LXL=L : double LL, double XLXL ... Everything else depends on what is around
the inductance. Hard to answer with no other reference or schematic.

How do you convert kVA to amps?

You need to know the voltage and whether it is 3 phase or single phase.

For single phase just divide the VA by the voltage ie: 10kVA = 10000VA so at 230 volts the
Amps will be 1000/230 =43.478260 Amps

For 3 phase the equation involves the square root of 3 which is 1.732050.

Amps = VA/V*1.732050*EFF*PF (if known)

EFF = efficiency especially for motors. PF = power factor of the load. The worse the power
factor (lagging) and efficiency the higher the apparent current drawn from the supply.

So for a 3 phase 10kVA load in a 230 Volt system (400V line to line actually 398 according
to the exact maths)

It would be 10000 divided by (400V x 1.732050)

or 10000 divided by 692.82 which is 14.43376A

Page 6
 Introduction

The difference between 1 phase and 3 phases is not a simple divide or multiply by 3 due to
the 120 degree phase angles between the phases.

The answer by Hedley was good and provided the equations. I will just add a little more for
the technically minded.

Kva stands for Thousand volt amps which could also be considered thousand watts for most
puposes. The difference between the two is that Kva is rated power and watts is measured
power. The reason they can be different is due to losses in conductors and equipment and
the difference is the power factor. Im simplifying things but you can get more info on that
by looking it up online.

What I was actually going to explain (before I got carried away and started acting like a
know-it-all which I am definitely not and I never cease to be amazed at how little I actually
know:), was that its not a direct conversion as Kva refers to the product of two quantities
and amps is only one of them, while volts is the other so the amps that its converted to
always depends on the voltage being applied. Where I am my utility is serving me 120/240
split phase power lets say I am using a device rated at 2400 Kva so if I have it plugged into a
120 outlet I am using 2400/120 = 20 amps. If this device can also use 240 volts then when
Im connected to that it is 2400/240= 10 amps

I know that Im repeating some of what Hedleys answer already provided but I just wanted
to add a little confusion for the readers that were actually beginning to understand. Lol
As we know that

1 K = 1000

Let suppose if we have 5 KVA so it equal to 5000 VA

then multiple the power factor if we have Power Factor 80% or .80 then,

500 * .80 = 4000 so for amps divide the result for number of volts of current.

S =(3)^1/2 . (Vl). Il in three phase

If u have supply voltage and input current u can easily get S (apparent power ) which its unit
is KVA
KVA stands for kilo volt amps a volt-amp is equal to a watt, which can be used to
measure the resistive load or DC current. Amps are used to measure electrical current. If
you were setting up an electrical circuit, you would need to verify that the system could
handle the level of electrical current you would need for the amount of KVA you were going
to use. To calculate amps from KVA, you need to know the power efficiency and the voltage
of the circuit.

Multiply the number of KVA by 1,000 to convert to VA. For example, if

you had 2 KVA, you would get 2,000
Multiply the VA by the power factor expressed as a decimal.
Continuing the example, if the power factor is 80 percent, you would
multiply 2,000 by 0.9 to get 1,800

Page 7
 Introduction

Divide the result by the number of volts of current to calculate the

number of amps. Finishing the example, if the voltage equals 110 V,
you would divide 1,700 by 110 to get 15.45 amps.

How is the Thevenin resistance in this circuit 5310

Ohm? R1 = 2 k, R2 = 40 k, R3 = 8 k, R4 = 5 k,
R5 = 8 k, R6 = 10 k, and VS = 10 V.

Do you understand how to reduce a circuit down to its equivelant resistance?

Normally in a reduction problem you will reduce the branches furthest away and work your
way down to the source (From the right most, output of the circuit down to the source) so in
other words start at R6 and move back to the source.

To solve a Thevenin:

Start by replacing Vs with a short and then begin reducing the circuit from R1 down to the
output.

In Thevenins you are measuring the resistance from the output terminals, as though you
have a multimeter connected to points A and B. In which case to solve for it, you need to
reduce the circuit from left to right. In other words from R1 working your way to R6.

Your final answer should be a circuit with Vs 10 V and one resistor 5310 R. I have worked it
out myself so it is definitely correct.

Voltage source = short circuit

Current source= broken circuit

So you have voltage source and instead of it you imagine piece of wire with no resistance.

