MARINE BOILER NOTES.

By Prof. K. Venkataraman. CEng; FIMarE;MIE.

For BE (Marine Engineering) Cadets.

Introduction to Marine Boilers:

Boilers of varied design and working conditions are installed in both steam and motor vessels. The
most modern steamships have boiler plant of a sophisticated nature, and even on motor ships the steam
plant can be quite extensive, providing useful services and enhancing the overall efficiency of the
vessel.
The demand for steam propulsion is currently very low, being confined to specialised ships such as
liquid natural gas (LNG) carriers. However, a number of steamships may still be found in service
having boiler plant resulting from many years of development. Design modifications have been made
to eliminate problem areas and to adjust to changing operational constraints in much the same way that
the diesel engine has progressed to its present advanced state. Water tube marine boilers have been
dominant, as far as steam propulsion is concerned, since the period between the two world wars. Even
the generation of steam for auxiliary purposes aboard ship has come into the province of the water tube
boiler, a practice which grew to prominence with increasing demand for large quantities of auxiliary
steam and which persists today in ships such as the large motor tanker. Nevertheless in the field of
auxiliary steam production many non-water tube boilers can still be found, especially where steam
output and pressure are not high.
Water tube boilers can be made for steam duties as low as 1.5 ton/ h and as high as 2.5 X 103 ton /h. At
the lower end of the range, the water tube boiler is found to be uneconomical and would only be
considered for very special applications where very high steam pressure was involved. Boilers having
duties in the upper end of the output range would be found in central power stations ashore. Steam
pressure in water tube boilers can vary between 7 bar and supercritical values such as 225 bar, although
natural circulation would only be applicable to pressures below about 175 bar. Steam temperature
could range from saturation to 600~650*C, depending upon the fuel and method of firing. With this
vast range of duties it is not surprising that the shape and detail of water tube boilers should vary
considerably. Although the marine sphere is only a particular section of the whole range, the number of
different boiler designs available is large.
For merchant ships building to classification requirements and adopting the low forcing rates that
experience has shown will enable good levels of the other factors to be obtained achieve a good
compromise. Even so, there are distinctions to be observed, such as between main propulsion and
auxiliary boilers. Auxiliary boilers, receiving possibly much less use than main propulsion boilers, may
usefully employ higher forcing rates.

There are two main types of boilers in Marine use:

1. TANK BOILERS OR FIRE TUBE BOILER OR SMOKE TUBE BOILER.
2. WATER TUBE BOILER.

TANK BOILERS OR FIRE TUBE BOILERS:

These boilers were used in olden days with steam reciprocating engines. Now used in some ships for
auxiliary steam requirements. These boilers have poor efficiency and low power/weight ratio.
Names of some of the Tank boilers:
1. Scotch Boiler. 2. Clarkson Boiler. 3. Cochran Boiler 4. Spanner Boiler.

WATER TUBE BOILERS:

Water tube boilers have to a large extent superseded the Scotch boiler for the supply, of steam to main
and auxiliary machinery. Even donkey (auxiliary) boilers are frequently found to he water tube boilers
and certainly all-modern turbine plants use them for main steam supply.
Names of some of the Water Tube Boilers:
1. Babcock & Wilcox. 2.Foster Wheeler. 3. Yarrow.
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Use of Steam on Steam Turbine or Motor vessel:

a. To drive the main propulsion steam turbine.
b. To run Cargo pump turbines in Tankers
c. Heating duties. ME Fuel oil heater, Purifier heater, Oil tank heating, Cargo heating, Air
conditioning & heating plant, Calorifier, Galley supply, sea-chests, tracer lines for pipeline
heating etc.
d. Run Turbine Generators.
e. Run cargo pump turbines in tanks.
f. Drive steam driven deck machineries like winches etc.
g. Operate bilge, stripping and other steam driven pumps.
h. Drive boiler feed pump turbine.
i. Evaporator/Fresh water generator heating media.
j. Tank washing in tanker ships and general cleaning.
k. For boiler Soot blowing and for the steam atomised burners.
l. Fire fighting as used in steam smothering system.
m. Main engine Jacket F. W. pre-heater and lubricating oil sump and drain tanks
n. Use in the waste oil, incinerator, slop tanks.
o. Use as a steam ejector media for ejector pumps and vacuum devices.
Classification of Boilers:

Classification For Steam Ships. For Motor Ships. Add. Information.

Criteria.
Capacity. High capacity. Low capacity. For Motor Tankers.
100,000kg/hr and 1,000 5,000kg/hr. 20,000-50,000 kg/hr.
over.
Pressure. High pressure. Low pre: 6 to15 bar. Mid pressure used
60 bars and above. Medium pressure: In Tanker vessels.
17 30 bar.
Shape. Drum type. Cylindrical, Vertical, Package, Tubular,
D Type. Tank type. Coil type.
Usage. Main Propulsion Auxiliary boiler. Assist propulsion,
Boiler. Donkey boiler. Hotel purpose.
Type of fuel used. Heavy fuel oil, Gas. Light diesel oil, Coal, Electricity,
Heavy fuel oil, Gas. Exhaust gas.
Working principle. Water tube. Fire tube, Steam raising
Water tube. method.
Circulation type. Natural. Natural, Forced. Tank, Drum. Coil blr.
Exh. Economizer.

KEY CONCEPTS, FEATURES & BOILER TYPES:

Main Boiler:
Used for the main propulsion of the vessel.
Auxiliary Boiler:
Aids the propulsion in some way; e.g., heating of heavy fuel oil using a steam heater, necessary for
propulsion would quality the supplying boiler to be referred to as an auxiliary boiler.
Donkey Boiler:
A boiler which is used only for the "hotel" needs of the ship; e.g., supplying hot water to the galley.
Tank Boiler:
A boiler with large water carrying capacity where the shell is being used as the pressure vessel.
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Most low-pressure auxiliary boilers will come into this category.

Vertical Boiler:
Any boiler where the shell is upright and the furnace is usually contained within the shell at the lower
half.
Horizontal Boiler:
This is also referred to as cylindrical boiler; here, the boiler cylindrical shell is lying across its length
parallel to the structure of the ship or the ground level.
Exhaust Gas Boiler:
Boiler operated by hot gas from engine or other exhaust gas sources.
Drum Type Boiler:
Water tube boilers employing steam and water drums. They are also known as bent tube type boilers.
Package Boilers:
Fully automatic, low capacity boilers packed inside a box type casing. Capable of quick steam
production and flexible in being positioned anywhere. This could be coil type or fire tube type.
Some Popular Boiler Makes:

Medium Pressure: Low Pressure: Low Pressure: Low Pressure:

Water Tube, Package, Coil type, Tank Type: Exhaust Gas.
Drum Type. Fire Tube Type. Oil fired/ Composite. Forced circulation tubular
Tanker Vessels: All type of Vessels: All type of Vessels: All type of Vessels:
Babcock & Wilcox. Cochran Chieftain. Alborg. Alborg AV.
M11. M11M. AQ3,AQ5, AQ9, AQ12
Foster Wheeler D4. Steambloc. Sunrod. CPH, CPDB*. Sunrod PL,PT*.
Combustion Engineering. Stone-Vapour. Osaka Howden Johnson
Kawasaki. Clyton. Hitachi Zosen HV.
Hitachi. Miura VWS. Spanner Swirlflo.
Mitsubishi MAC*. Cochran. Mitsubishi.

Comparison of Smoke tube and Water tube boilers:

Smoke Tube Boilers: Water Tube Boilers:

Water Circulation:
1. There is no definite circulation in a cylindrical
boiler, the direction in which the water moves
being irregular.
2. This indefinite circulation causes severe strains,
due to unequal expansion, which
3. After a time, owing to the rigidity of the boiler
structure and the use of stays, entail heavy repairs
from the straining or possible rupture of its
weakest parts.
Repairs:
4. When repairs become necessary they are
usually of a very serious nature, and entail the
employment of skilled boilermakers at
considerable expense.
5. Repairs, when completed, have frequently to be
followed by a reduction in the working pressure,
because, by their very nature, they are usually not
1.The water circulation is definite and continuous
in one direction.
2.The temperature of the water throughout the
boiler is uniform, and thus there can be no strains
in the structure due to inequality of temperature.
3. Provision is made for expansion of all the parts
separately; there being no stays whatever.
4.Should repairs become necessary owing to
incrustation due to neglect in cleaning, the worst
that could happen would be the overheating of
tubes, and these can be readily replaced by a
mechanic in a short time, and at slight cost.
5.When tubes are replaced by new ones, it follows
that the initial strength of the boiler is not affected
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of a sufficiently good character to admit of the
boiler being considered as strong as previously.
6. It follows then, particularly as regards high
pressure boilers, that the cost, of repairs, when
taken over a series of years, is higher with the
smoke tube type, than with water tube boilers
Safety:
7. An accident in connection with a cylindrical
boiler may easily lead to serious disasters owing
to the large diameter of the boiler, and the great
amount of energy stored in the large volume of
water. The collapse of furnace crowns, which is of
comparatively frequent occurrence, is often
attended with danger.
Cleaning:
8.In a cylindrical boiler men working inside the
shell in a hot atmosphere must do the whole of the
internal cleaning. A cylindrical boiler cannot be
conveniently entered until it has cooled for 24 to
36 hours, and much of the cleaning has to be
carried out in very confined and awkwardly
situated spaces, indeed, some places cannot be
efficiently, cleaned at all.
Time required to raise steam:
9. A period of from five to six hours is necessary
for properly raising steam in this construction of
boiler, and it is advisable to allow even a longer
period in the case of large units.
Space occupied:
10. A cylindrical boiler has proportionately small
grate area for a given floor space.
11. Water content very high.
in any way. There is thus no necessity for a
reduction in the working pressure, which may be
indefinitely maintained.
6. Over a long period of operation the cost of
repair will be lower.
7. The safety of water tube boilers is undoubted
far less than cylindrical boilers. .
8. It can be very easily inspected and cleaned,
provision being made for ready access to every
part. The external cleaning of the whole of the
section tubes is effected from the stokehold,
where the men work in a natural and pure
atmosphere. Cleaning can be commenced almost
immediately the boiler is blown down.
9. Under ordinary, conditions, steam can be easily
raised within an hour in a water tube boiler.
10. A material saying of space is effected by the
use of this boiler, which has a large grate area in
proportion to the floor space occupied, hence a
given evaporation can be obtained with less space.
11. Water content very low.

THE ADVANTAGES OF WATER TUBE BOILERS:

1. High efficiency (generally greater than 85%) hence reduced fuel consumption.
2. Flexibility of design -- important space consideration.
3. Capable of high out put (i.e. high evaporation rate).
4. High pressures and temperatures improve turbine plant efficiency.
5. Flexible in operation to meet the fluctuating demands of the plant, - superheat control rapidly
responsive to changing demands.
6. Generally all surfaces are circular hence no supporting stays are required.
7. Steam can he raised rapidly from cold if the occasion demands, (3 to 4 hours compared to 24
hours for a Scotch boiler) because of the positive water circulation.
8. Compact and relatively light (water content up to 7.5 tons compared with 30 tons for a Scotch
boiler).
9. With double easing radiation loss can he cut to 1% or less.
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Construction of Water Tube Boilers:

Materials:
Drums:
Good quality low carbon steel, the main constituents are. 0-28% carbon maximum, 0.5% Manganese
approximately, 0.1% Silicon approximately, remainder mainly Ferrite. Ultimate tensile strength 430 to
490 MN/m2 with about 20% elongation.
Steels with chrome, molybdenum, manganese and vanadium are increasingly being used. The
increased strength and creep resistance enable less material to be used. Reduced weight, cost,
machining and assembly time being advantages.
Superheater tubes:
Plain low carbon (0. 15% Carbon approximately) steel up to 400*C steam temperature.
0.5% Molybdenum low carbon steel up to 480*C steam temperature.
Austenitic stainless steel: 18% Nickel, 8% Chrome, stabilised against weld decay with niobium, for
steam temperatures up to 590*C.
Weld decay: When stainless steel superheater tubes, in some earlier boilers, were welded to header
stubs the microstructure of the metal adjacent to the weld changed. Corrosion protection by the chrome
in the alloy steel was lost due to precipitation of the element as chromium carbide. A band of corrosion
around the tube was named weld decay".
Creep considerations predominate in the case of superheater tubes since they are subjected to the
highest temperature (especially the last pass) and to boiler pressure. The actual metal temperature will
depend upon:
a) Steam flow rate and temperature.
b) Gas flow rate and temperature.
c) Tube thickness and material.
d) Condition of tube surfaces externally and internally
For normal conditions the temperature difference between inside and outside of the tube may be of the
order, or less than, 38*C.
Creep tests are usually carried out over a period of 20,000 hours for superheater tubes in order to
ascertain the creep rate and maximum strain. Creep rate would be approx. 10-6m/mh and maximum
strain 0.02.
For other boiler tubes, i.e. water tubes, the material used is generally plain low carbon steel since their
operating temperature will be the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure.
Uncooled superheater element supports and baffles must have resistance to creep and corrosion. Alloys
of nickel and chrome or steels containing high proportions of these elements are suitable.

