Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 143

Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers

Nominal Pipe Flow Velocity, Required Air Chamber
Pipe Diam., Length, Pressure, fps Volume, Phys. Size,
in. (mm) ft (m) psig (kPa) (m/s) in.3 (cm3) in. (cm)

½ (12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) ¾ × 15 (1.9 × 38.1)

½ (12.71) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 60 (9.8) 1 × 69½ (2.5 × 176.5)
¾ (19.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 13 (2.1) 1 × 5 (2.5 × 12.7)
¾ (19.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 108 (17.7) 1¼ × 72½ (3.2 × 184.2)
1 (25.4) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 19 (3.1) 1¼ × 127/10 (3.2 × 32.3)
1 (25.4) 50 (15.25) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 40 (6.6) 1¼ × 27 (3.2 × 68.6)
1¼ (31.8) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 110 (18.0) 1¼ × 54 (3.2 × 137.2)
1½ (38.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 5 (1.52) 90 (14.8) 2 × 27 (5.1 × 68.6)
1½ (38.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 170 (27.9) 2 × 50½ (5.1 × 128.3)
2 (50.8) 100 (30.5) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 329 (53.9) 3 × 44½ (7.6 × 113.0)
2 (50.8) 25 (7.62) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 150 (24.6) 2½ × 31 (6.4 × 78.7)
2 (50.8) 200 (61.0) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 300 (49.2) 3 × 40½ (7.6 × 102.9)

it retains its initial charge of air. Air-chamber In most installations where there are several
requirements are shown in Table 5-11. fixtures, usually only one fixture valve will be closed
The air charge can be depleted during the at a time. Occasionally, however, two or more fix-
flow cycle since water is drawn from all direc- ture valves may be closed at the same instant.
tions during flow. Moreover, the entrapped air is Table 5-12, “Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer
also diminished by turbulence. During this pro-
cess the water absorbs the air, and as the unit
becomes waterlogged, it loses its ability to ab-
sorb shock.