So you need to calculate resistance from a to b:

1. On left side you have simple parallel of resistance R1 and R2, calculate resistance
R12 which can replace them:
R12=R1*R2/(R1+R2)=1.9 kOhms

Page 8
 Introduction

Ok so in the place of R2 resistor you can put resistance R12 which replace parallel
of R1 and R2. Ofc. you can delete these brench where is R1 resistor, because his
resistance is included in R23 resistor.

So now you have circuit with 5 resistors, R6,R5,R4,R3,R12 (in place of R2).
2. You can easily see that our R12 in a place of R2 is in series connection with resistor
R3So easily: R123=R3+R23=8+1.9=9.9 kOhm, R123 represents all that three
resistance R1,R2,R3 So in a place of R3 put resistor R123, and delete resistor
R23 (change him with a piece of wire).
3. After you deleted resistance R23 (place of R2) you can easily see that resistor R123
(placed instead of R3) is in parallel with resistor R4 (they are on same
potential)You can easily see that because they are connected between same
nods.
So we will will calculate equivalent resistance
R1234=R123*R4/(R123+R4)=9.9*5/(9.9+5)=3.3 kOhm, after that put resistance
R1234 instead of R4 and delete R3.
4. Our R1234 (in place of R4) and R5 are in series so we sum their values
R12345=R1234+R5=3.3+8=11.3 kOhm, delete R4 and in place of R5 put our
resistor R12345 And you will for the end see that our R12345 is in parallel with
R6 resistor So our thevenin resistance
is Rt=R12345*R6/(R12345+R6)=11.3*10/(11.3+10)=5.3 kOhm=5300
Ohms

If you in your calculation use more decimal digits than me (i only used one) you
will get 5311 Ohms.

Just calculate the voltage on a-b and the current that will flow in a short circuit connecting a with b.

You can do this using Thevenin reduction first replacing Vs-R1-R2 with a thevening equivalent, than
that equivalent with R3-R4 with a new equivalent, and finally that new equivalent with R5-R6 with
the searched one.
Compute the ratio of open circuit voltage (voltage between a and b with no load), to short
circuit current (current between a and b when a and b are shorted together). That is the
Thevenin resistance. Firstly, you replace the voltage source with a short circuit, then reduce
the parallel and series combinations to a single resistance.

Start from the voltage source and work back towards the a and b terminals.

So, R1 is in parallel with R2: (2k x 40k)/(2k + 40k) = 1.9k

This value is in series with R3: 1.9k + 8k = 9.9k

This is in parallel with R4: (9.9k x 5k)/ (9.9k + 5k) = 3.32k. This is in series with R5: 3.32k +
8k = 11.32k, which is in parallel with R6:

(11.32k x 10k) / (11.32k + 10k) = 5.31k (or 5310 ohms).

Page 9
 Introduction

To solve this problem, you will need to know how to convert between the two Thevenin
equivalent models; 1) voltage source with series resistance and 2) current source with
parallel resistance. Recall that the resistance stays the same when you convert between
models, but you must use the following to convert between current/voltage sources:

IsR=VsIsR=Vs
Now to solving.

The goal is to reduce the entire ladder to one equivalent resistor. We will start on the left
and work to the right. First, convert VsVs to IsIs and put R1R1 in parallel instead of in
series. This lets you combine R1R1 and R2R2 in parallel. Next, convert the current source
back to a voltage source and R1R1 || R2R2 (this means R1R1 parallel with R2R2) to a
resistor in series with R3R3. Combine R1R1 || R2R2 with R3R3. Repeat this technique to
reduce the ladder until you get a final, equivalent resistance.

In order to even find the Thevenin resistance, you need to have the values of each resistor.

Not sure why, but it seems that at least two of us cannot see the resistance values when we look at
the question. I note that when I look at the preview (or whatever the local dialectic word is) I
see... How is the Thevenin resistance in this circuit 5310 Ohm? R1 = 2 k, R2 = 40 k, R3 = 8
k, R4 = 5 k, R5 = 8 k, R6 = 10 k, and VS = 10 V.

At what voltage would plastic be considered conductive?

Yeah, you are kinda right here but for the wrong reasons.

Ohms law covers the relationship between Voltage, Resistance and Current. (V=IR) The
plastic tube you describe might have an end-to-end resistance of Oh 10 Million Ohms. If
you applied 1 Volt you would get a TINY current. 1 Ten Millionth of an Amp to be exact. So
you are right in that all materials conduct electricity.

