Production of Materials

Ethylene is an important substance as it is a building block for many substances such as plastics and
ethanol and can be obtained through:
Fractional Distillation:
- Components in crude oil mixture is separated by fractional distillation.
- Volatile short-chain (ethylene) rise to the top and long-chain (tar) condenses at the bottom.
Thermal Cracking:
- Non-catalytic process where mixture of alkanes is passed through metal tubes at high
temperature (700C 1000C) and high pressure (7000kPa) to decompose the alkanes into
shorter chain hydrocarbons.
- Requires lots of energy so it is expensive and e.g. 2 6
2 4 + 2
Catalytic Cracking:
- Process in which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil are broken into lower
molecular weight substances to increase the output of high-demand products.
- Is done in anaerobic conditions and requires less heat than thermal (500 oC) and uses a
catalyst (zeolite) which lowers the activation energy for the reaction.
- Zeolite particles are extremely porous and have a large surface area where the reactions can
take place.
- Is a newer process that requires less energy and e.g. 5 10
2 4 + C3 6

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with only single bonds between the carbon atoms and are non-
polar molecules with weak dispersion forces. They can undergo
- Combustion with oxygen 2C 2 6 + 7O2(g)
6 2O(l) + 4CO 2

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that have double bonds. They are more reactive than alkanes
due to the presence of the double bond (high electron density). Because of this alkenes can undergo
addition reactions which is the basis of making polymers.

The reactive double bond in ethylene means that it can easily be converted into a range of very
useful products such as ethanol and the starting materials for several important plastics.
- Hydration Reaction: Ethylene is reacted with water at 300C and high pressure, with the
catalyst of dilute sulfuric acid to form Ethanol.

Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules (monomers) combine
together to form one large molecule (polymer).
- E.g. the monomer Ethene polymerises to form Polyethene. This is an addition polymer so the
double bond opens up to form single bonds with neighbouring molecules and there is no loss
of atoms.

Process of Production (Polyethylene): There are two types of polyethylenes, HDPE and LDPE. The
stages in their production is very similar.
- Initiation
An initiator, usually a radical such as chlorine or a peroxide, is used to break the double bond to
prepare it to polymerise. The catalyst varies for the form of polyethylene being produced. For HDPE
the Zeigler-Natta catalyst is used (provides a surface for propagation to occur) and for LDPE an
organic peroxide is used.
- Propagation
The monomers that were affected by the initiator will begin joining up with other nearby monomers
and will set off a chain reaction that causes them to line up in to large chains. If the temperature is
very high, the molecules will be branched and create LDPE.
- Termination
When a sufficient number of monomers have joined together the chain is cut by adding a
terminating molecule, such as a radical. This radical will attach to the end of the polymer, terminating
the chain. As this is a very small addition, it will have negligible effects on the properties of the
polymer.

Modelling Polymerisation can be used to visualise the chemical reaction and increase understanding
of the process. They provide a simple, physical representation of the types of molecules and atoms,
but the dynamic nature of their bonds and movements are unable to be represented.

High Density Polyethylene is an unbranched form of Polyethene that has higher density and is able to
pack tightly and have strong dispersion forces, thus forming a very rigid polymer. It is used in rubbish
bins, hard plastic bottles, lids and kitchen utensils.

Low Density Polyethylene is a branched amorphous form of Polyethene that cannot pack together
well and hence has weak dispersion forces so it is low density and is highly flexible. It is used in
plastic bags and cling wrap.

Polychloroethene (Poly Vinyl Chloride) has strong dipole-dipole interactions between the chlorine
atoms and hydrogen atoms and also strong dispersion forces due to the large Cl groups which have
lots of electrons. Thus it is extremely hard and is used in toys, plastic pipes and electrical insulation.

Polyphenylethene (Polystyrene) has strong dispersion forces due to the large benzene ring in its
structure which has lots of electrons. Thus is it quite hard and brittle, but also transparent as there
are lots of gaps that light can pass through due to the benzene ring. It is used in toys, recreational
equipment, tool handles and cd cases.
- During production if air is blown through it, it will form Styrofoam which is a strong,
lightweight plastic used in packaging to protect.