Water hammer arresters

Symbols There are six manufactured sizes of

water hammer arrester, each having a different
capacity to control shock in piping systems of
varied sizes and scopes. The following symbols,
recommended by the Plumbing and Drainage
Institute (PDI), were devised to denote the range
in size of water hammer arrester:
A–B–C–D–E–F
“A” is the smallest-sized unit and “F” represents a b c d
the largest.
Figure 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air
Sizing and placement Sizing is based on fix- Chambers, (c) Standpipe Air Chamber,
ture units for single and multiple-fixture branch (d) Rechargeable Air Chamber
lines and on pipe size.
144
Arresters,” takes into consideration all design fac-
tors, including simultaneous usage, pipe size,
length, flow, pressure, and velocity.
Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of
Water-Hammer Arresters
PDI Units A B C D E F
Fixture Units 1–11 12–32 33–60 61–113 114–154 155–330
In the sizing of cold and hot-water branch
lines, it is usual practice to obtain the total num-
ber of fixture units on each branch line. This
information is then applied to sizing charts to
determine the required size of the branch line.
The properly sized water-hammer arresters
can be selected once the total number of fixture
units for a cold or hot-water branch line is
known. It is only necessary to apply the fixture
units to Table 5-12 and select the appropriate
water-hammer arrester.
Note the following:
• When water pressure in the line exceeds 65
psig, select the next larger size water-ham-
mer arrester.
• If the fixture-unit total includes a fraction, it
should be rounded up to the next larger whole
number. Thus, if the total is 11½ fixture units,
the unit should be sized for 12 fixture units.
• All sizing data in this chapter are based on
flow velocities of 10 fps (3 m/s) or less.
It is suggested that the engineer employ PDI
symbols for the riser diagrams for sizing water-
hammer arresters. This practice will enable
manufacturers to furnish the correct units.
The location of the water-hammer arresters
from the start of the horizontal branch line to
the last fixture supply on the branch line should
not exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in length. When the
branch lines exceed the 20-ft (6.10-m) length,
an additional water-hammer arrester should be
used and each should be sized for half the fix-
ture-unit load. It has been established that the
preferred location for the water-hammer arrester
is at the end of the branch line between the last
two fixtures served. Units for branches serving
pieces of equipment with quick-closing valves
should be placed within a few ft (m) of the equip-
ment isolation valve.
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
To prevent the harboring of Legionella
pneumophila, bellows containing rubber should
not be used.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION
Theoretically, a well-designed and operated wa-
ter-supply system should always be under a con-
stant positive pressure, and contamination via
backflow or back-siphonage should never be able
to enter the distribution mains. Unfortunately,
accidents do occur when excessive water de-
mands for fire protection, operation of booster
pumps, flushing of water mains, repairs, modi-
fications, and maintenance to the distribution
system cause the water pressure to drop.
Whenever the pressure in the distribution
system becomes low or negative, a condition de-
velops that allows contamination to enter the
distribution system through connections with
fixtures, equipment, or tanks that contain toxic,
unsafe, or unpleasant liquids or gases. These
physical connections by which a water supply
may be contaminated are known as “cross con-
nections.” There are numerous, well-documented
cases where cross connections have been respon-
sible for contaminating drinking water and, as a
result, sometimes contributing to the spread of
fatal disease.
The contamination of a water system through
cross connections can be avoided. This section
describes the current recommended practice for
the detection and elimination of unprotected
cross connections.
Types of Cross-Connection Control
Device
When plumbing fixtures and equipment in wa-
ter-supply systems are subject to backflow con-
ditions, approved air gaps, backflow preventers,
or vacuum breakers should be used. The follow-
ing methods or devices can be used to protect
against backflow or back-siphonage:
• Approved air-gap separation.
• Barometric loop.
• Mechanical protection devices.
• Reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices
(RPBD).
• Double-check valve assemblies (DCVA).
• Atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB).
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems
• Pressure vacuum breakers (PVB).
• Check valves with vent port (CVB).
The theory of backflow and back-siphonage
and the devices for their prevention are described
in Volume 4, Chapter 9, of the ASPE Data Book
(forthcoming). Refer to local codes and standards
before making selections.
Assessment of Hazard
The correct application of devices depends on the
correct assessment of the degree of hazard, on
whether back pressure or back-siphonage will oc-
cur, and on knowledge of the operation of various
types of approved backflow-prevention device.
In applying the recommendations outlined
in this section, three degrees of hazard must be
considered: severe, moderate, and minor. They
are defined as follows:
1. Severe. A cross connection or probable cross
connection involving any substance in suffi-
cient concentration to cause death or spread
disease or illness or containing any substance
that has a high probability of causing such
an effect.
2. Moderate. A cross connection or probable
cross connection involving any substance
that has a low probability of becoming a se-
vere hazard and would constitute a nuisance
or be aesthetically objectionable if introduced
into the domestic water supply.
3. Minor. An existing connection, or a high prob-
ability of a connection being made, between
the domestic water pipe and any pipe, equip-
ment, vat, or tank intended for carrying or
holding potable water that has a low prob-
ability of becoming contaminated with any
substance.
The application of backflow and back-sipho-
nage prevention devices is related to the prob-
ability of contamination as well as the recognition
of an existing health hazard. For the assessment
of probability, consideration must be given to the
possibility of changes being made to piping, im-
proper use of equipment, negligence of the cus-
tomer, etc.
Where a severe hazard exists, an air-gap
separation or a reduced-pressure-principle,
backflow-prevention device should be used be-
cause these two devices offer the highest known
degree of protection. An atmospheric or pressure
145
vacuum breaker should be used only to isolate a
severe hazard if area isolation is provided. Where
a moderate hazard exists, a double-check valve
assembly, or pressure or atmospheric vacuum
breaker may be used. Where a minor hazard ex-
ists, a pressure or atmospheric vacuum breaker
or check valves with vent port (no test cocks)
may need to be installed.
Toxicity and probability of occurrence illus-
trate the relationship between assessment of
hazard and application of devices. Because of
the subjective nature of assessing hazard, such
illustrations cannot be used as a strict guide,
providing a fixed answer for all circumstances.
Instead, past experience and local code require-
ments must also be used as guides. Such past
experience was the basis of Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
The requirement of protection increases as a
function of both an increase in the probability
that backflow or back-siphonage will occur and
an increase in the toxicity or possible toxicity of
a potential source of contamination. Where it is
highly probable that backflow or back-siphon-
age will occur, say from a standpipe in a tall
apartment building, the need for a backflow-pre-
vention device is low if the hazard of the poten-
tial source of contamination (sinks, water closets,
etc.) becoming toxic is very low. The converse is
also true, however, where a known health haz-
ard exists, the tendency is to be conservative
when selecting a backflow-prevention device
(RPBD used in place of DVC). The risk factor for
a health hazard is usually of greater concern than
the probability of backflow or back-siphonage in
the selection of a device.
Premise Isolation
In addition to installing backflow-prevention de-
vices at the source of potential contamination, it
may be necessary, or required by code, to install
a backflow-prevention device on the water-ser-
vice pipe to isolate an entire area or premise.
This additional protection for the purveyor’s wa-
ter system is warranted if the potential health
hazard is severe, or if a high probability exists
that piping within a premise will be changed. If
inspection on private property is restricted, the
only protection for the purveyor’s water system
is the installation of a backflow-prevention de-
vice on the water-service pipe.
Whenever possible, in-plant isolation is pre-
ferred over premise isolation because it protects