However, that does not make plastic insulation a conductor by any general definition. If
you apply enough force (voltage) the plastic will eventually undergo breakdown. That is
it will suddenly experience a drop in resistance, causing the current to spike. This will cause
a VERY rapid increase in temperature in the plastic, to the point it bursts into flame and
stops being plastic (or solid) anymore. So yeah, electrons will flow but not for very long.

Normal wire insulation is often rated for 300V or 600V. This is the breakdown voltage from
the inside of the insulation, to the outside, and thus the highest voltage you can safely run
through the wire without risking electrical breakdown.

Page 10
 Introduction

How are the capacitor value & current related?

not any relation between capacitance and current

capacitors current capacity depend on hardware of capacitor

I hope you seen capacitor for fan and for Dc circuits,

for ac 2.5uf size is about 2inch

for Dc 27uf size is half inch

(normally u studied that area increase capacitance increase) but hear it made bigger to
sustain high voltage

same for current,

what if capacitor overcharged???

it never over charged, study saturation or steady state of capacitor,

if you apply 100v to capacitor made for 5v than it can blast

any more questions ask

The charge Q = C* V. The capacitor value C is constant for given capacitor so also the
Voltage rating. However, the voltage across capacitor will not build up suddenly. so the
voltage build up is function of charging current (I) over a time period T.

The charge Q = I* T = C* V therefore I ( current) = C*V/ T. As the capacitor gets charged

over the time its voltage builds up to rated value and the current falls down to zero.
78 Views 3 Upvotes View Timeline

What are the similarities between resistivity and

conductivity?
Phrased this way, the answer is that conductivity is the inverse of resistivity, and vice versa.

As in, the more resistive a substance is, the less conductive. And conversely, the more
conductive something is, the less resistive it is.

Lets look at resistivity:

R=lAR=lA
Where R is the resistance of an object, r is the resistivity, A is the area, and l is the length.
The larger resistivity is, the more resistance the object has. You can sort of say that
resistivity defines resistance by length per unit surface area of an object. So an object with a
set resistivity would have more resistance if it is made more thin or longer.

Conductivity is:

Page 11
 Introduction

=1=1
Where sigma is conductivity. It is the inverse of resistivity. I dont use this often in my work.
Other answers may have examples of how this is used.
3 Views View Timeline

They are both intrinsic properties of a material that do not change and both affect the flow of
electric current.

How does electron really move inside a conductor?

In a conductor, all the atoms are quite closely packed. So when you apply a voltage across the
conductor, there is an electron excess at the negative end of the voltage source. the excess
electrons knock off electrons from the outer shells of the nearby atoms and those electrons
knock off more electrons and make electrons flow to the positive teminal, which is electron
deficit.

conductor-A type of solid element which contains free valency electrons.

Basically most of the metals are conductors.A conductor contains free electrons in its
valency shell which revolves around the nucleus of the atom.whenever there is a supply of
sufficient amount of energy(ionization energy) to these valency electrons they get detached
from their respective nucleus.Thus an electron is freed from its atom.This is all according to
atomic structure.

But in practical these valency electrons are directed by applying a potential difference.Then
these electrons are directed towards the positive potential due to the repulsive negative
potential.

The voltage supplies sufficient ionization potential for every electron in the conductor to
direct towards the positive terminal.Thus the electrons move in a conductor according to my
perspective

Why do we use AC and DC supplies?

Many reasons, each has advantages and disadvantages.

The primary reasons are historical, electronics weren't advanced enough or simply not
around to use either type for certain applications. Also, it's hard to make an AC battery.

A major reason AC was favoured for transmission was raising and lowering voltage is easy
via a transformer. DC was favoured for motor speed control as it is easy to adjust via a
reostat plus electronics/valves mainly use DC. AC to DC motor generator sets are still
common for lift motor control.

Now electronics are here in their infinite glory, high voltage DC transmission is possible and
VFD (variable frequency drives) can vary AC motor speed. Finally a battery can power an
inverter to provide stored energy as AC.

Page 12
 Introduction

AC to supply can not be used directly for semiconductor devices. currently almost in all
Electrical and Electronics system contains electronics components which may contain
semiconductor devices or small voltage dc devices. so for that purpose we need DC supplies.
These are basically small voltage devices. It is very easy to control supply when it is in DC
form through electronics components. AC is required to produce DC through transformer.
18 Views 1 Upvote View Timeline

What is the voltage between earth and neutral?

How can we drop voltage from 12 volt to 6 volt?