Properties of Polymers:
- Melting Point
Generally, the longer the chain length, the higher the molecular weight, the greater the dispersion
forces and hence the greater the melting point. Also the greater the packing density, the greater the
dispersion forces.
- Flexibility
The higher the branching, the lower the amount of compaction and hence results in a flexible
polymer. Cross Links, the interactions between polymer chains also affects flexibility. The stronger
the cross links, the more rigid the structure.
- Stability
Most bonds such as the C-C bonds are fairly stable however in PVC, the C-Cl bond can be
decomposed by UV radiation and needs to be treated with an UV-stabiliser.
The compounds obtained from the petrochemical industry primarily come from the fossil fuel crude
oil, which has been predicted to be depleted in the next few decades, as it as a non-renewable
resource.
- This will lead to a greater cost in the future.
- Detrimental to the environment because of its greenhouse emissions.
Hence an alternative source for these compounds is needed that is renewable and environmentally-
friendly.

Bromine Water Practical:

1. Add 5mL of cyclohexane and cyclohexene in individual test tubes.
2. Add 2 drops of bromine water to each test tube.
3. Place stopper and swirl.

Bromine reacts with alkene in an addition reaction, turning solution colourless. The alkane will not
react and forms two distinct layers (clear|brown)
C6H10(l) + Br2(aq) C6H10Br2(l)
If performed in the presence of UV light, a substitution reaction may occur for the alkane.
- Cyclohexane is used as it is in liquid form, where shorter chain hydrocarbons are gaseous.
- Hydrocarbons are flammable and should be kept away from open flames.
- They release nauseating vapours so experiment should be done in fume cupboard in small
quantities.
- Bromine water is slightly corrosive, so protective clothing and gloves should be worn.

A Condensation Polymer is formed by the elimination of a small molecule (often water) when pairs of
monomer join.
- Unlike addition polymers it forms through the reaction of functional groups such as
Carboxylic Acids and Alkanols, instead of double bonds.

Cellulose is an example of a condensation polymer and is found as a major component of biomass.

- Forms from the monomer Glucose (C6H12O6) and condenses out a molecule of water.
- Its structure is an alternating, upright, inverted arrangement of the monomers.
- As it is able for form hydrogen bonds between the chains, it is very strong and rigid and also
has high tensile strength.
Cellulose has the basic carbon-chain structures required to build petrochemicals as glucose is has 6
carbons in its structure which can be decomposed into petrochemicals.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Renewable - Production requires large area of land and creates
lots of waste
- Biodegradable - Difficult, expensive process
- Readily Available - No economically viable method to decompose
cellulose as the industrial method of acid hydrolysis
is very energy intensive and expensive.

Biopolymers are polymers that have been created or found naturally within a living organism. They
are biodegradeable.

Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, or commonly known as Biopol is a condensation biopolymer that has similar

properties to polypropylene. The monomer has structure:
The polymer is formed through reacting a hydroxyl and
carboxyl functional groups and condensing out a water
molecule.

Biopol Production:
The microorganism Alcaligenes Eutrophus creates PHB
naturally.
1. It is grown in an environment rich with glucose and nitrogen nutrients until a large
population is present.
2. As nitrogen is required for DNA synthesis and is responsible for the multiplication of the
bacteria, it is removed to prevent it from growing.
3. This causes the bacteria to convert the excess glucose into PHB as an alternative food source.
4. The PHB is then extracted from the bacteria through the thermal decomposition of the
microorganism, leaving pure PHB.

Evaluation:
- At present it is a complex procedure to get the bacteria to produce PHB
- Creates a waste problem which is difficult to dispose of.
- It is much more expensive to make than oil-based polymers of similar properties.
- It has high tensile strength due to the hydrogen bonding between the chains and is also
water and acid resistant, so it is used in packaging, bottles, plastic bags and plastic wraps.
- It is biodegradable so be used in disposable packaging with little harm to the environment.
- It is biocompatible so it can be used for sutures within the body.
This removes the requirement for surgery to remove the stitches and hence reduces risk
and cost.

Ethanol is an alternative source for ethylene and can be dehydrated to obtain this.
- Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from the compound and the
catalyst concentrated H2SO4 is required.
- Hydration is the reverse reaction which uses the reactants ethylene and water to form
ethanol. It requires heat and a catalyst, which is generally dilute sulfuric acid.

Ethanol is used widely as a solvent in cosmetics, cleaning agents and antiseptics as it can dissolve
both polar and non-polar substances. This is because it has a polar part which is the hydroxyl end
and a non-polar part which is the ethyl end.
- The polar end is able to form hydrogen bonds with other polar substances.
- The non-polar end is able to form dispersion forces with non-polar substances.