For steam and water drum, welding of preformed plating is the most usual method. Low-pressure
boilers have the steam drum plating uniform in thickness, with a single longitudinal welded seam.
High-pressure boilers may use two plates, tube plate and wrapper plate, with two longitudinal welded
seams. The tube plate is thicker than the wrapper plate and it is machined to the thickness of the
wrapper plate in the region of the weld (Fig.1).
Test pieces made of the same material as the drum would be clamped to the drum and, using a machine
welding process of the protected are type, the weld metal would be continuously deposited on to drum
and test pieces. When the longitudinal seam or seams are completed, the test piece is then removed and
the preformed drum ends would be welded into position. At this point, the welded seams, longitudinal
and circumferential, are radio graphed. The shadow pictures obtained will show up any defects such as
porosity, slag inclusions and cracks, etc, these defects would then be made good by chiseling or
grinding out and then welding. Openings for boiler mountings, etc, would then be made and all the
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necessary fittings would be welded into position, i.e. branches, casing flanges, feet, etc. When all
welding to the drum has been completed and radiographed the drum and test piece would then be
annealed by heating slowly in a furnace up to about 600*C and then allowing it to cool down slowly.

The test piece is then cut up as shown in Fig. 1 and tested according to Class 1 welding regulations.
These regulations apply only to boilers whose working pressure is in excess of 4.5 bar and consist of:
a) 1: Tensile test of the weld metal to cheek upon its strength and ductility.
b) 2: Tensile test of parent and weld metal to check upon joint strength.
c) 3 & 4: lzod tests to determine the materials notch brittleness and ability to withstand impact.
d) 5 & 6: Bend tests to cheek ductility and soundness of material.
Tests 1 to 6 are well known and understood by engineers hence detailed descriptions are not warranted,
however, macro and micro-examination require elucidation.
Electro slag welding of uniform thickness preformed plate to produce drums for high-pressure boilers
is being used. The drum is arranged vertically and the welding machine moves up a beam parallel to
the seam. Fig. 1 shows simply a cross section through the seam and water cooled copper guide shoes.
Main advantages of this welding process are:
1. One weld run, this reduces possibility of inclusions.
2. Up to 200mm. plate thickness can be welded in one run.
3. Sound, reliable weld is produced,
Macro-Examination:
Preparation of test piece: This would consist of grinding and polishing until scratch free when viewed
with the naked eye, then washing it in alcohol and then water to remove grit and grease, etc. Next the
test piece would be etched with an acid solution to remove the thin layer of amorphous (i.e. structure
less) metal, which will have been burnished over its surface. Examination of the prepared test piece
with the aid of a hand-magnifying lens (X10) may reveal cracks, porosity, weld structure and heating
effects.
Micro-Examination:
Preparation of the test piece would be similar to that described above but the polishing process would
be continued until the surface was scratch free when viewed under a microscope. After etching, the test
piece would be examined under the microscope for defects. The pearlitic structure will be seen and
so will any martensitic and troostitic structures, the latter two giving indication of hardening of the
metal. Different etching agents can be used, a. typical one being NITAL which consists of 2 ml of
Nitric acid and 98 ml of alcohol (methylated spirits).
Tube holes would now be drilled into the drum and the tubes fitted.
Tubes:
These are arranged to form the furnace walls, etc, and to give positive circulation. Circulation is
created by a force set up by the gravity head caused by differences in water density between tubes.
This is affected by heat input, friction and head losses due to sudden contraction and enlargement and
inertia loss.
Steam bubbles generated in tubes have lower density than the water and this gives natural circulation.
However, difference in density between the steam and water decreases as pressure increases and there
is no difference at critical pressure (220 bar). This causes problems for the boiler designer.
Water wall tubes frequently form the rear and side walls of the furnace and they may be fed with water
from floor tubes which are supplied from the water drum, alternatively unheated large bore down-
comer tubes external to the furnace may be used to supply the water wall tubes via their lower headers,
no floor tubes being required. Often, water wall tubes have studs resistance welded to them in order to
serve as retainers for plastic refractory. The advantages of water wall tubes are:
1. Cooler furnace walls.
2. Reduced boiler size, since more heat is extracted per unit furnace volume.
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3. Saving in refractory, initially, and because of the cooling effect, there will be less maintenance
required.

Generating tubes are situated in the path of the furnace gases and are arranged to obtain as much of the
radiant heat as possible in addition to baffling gas flow. Return tubes, for water wall feeding and water
drum feeding may be situated in the gas path in a lower temperature region or external to the furnace.
Superheater tubes may be situated in between generating and return tubes, in this way they create the
necessary temperature difference to produce positive circulation in generating and return tubes, or they
may be arranged in the gas uptakes after the generating section. The headers to which the superheater
tubes are connected would be supply and return headers. Steam from the drum passes to the supply
header, the steam then passes through the superheater tubes to the return header and thence to the turbo
generator or main engine (steam propulsion). Superheating methods are discussed later.
Finally we have economiser tubes and air preheater tubes which are arranged in the flue gas uptake. In
the case of the economiser tubes they may or may not be fitted with shrunk on cast iron gilled sleeves,
the purpose of which, in addition to giving extra heating surface, is to protect the steel economiser tube
from corrosion. The choice depends upon operating metal surface temperature. Operating metal
surface temperature depends upon, tube thickness; feed temperature, feed flow rate, gas flow rate and
temperature. Generally if feed water inlet temperature, to the economiser is 140*C or below, the
sleeves will be fitted (Sulphuric acid vapour dew point is approximately 150*C or above, it depends
upon various factors. the main one being fuel sulphur content). If the feed inlet temperature is above
140'C the economiser tubes may be of the extruded fin type. Air preheater tubes made of plain low
carbon steel generally have air passing through them and the gases around them, although reverse
arrangement has been used. These tubes are usually situated in the last gas path, hence they operate at
the lowest temperature and are more likely to be attacked by corrosion products from the gases.
Various methods have been used to reduce the effect of corrosion of these tubes, inserts have been
provided in order to reduce heat transfer and corrosion over the first 0.3m or so of the tubes, by-passes
for the air used during maneuvering to keep tube surface temperature high. Recently it has been
suggested that glass tubes be used in place of the steel ones. Vitreous enamel has also been used as a
coating for these tubes, unfortunately where it cracked off severe corrosion resulted.
Headers:
For superheaters and water walls these are usually solid forged square or round section tubes with
nozzles and ends welded on. Doors or plugs, opposite tube holes, may be provided to allow access for
inspection, expanding or plugging of tubes. The main methods used for securing tubes to headers are:
1. Expanding. 2. Expanding followed by seal welding. 3. Welding to nozzles or stubs.
Since welding on site can prove difficult (superheater elements may have to be renewed during the
boiler's working life) it is usual to arrange for the number of site welds to be kept to a minimum with
best possible access.
Fig. 2 shows various methods of securing superheater tubes:
a) Used if' access to both sides of the weld is possible.
b) Welding from one side only.
c) This shows a five tube element welded to two 90* stubs on each heater.
d) Tubes expanded into header. Access doors must be provided; this method is not used at
temperatures above 470*C.
Casings:
Once the boiler is tubed, it becomes a self-supporting unit and around it the double casing, of welded
construction, is fitted. The double casing, which conducts the combustion air or forced draught to the
boiler fronts in addition to reducing radiation losses, also prevents gas and soot leakages into the boiler
or engine room. The casings are provided with detachable panels at strategic points for access to water-
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wall headers, superheaters, etc., and are often required to support the weight of the economizers and
airheaters above the boiler. Provisions are made in the casings for essential fittings such as soot
blowers, inspection windows and smoke-detecting gear.
Water drums are normally provided with sliding feet, which while taking care of drum expansion also
transfer most of the weight of the boiler to the tank top. In some designs, however, the boiler proper is
cradled into the casing, which in its turn again transfers the weight to the tank top. In both cases,
flexible connections are embodied between the boiler and the easing to avoid high stresses and gas
leakages occurring through differential expansion. Once the boiler is tubed and work is proceeding on
the casings, attention can be concentrated on the superheater. The procedure for superheater
construction varies considerably as there are many different designs and they are placed indifferent
positions in the boiler.
Superheater:
In the straightforward D-type boiler, the superheater usually consists of a pair of forged-steel
rectangular-section header with welded-in ends placed parallel to one another in a more or less vertical
position either at the front or back of the boiler and supported from the boiler casing, The actual
superheater tubes are normally of hairpin or multi-loop type which project into the gas path and
terminate at their ends in the aforementioned headers.
Present-day practice is to avoid expanded joints in superheaters, the tube ends being butt welded to
stubs embodied in the headers during their welded fabrication.
It is possible in some designs to install and withdraw the complete superheater. This makes for easier
assembly as the superheater can be built up as a separate unit, which can be tested prior to installation
in the boiler. Once installed, and with the headers secured, the question of supporting the weight of the
longitudinal tube nest of the superheater has to be attended to. Superheater supports vary in type with
different boiler designs, but in the normal D-type boiler they usually consist of heat-resisting-steel
spectacle plates through which the superheater tubes pass, the plates being clamped on to special
support tubes running between the steam and water drums. The support tubes act as heat sinks for the
spectacle plates, thus prolonging their useful 1ife. It is important that the correct superheater-tube
material is used for the steam temperatures involved. Whereas mild steel is used up to 400*C, once this
figure is exceeded, and dependent on the actual temperatures involved, special steels are required
which have a high resistance to creep; 0.5 % molybdenum and 1.0 % chrome steels are commonly
used. Trouble is often experienced in service with superheater supports and as they operate at very high
metal temperatures, it is extremely important that the materials used are suitable. A typical spectacle-
plate arrangement with its water-cooled support tubes is shown in Fig. 3.
Economizers:
A typical economizer consists of a bank of mild-steel tubes with cast-iron extended surface or gills
shrunk-on, over which the flue gases pass and through which the feed-water passes.
Fig. 4 shows a part element of a Foster Wheeler Green economizer; in which117.5 O.D. cast-iron gills
are shrunk on to 50.8 O.D. mild-steel tubes. These Tubes are supplied as U-bend elements, which are
welded to stub tubes on the inlet and outlet headers and are interconnected by welded-on bends to form
the required number of feed-water paths. The stub tubes are an integral part of each header and hand
holes are located opposite each tube end to allow internal inspection and emergency plugging of a
water path, should an element fail in service.
As will be seen from Fig. 4, the elements are carried in mild-steel support plates, being secured by
locking rings at one end and free to expand through sealing rigs at the other. The economizer casings
are fully insulated and doors are fitted at each end for access to the headers and return bends. It is usual
to buildup the economizer separately from the boilers and to install it-in one piece after satisfactory
hydraulic test.
After the economizer and superheater have been assembled into the unit and all integral piping and
mountings fitted, the completed boiler is hydraulically tested to 1.5 times the design pressure, which it
has to withstand without any signs of weakness or defect. A satisfactory hydraulic test having been
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witnessed any casings left off for access, are completed and the boiler prepared for lifting into the
vessel, where brickwork and insulating materials are then fitted. Particular care being taken to ensure
that any parts of the steam and water drums which could be exposed to the radiant heat of the furnace,
are efficiently protected by refractory material.
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Construction of Smoke tube Boiler:
In ships using diesel engines as main propulsion, the auxiliary boilers fitted onboard are normally used
for air conditioning and heating purposes such as fuel oil heating, fuel tanks heating, lubricating oil
sump tank heating, purifiers heater, domestic hot water system etc. Steam turbo generators are
commonly found on large container ships and tankers. Steam turbine driven cargo pumps and boiler
feed pumps are also commonly used on board tankers.
Fire-tube Boiler or Smoke-tube Boiler: (Scotch Boiler):
A number of Scotch boilers are still in use today as main and auxiliary units and few if any are being
manufactured. Only a brief description will be given. See Fig. 5.
Construction:
Three types of constructions are being used.1. All riveted. 2. Riveted and Welded. 3. All welded.
Majority of modern Scotch boilers are mainly the all welded. Riveted type of construction is obsolete.
Material:
Plain low carbon open hearth steel of good quality having an ultimate tensile strength between
430MN/m2 to 54OMN/rn2 is used. Steel produced by the "Kaldo"or"L.D. or any other oxygen process
would be acceptable. Most steel producing plants are phasing out there Bessemer converters and
open hearth furnaces, but some open hearth furnaces have been converted to oxygen blast.
All flanged plating and stays, etc., which have hail their ends upset must be heated to 600*C and then
allowed to cool slowly in order to stress relieve.
Combustion Chamber
Fig 6 shows an all welded construction of a Scotch boiler combustion chamber. As the name implies,
these are chambers in which combustion, apart from that which has already occurred in the furnaces,
takes place. These chambers, surrounded by the water content of the boiler, are in addition heating
surfaces, and it is from them that the products of combustion return to the uptakes via the plain and
stay tubes. The combustion chamber, being at all times under compression, lends itself admirably to
that modern method of fabrication, electric welding.
The combustion chambers are made up mainly of flat thin plating and hence have to be given support
by means of stays, girders and tubes.
Boiler tubes, in addition to carrying gases from combustion chamber to boiler uptake, support the
boiler front tube plate and the combustion chamber front plate. Stays and, stay tubes give support to
the boiler back and front plating between the combustion chambers in addition to giving support to the
combustion chamber plating.
Combustion chamber girders, which support the top of the combustion chamber, may be built up or
welded types. (See Figs: 7 & 8). Combustion chamber bottom plating requires no support by means of
stays, etc., since it is curved and is hence the ideal shape for withstanding pressure. (See Fig: 9).
Furnaces:
Corrugated for additional strength and longitudinal flexibility, see Fig. 10, this also gives increased
heating surface area. Not to be thicker than 22 mm. Excess material thickness would give poor heat
transfer and could possibly result in the excess material being burnt of. Most Scotch boiler furnaces are
suspension bulb type corrugation, since, for a given working pressure and furnace diameter, their
thickness would be less than for other corrugation types. This gives better heat transfer and efficiency.
The number of furnaces in each boiler is usually dependent upon the boiler diameter. For those up to
2.66 meters diameter, two furnaces are usual; from 2.66 to 3.55 meters diameter, three are used, while
in boilers over 3.55 meters in diameter there are usually four furnaces.
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Furnaces must be arranged and fitted so as to ensure that furnace renewal can be carried out with
rninimum possible inconvenience (furnaces are always made withdraw able). In the case of furnaces
riveted to the combustion chamber, this is accomplished by terminating the inner end of the furnace in
a neck and flange (gooseneck), the flange being of such a shape as to be with draw able through the
front end-plate opening. In welded construction the furnace is butt welded direct to the flange opening
in the combustion chamber front or tube plate. The two methods are illustrated in Fig. 11.
Boiler End Plating:
The boiler end plating, i.e. frost and back, is supported by means of the combustion chamber stays and
tubes. In addition, main stays about 67 mm diameter are provided. These are in two groups of three
between the furnaces and in two or three rows with about 400 mm pitch at the top of the boiler.
The front and back end-plates may be built up from several plates of varying thickness with lap-riveted
or welded cross-seams. Both front and back end-plates are flanged to fit inside the shell in the case of
riveted boilers, and to butt against the shell for welding in the case of welded boilers. It should be
observed here that the plate thickness required depend on the working pressure, amount of support
given by stays and flanging, etc., and so it is quite usual to find end-plates built up from two or three
different thickness of plate, each plate thickness meeting the requirements of its individual loading. In
riveted boilers, the end plates are usually riveted into the shell with the flanging outside of the
circumferential seam, although in some cases when hydraulic riveting was utilized for the closing
seam, the end-plate was flanged inwards.
The boiler end-plates are usually in two parts, the top or steam space portion being somewhat thicker
than the lower portion. It is present-day practice, after the plate edges have been prepared by planing,
to butt-weld this seam and on completion of welding to flange the complete end. The flanging is
effected in the hydraulic flanging press, working around the plate at about 1.83 meters per heat, each
portion of the flange being completed before proceeding to the next.
On completion of the flanging the end-plates are annealed and levelled. The flange edges are then
dressed and in the case of the front end-plates, locating holes for tubes and furnace openings drilled,
after which furnace openings are machined out and manhole openings are plunged. The end-plates are
then marked off, and tube holes and combustion chamber back-stay holes drilled in the front and back
plates respectively.
Boiler Shell Plating:
Having concentrated on the production of the combustion chambers and the two end-plates, attention is
then transferred to the shell. When several similar boilers are being constructed at one time it is
advantageous that all the chambers and end-plates proceed simultaneously, so that on completion of
these components a certain amount of "pairing up" can be resorted to (a difference in circumference of
more than 12.7 mm between front and back end-plates is undesirable).
The shell plates are then marked off to suit the end-plate circumference their plate edges planed to give
the required weld preparation, combustion chamber side-stay holes drilled and manhole opening
machined out. The plates are then rolled, and as the rolls do not impart correct curvature to the
longitudinal edges, these have to be separately faired. The shell plates are then assembled and with
their longitudinal edges suitably strapped together and weld test plates tacked in position, the
longitudinal seams, together with test plates, are butt welded, either by hand or machine, using a
balanced welding technique (part of the seam welded from outside and part inside to avoid distortion
from weld contraction). The main shell plating is usually in two parts, which are joined together by
means of double strap butt joints of special design. Since the shell plating is circular it requires no
stays for support against pressure.
Manhole openings are usually made in the bottom of the boiler back plate and in the top of the shell
plating. These openings have to be compensated to restore the plate strength and the opening in the
shell plating must have its minor axis parallel to the boiler axis, the reason for this is that the
circumferential (or hoop) stress is twice as large as the longitudinal stress.
Boiler Tubes:
 11