By using a resistor in series with the positive terminal 12 V source.
You can use a voltage regulator using Zener Diode
You can divide voltage using resistor

Does an AC require a stabiliser?

People should understand the concept of stabilizer before determining whether to buy it or
not.

Stabilizers are just one more circuit connected before any electrical instrument being
connected, this circuit rectifies the voltage and regulates it for the voltage that is necessary
for the application.

Today with development of modern semiconductor device, there are much more
sophisticated and cost effective small voltage regulating circuit is inbuilt in the
equipment(The reason is no manufacturer want to have bad reputation for improper voltage
ruining their product which apparently put them into trouble and lot of equipment will
reach them for service which is hectic for both production and maintenance department in
Industry)..

Well that is being said, almost all the power supply to your home is regulated and governed
by millions of dollars filter and PLC controller. If you still believe that your house might
have varying voltage and put your equipment in trouble then go for it. Since you get 2 years
of warranty for most of the equipment, it is not necessary to buy a stabilizer before 2 years
and if any fault happens due to supply, company has to do the replacement.

The reason why people sell you stabilizers is because they can compensate the amount of
discount from overall purchase. It is just like the insurance for mobile(How many of us
really make use of it?). If they could sell atleast 20 to 30 stabilizers they will earn
considerable amount and get back the discount which they gave to the customers.

Is graphite electrically conductive?

Yes, graphite is a conductor. In fact, it is used as electrodes for some reactions such as
reaction in HallHroult processes, for the reason that metal can be oxidized and losing
conductivity.

Page 13
 Introduction

For the second question, no, it is not a semiconductor. It was already answered here: Is
graphite a conductor or semiconductor, and why?

If voltage is specified, what should we consider

RMS or peak?
If nothing is mentioned in the question/statement, you are always supposed to consider it as
rms. RMS has more physical significance than the peak value, therefore when nothing is
mentioned, it is to be taken as rms.

This is the general convention followed.

Is it possible that mutual induction happens if two

wires are twisted?
Mutual inductance is always there if wires get sufficiently close to each other, twisted or not.

Twisting is useful to reduce effects of external magnetic fields coupling into the twisted pair.

If they are twisted together, then yes.

Heres an article on how to calculate it: http://www.iee.put.poznan.pl/wyd...

On the other hand, twisting a pair of wires together reduces the inductance between the pair
and another wire (assuming the original pair are part of a balanced signal transmission.)

Is it safe to use American appliances (110v) in

India?

What is impedance in AC?

Could a fusor work with an AC power supply?

What is the main difference between AC and DC

voltage?
Main difference between AC and DC voltage lies in the fact that AC keeps changing its polarity. In
one complete cycle it changes its polarity twice. DC voltage has a constant polarity.

Page 14
 Introduction

What happens to human beings or animals actually

during electric shock?
Electric current flows through all the muscles and makes them contract and stimulates all the
nerves, causing pain.

Why is current reduced when we increase voltage?

Every appliances have their own kVA and mVA ratings.To use these appliances safely power
drawan should be constant.So according to P=VI ,if we increase V we have to decrease I
accordingly.But appliances are made for some constant voltage and current ratings.other than
that they will not work well.

When voltage of a source is increased in a circuit then the current flowing in the circuit is
reduced, because in a circuit for a constant power need the current flowing in the circuit is
inversely proportional to the voltage applied in the circuit.

P=V*I

where, P= power, V= Voltage, I= current

so for constant power draw, power is constant.

so V is inversely proportional to I.

So when voltage is incresed in a circuit then the current is also decrease in same proportion.

To maintain constant power following P=I*V from the power source

Why should one transform the rating in KVA?

What is difference between neutral and earthing?
Earthing is the connection called Earth which the particular point
where a copper rod is stuck into the dirt next to the building.
Neutral is the one side (the other side is called Hot) of the two power
conductors that carry current. At one location, the breaker box where
power enters the building, the neutral is connected to the earth.
Ground is the green wire that goes with the Hot and Neutral to the
outlets. It is also connected to the Earth at the breaker box only.
So all three of the ones you asked about are connected together at the breaker box
but they have different purposes. Nothing else is connected directly to Earth. The
loads are connected to Neutral. The ground conducts back to earth. It may have a
different potential than Neutral due to the fact that Neutral can carry a great deal
of current and a few ohms of wire resistance can raise neutral several volts away
from ground.
Ground should carry virtually no current. If it does there are safety devices
designed to cut off power to the Hot since ground current indicates a ground fault
where current is leaking unintentionally and unsafely back to Earth through a
uninsulated portion of the tool or appliance.