Ethanol can be used as a fuel as it:

- Readily undergoes complete combustion because of the hydroxyl group in its structure.
- It is easily transportable as it is a liquid.
- It can be made from renewable resources such as sugar cane.
- The products of its combustion are the same as many of its reactants so it can be re-
converted into ethanol and hence is renewable

Evaluation of Ethanol as a fuel:

Advantages Disadvantages
It is renewable. Lower heat of combustion than Octane.
Easy to transport as it is a fuel.
Potential to be carbon neutral as products of
ethanol provide necessary reactants for the
photosynthesis of glucose.
Better for environment as complete combustion
means less pollutants such as carbon monoxide
and soot.
Requires large fields to grow cellulose.
Fermentation creates lots of waste which is
hard to dispose of.
Requires changes in engines for greater than
10%
Fractional distillation is required to extract pure
ethanol from the fermented solution which is
currently very energy intensive and expensive.

The current usage of ethanol as an alternative car fuel is not economically viable although it provides
a cleaner and renewable alternative than octane. This is due to a number of problems including the
fuel needed for fractional distillation, car engine modifications, inefficiency in production and land
clearing.

Fermentation of Sugars Process:

- Glucose is able to undergo a process called fermentation that breaks it down to ethanol and
carbon dioxide.
- Requires the catalyst zymase, an enzyme found in yeast.
- Optimal conditions for fermentation are:
Suitable carbohydrate source that will undergo fermentation
37oC
Anaerobic Conditions
Ethanol concentration less than 15% as it will kill the enzyme
Nitrogen rich environment as nutrients for enzyme

C6 H 12 O6 (aq) conc . H 2 SO 4 2 CO2 (g) +2 C2 H 5 OH (aq)

Industrial Production of Ethanol:

1. Sugar cane is crushed and grinded.

2. Acid hydrolysis with dilute H2SO4 at around 100oC for around 2 hours to decompose cellulose
into glucose.
3. Filter lignin from sugars.
4. Add Ca(OH)2 to sugar solution to neutralise it.
5. Filter neutralised solution to separate solid residue of CaSO 4 from solution.
6. Ferment solution at optimal conditions with zymase.
7. Continually pump into distillation system to extract ethanol and keep concentration below
15% to prevent it from killing the enzyme.
8. Fractional distillate to separate ethanol from mixture. A maximum of around 95%
concentration is obtained and is able to be used as fuel from there.
9. Solid waste, mainly lignin, can be dried and burned as fuel to provide energy to the plant.

Displacement of Metals is a reaction in which a metal converts an ion of another metal to the
neutron atom.
- The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive one and is oxidised.
 - The more reactive metal will convert from a neutral atom to an ion through transferring its
electrons to the less reactive metal.
- This is a redox reaction as it involves the transfer of electrons.

The loss of electrons is oxidation and the gain of electrons is reduction.

- When a species is oxidised, the oxidation number increases.
- When a species is reduced, the oxidation number decreases.

Galvanic Cell utilises the current created by transfer of electrons in redox reactions to generate
electricity. They allow the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. The components are:
- Electrode is a metal conductor that allows the transfer of electrons.
- Anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place and is the negative terminal.
- Cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place and is the positive terminal.
- Electrolyte is an aqueous solution that allows the transfer of electrons.
- Salt Bridge maintains the connections between the two cells to complete the circuit and
allow the flow of electricity. It also maintains electrical neutrality in the two half cells,
through its cations travelling to the cathode and the anions travelling to the anode.

The standard conditions for a galvanic cell are:

- 25oC and 1 atm
- 1.0M concentration of metal ion
- Pure metal electrode
If the conditions are altered, the potential difference measured will change.

Lead Acid Cell:

Lead acid cells are in the common car battery. Six of these cells are joined in series to create the car
battery, to create a 12V battery.

The anode is lead plates

Pb(s) +SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e-
The cathode is lead plates covered with lead dioxide.
PbO2(s)+ 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

The electrolyte is 35% concentration sulfuric acid.

As the cell delivers current, both plates becomes covered with lead sulfate and the concentration of
sulfuric acid falls.
Practicality:
- Very large and heavy
- Long lifetime, 10-15 years
- Lead is an expensive metal
- Rechargeable
- Electolyte must be checked regularly
- Level of charge can be easily determined

Impact on Society:
- Ability to recharge makes it suitable for
vehicles where the energy from the
combustion of the fuel recharges it.
- Developed the starters in the engine
- Lead is a toxic heavy metal
- Mass production of automobiles

Environmental Impacts:
- Can be reused many times, so does not go to waste quickly
- Corrosive sulfuric acid can be dangerous if spillage occurs.
- Lead is toxic, so the electrodes and casing must be recycled. Lead is a heavy metal so it can
accumulate in the body and it is a neurotoxic.
- Mass production of automobiles means more pollution
- Can be recycled.