The front tube plate and combustion-chamber tube plate are tied together by means of stay tubes. The
stay tubes screwed through both tube plates vary in thickness according to the area of plate which they
have to support, and there may be several thickness of tube in one tube-nest, the minimum thickness
allowed for such tubes, measured at the base of the threads, being 6.4mm for marginal tubes and
4.8 mm for others. The normal pitch for the threads of these tubes is 2.82 mm, the smoke-box end of
the tubes being enlarged and the thread being continuous, so that when inserted they can be screwed
simultaneously through both tube plates. In some cases the ends of the stay tubes are attached to the
tube plates by welding, the weld execution being as shown in Fig: 12. This method ensures pressure
tightness under working conditions, but presents difficulties when renewals are called for. The material
used for stay tubes is normally wrought iron or steel. Plain tubes form the major part of the heating
surface of the Scotch boiler, and are generally made of either lap-welded wrought-iron or steel,
seamless steel or electric-resistance-welded steel. The inner tubes in a nest are very inaccessible on the
water side, and unless considerable care and attention is paid to their cleanliness, on both this and the
fire side, their heating-surface value rapidly decreases. The normal size of plain tubes vary from about
63.5 mm to 88.9 mm outside diameter with thickness of 3 mm to 4.5 mm, and they are made tight in the
tube plates by means of expanding, supplemented in some cases by seal welding (see Fig: 13).
Stays:
In general, Scotch boilers are fitted with stays of the screwed type, although for the past twenty years
plain bar stays, welded at both ends, have gradually been taking their place. Details of the method of
attachments of welded combustion chamber stays and longitudinal stays are shown in Figs.14A & 14B.
Assembly of Scotch Boiler:
See figure 15, to know how the boiler is assembled.
*****************kv******************

Smoke Tube Boilers used in Steam Vessels:

The earliest marine boilers used for main propulsion had a working pressure of approximately 0.7 bar
and were chiefly of the rectangular or haystack type. As technology advanced, the compound, triple
and quadruple expansion steam engines were introduced which called for gradually increasing
scantlings and pressures until the practical limit of pressure was reached for the scotch type of boiler
i.e. approximately 21 bar. To exceed this pressure in a normal sized scotch boiler would require a
construction so heavy that it would not be a commercial proposition. The ordinary scotch boiler with
return tubes was introduced in the 1880's and has basically remained altered since it is robust, easy to
operate and requires the minimum of maintenance. Howden-Johnson and also Capus boilers have
introduced modifications to the basic design, each with its own claimed advantages. By the late 1930's
many crack turbine passenger liners were steamed by Scotch boilers of the double-ended type.
However the quest for increased overall efficiency and higher speeds has led to the adoption of water
tube boilers where propulsion is by turbine, and the majority of such turbines operate around 60 bar
and 500*C, working pressure increased from 5 bar (1880) to 15 bar (modern). Modifications
mentioned included water drum, steam drum and circulating tubes also superheaters.

Scotch Boiler: (See Fig: 5)

The Shell:
A mild steel plate forming a ring, usually constructed from two plates having two treble riveted double
butt strap joints for the older designs, and welded in modern designs.
The tensile strength of the plating is normally 430 to 490 MN/m2 although lighter scantlings are
permitted when using higher tensile steel.
The End Plates:
 12

These may be manufactured from a single plate or fabricated from a number of plates of varying
thickness. The plate thickness required is determined from the working pressure and the amount of
support given by the stays and flanging, etc.
The Combustion Chambers:
These are surrounded by water in the boiler and are suitably stayed. (Always under compression). They
are situated after the furnace and the products of combustion pass through these chambers before
entering the tubes, thereby giving an additional heating surface.
The Furnace:
The modern scotch boiler furnace is always made of corrugated steel with welded seams, the
corrugations giving for a given thickness additional strength and longitudinal flexibility. The number
of furnaces in each boiler usually depends upon the boiler diameter i.e. two furnaces for boilers up to
3660 mm diameter, three furnaces for diameters between 366Omm and 4890 mm, and above this it is
usual to have four furnaces. In each case the furnaces are made withdrable, this being accomplished by
terminating the inner end of the furnace flange in a 'goose neck' when riveting is used. Welded
construction boilers have a butt joint. The more common types of corrugation are Leeds suspension,
Deighton, Morrison, Fox and Purves.
Boiler Tubes:
The front tube plate and combustion chamber plate are tied together by means of stay tubes, which are
normally made from wrought iron or steel. Plain tubes, which form the greater part of the heating
surface, are made from the same material as stay tubes. The tubes vary from about 63 to 89 mm outside
diameter and approximately 3 to 4.5 mm thickness of wall, are expanded into the tube plates, and often
welded to give a good seal.
Stays:
Screwed type stays form the majority of stays used for the chamber tops, sides and backs. Materials
used are iron or steel for combustion-chamber stays and steel for longitudinal stays. The more modern
boilers however are fitted with welded stays.

SCOTCH BOILER MOUNTINGS: (See Fig: 16 &17).

The points of importance relating to them are:
1. Water level gauges: The water cock orifice for water gauge glass fitting is at least 5 inches
above the top of the combustion chambers. Two gauge glasses are fitted to determine the water
level.
2. Feed cheek valve: This valve internal feed pipe is closed at the end and perforated throughout
its length in order to distribute the relatively cool feed water over a large space, thus avoiding
local over cooling of hot boiler plates.
3. Blow down valve: The blow down valve at the bottom of the boiler is for empting the boiler.
This is also used to remove sediments at the bottom of the boiler. This valve is either a non
return valve or a cock, usually the former to prevent back flow in to the boiler of cold water if
the boiler is blown down at sea.
4. Scum valve: This valve (cock) with the pipe is provided to remove any scum floating on the
water level.
5. Stop valve: Main steam out let is usually fitted with a dry pipe to reduce moisture carry over in
the main steam supply.
6. Whistle steam valve: Steam from this valve goes direct to the whistle from the boiler. If steam
Steering gear is fitted in the ship, then one steam line has to be provided from boiler to steering
gear direct.
7. Safety valves: These are generally of the improved high lift type. These are provided to relieve
excess boiler pressure. They are fitted with easing gear, which could be used in emergency.
Drain lines are provided with out any cock or valve to drain all condensed water, or
 13

accumulated water, in the safety valve chest. This drain should be checked at all times and
made sure that they are clear.

MANHOLE AND DOOR: Manholes are provided for access in to the boiler for cleaning and
inspection. One manhole in the shell near the top of the boiler and two in the front end near the bottom
between and below the furnace. Manholes are elliptical in shape (Usual size is 400 mm. major axis and
300mm. minor axis).

Howden Johnson and Capus Boilers: (Fig: 18 & 19)

These boilers are basically of the tank type and in each the furnaces pass from end plate to end plate,
the combustion chambers containing circulating tubes bounded by brickwork. This arrangement gives
a 'dry-back' combustion chamber, which simplifies construction and also allows higher pressures to be
obtained when compared with Scotch Boilers. Generally both types may be said to have certain
advantages, which are common to water tube and scotch boiler, particularly where the water tubes
assist to produce rapid and effective circulation, but since the tubes in the combustion chamber are of
small bore and of bent forms then boiler feed water treatment is more critical. The combustion
chamber also houses the superheaters.

Cochran Boiler: (Fig: 20, 21 & 22)

Cross sectional sketch of Cochran boiler is shown in fig. No: 20.
It is a vertical cylinder fire tube type with hemispherical top, constructed of steel plates welded
together the furnace being one-piece seamless hemispherical dome.
A composite boiler is used in motor ships, so that when the diesel engine is working, the heat from the
exhaust gas could be passed through this boiler and there by steam could be raised.
Some times this boiler is also called waste beat boiler. The amount of heat extracted from the exhaust
gas boiler will depend on the quantity and temperature of the exhaust gas. These boilers are fitted with
burners to generate steam, when the exhaust gas temperature falls due to slow running of diesel or
when the diesel is stopped.

COCHRAN BOILER MOUNTINGS:

1. Pressure Gauge and cocks: Shows the steam pressure, normally has two red lines marked on the
dial. Lower line shows normal working steam pressure, the upper the maximum permissible
pressure of the boiler (A 3-way cock on the gauge and another cock on the boiler, connected
with a syphon pipe is a standard practice).
2. Water level gauges: These are situated at either side of the smoke box, complete with steam,
water and drain cocks.
3. Stop valve: This is the steam outlet to the process, normally fitted at the highest point of the
boiler, and of an ordinary screw-down type valve.
4. Blowdown valve: This enables feed water sediments at the bottom of the boiler to be
discharged.
5. Feed Cheek valve: This valve consists of one screw-down isolating and another non-return anti-
suction valve is fitted either in one common or separate valve housing.
6. Safety valves: Lifts at a pressure above the maximum working pressure and is pre-set and
locked to prevent unauthorised interference. Easing gear is provided for test purposes and also
in case of emergency.
7. Salinometer cock: For drawing boiler water sample for testing.

*********************************Kv******************************
 14

Note: 1. All boiler mountings will be explained latter in these notes.