Page 15
 Introduction

Ground, chassis ground and protective earth all have different meanings when
applied to a tool or appliance.

Earthwire's purpose is to save the user from electric shock. Earth wire is connected to the
metal body of the electrical appliance. If by some chance electrical appliance becomes
energized then earth wire provides path of least resistance to current to flow and save user
from electric shock otherwise current would flow through the body of user.

Neutral wire is return path for the circuit. Without neutral wire circuit would be incomplete.
Current would flow through phase wire then enter into load and flow back through neutral
wire to power source hence completing the circuit. Unless circuit is complete electrical
appliance would not work.

P.S. Neutral word should be used for polyphase system only and not for single phase
systems as neutral wire carries zero current in normal circumstances in polyphase systems.
But in practice it is also used for single phase too which is technically not correct.

From the word within u can get the meaning neutral is a power systems return path to close
the flow of current in safe way after load. But earthing is connected to the load body and
connected with ground with proper earthing terminations to protect the users.

If your having coins phase is one side and neutral is other side. Without neutral current
return path will be terminated.

As you know three pin plug is provided with bigger and longer earthing pin while u insert
the power cord first connection of earthing is established this will ensure ground potential
at all the non current conducting outer body of any electrical electronics equipments Incase
if live wire is in contact with body fuse will blow and RCCB WILL Tripp.

Earth is at zero potential. If add or subtract any number of to earth its potential remains the.
It is a sink point.

Generally the body of the instruments are connected to earth so that any leakage occurs
from the phase or neutral to the body will directly passed to earth. There by protecting you
from shock if touch such leakage instrument.

What does machine body earthing 0.7 ohm mean?

What is a parallel type of electricity flow in a house?

Let's start with a general rule which states that current can only flow in a closed circuit.

Page 16
 Introduction

Image source: Google images

So, for all your devices like fan, tv, ac etc to work, they have to be part of a closed electrical
circuit.

Series vs Parallel connection

Image source: Google images

1. As you can see, in series connection, the current flows from the battery(+)
bulb1 bulb2 switch battery(-). Here, in case a bulb becomes faulty, it will
break the closed circuit and hence no other device in this circuit will work. Since,
all the devices will be off, it is very complex to find the defective device.
2. Now, in case of parallel connection, the closed circuit continues to exist even if one
of the bulbs becomes faulty.
This is the reason we have all our devices at home connected in parallel connection as we
have large number of devices at home and we don't want all of them not working in case one
of them goes down!

Page 17
 Introduction

A series circuit connection is an all or none type of circuit connection.Means, if one of

the appliances fails, all the other appliances will also fail which is why this type of
connection is good only when we want to protect a device.

parallel circuits,as the name indicates are circuitry whose components are arranged
parallel to each other, forming a connection that distributes power evenly.

Parallel circuits are the standard for home electrical wiring.

Advantages of Parallel Electrical Circuits

1. Independent components

When you turn on one gadget, you don't necessarily want to turn on all the others.

When installed properly, parallel circuits make it possible for different

components to have their own switches.
That means you can turn your appliances on or off independently of each other.
In contrast, a series circuit only has one pathway for electricity to flow.

If one component fails, the other components will also not work vs. a parallel
circuit arrangement that allows electricity to flow through more than one path if
one component fails, the others won't be affected.
Think of a light bulb on a string of Christmas lights: if one fails, the other light
bulbs in the same circuit will keep shining brightly as long there's no overload.

Page 18
 Introduction

2. Consistent voltage

Most appliances require at least 110 volts of electricity.

One of the advantages of parallel circuits is that they ensure all components in the
circuit have the same voltage as the source. For instance, all bulbs in a string of
lights have the same brightness.
This isn't possible with a series circuit because voltage drops as you add additional
components, possibly causing damage to your gadgets and appliances.
3. Allows for additional components

Parallel circuits also allow components to be added in the circuit without changing the
voltage.

For example, if you want additional lighting, you can add a sixth or seventh light
bulb, which you can turn on or off regardless of the other bulbs in the same circuit.
In a series circuit, adding more components to the circuit increases resistance, meaning the
electric current decreases.

In a parallel circuit, having additional components does not increase resistance.

Resistance can be reduced even further by having more pathways in a parallel
circuit.
This is very important when you're using appliances that draw a high current, such
air conditioners,Heater etc.
4. Simple, safe and reliable

A parallel circuit layout is simple to design for any electrical Designer.