Button Cell:

The zinc powder the anode and the reaction is:

Zn(s) + 2OH- ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-

The silver oxide rod is the cathode and the reaction:

Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- Ag(s) + OH-

The silver oxide cell is widely used in small

appliances such as watches and hearing
aids and provide a considerable amount of
electricity at a constant voltage over a long
period of time.

Practicality:
 - Very small and light
- Relatively long lifetime
- Silver is expensive
- Constant output voltage
- Non-rechargeable
- No free moving liquid so easy to transport and robust.
- Output is 1.3V

Impact on Society:
- Small size allows use in small devices such as hearing aids, pacemakers
- Non-toxic so can be used inside the body.

Environmental Impacts:
- Must be discarded or recycled after one use despite long life
- Potassium hydroxide is caustic.
- There are no highly toxic elements that will cause significant damage to the environment.

Isotopes are elements with varying amounts of neutrons.

- An unstable isotope has an unstable nucleus which undergoes radioactive decay to reach
stability.
- In a stable isotope the nucleons are held together by the strong nuclear force which
overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between protons.
- The stability of an isotope is determined by:
o Elements with an atomic number greater than 82 are unstable where the nucleus is
too heavy.
o Lies outside the nuclear band of stability where the neutron:proton ratio is
imbalanced.

Types of radioactive decay

Identity Mass Charge Ionising Power Penetrating Power

Alpha Helium Nucleus High High 2+ High Low
4
2 He
Beta Electron
0
1 e Moderate Moderate 1- Moderate Moderate

Gamma EM Radiation
0
0 0 0 Low High

Alpha Particles are emitted from heavy nucleus (Atomic Number > 82) to remove a surplus of
neutrons and protons.
238
U 234 4
92 90Th+ 2 He

Beta-Minus Particles are emitted when there is a surplus of neutrons where it decays into a proton
and electron.
1
0 n 11 p+ 10e1
Beta-Plus Particles are emitted when there is a surplus of protons where it decays into a neutron and
a positron.
1 1 0
1 p 0n+ 1e
Gamma Rays are emitted from highly energetic nuclei and often accompanies beta and alpha
particles.
99 m 99 0
43 Tc 43Tc+ 0
Transuranic elements are elements with an atomic number greater than 92 and are too unstable to
occur naturally. Isotopes can be produced using
- Nuclear Reactors where the target substance is bombarded with neutrons which enter the
nucleus. These neutrons are derived from the nuclear fission of uranium. The new isotope
can decay into transuranic elements through beta minus decay.
- Particle Accelerators where the target substance is bombarded with charged particles such
as protons which are accelerated into very high speed using magnetic and electric fields. This
high velocity allows the particle to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between it and the
nucleus.

Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes and are commercially produced using the methods
mentioned above.
- For neutron rich radioisotopes, nuclear reactors are used.
- For neutron deficient radioisotopes particle accelerators are used.

Detecting Radiation:
- A Geiger Counter is a device that provides a quantitative measure of the radiation. It is filled
with an inert gas such as Argon and connected to a high voltage supply. As the argon
molecules are ionised, the displaced electrons ionise other molecules creating a chain
reaction. These electrons accelerate towards the positive terminal and the ions will
accelerate towards the negative terminal. The current produced by the electrons allows a
measure of radiation.
- Photographic Film will darken upon exposure to radiation as a result of the decomposition of
a silver halide. The degree of darkening indicates the intensity of the radiation and is used as
personal badges to monitor the amount of radiation workers are exposed to.

Medical Isotope: Technetium-99m

Tc-99m is a metastable isotope which only produces gamma radiation and is used as a non-invasive
diagnostic tool. It is produced through:
98 1 99
42 Mo + 0n 42 Mo
99
42 Mo 9943m Mo +10e
It is a radioactive tracer which means it is bound to another chemical that transports it through the
body and metabolises in the region to be imaged. The gamma radiation that is emitted has low
ionising ability and high penetration power so it can easily exit the body to be detected using a
gamma camera, while causing minimal harm to cells.
It has a short half-life of 6 hours which minimises potential harm to the body due to radioactivity.

Industrial Isotope: Cobalt-60

Co-60 is widely used in industry due to its production of beta particles and high energy gamma rays.
It is used in:
- Sterilising medical equipment as gamma rays can kill micro-organisms
- Pest Control
 - Food Sterilisation
- Blood Sterilisation.
- Thickness gauging using its beta emission
It also has a long half-life of 5.27 years meaning it can be used for a long period of time without
having to be replaced.