2. Composite boilers will be taken after explaining water tube boilers.

MARINE WATER TUBE BOILERS:

The Scotch Boiler was replaced by the Water Tube Boilers mainly for the following reasons:
1. Saving in weight: Water tube installations give a relative saving of 1:3 when compared with
Scotch boilers on a basis of equivalent heating surface with the water at working level.
2. Higher pressures and temperatures: The advent of steam turbine propelling machinery called
for higher pressures and temperatures with the advantage of higher efficiencies, which enabled
machinery size and weight to be reduced for a given output.
3. Greater Mechanical Flexibility: The Scotch boiler has poor circulation, particularly when
raising steam, and is therefore prone to mechanical straining, however, the water tube boiler has
rapid circulation and with its greater structural flexibility, this defect is avoided.
4. Rapid steam rising: Under normal circumstances the time recommended to raise steam to full
working pressure from cold is three to four hours, but this may be reduced, when a hot boiler is
used, to twenty minutes.
5. Saving in space: The good circulation, ability to withstand forcing and the higher pressures
obtainable have led to a much smaller dimensional boiler when compared to the Scotch type.
6. Wider safety margin in event of explosion: Water tube boiler drums are protected from flame
impingement or direct radiation and the small tube bore, in the case of rupture, gives a relative
slow escape rate. An overheated furnace in a Scotch type boiler, when ruptured can empty the
boiler contents almost instantaneously. In all these types the water circulation is natural, correct
design ensures that the water speeds are adequate and each tube has sufficient circulation to
prevent steam locks which in turn could cause overheating and tube failure. The direction of
circulation in the tubes of a vertical tube water tube boiler is largely dependent on the external
conditions. In a water tube boiler the tubes contain a mixture of steam and water, and due to the
furnace fluctuations, particularly when maneuvering, a particular tube may function as a down-
comer one minute and a riser the next. Since circulation depends upon specific gravity, the
relative speed of circulation will, in a bank of tubes, be greatest in the front and rear rows, as
between these rows exists the greater difference in specific weights. Efficient circulation is
more easily obtained in a low then a high pressure water- tube boiler, as increase in pressure
and temperature involves a leveling out in the difference in specific weights of steam and water,
hence at higher pressure say above 30 bar, it is usual to assist circulation by fitting unheated
external down-comers.

BABCOCK BOILERS: (Fig:wtb1)

The Babcock and Wilcox header-type boiler is essentially a robust and accessible unit. Early designs
had a working pressure of approximately 12 bar at 221*C, 100 mm. tubes and three-passes, while later
designs had a working pressure of 30 bar at 399*C, 21 mm. tubes and a single pass. Smaller tubes were
possible due to the improvement in feed-water quality, and these are situated farthest from the furnace,
where, space for space, they give a greater area of heating surface. It is normal to have a 15o rise
between the front and back headers and the amount of heating surface per section is made greater or
less by variation in the number of tubes, height of section or in the length of the tubes.
The boiler pressure parts are made of steel, the headers being solid drawn and forged into a sinuous
form, which gives a staggered configuration. All tubes are expanded and bell-mouthed in the normal
manner.
A U-bend type of superheater is fitted which lies at right angles to the generating tubes of the boiler,
and the headers are placed along one side. Internally welded-in, division plates give a number of steam
 15

passes. The front headers are anchored, while the back headers of these boilers are free to move on the
rear structure, which allows for tube expansion when raising steam and contraction when shutting
down. The air supply, after passing a preheater is lead through a double casing surrounding the sides
and bottom of the furnace, hence to the boiler front. This gives a low radiation loss and insulates the
refractory-lined furnace. To assist the separation of steam and water after leaving the return pipes, a
longitudinal baffle is fitted in the steam drum, which allows the steam to rise to the internal steam
collector in the drum, the water dropping. Wash-plates are fitted in the steam drum to prevent excessive
movement of water such as encountered in heavy weather. Where units are of the high superheat type it
is usual to have a coil type de-superheater located in the steam drums to de-superheat a quantity of
steam for use in the saturated steam services, and also used in connection with an automatic superheat
temperature-control system.
This type of boiler may vary with the designed position of the individual units depending on the
purpose of the boiler, but the basic arrangement varies only the position the economizers, air
preheaters, superheaters and waterwalls etc. Eventually steam conditions were raised to 41 bar and
454*C.
Babcock and Wilcox Selective Superheat Boiler:(Fig: wtb 3)
This is a two drum, bent-tube type boiler having an integral furnace at one side formed by an extended
screen of tubes, which are part of the main circulating system. The gas flow is in two passes, achieved
by a division wall, and the total gas flow is regulated by temperature control dampers, each pass
having one set, which enables the desired steam temperature to be selected by adjustment of the
dampers. The super- heat is in the second pass division and since this constitutes a low temperature
zone, the tubes do not require to be manufactured from special heat-resisting steel. After the dampers,
the combined gas flow passes through an economiser and air heater before entering the funnel. In this
design, the main bank baffle is formed by chrome-ore on studded tubes 50.8 mm O/D and this requires
very little maintenance.
The superheater is arranged to give several steam passes, the steam outlet is situated in the cooler part
of the gas stream near the rear of the boiler. This gives high steam velocities with the highest steam
temperature in these tubes, which are comparatively low temperature gas zones, hence the metal
temperatures are reduced and vanadium attack is lessened. Since the superheater elements are
concentrated in one pass they are of necessity made into double instead of single U-tubes. The overall
arrangement gives a wide range of temperature control than can be obtained with an attemperator and
is simple to control. Generally under normal steaming conditions, the full range of control is
unnecessary, but must be utilized when steaming at reduced temperature and pressure conditions. Also
the low temperatures obtainable are useful when warming up and manoeuvring. A double casing of
welded construction encloses the boiler, which prevents outward leakage of gas and soot while
radiation losses are kept low.
Babcock & Wilcox Integral Furnace Boiler: (Fig: wtb 2)
A two-drum type boiler with the furnace at one side, formed by an extended screen of tubes, which are
part of the main circulation system. Operating conditions may be up to 69 bar and 510*C with a
capacity of 81500 kg/h. It should be noted that the temperature limit is dependent upon the material
used for the superheater. The gases pass through a screen of two, three, four or five staggered rows of
50.8 mm O/D tubes before entering the superheater. Behind the superheater is the main bank of tubes
which consists of about twenty staggered rows of 31.8mm O/D tubes as closely packed as practicable
to ensure high gas speeds and heat transmission rates. Some of the screen tubes are used to form
baffles which prevent hot gasses bypassing the superheater, impinging on drums, superheater headers,
superheater supports and boiler casings. These baffles are formed with studded tubes. Where high
steam temperatures are encountered the tubes, in addition to the usual expanding, are also seal-welded
inside the headers. The superheat temperature is controllable within certain limits by fitting an
attemperator and a de-superheater can be sited for the auxiliary services.
 16

The Integral Furnace and Selectable Superheat Boilers are similar, their main difference being in the
method of superheat control. Drums of each boiler are of fusion, welded construction, and fitted
internally with cyclone steam separators. Large unheated down-comers, fitted between top and bottom
drums and to all water-wall headers are located within the double casing of the boiler ensure positive
circulation.
Babcock & Wilcox Radiant Boiler:
The increase in steam temperature, feed temperatures, boiler efficiency, and the reduction in the
quantity of excess air for combustion, which have occurred in recent years, all reduce the amount of
boiler heating surface required. This reduction in the amount of convection heating surface required
has caused boiler designers to study the radiant type boiler similar to that used for large stationary units
in which the boiler bank is replaced by economizer surface.
Such a design was installed in a 167,000 tonne tanker having machinery of 22,370 kw., the superheat
outlet condition being 62 bar and 513*C. The burners are located in the roof of the furnace and the
furnace is separated from the convection heating surfaces by a division wall of membrane construction.
The gases leave the furnace through an opening at the lower end of the division wall and then pass
upwards over multi-loop superheaters and an economizer to the air heater. Except where openings are
provided to permit the superheater and economizer tubes to be welded to the headers, the walls of the
furnace and boiler are entirely of membrane construction. For this particular application the design
proved cheaper and occupied less floor space than the equivalent two-drum boiler. From combustion
point of view the design is superior since a greater residence time is achieved than is possible in a
conventional two-drum boiler. If higher pressures are required the radiant boiler has advantages since
all tubes can be welded to the drum or headers and expanded joints are thus eliminated. The radiant
boiler is also readily adapted for a reheat plant since it is relatively simple to arrange for additional
rows of superheater tubes and to accommodate extra access spaces and soot blowers, the superheater
design is not connected so intimately to the furnace design as in the two-drum boiler.
This design of boiler is not suitable for use with a non-unidirectional turbine since complicated or
inefficient arrangements are needed to control the flow through the re-heater, however, a further design
is available in which the superheater outlet pressure has been raised to 100 bar, the steam temperature
remaining at 513*C for both reheater and superheater. In this unit the gas passage is separated into two
parallel paths by a membrane wall. One path contains the reheater, while the other has economizer
surface. The gas flow over the reheater, and hence the reheat steam temperature is controlled by
dampers above the reheater and economizer sections. A superheater is arranged in the reheater path and
further superheater surface is provided in the path containing the economizer. When running astern, the
dampers on the reheater side are closed to restrict the gas flow over the reheater and there is sufficient
superheater surface below the reheater to ensure that, under these conditions, the gas passing to the
reheater has been cooled to below the safe metal temperature of the reheat tubes, even when the
maximum quantity of oil is fired. The superheater outlet steam temperature is controlled by an inter-
pass attemperator.
Babcock MR type: (Fig: wtb: 4, 5 & 6).
The MR boiler was introduced in response to marine industry demands for boilers to exhibit the
highest possible efficiency and the lowest possible maintenance. It is a single drum radiant boiler of all
welded construction in which all exposed refractory and all expanded joints and gaskets were
eliminated. The membrane tube panel enclosure walls, in which adjacent 63 mm outer diameter tubes
were joined by welding in a 12 mm wide mild steel strip, provided water cooling and gas tightness.
The large fully water cooled furnace had a roof sloping at 5 deg to the horizontal, enabling the oil
burners to be attached normal to the roof and yet fire down the long vertical axis of the furnace. These
units were, with the use of the steam atomizing burners, able to achieve complete combustion within
the furnace with as little as 3% excess of air, and an efficiency in excess of 90.7% on the gross calorific
value was recorded when the units were fitted with rotary regenerative air heaters reducing the
temperature of the funnel gases to 116*C. In the convection passage the widely spaced superheater
 17

tubes were aligned at right angles to the drum axis so that the products of combustion produced by the
row of burners in the furnace roof were evenly distributed across the whole width of the superheater.
This encourages effective use of the heating surface and minimises risk of hot spots due to
maldistribution, which could adversely affect tube temperature. The lowest possible superheater tube
temperature was further encouraged by arranging the primary superheater, containing the cooler steam,
below the secondary, both being connected so that the steam progresses upward in parallel flow with
the products of combustion. Inter-stage attemperation and control of superheat is achieved by a steam-
boiler water heat exchanger in the drum. This single drum radiant boiler has a drum diameter of at least
1.5 m and it was possible to accommodate, in addition to the attemperator, a desuperheater to provide
steam for auxiliary purposes.
Babcock M12 type Boiler: (Fig: 7).
As already mentioned, preference for two drum boilers was sometimes stated and there were ships that
did not provide space, notably headroom, for the radiant boilers then being used extensively in VLCCs
and container ships. It was to meet such situations that Babcock offered the M12, a bi-drum unit with
primary and secondary superheaters and a fully water-cooled furnace similar to the Foster Wheeler
DSD type. A fully water cooled furnace with membrane wall tube panels or tangent tubes backed with
refractory and steel casings could be chosen, and the burners could be mounted on the roof or in the
furnace front wall. The double superheater was arranged with the primary upstream of the secondary in
the furnace exit gas stream, each being arranged with multiple steam passes with the hottest pass in
parallel flow. Ample gas side access spaces were provided and steam temperature control was achieved
by inter-stage attemperation.
Babcock M21 type Boiler: (Fig: 8).
In order to simplify construction and to introduce a degree of standardisation, the M12 was replaced by
the M21 type, a bi-drum unit giving a choice of features such as:
1. Single superheater;
2. Double superheater;
3. Tangent tubes, double casings;
4. Membrane tube panel enclosures;
5. Roof mounted burners;
6. Front wall mounted burners;
and these could be combined ACE, or ACF, or ADE, or ADF, or BCE, or BCF, or BDE, or BDF. Each
of these eight alternatives could be met with the same basic layout of the main boiler parts with the
same overall dimensions simplifying drawing and ordering requirements (Fig __).
Babcock MRR type Boiler: (Fig: 9 & 10).
In 1963 a power plant design study instigated by the Esso Petroleum Company produced a set of
marine propulsion machinery based upon the reheat cycle and which incorporated many novel features
aimed at combining high efficiency and low maintenance. Out of this work came the Babcock MRR
reheat boiler from which the straight cycle MR was soon to follow. The MRR is similar in construction
to the MR except that the convection passage is divided into two parallel paths by a membrane tube
wall, the gas flow over which is controlled by dampers located at the top, or gas outlet end of each
path. Primary and secondary superheater surfaces are arranged in each path. The reheater is above
them in one path and in the other is an economiser with bare tubes connected so that any steam
generated rises upwards with the water flow into the steam drum to be separated in the cyclones. The
division wall is completely gas tight and the superheater surfaces are so proportioned that when the
reheater path dampers are closed the small gas flow leaking through them is cooled by the superheater
to a temperature well below the normal reheater tube operating temperature so that no damage to the
reheater can occur when reheat steam is not flowing. In normal, ahead steaming, modulation of the
dampers controls reheat steam temperature with- out significant disturbance in main steam tempera-
ture, which is, in any case, controlled by an attemperator inside the boiler drum.
 18

A significant step was taken during the latter part of the 1970s, when Stal Laval, in cooperation with
Babcock, developed a very advanced propulsion system (VAP). Steam was generated at 125bar or
higher depending upon the shaft power of the set and at a temperature of 500*C by a standard MR
boiler and then raised to 600*C in a separate superheater immersed in an oil fired fluidised bed of

graded sand. After expanding through the HP turbine the steam was to be reheated to 600*C in a
second oil fired fluidised bed built in battery with the first and then returned to the IP and LP turbines.
The combustion environment of the fluidised bed was intended to permit the achievement of 600*C or
even higher without the problems afflicting conventional superheater and a full scale experimental
fluidised superheater operated by Stal-Laval at Orebre in Sweden proved this to be so. The turbine and
gearing developments were also demonstrated to the technical press. By the time this was all ready for
the market the diesel designers had forged further ahead and the demand for steam ships was in decline
so that no VAP plant entered sea service.