Page 19
 Introduction

If the designer adheres to industry-approved standards and codes, you can count
on having not only a reliable but also a safe electrical circuit for your home.

The basics have already been well explained in previous answers. Taking the question
literally, consider any device having two functions:

In your TV, for example, the speaker is wired parallel to the screen, so that both can transfer
information.

In your hairdryer, the vent is parallel to the heating, so you can switch heating on/of without
changing air speed.

What is the difference between a ground and a

virtual ground?

The machine body earthing is 0.7 ohm. What does it

mean?

What happens to the resistance of a circuit if the

current running through it is tripled?
Ohms law :

A law stating that under definite conditions electric current is proportional to voltage
and inversely proportional to resistance.

Thus temperature and other physical quantities such as pressure must be constant over a
range of current.

But practically when current passes through any conducting wire, then according to Joule's
first law, also known as the Joule-Lenz law, states that the power of heating generated
by an electrical conductor is proportional to the product of its resistance and the square of
the current:

Power is proportional to I*R.

Thus as the heat is produced in the conducting wire the property of linearity is lost.

There will be change in resistivity as per change in temperature and will cause change in
resistance.

The change in resistance with temperature is given

R=R[1 +alpha * t]

Page 20
 Introduction

For further information you can refer :

Resistance in a circuit is essentially constant without respect to voltage or amperage.

Current would triple if voltage tripled while resistance would remain unchanged. That is
ohms law.

That being said, if the current being tripled began to significantly heat the circuit, then
resistance could change, particularly in metals. Not sure if that is what you are asking. If so,
specify that and add physics as a topic. You will get more appropriate responses.

According to basic Ohm's law for a conductor, The current flowing in a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends across the two ends of the
conductor. Thus proportionality constant is know as Resistance' of the conductor.

V=I*R

Resistance is the inheritant property of the conductor and doesn't depend on the current
flowing thought it. But, the current flowing through a conductor depends on the resistance.

This is the basic physics and Ohm's law.

Now, let's look at the repercussions of the tripling of current. As current triples, the
temperature rises in the conductor due to I^2 R losses. Thus rise in temperature causes
increase in resistance and thus is like a chain reaction. Such materials that show increment
in resistance with increased temperature are called Positive Temperature Coefficient
materials.

There are some materials that show Negative Temperature Coefficient meaning decrease in
resistance with increase in temperature.

Almost anything, depending on what the actual circuit is. Nothing if it is a circuit with no active
components that is physically able to tolerate the extra juice.

Resistance never changes in a circuit. Though it may be possible that increase in current can
increase the temperature of resistor and its resistance.

If current doesn't have a direction, then why are

there AC and DC currents?
Subtract 10 from 5 result = -5. Since 5 is negative, which direction this digit has.? See this is
senseless question.
Know the differences between Polarity and Direction.
Even the word direction may have two different senses. Assume any object is travelling
from point A to point B. One can say that this is the direction point A to point B. But its
not accurate sense of direction, the exact path which the object following is the direction.
The object is going from A to B this term can be stated as this is scaler sense of direction , so
here source is A , destination is B.

Page 21
 Introduction

Like this, in current convention if current is DC then assume its flowing from A to B, So in
AC for half of the time current would be flowing from A to B and for other half from B to A.
But we dont know the exact path or direction like north, south, east etc. Thats why we can
say, in our own words, that current is not a vector quantity but it does have scaler sense of
direction.
.
Current doesnt have a direction?? Who said?? If you are asked the same question in an
interview for an electrical engineer, you are more likely to concentrate on the latter part of
the question without bothering about first part(This is human psycology).

First thing let me clear you , current does have a direction(Have you ever heard of positive
current and negative current?).Yes again, it has both magnitude and direction but still called
as SCALAR ,because it doesnt follow vector law of addition. Like any other vectors, it
doesnt have north ,south, east, west etc. directions too instead it has only two directions
:positive and negative(Poor fellow,only two).The direction of current should really be
considered to be sign more than a proper vector. In particular,current is defined by
defining a surface, and then counting the number of electrons that cross the surface per unit
time. It only depends on relative orientation of the surface and the charges,it has no
absolute notion of distance.

(Note: Direction of current is opposite to that of electron movement.)