Combustion Engineering Boilers:

Type: V2M-8: (Fig: 13).

The V2M-8 is a bi-drum boiler of the integral furnace type with a vertical superheater, with all welded
furnace walls or with tangent tubes backed with refractory lined steel casings. Advantages claimed by
the manufacturers include: the superheater is positively drained at all times regardless of the attitude of
the ship; slag accumulation on the superheater tubes is minimised; and the general layout of the unit is
such as to avoid pockets where explosive gas mixtures could accumulate, thereby ensuring effective
purging prior to lighting up. Provision can be made for firing in the roof, front or side of the furnace.

Type: V2M-9: (Fig: 14).

As boiler plant in general began to demonstrate improved reliability ship owners showed increased
interest in the single main boiler ship philosophy. A single boiler, used in place of two boilers, would
require less space, but could still have the same capacity .It could have a very large furnace so as to
give a greater residence time affording the opportunity for improved combustion compared to two
smaller units. Better access for maintenance would be more easily obtained and initial cost would be
reduced. The radiant boilers previously described all exhibited these advantages and Combustion
Engineering responded by taking a basic D type boiler and extending the furnace downwards and
beneath the unit. This layout necessitated supporting the boiler unit at its mid height so reducing
movement of the upper and lower extremities due to thermal expansion. Stability when mounted in the
moving platform of a ship at sea was also improved. A double superheater and welded furnace walls
were employed and the firing platform was beneath the lower boiler drum. A modification employed a
tangential firing system, with burners mounted in each of the four corners aligned tangential to a circle
at the furnace center. This gave increased turbulence and a longer spiral flame path before the products
of combustion impinged upon relatively cool boiler and superheater tubes.

Type: V2M-8-LTG: (Fig: 15).

The boiler and superheater are as for the V2M-8 but an additional furnace chamber is added on the side
of the boiler-generating bank remote from the main furnace and superheater. This additional reheat
furnace is provided with oil burners and the horizontal tube reheater is arranged above its outlet. In
normal ahead mode products of combustion, from oil burned in the main furnace in sufficient quantity
to achieve the desired degree of superheat, pass over the superheater and main generating bank
entering the reheat furnace, where the balance of the fuel is burned raising the gas temperature by an
amount sufficient for the reheater duty needed. In port or when manoeuvring astern, the burners in the
reheat furnace are secured, and the products of combustion then reach the uncooled reheater tubes at a
temperature low enough to avoid causing them damage.
 19

Type: V2M-8-divided furnace: (Fig: 16).

A further derivative of the V2M-8, this reheat unit I has the main furnace divided by a membrane wall.
Each of the two furnaces so formed are provided with oil burners mounted on the roof. The products of
combustion from one of these furnaces pass over reheater tube surfaces arranged at one end of the
boiler whilst from the other furnace the gases pass over superheater tube surfaces at the other end of
the boiler. Both gas streams combine before passing over the main bank of generating tubes.
Differential firing in the two furnaces gives control of reheat steam temperature whilst the superheat is
controlled by atternperation between stages of the double superheater. All welded furnace enclosure
walls are used and the superheaters and reheater are all arranged in the near vertical position with
horizontal inlet and outlet headers beneath.

Kawasaki Heavy Industries Boilers:

BDU type: (Fig: 17).

This is a basic bi-drum integral furnace boiler, the Kawasaki version having a double horizontal tube
superheater, and front-fired furnace constructed with tangent tubes backed with refractory lined steel
casings. The bottom ends of the furnace exit screen tubes terminate in a separate header fed with
sophisticated system would utilise a second control valve in place of the orifice with means provided to
water from the lower drum. The bottom headers of the front, rear and side furnace walls are fed by
unheated down-comers from the steam drum. Steam temperature is controlled by attemperation with a
heat exchanger in the steam drum and a desuperheater in the lower drum provides auxiliary steam at a
reduced temperature. The steam circuit associated with steam temperature control incorporates a
control valve and a fixed orifice in a bypass line. Care is needed in sizing the orifice since if the control
valve is wide open and the orifice is too large insufficient steam will pass to the attemperator and the
final steam temperature may exceed safety levels. Conversely, should the orifice be too small the
control valve will be closed in to establish the correct steam quantity to the attemperator and drum
steam pressure may exceed the working level. A more sophisticated system would utilise a second
control valve in place of the orifice with means provided to prevent it from being completely closed.
The two valves under the influence of the steam temperature controller would operate in sequence to
control the steam temperature even if operating conditions drifted away from design values. This
avoids down time, which may be required to change the orifice plate.

UF type: (Fig: 18).

This is a radiant type boiler unit with fully water cooled furnace and convection passage enclosure
walls and is very similar in arrangement and construction to the radiant designs of the British boiler-
makers, having primary and secondary superheaters with inter-stage attemperation.

UM type: (Fig: 19).

In conformity with boilermakers elsewhere Kawasaki also offered a bi-drum unit incorporating modem
construction methods with welded connections between tubes and headers wherever possible. The
whole unit is enclosed in membrane wall tube panels and the oil burners are arranged in the furnace
roof. There is an all welded vertical U-tube superheater immediately behind the furnace exit screen and
generally simple tube shapes are used throughout the unit. The superheater construction is novel in that
the U-tubes are made up into panels by being welded to stub headers at their ends (Fig: 20). These are
given a prior pressure test in the factory and then connected to the main headers by welded connecting
tubes. As with the vertical tube superheater proposed by all the boilermakers offering this type of boiler
unit the main support of the tube bundle is taken on the main headers at the bottom. Location and
guidance of the superheater tubes is obtained by means of heat resisting alloy steel castings welded to
adjacent boiler and superheater tubes. The designatory letters defining Kawasaki boilers are
 20

supplemented by an 'E' if the final heat recovery is by economizer or by a 'G' if final heat recovery is
by a gas to air heater; the UM type thereby becoming UME or UMG.

UFR type: Fig: (21).

To provide for the adoption of the reheat cycle Kawasaki modified their UF type by arranging for the
convection passage to have three parallel paths. As other boilermakers had done they divided the main
convection passage into two parallel paths by means of a membrane tube wall with superheater
surfaces on either side but reheater surface on one side only. As a departure from previous designs they
introduced a third convection passage between the furnace and the main divided passage (Fig: 22).
This third or bypass passage contains economiser surface. Dampers at the outlet of the three
convection paths could be adjusted to control reheat and superheat in the normal ahead mode. As usual
when operating astern or in a port the dampers above the reheater are closed. In this design a double
damper arrangement is used and the space between them can be pressurised with air to effectively seal
the dampers preventing gas flow over the reheater. Since some gas always passes through the bypass
passage, less heat is available for superheating and reheating. To compensate, the reheater is brought
into a slightly hotter zone and additional superheater surface provided, with some primary surface
above the reheater.
UTR type: (Fig: 23).
A more simple solution to the problems posed by reheat was obtained by Kawasaki when they
introduced this unit in which the bypass passage is eliminated. The resulting design, although
exhibiting the same constructional detail as the UFR type, controls reheat and superheat generally in
the manner adopted by the British boilermakers.

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FOSTER WHEELER BOILERS:

D Type Boiler: (Fig: 30).
This is an early bi-drum design in which the two drums are connected by a multi-row bank of small
bore generating tubes, and three rows of larger bore screen tubes in front of a U-loop superheater. The
furnace sidewall tubes extend upwards from a header at floor level, turn over to form the furnace roof
and are connected to the steam drum. The furnace rear wall is water-cooled and the lower headers of
this and the sidewall are fed with water from the lower drum. The two drums are connected by
unheated down-comer tubes. The front wall and floor of the furnace are refractory lined. The
horizontal U- tubes of the superheater are connected to vertical inlet and outlet headers. Baffles are
fitted inside the headers, requiring the steam to make several passes through the tubes, thus achieving
the high steam velocity necessary to ensure safe tube metal temperature in service. Oil burners are
fitted in the refractory front wall of the furnace and on leaving the boiler, combustion gases pass over
further heat recovery surfaces such as economiser (heating feed-water) or air heater (heating
combustion air). Steam soot blowers are fitted to give means of on load cleaning of boiler, superheater
and further heat recovery tubes.

ESD I and ESD II Type Boilers: (Fig: 31 & 32).

In an attempt to combat the problems experienced with the early D s, Foster Wheeler introduced the
External Superheater D in which the basic construction methods remained as for the D type but the
superheater was removed to a position behind the generating tube bank which was reduced in depth.
This resulted in a reduced steam generating surface, an increased superheater surface and an increase
in heat recovery surface beyond the boiler. Finding itself in a cooler gas temperature zone compared to
the D type, the superheater exhibited a much greater rate of change of steam temperature with load
and for this reason steam temperature control was adopted, even though design final steam temperature
was only 450*C. In the Mark I version steam temperature control was by means of a steam
combustion air heat exchanger and in the Mark II by damper control of gas flow over the superheater.
 21

ESD III Type Boiler: (Fig: 33 & 34).

The ESD I and II designs still contained a good deal of refractory material in the furnace zone and very
many expanded tube joints and gaskets. It was seen that maintenance could be reduced if these were
reduced in extent or eliminated. In the ESD III the furnace was much enlarged and the bi-drum radiant
approach appeared with the adoption of complete water cooling and burners mounted in the furnace
roof. This increase in radiant surface reduced the need for a large generating tube bank that, in this
design, reduced to eight rows in staggered formation, formed from the lowest metre or so of the four
rows of tubes separating the furnace from the superheater. The superheater was further enlarged,
permitting wide gaps between the tubes. Steam temperature control, now used because of more
advanced steam conditions, was achieved by use of a steam boiler water heat exchanger located in the
upper drum.
Refractory was still not eliminated, but was largely shielded from direct radiation by close pitched
furnace wall tubes. Many expanded joints also remained. The superheater tubes, being arranged
parallel to the drum axis, tended to be long, requiring intermediate support along their length, and this
proved to be troublesome in service. Further steps were taken to address these matters and an improved
version of the ESD III used gas tight, all welded monowalls in place of refractory lined casings behind
tangent tubes for the furnace, and extended monowall construction to the superheater pass. The number
of rows of tubes between furnace and superheater was reduced from four to two and the superheater
was now aligned at right angles to the drum axis, the resulting shorter tubes not needing intermediate
support.
ESD IV Type: (Fig: 35).
With final stage development of the ESD series we arrive at the single drum radiant boiler with
complete monowall enclosure and monowall division between furnace and superheater. This further
halves the number of tubes between furnace and superheater so that the lower ends of all the tubes
forming the side walls and the division wall can now be accommodated in a header with all welded
connections. Both refractory and steel casings are eliminated and the steaming economiser appears to
compensate for loss of generating surface elsewhere.
DSD Type: (Fig: 36).
To cater for those ship owners who stated a preference for two drum boilers of more conventional
design, the DSD (double superheater D type) offered several advantages over the D type or even the
ESD I to III. A fully water cooled monowall enclosure system could be used with burners mounted in
the furnace roof giving good distribution of hot products of combustion to the vertically aligned
superheater tubes. The primary and secondary superheater sections were behind a three-row furnace
exit screen and were virtually self supporting, needing only to be located relative to adjacent boiler
tubes. It was further claimed that the propensity for deposits to form would be reduced on vertical
tubes and any that did would be more readily removed. Ample access around the superheaters was
provided for this purpose. A conventional generating bank of small bore tubes was provided, with
external unheated downcomers, and additional, external feeders supplied water from the lower drum to
the bottom headers of the water wall circuits.
ESRD Type: (Fig: 37 & 38).
Achieving the maximum efficiency from steam plant at sea requires the adoption of the reheat cycle
and for this a special boiler type is needed. In the reheat cycle steam, after passing through the
superheater and HP turbine, is taken back to the boiler and reheated before returning to the
intermediate and low pressure stages of the turbine. At sea, this is the sequence followed when in the
ahead mode, but when manoeuvring astern or when steaming in to port, re-heated steam is not
required. Under these conditions the reheater tubes will not receive a cooling flow of steam and so
other means of protection are required.
The ESRD is constructed in a manner similar to the ESD IV except that the convection passage
containing the superheaters is divided into two parallel paths by a further monowall. Superheater
surfaces are deployed in both paths but reheater surface is installed in one path only. Dampers at the
exit from each path control the gas flow over the two paths, so that the gas flow to the reheater, and
thereby the reheat steam temperature, can be controlled (Fig 12). In astern or harbour operation the
dampers above the reheater path are closed. Cooling air is admitted to the space between the top of the
reheater and the closed dampers, and passes downwards over the reheater, joining the combustion
gases which have crossed part of the superheater beneath the reheater, and exiting through a small
permanent opening in the division wall. It joins combustion gases there, flowing upwards in the
parallel path across economiser tube surfaces and out to further heat recovery equipment, used to
 22

ensure a high boiler efficiency at all times. Superheated steam temperature is controlled interstage by
the use of a steam boiler water heat exchanger in the boiler drum.
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SUPERHEAT CONTROL IN BOILERS.

In Scotch Boilers the production of superheated steam is generally achieved by the use of small-bore
steam carrying element U-tubes inserted into the gas carrying tubes. The element tubes are connected
to the supply and return headers fitted at the front of the boiler. When raising steam the headers are
first drained and the return header drain is left open to ensure circulation in the element U-tubes, the
supply header drain being closed. Temperature control is by means of a mixing valve. The bulk of the
steam passes through the superheater section, thus ensuring that no overheating of the elements occurs
and some steam passes straight from the boiler to the return line from the superheater header to mix
with (and hence reduce the temperature) the superheated steam (Fig: 24).

Water tube boilers, however have a variety of methods to control the steam temperature. Among the
more common methods used in marine practice are:
1. Damper Control. (Fig: 25).
This method utilizes dampers to control the gas flow across the superheat sections and is used in the
ESD II Babcock selectable superheat boilers.

2. Differential Firing. (Fig: 26).

This type consists of two furnaces which are separated by a section of operating tubes or membrane
wall, one with a superheater section and the other without, where gas passage could be dual, merging
into one, or single. Such a design is the Babcock controlled superheat boiler, which has twin furnaces
and a single uptake.

3. The third method of controlling the temperature is by means of a combination of (1) and (2).
(Fig: 27 & 28).
In Addition to the above methods of control, an attemporator is often used. This may be fitted in the
airway passages or in the water space of the boiler drum. The air attemporator consist of elements
formed by extended surface tubing connected to inlet and outlet headers. The steam from the first pass
superheater is led to the second pass superheater via the attemporator, which is positioned in the air
trunking after the air heater. A damper, which is opened, controls the airflow over the attemporator and
the by-pass closed when a lower temperature is required. The boiler water attemporator is a simple heat
exchanger of tubular design which has its water side directly coupled to the boiler steam by large bore
pipes.
A controlled amount of superheated steam is passed through the U-tubes, the reduced temperature
outlet steam from the attemporator being used for auxiliary purposes and also if required, for reducing
the temperature of the main steam from the superheater.

NOTE: The superheater is steaming at desired boiler output at all times, i.e. all the boiler steam passes
through it.

The Foster Wheeler ESD II type of boiler uses a further method of superheat control in which the heat
input to the superheater is limited to the amount of superheat required, this being affected by providing
the superheat itself with an outlet damper and also a damper controlled by-pass.
The control unit, which is an upward flow economizer section through which all the feed water to the
boiler passes, extracts excess heat from the gases as they pass through the by-pass section to the boiler
uptake. When raising steam no feed water will be passing to the boiler, to prevent boiling off and
possible damage occurring to the control unit, circulation through it is ensured by means of a balance
leg connected to the water drum.
 23

A method of controlling the superheat temperature rarely used in marine application is where a
separately fired superheater is utilised, and is mainly used in boilers having three drums with twin
furnaces, the superheater being situated within either the middle or gas-outlet tube banks, and the
superheat temperature being regulated by employing burners in the inner and outer furnaces.

*****************kv**********************

HEAT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT FOR MARINE BOILERS.

The general classification of heat recovery equipment covers heat exchangers, which are located such
that heat is absorbed from the combustion gases, after the gasses have passed through the superheater
and steam generating sections of the boiler. Tubular air heaters, Ljungstrom generative-type air heaters
and economizers are the most usual types for marine boilers.
Some designers have proposed various other combinations of indirect heat exchangers, such as an
arrangement whereby heat is absorbed from the stack gas in one heat exchanger and then subsequently
transferred to the combustion air through the medium of a secondary fluid and a second heat
exchanger. In still another arrangement, the heat recovery equipment consists of a gas turbine, which
absorbs heat from the combustion gases and converts the heat energy, which in turn, can be used to
drive the forced draft fan or compressor. This refers to pressure-fired boilers in which the combustion
air is delivered to the burners at a pressure of several atmospheres, in contrast to the much lower
pressures used for conventional boilers. This type of boiler is primarily for application to naval vessel
propulsion plants. The boiler drum pressure is a most important factor for the design of the heat
recovery equipment, since the water in the generating tubes is essentially at the saturation temperature
corresponding to drum pressure and that temperature represents a theoretical limit to which the
generating tube bank can cool the combustion gases. In other words, for 44 bar drum pressure, the
water in the generating tubes is 272*C and, therefore, if the main generating bank were provided with
an infinite amount of heating surface, the gas temperature were provided with an infinite amount of
heating surface, the gas temperature leaving could be reduced only to 272*C. In consideration of
various practical limitations, it is customary to proportion the boiler design such that the gas
temperature leaving the main bank is about 65*C above saturation temperature. With increase in the
operating pressure, a greater proportion of heat must be absorbed by heat recovery equipment as
indicated by Table 1 which shows saturation temperatures corresponding to various drum pressures.
Under optimum conditions the heat recovery equipment cools the stack gas to a temperature level
consistent with reasonable efficiency.

TABLE 1

Drum Pressure Corresponding

Bar Saturation Temperature: *C.
17.3. 208
31.0. 238
41.2. 254
58.7. 276
83.0. 298

ECONOMIZERS:
The marine economizer consists of a series of horizontal tubular elements by means of which heat is
recovered from combustion gas leaving the boiler and added to the incoming feed-water. The amount
of heat absorbed in an economizer is dependant on the temperature difference between gas and water,
the heat transfer rate and the amount of heating surface. It is usual practice to utilize some form of
extended surface on tubes to increase the heating surface per meter of tube length.
Economizers can be considered to fall into two categories: bare tube and extended surface types. The
bare tube usually takes in varying sizes, which can be arranged to form hairpin or multi-loop elements.
 24

Due to the fact that the coefficient of heat transfer is relatively low on the gas side of an economiser
tube as compared to that on the waterside, it is desirable to have some form of extended heating surface
on the outside of the tube so as to increase the overall rate of heat transfer. Many different
configurations of extended surface are used, and each has characteristics of a specific standard adopted
by a particular boiler manufacturer. In turn, each type of extended-surface economizer has a heat
transfer rate that is peculiar to the shape and finish of the surface, the material employed and the
method of fabrication.
Most marine economisers are designed for counter flow of gas and water, that is, water down through
elements, and gas up outside of elements. This is done in order to take advantage of the greater
temperature difference between the gas and water. Usually the average temperature difference is in the
range of 93*C to 121*C. Under these conditions the heat transfer cannot be increased without
incurring a substantial resistance to gas flow, and the use of extended surface to increase the heating
surface per lineal metre is desirable. Whatever the arrangement of economizer, ample provision must
be made to assure that the heating surface can be kept free of deposits. The co-existence of deposits
and moisture will cause corrosion, and accordingly the spacing of the elements, the quantity and
effectiveness of the soot blowers, and the design of the broaching above the economizers must all be
carefully considered.
Moisture can come from a number of sources, as follows:
1. Down the stack.
2. Leaks in economizers or boiler pressure parts.
3. Condensation of moisture in gases.
Although a leak in an economizer pressure part cannot go long undetected, a tremendous amount of
corrosion/erosion damage can result in a very short time if a leak is allowed to persist. Therefore, it is
advantageous to design economisers with the minimum of joints and hand-hole plates consistent with
proper provision for replacing an element. Generally, the header-tube joint is made up as a full welded
joint, or, as an alternative construction, the elements are welded to nipples in the headers.
While the economizer is designed principally for steady steaming conditions, proper consideration
must be given to the design of the elements so that steam will not be generated within the economizers
during manouvering. This means that there must be suitable water velocities and pressure drops which
will assure adequate circulation to each element. Under most conditions there is sufficient differential
saturation and feed water temperature to prevent the generation of steam.
However, there may be some manouvering conditions, such as the sequence from stop to full ahead, in
which steaming may become a problem. This is particularly true if the water level is high at the start of
the manouvre and the boiler control system is of the single element (water level) type.
Usually an economizer is installed at the boiler outlet adjacent to the steam drum with elements
parallel to the drum. In most fire room arrangements sufficient space is available for a good
economizer arrangement. However, to obtain the required economizer heat absorption, the economizer
length, width and number of tubes high may have to be varied to obtain the best arrangement for the
space conditions available and meet thermal performance conditions. In addition, the gas pressure loss
permitted and water pressure drop must be considered. There are a few instances where the economizer
tube length, that is, distance between sheets, is slightly more or less than the boiler bank width or
depth.
Today it is common practice to design marine economizers so that they can be by-passed if a leak
occurs. Thereby allowing the boiler to remain in service until the necessary repairs can be made. This
means that the economiser must withstand entering gas temperatures without any feed- water flow
through the economiser tubes. With the economiser by-passed, the loss of efficiency results in an
increased fuel firing rate and increasing draft losses cause a higher fan load. Another important
consideration, which applies to most merchant ship boiler designs, is that there is generally an increase
of total steam temperature due to the higher gas flow and increased furnace temperature.

AIR HEATERS:
Most marine air heaters are of the horizontal type, which is preferred because of its simplicity and the
ease of incorporating it into the boiler arrangement.
TUBULAR AIR HEATERS.
 25

The tubular type consists of a suitable number of horizontal tubes expanded into and supported by tube
shoots. The number, size, spacing and arrangement of the tubes are dependant on the available space
and the mount of heat the air heater must recover from the flue gas. The tubes and tube sheets are
enclosed in a steel plate easing. The tubes are grouped in a suitable number of banks to allow for the
installation of scat blowers and to provide access for cleaning.

Air heaters have utilized tubes over quite a wide range. However, for most installations it is found that
the smaller tube size allows for good tube arrangement with low box volume to minimise space
occupied. This permits suitable tube spacing for effective cleaning of the gas passage area. At the same
time there is a satisfactory heat transfer rate with an air pressure loss through tubes in keeping with
design requirements. In marine installations most tubular air heaters are installed immediately above
the boiler gas exit where the unit can be fitted into the boiler design. For a two-pass heater, air both
enters and exits at the rear side of the boiler, presenting an efficient arrangement for transporting air to
the fuel burners. The installations of air heaters usually results in exit gas temperatures exceeding
149*C at the normal operating conditions. With air inlet temperatures of 38*C and with counter flow
arrangement this results in a tube metal temperature of approximately 93*C in the air inlet area. Under
low boiler load conditions such as in port or in maneuvering, the exit gas temperature may fall below
the dew points, resulting in air heater tube deterioration caused by sulfuric acid formation. Under some
conditions sulfuric acid may condense on air heater surfaces even when metal temperatures are in
excess of 149*C.

Excessive moisture in flue gas contributes to air heater maintenance. The vapor may come from the
following sources:
a) Fuel.
b) Leak in boiler or economizer.
c) Improperly drained soot blower lines.
d) Soot blower leaks.
e) Residue from water washing.
To minimise the effect of low exit gas temperature it is the practice to incorporate in the design an air
heater by-pass, which, under low load conditions, prevents all, or a portion of the air from entering the
air heater by means of a damper arrangement.
REGENERATIVE AIR HEATERS:
Regenerative air heaters for marine service are designed for horizontal or vertical flow of the air and
stack gases. This type of heat exchanger is made of heating elements, which are contained, in a slowly
turning rotor of cellular construction. As the rotor turns, at about 4 rev/min, heat is absorbed
continuously by the heating elements from the flue gas, while a like amount of heat is released
simultaneously to the combustion air, as these fluids flow axially through the rotor. The rotor is
enclosed in a gas tight housing, which is fitted at each end to make connections with the air and flue
gas ducts. Dampened integral air and flue gas by-pass ducts are incorporated in the four corners of the
structure. The air bypasses in parallel afford means of controlling cold and heating elements
temperature during operation at reduced steaming rate. The flue gas by-passes in parallel, in
combination with the air by-passes, afford the limiting overall pressure loss at steaming rates above
that corresponding to normal power. In counter-flow air heaters the part where the flue gas enters and
air leaves is the hot end, and conversely the part where the air enters and flue gas leaves is the cold
end. These terms apply to the structure as a whole as well as the rotor and heating elements.
The heating elements are stacked in the rotor in layers, usually two but seldom more than three. This
feature permits replacement of the elements of the cold layer, which are those subject to possible
deterioration, without disturbing the main body of heat transfer surface. The elements of the cold layer
are packed in baskets convenient for handling. Reversibility nearly doubles the useful element life. The
elements of the cold layer are fabricated from corrosion resistant low alloy steel as are also the baskets
 26

containing them. Heating elements of the hot layer can be shop packed in baskets or in the rotor. Shop
packing simplifies field installation and assures control over tightness of the pack.
Cleaning devices driven by power are furnished with the regenerative air heater to remove dust
deposits from the heating surface. These cleaning devices usually installed in the gas outlet and air
inlet ducts integral with the air heater. The gas side cleaner is normally used at sea for soot blowing,
while the airside cleaner is primarily reserved for use in port. The airside cleaner blows the soot back
into the furnace, thus avoiding objectionable smoke and dust, which is prohibited by harbour
ordinances. The need for soot blowing can readily be determined through an observation port which
permits inspection of the heating surface while the air heater is in operation.
The regenerative type of heat exchanger is small and light. This results from the fundamental nature of
counter flow heat transfer, which permits significant reduction in heating surface.
A factor to be considered in the selection of air heaters is that of metal temperature. In the regenerative
type, tests and experience have demonstrated that the actual metal temperature is 11-17*C above the
average of the air and gas temperatures. By contrast, in a tubular type air heater the measured
temperature of tube metal ranged from 5 to 67*C below the mean of the air and gas temperature. This
fact is of material significance in the selection of air pre-heaters if corrosion and plugging are to be
avoided and it demonstrates one of the reasons why regenerative heaters may be operated with
materially lower leaving gas temperature than tubular types.
Installation of a regenerative type air heater aboard ship presents no problem. The vertical flow air
heater can be located directly above the boiler outlet or in the area above the boiler and connected with
conventional ductwork. From the top of the air heater on the gas side an uptake is led to the stack in the
usual manner. Forced draft fans may be located conventionally and connected to the airside of the
heater by means of ductwork. Various arrangements can be utilized to suit the conditions. Cooling air
to be introduced to the casing can be taken from the forced draft fan discharge duct ahead of the heater.