Edit: At basic level(Class 11 and 12) ,you can say current as scalar quantity. But in case of
higher level (like Btech, BE etc) its better to say current as a tensor quantity(tensor
quantity has both magnitude as well as direction but doesnt follow law of vector)

.
In case of current we only consider two directions I.e. forward and backward direction. If
forward direction is considered as positive then backward direction is negative. As we know
that current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal.

Suppose In a circuit a voltage source is present having terminal names as A& B. then when
current from A to B(here A is positive wrt B) is considered as positive then current from B to
A ( B is positive wrt A) be negative.

Current indeed has direction. Not that east- west one but it always flows from higher to
lower potential. I think you read about scalars and vectors and it stated current is scalar and
has no direction. Actually, it was telling about that east-west direction. But, current flows
through a conductor, say a wire, from higher to lower potential regardless of the
geographical direction the wire is heading/facing.

In both AC and DC, the current flows from higher potential (+ve) to lower potential (-ve).
Only difference is that in DC, the (+ve) end is always (+ve) and (-ve) end is (-ve) but in AC,
the polarity (+ve and -ve ends) shift continuously between each other. At one moment, one

Page 22
 Introduction

end is (+ve) and at the next moment it becomes (-ve) and so on So the current changes
polarity(direction) again and again).

P.S.- Conventional flow of Current is opposite to the flow of electrons.

Where is the earths wire connected?

The earth wire connects the appliance body to a metal rod/plate buried under the ground.

The inside of a plug

A lot of mains powered appliances need three wires to work safely. Only two of the wires are
used when the appliance works properly. These are the live (brown) and the neutral (blue)
wires. The live wire carries current to the appliance at a high voltage. The neutral wire
completes the circuit and carries current away from the appliance. The third wire, called
theearth wire (green/yellow) is a safety wire and connects the metal case of the appliance to
the earth. This stops a fault making the case of the appliance live.

If a fault occurs where the live wire connects to the case, the earth wire allows a large
currentto flow through the live and earth wires. This overheats the fuse which melts and
breaks the circuit.

The earth wire is connected to the metal case of an electric appliance and forms a very low
resistance path to the neutral wire in the junction box. In case something goes wrong, all the
current is shunted through the earth wire and hopefully at worst trips a breaker.

Why is a complete circuit needed for a current to

flow?
Charged particles are naturally attracted to the unlike charge in an electric field or if there is
a potential difference. Because a current is nothing else but a flow of charge, a complete
circuit is not needed for current to flow. Why am I wrong? Let's see a simple analogy to get a
visual clue on why current doesn't flow in an incomplete circuit.

Water as current
Tap opening and closing as resistance
Voltage as Pressure
Normally, when we open the tap, water flows through it due to pressure difference between
tank and point of tap (Similar to current flowing through a circuit from higher potential to
lower potential when a voltage is applied to it. To be precise, electrons running away from
lower potential -ve to higher potential +ve as e- is repelled by -ve).

When we close the tap, water stops flowing. That doesn't mean theres no potential
difference between tank and tap, it's the resistance provided by the tap being closed is
infinitely high that the pressure difference can't push the water through it (Similar to that,
won't be able to flow through an open circuit as the resistance is infinite i.e. Too high).

Page 23
 Introduction

Interesting question! Lets assume that you are not a capacitor (i.e., that you cannot store up
a lot of charge which can jump through the air to complete the circuit), and that the circuit
in question is sitting out on a table in the air (i.e., not in a conductive medium such as salt
water). Further assume that you are a circuit which is almost complete, except for a
missing bit of a conductor, say a missing piece of copper wire or a break in the printed
circuit. Now assume that you are an electron, getting pushed by neighboring electrons to
move along the circuit. All of a sudden you come to the gap in the circuit. To get to the
other side of the gap, youd have to jump through the air. Oops, cant do it, the conductivity
of air is too low (unless there is a massive potential pushing on the other end of the circuit
that is greater than the ionization potential of air.) So, you sit there, getting shoved by your
neighboring electrons, with no place to go.

If you connect a battery to a long wire, a current will flow down the wire, without a complete
circuit, until the voltage wave has reached the far end of the wire and charged up the
internal capacitance of the wire. Then it will stop, because the charge on the wire will repel
any extra charges. The same is true of any object and any length wire, but the time take to
charge up is so short that its impossible to measure without sensitive instruments. I mean,
you wont see it on a regular ammeter with your naked eyes.

Well, it depends on whether you consider a capacitor a break in the circuit or

not. Topologically it is certainly a gap in the circuit.