STEAM AIR HEATERS:

The selection of the heat recovery equipment to be incorporated in the design of a boiler is influenced
by the boiler operating conditions and the efficiency required of the boiler unit. These are related to the
specification of a suitable steam cycle for a marine installation. The most suitable steam cycle for one
installation may not be advantageous to another. Therefore, for certain installations an air heater may
be best suited. Where feed temperature and pressure conditions permit, an economiser or a
combination of an economiser and a steam air heater are used to obtain the boiler efficiency required.
One of the methods used to improve the steam cycle efficiency is by means of the feed water heating
system, and here the steam air heater serves the purpose of utilizing steam extracted from the feed
water heater or auxiliary exhaust. This reduces the flow of steam to the condenser and improves cycle
efficiency. Another method used is to extract low-pressure bleed steam from the main turbines.
A steam air heater is comprised of small diameter tubes about 16mm O.D. They have sufficient size for
the steam flow involved and are connected to inlet and outlet header boxes. The bleed or exhaust steam
enters the inlet header box and flows inside the tubes, while the combustion airflows around the tubes.
In the condensing of the bleeclsteam or auxiliary exhaust, heat is transferred to the air used for
combustion. Since the condensing steam film coefficient of heat transfer is high, extended surface is
used to advantage. Closely pitched tubes and fins can be utilised, as both the air and heating fluids are
clean, eliminating entirely the necessity for cleaning. In most steam air heater installations, bleed steam
at 0.7 to 3 bar is used. While a feedwater heater uses steam at relatively high pressure the steam air
heater uses auxiliary exhaust or low-pressure bleed steam. Utilizing the lower pressure bleed steam is a
good method of improving cycle efficiency.
Another point to be considered is that the auxiliary exhaust can be utilized to an advantage in a steam
air heater while boilers are steaming in part, thereby improving low load boiler operating conditions.
Suitable air temperature for good combustion is readily maintained, whereas with a tubular or
regenerative type air heater a by-pass system around the heater is necessary to avoid low stack
 27

temperature. Steam air heaters do not improve the boiler efficiency since the heater does not serve to
reduce the gas temperature at the boiler outlet. The steam air heater, however, is effective by improving
the overall marine plant efficiency. For this reason it is the practice to use the steam air heater with an
economizer, as the economizer will absorb heat from the boiler and thereby reduce stack temperature
to meet the required boiler efficiency.
************************kv**************************
AIR SUPPLY SYSTEM:
A boiler combustion air supply system may be based an natural, forced, induced or balanced draught
arrangements depending upon generally the particular requirements of the boiler design and the fuel
used.
Natural Draught: Refers to the draught caused by the natural convective current set up in the
atmosphere and the boiler gas passages due to the temperature and hence the density differential
between the surrounding atmosphere and hot combustion gases. Such marine installations are now
obsolete.
Forced Draught: Combustion air is forced, by means of a fan, into the boiler combustion chamber.
Induced Draught: A fan is situated near the base of the stack and induces the combustion air into the
combustion chamber.
Balanced Draught. The balanced system comprises of a forced draught fan to supply the necessary air
supply and velocity for combustion and an induced fan is used to exhaust the waste gases.

Marine installations favor forced draught systems although for large installations the balance draught is
favored. The increasing use of automatic combustion control has led to the increasing use of the much
more compact high-speed, backward-blade type, forced-draught fan operating as a single unit, damper
or speed controlled, to simplify and reduce the cost of control equipment.
An induced fan would not be used where the gas temperature is above 200 degrees centigrade since
this would create problems of clearance, distortion, erosion and the need for water-cooled bearings
which all increase the maintenance liability, thus they are seldom used marinewise on their own.

Typical performance characteristics for a backward-curved blade fan:

Draught Control of Air Supply System.

In marine installations the control of the air supply to multi-burner installations, with the emphasis on
simplicity and economy, tends towards a single draught source and a single method of control usually
by damper or variable speed motor. The selection of a fan with the most suitable characteristics for the
duty involved is an essential but, beyond this, efficient control of the fan is required to ensure the
correct air supply to the register for efficient combustion.
There are a number of methods of fan-control available, selection of which must be based on the
evaluation of such factors as the type and range of the boiler and oil-burning equipment, speed and
 28

response of the equipment required to suit the changes in load, simplicity of operation, reliability,
initial cost, operating cost, maintenance cost, and life expectancy of the equipment, not necessary in
that order.
Modern marine requirements of high fan pressures tend to favour constant speed electric or turbine-
driven fans, damper controlled for simplicity.

Simple outlet damper control system:

A typical outlet damper-control system suitable for operating in conjunction with a semi-automatic
control system modulating at or near the maximum continuous rating is shown above.
The control of the fan outlet damper is such that the air flow is directly proportional to the fuel flow
achieved by use of a fuel/air ratio controller which continually measures the oil and air flow in terms of
pressure or pressure differential and corrects the damper position, from that initially governed by the
master steam pressure controller, to one of optimum fuel/air ratio. By continually proportioning the oil
and air flows in this manner, any change in the boiler air or exhaust gas resistances, due to burner shut
down or possible fouling of the air heater or boiler gas passages, is immediately responded to with an
appropriate damper readjustment.
The outstanding disadvantage of the outlet damper control system is the method of throttle control of
volume, which involves excessive pressure losses over the damper, and waste of power consumption.
The pressure-flow curves show the difficulty of matching the register and boiler resistance
characteristics with that of the fan and the extent of the pressure drops prevailing over the damper
necessary to maintain optimum airflow. Pressure drops of this nature make the butterfly damper
extremely critical to quantity variation and in consequence limit the range of affective control of the air
supply and as a direct result the range of the burners. Simple outlet damper control is essentially
confined to the small plants where power saving is fractional or to large plants in which power saving
is of secondary importance and automatic modulation is over a very limited range at or near maximum
continuous rating. Many marine installations favour this form of control on a basis of simplicity, initial
cost and operation for prolonged periods at maximum continuous rating.
 29

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SOME ARRANGEMENTS OF STEAM GENERATION IN MOTOR SHIPS:
In all types of motor vessels, auxiliary steam demand varies depending on the Particular class of the
ship; but all ships would require steam for at least the following needs:
(a) Heating fuel oil - storage tanks, settling tank, pre-heater for purifiers and main fuel injection
system, service tanks.
(b) Heating lubricating oil - sump tanks, pre-heater for purifiers.
(c) Heating water - for domestic requirements and engine room Cooling water tanks (warming
prior to starting).
(d) Heating steam for ships galley and general purposes.
(e) Heating steam for oily water separators.
There would be a slight variation due to other requirements in different category of vessels such as in
Tankers, Bulk carriers, Fast-cargo liners etc.
DRY CARGO SHIPS: These Ships are normally have 6000 8000 BHP and runs at 14 16 knots.
Due to their frequent calling of ports and comparatively lower power, steam produced with the help of
exhaust boiler is mainly utilized for heating and domestic purposes such as mentioned above. Steam
demand at sea or in port remains around 2000 kg/hr at about 7 bars which can be supplied by various
arrangements such as:
1. A Spanner, Cochran or Thimble Tube composite boiler which can be run on either oil or diesel
engine exhaust gas.
2. Two independent low pressure boilers such an one all welded Package boiler and another
exhaust gas economizer type unit at the base of the funnel being fed independently from the
hot-well.
3. A small oil fired tank boiler (for port use) connected to a small waste heat unit in the funnel, the
steam space of the tank boiler being used as a steam receiver at sea.

BULK CARRIERS:
These are higher power vessels with longer operation at sea and the sea electrical load may be carried
by one steam turbine-generator which is powered by the steam from the exhaust boiler unit. At sea, the
exhaust boiler also supplies steam for all the general requirements. Non self-discharging vessels' port
electrical demand can easily be met by 2 diesel driven generators and all other heating and domestic
requirements can be met by a small oil-fired tank boiler when in port.

FAST CARGO LINERS:

These ships have high power engines with about 18000 BHP and service speed could be about 20
knots. Higher amount of waste heat is so available for recovery. This specialized class of ships may
have a large steam demand to supply heating steam for a particular cargo to be maintained at an
elevated temperature and depending on the type of vessel in use, the boiler arrangements would differ.
A typical example may have a small auxiliary water tube boiler working in conjunction with a forced
circulation exhaust-gas heat exchanger, the oil fired boiler acting as steam receiver at sea. Evaporation
on gas is controlled by a rotary change valve.

TANKERS:
Apart from beating and domestic requirements such as mentioned in this page, auxiliary steam is
maintained on motor tanker to run various deck machineries and utilized for cargo heating and
pumping. The auxiliary steam demand in a steam turbine propelled vessel could run as high as 75% of
the propulsion steam demand.
So, the large steam demand in motor tanker requires one or sometimes two water tube auxiliary boilers
to be fitted together with an exhaust-gas heat exchanger at the base of the funnel. Steam is always
 30

taken from the auxiliary boiler, which is oil-fired in post and acts as a steam receiver at sea. A forced
circulation is used with the help of a circulating pump drawing from the lower water drum.

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Note: Typical arrangements of the above systems are shown in the sketches next pages.

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY IN MOTOR SHIP:

In the main propulsion engine of a ship, the chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to heat
energy by combustion and this energy is then converted and utilized to rotate the crankshaft, doing
useful work to propel the vessel. A large amount of available heat energy is not converted to work and
is lost with the engine exhaust gas through the funnel; this may amount to 35% of the supplied heat
energy and is considered a complete loss, which in the present day of energy crisis cannot simply be
ignored or accepted. So, various types of waste heat boilers have been manufactured which can recover
up to about 60% of the exhaust losses to the atmosphere. In all motor-ships there is a demand for steam
for heating and steam can also be used to run turbo-generators to produce electricity. Type of waste
heat boilers vary depending on the class of vessels, their power, the route the vessels ply etc. but most
types of motor-ships would have a waste heat recoverable boiler system together with an independent
oil-fired boiler for port and emergency use.
Certain amount of heat is still lost through the funnel exhaust as the temperature of exhaust gas at the
exit from the boiler must be maintained above the dew point of the gas; if not, there will be formation
of a sulphurous acid vapour which would eventually deposit on the tube metal surfaces of the boiler
and harmful corrosion would ensue. Slag deposits on the external of the tubes are a persisting problem
due to the presence of sodium, vanadium and other harmful constituents. These deposits can also give
problem by causing external corrosion of the tube surface, apart from restricting the gas passage.
To run a waste heat boiler efficiently and without trouble, the boiler heating surfaces should be
maintained in a clean condition by regular soot blowing and water washing, fuel treatment and
purification should be correct prior to its burning and proper combustion condition should always be
maintained. Corrosion by the water in circulation could also be a problem and various chemical
treatments are recommended to keep the water in good and alkaline state to avoid such problem. A
higher feed water temperature by employing feed heating and higher hot-well temperature also helps to
keep the amount of dissolved gases specially oxygen within limits, which reduces the corrosion
problem.
Various arrangements are possible and they would be one or the other of the following:
Natural Circulation:
(a) Composite Boilers: (Fig: 40).
These are auxiliary boilers having arrangements for exhaust gas heat recovery within the same boiler
unit. In most designs different tube banks are selected for oil firing and exhaust gas flow, so that the
boiler can be simultaneously fired on oil or run on exhaust gas but an alternatively fired unit is also
constructed where the gas passage is one and either the oil firing or the waste heat running has to be
selected. Exhaust gas flow is usually controlled by dampers for flow through the boiler or by-pass to
the funnel exhaust.
Forced Circulation: (Fig: 40)
(a) Exhaust gas boiler is coupled to the auxiliary boiler:
Water from the auxiliary boiler is drawn by means of circulating pump which forces the water through
exhaust gas heat exchanger (economiser, or boiler) and steam produced is returned to the steam space
of the auxiliary boiler, the distribution of the steam is done from the auxiliary boiler.
(b) Exhaust gas boiler can operate independent of auxiliary boiler:
In this arrangement, the exhaust gas boiler can be supplied with water directly from the hot well and
steam can be distributed to the main steam line without returning to the auxiliary boiler. The circulating
pump directly controls water level in the exhaust gas boiler.
Most exhaust gas boilers are made tubular in modern practice because they are much more efficient
than a tank type boiler.
 31

The tubes can be arranged in different tanks having an economizer a generating and a superheating
section, each serving definite purposes.
(c) Dual pressure forced circulation system: (Fig: 41).
This system is capable of producing steam at two different pressures at the same time by two
independent circuits.
The high-pressure circuit, which is termed as the Primary system, operates as a closed cycle in the
form of a water tube boiler having provisions for oil burning unit. The steam thus produced passes
through a steam/steam generator (heat exchanger), secondary system, and returns to primary system.
Circulation within the primary system is natural but that in the secondary system is assisted by means
of circulating pump.
Exhaust gases transfer heat to the secondary system and superheating arrangement is also provided.
Contamination from the various heating systems of ship is restricted to the secondary system only.
Primary system is virtually free of contamination risk and can be maintained in best of conditions.