So what happens when you pump a current into a capacitor? The charges build up on both
plates of the capacitor until the applied voltage can no longer push any more charge onto
the plates.

If you cut a wire in a closed circuit, all you have done is make a capacitor with a very tiny
capacitance. Is the resultant circuit open or closed?

The simple answer to your question is that you are wrong because charge is conserved. If
it flows, it has to have somewhere to go.

As you describe it, the charged particles may be more or less attracted to one another. That
doesn't mean they are actually moving towards each other, just that they would like to be.
Thus no current is flowing if they cant. For example, in a capacitor, the charges would really
like to get from one plate to the other, but cant because of a separator of some sort, thus no
current flows once the capacitor is charged (some internal leakage occurs, but mostly not).
However, if you short the leads of the capacitor, now the charges can equalize across the
plates, and current flows, in a complete circuit.

Current is basically flow of electrons .A battery is basically just a chemical reaction. At the
negative (cathode) end of the battery the reaction releases electrons while at the positive
(anode) end of the battery the reaction consumes electrons. As long as the external circuit
allows electrons to flow from the cathode to the anode the reaction goes and the battery
generates power.

If you break the external circuit then electrons can't flow and the battery stops producing
power. But if you can use some kind of instrument to supply electrons to the anode and
remove them from the cathode the reaction in the battery will go and the battery will

Page 24
 Introduction

produce power. The battery doesn't care where the electrons are coming from or where
they're going.

But you won't be able to do this indefinitely because as you remove electrons from the
cathode you end up with a large collection of electrons i.e. a negative charge. In the same
way, as you supply electrons to the anode you'll end up with a positive charge. This charge
separation generates a potential difference (i.e. a voltage) and as soon as this voltage gets
bigger than the battery voltage the electrons will stop flowing. At this point you'll need to let
the two collections of charges neutralise by closing the external circuit or the battery will
stop producing power.

An extreme example of the open circuit is the battery itself. If you pick up a battery it will
have an excess of electrons at the -ve end and a deficit of electrons at the +ve end because
the battery has pushed electrons to its ends until it couldn't push any more.

You can get temporary current as electrons move to equalize the voltages. Once the voltages
are equalized there is no longer an impetus for current flow.

For an interesting real life example look at how cmos charge pumps work.

Here i want to tell one thing that current can actually flow through air. But the necessary
condition is that the voltage should be very high (5kv to 10kv) and pressure should be very
low(10^-2 atm). The values given in bracket are the conditions in discharge tube experiment
done by crookes and JJ Thomson.

For current to flow the air gap should be as small as possible. Here if the potential exceeds
the dielectric strength of gas it will ionise the air gap and the ions act as charge carriers. This
works in spark gap(or spark plug).

Hope u like my answer.

Because without a complete circuit it doesn't have any path where it could flow.

That said, the air itself can also be a path.

I hope it help

How about a large capacitor, connected to a battery via a resistor?

The capacitor is a break in the circuit, and yet current will flow for a while.

Is there any country where the use of DC current is

100%?

Page 25
 Introduction

DC current can only be transmitted effectively by using it at high voltage ie. HVDC Transmission.
Today, HVDC technology is used as a highly efficient alternative for a huge amount of electric
power transmission. HVDC transmission system has many more advantages over HVAC, such
as stability, controllability,Cost effectiveness etc. There are several HVDC projects running in
many countries,but there is no country yet which is fully using HVDC transmission.

Well that is not possible. Because a large number of machines we use are AC. Dc machine is very
uneconomical due to its high maintanence. Thus in case any country is using ac only then they
will have to install lot of convertors. Also DC transmission is economical for longer distances.
For short distances its very costly as FACTS devices adds to the cost which are necessary to be
used in DC transmission networks for getting reactive power as through DC only active power
will be transferred. Also the reactive power component is necessary for inducing the initial flux
in most of the electrical rotating machines. Thus AC is must.

no country in the world uses DC current because transmission of DC current is costly and more loss
of energy occurs as compare to AC current

A bird safely sits on a bare high-power transmission

wire, while a man standing on the ground gets a
fatal shock touching the same wire. Why?
The circuit between the bird sitting on a live wire and the earth is not complete and no
current flows through the body of the bird, while when the man standing on ground touches
the same wire, a heavy current passes through his body and He got a fatal shock.

and

Earth is a like a sink ( which is like a giant -ve) which takes current from wires through ur
body to it. here circuit is complete. even you can sit on wire, without touching ground or
other wire and get no shock.

Page 26