(d) Advanced waste heat system: (Fig: 41).

Heat utilization from main engine Jacket water and supercharge Air Cooler using a separate steam
receiver makes it a system with higher thermal efficiency.

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BOILER MOUNTINGS:
Boiler mountings are required for the proper working of the boiler. Those attached directly to the
pressure parts of the boiler are referred to as boiler mountings. In general all these mountings must be
carefully designed to perform their function correctly. They must be positioned so as to be readily
accessible both for maintenance and operation, the later being performed either directly, or indirectly,
by means of extended rods, spindles, etc. General descriptions of these mountings are as follows:
SAFETY VALVES:
These are fitted to protect the boiler from the effects of overpressure. The DOT demands that at least
two safety valves are fitted to each boiler, but in practice it is usual to fit three safety valves-two on the
steam drum, and one on the superheater outlet header. This latter valve must be set to lift before the
drum safety valves so as to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater under blow off conditions.
It is normally of the same basic type fitted on the drum.
MAIN STOP VALVE:
This is mounted on the boiler shell or superheater outlet header, and enables the boiler to be isolated
from the steam line. If two or more boilers are fitted supplying steam to a common line, the stop valve
on each boiler must be a screw down, non-return type. This is to prevent steam from the other boilers
flowing into a damaged boiler in the event of a loss of pressure due to a burst tube. In some cases the
main stop valve incorporates an automatic closing device, designed to operate in emergency
Conditions, to shut off steam from the main turbines.
AUXILIARY STOP VALVES:
This is basically a smaller version of the main stop, fitted for the purpose of isolating the boiler from
the auxiliary steam lines. Again these must be screw down, non-return type valves if necessary to
prevent steam flowing back into the boiler in the event of damage. The valve will be mounted on the
superheater outlet header.
FEED CHECK VALVES:
These are fitted to give final control over the entry of feed water into the boiler. They must be screw
down, non-return valves so that, in the event of a loss of feed pressure, the boiler water cannot blow
back into the feed line. Main and auxiliary feed cheeks are fitted. The main check is often fitted to the
economiser inlet header; if not, like the auxiliary cheek, it will be mounted directly on the steam drum.
Extended spindles are usually fitted so the cheeks can be operated from a convenient position. Care
must be taken to ensure the valve can be operated easily and quickly, and that a positive indication of
the open and closed positions for the valve is given.
BOILER FEED WATER REGULATOR:
 32

The water level in a boiler is critical. If it is too low, damage may result from overheating; too high and
priming can occur with resultant carry-over of water and dissolved solids into superheaters, steam
lines, etc. Automatic feed regulators are therefore fitted to control the flow of water into the boiler and
maintain the water level at its desired value. They are fitted in the feed line, before the main feed
cheek. In most cases they use a float or thermal means of operation and thus must have a direct
connection to the steam and water spaces as required. The regulator can be attached directly to the
boiler shell, or alternatively mounted in an external chamber with balance connections to the steam
drum, or boiler shell.
In the case of water tube boilers with their high evaporation rate and small reserve of water the control
of the water level is so critical that the classification societies demand that some form of automatic
feed regulator must be fitted.
WATER LEVEL INDICATORS:
The DOT demand that at least two water level indicators must be fitted to each boiler. In practice the
usual arrangement consists of two direct reading water level gauges mounted on the steam drum, and a
remote reading indicator placed at a convenient control position.
LOW WATER ALARMS:
The classification societies demand that these should be fitted to reduce the risk of damage in the event
of a loss of water in the boiler due to a burst tube or failure of the feed supply. In some cases they are
mounted inside the steam drum, but many are mounted externally. Various types are available, either
steam or electrically operated. Some versions also incorporate high water level alarms.
BLOW DOWN VALVES:
These are fitted to the water drum to enable water to be blown from the boiler in order to reduce the
density. When the boiler is shut down these valves can be used to drain it. They usually consist of two
valves mounted in series, arranged so that the first valve must be full open before the second can be
cracked open; i.e. sufficient to give the required rate of blow down. In this way the seating of the first
valve is protected from damage, so reducing the risk of leakage when the blow down valves are closed.
These blow down valves discharge into a blow down line leading to a shipside discharge valve.
SCUM VALVES:
These should be fitted when there is a possibility of oil contamination of the boiler. They are, mounted
on the steam drum, having an internal fitting in the form of a shallow pan situated just below the
normal water level, with which to remove oil or scum from the surface of the water in the drum. These
valves discharge into the blow down line.
DRAIN VALVES:
These are fitted to headers, etc., so enabling the boiler to be completely drained. They must not be used
to blow down, only being opened when the boiler is shut down.
AIR VENTS:
These are fitted to the upper parts of the boiler as required to release air from drums and headers, either
when filling the boiler or raising steam.
SUPERHEATER CIRCULATING VALVES:
These are fitted so that when raising steam they can first release air from the superheater, and then
provide enough circulation to prevent overheating by allowing sufficient steam to blow off to the
atmosphere or to a suitable drain system. They should only be closed when there is enough demand for
superheated steam to provide the minimum circulation of steam required to prevent overheating.
CHEMICAL DOSING VALVES:
These are fitted to the steam drum to enable feed treatment chemicals to be injected directly into the
boiler.SALINOMETER VALVES:
These are fitted to the water drum to enable samples of boiler water to be drawn off so that the tests
required for the control of the feed treatment can be carried out. At high pressures it is necessary to
provide some means of preventing flash off taking place as the pressure over the sample is reduced to
 33

atmospheric. This is usually done by passing the Crater from the salinometer valve through a cooling
coil which reduces its temperature to a value below 100*C.
SOOT BLOWER MASTER STEAM VALVFS:
These are usually mounted on the superheater outlet header to ensure the superheater is not starved of
steam while blowing tubes. In some cases two valves are fitted in series, with a drain valve between
them, in order to prevent steam leaking into the soot blower steam supply lines when these are not in
use.
PRESSURE GAUGE CONNECTIONS:
Fitted as required to steam drum, superheater outlet header, etc. to provide the necessary pressure
reading. In addition suitable connections must be provided for the pressure sensing points required for
automatic combustion control systems, etc.
THERMOMETERS:
Pockets must be provided in superheater headers, etc. for the fitting of either direct or remote reading
thermometers.
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WATER LEVEL INDICATORS:
Some Regulations: Concerning water level indicators
1. Every boiler is to be fitted with at least two independent means of indicating the water level in
it. One of which is to be a glass gauge. The other means is to be either an additional glass gauge
or an approved equivalent device. (A set of not less than two test cocks will be accepted as the
approved equivalent device mentioned above, for boilers having a design pressure less than 8
Bar or internal diameter less than 1.83m.) For water-tube boilers the approved equivalent device
is to be other than the test cocks, but where a steam and water drum exceeding 3.96 m in length
is fitted two glass gauges are to be fitted in suitable position.
2. The water level gauges are to be readily accessible and placed so that the water level is clearly
visible.
3. The lowest visible part of the water level gauge and the lowest test cock (if fitted), are to be
situated at the lowest safe w6rkirg water level.
4. The cocks of all gauges are to be accessible from positions free from danger in the event of the
glass breaking.
5. Each of fired boiler is to be fitted with a system of water level detection which is to be
independent of any other mounting and which will operate audible and visible alarms and shut
of automatically the oil supply to the burners when the water level falls to a predetermined low
level.
6. Water-tube boilers are to be fitted with two system of water level detection, which are to be
independent of any other mounting on the boiler. Both systems are to operate audible and
visible alarms and automatic shut-off device.
TUBULAR TYPE WATER LEVEL INDICATOR: (See Fig: 42 & 43).
There are two of them fitted on to each side of the boiler shell to indicate at all times the correct water
level inside the boiler. The top gunmetal body has the steam end cock, secured to the shell just above
the normal water level. The bottom gunmetal body is fitted just below the normal water level and
contains the water end cock. A drain cock assembly is fitted underneath the lower gunmetal housing. A
toughened gauge glass is fitted between the upper and lower housing and indicates the water level
when steam and water cocks are open and the drain cock is shut. The glass is held in place and sealed
at each end by gland nuts tightened on to soft, tapered packing rings. The drain cock enables blowing
through the glass for testing purposes.
A ball valve at the lower end of gauge is provided to shut off the water in the event of a glass breaking.
If water were allowed to escape, in the event of a glass fracture, the reduction in pressure would cause
large volume of steam to flash off leaking water with possible harm to the personnel. Steam escaping
from other end is not associated with the said increase in volume and so the amount of steam blowing
out would be limited.
Plugs are fitted on to the gunmetal bodies to allow for renewal of glass and clean the various passages.
All three cock handles are arranged to point down-wards when in the working position that means, the
 34

steam and water end should be open and the drain shut when the handles lie vertically downwards.
This is to prevent possible movement of the cock due to ship vibration and then indicate a false water
level indication. The cock handles are many times fitted with extended handles so that they can be
operated from a convenient position in the boiler room floor.
The drainpipe from the gauge glass should never be connected to a common drain system as this
makes the sound of blowing through the cock inaudible. The drainpipe is lead directly down and
terminates just below the boiler room floor and the blow down could be clearly seen issuing out from
the open end by simply lifting out a small inspection cover on the boiler roan floor.
Plate-glass rectangular section guards are fitted to prevent injury in the event of the glass tube fracture.
Difficulty in ascertaining correct water level and Faults in gauge Glass:
If there is any doubt about the accuracy of the reading indicated by the water level gauge, the gauge
should be tested by blowing through the steam and water cocks in a proper sequence and not merely by
opening the drain cook.
A strong blow from each of the steam and water cocks, in turn, will unobstructed passages and
establish that the level seen in the glass is the correct representation of the level of water inside the
boiler.
If, out of two gauge glasses, one shows normal level and the other shows an abnormally lower level,
the glass which is showing a lower level must immediately be blown through and the correct condition
ascertained. If both glasses show a lower level, the first job, which must be done, is to secure the fire
and then only the correct boiler condition should be checked by blowing through the gauge glass.
Difficulty is often experienced in finding whether a tubular glass is full or empty this can be avoided
by using the principles of refraction, for example, by placing a board, painted with alternate black and
white diagonal stripes to appear to be bent to the opposite angle. In the absence of such indicator, a
pencil or similar object, held at an angle behind the glass tube wall gives the same effect.
A False water level indication can be caused by:
1. Choked or partially choked cocks and passages by sediment, packing or use of a glass which is
too long.
2. Cocks partially closed due to twisted cock handles or because the cock handles are not properly
aligned.
3. A dirty glass or the glass guard can prevent easy water level indication even when the gauge is
well lighted.
If the steam cock is choked, a vacuum will form in the upper part of the glass as the steam
entrapped condenses and the water would rise and fill the glass.
If water cock is choked, the, water level will slowly rise as the condensation of steam in the upper
part of the glass gradually fills the tube.
The Correct Blowing Through Sequence:
1. Close steam and water cocks and open the drain; after the glass content is cleared, nothing else
should blow indicating both steam and water cocks are not leaking.
2. Open the steam cock - steam should blow through with a clear strong sound through the drain.
Close the steam cock.
3. Open water cock - water should blow through similarly as in (2) close water cock. Close the
drain cock.
4. Open the water cock again - water would fill up the glass.
5. Open steam end cock, water level drops to the level appropriate to what is inside the boiler.
When renewing a new glass, blow through steam to warm-up the glass before opening the water
cock otherwise, the glass may break. Before fitting a new glass, all the passages must be blown
through to clear from sediments, glass pieces, etc.
 35

Water Level Indicator for Medium Pressure Boilers:

Although plate-type water level gauges can be used for low pressures in view of their greater cost, they
usually only come into general use for pressures above a value of about 1750 kN/m2. The reflex glass
shown in, Fig. (44) is an example of a type of water level indicator suitable for boilers working at a
medium pressure range between about 1700-3000 Kn/m2.
These gauges are supplied with gunmetal bodies up to pressures of 1750 Kn/m2, while for higher
pressures forged steel bodies are used. The gauge is normally fitted directly to the boiler shell or steam
drum. The isolating cocks in the steam and water connections, together with the drain cock, are of the
asbestos sleeve type. In many cases these cocks can be operated by extended rods, or chains, to prevent
injury in the event of the glass shattering when blowing through the glass. However, the glass plates
are so strong that this form of failure does not occur often, and even then the pieces of glass frequently
remain in position; thus the fitting of an external guard is not necessary.
The single-sided glass ingeniously makes use of the refraction of light so that, when illuminated from
the front, the series of ribs at the back of the glass plate cause the light rays to be reflected back from
the steam space and absorbed in the water space. This gives a bright silvery appearance to the former,
while the latter shows dark. The strong contrast between the two enables the operator to see
immediately the position of the water level. It also makes it possible to tell at a glance whether the
glass shows completely empty or completely full of water (a condition which causes some confusion
with many other types of gauge glass).
A ball valve is normally fitted to the lower end of the gauge to shut off the water in the event of glass
plate shattering and blowing out. The ball valve thus prevents the escape of water, with the resulting
flash-off of large amounts of steam, making it difficult to shut off the gauge, and possibly causing
injury. Another problem arises at higher pressures due to the fact that hot distilled water at high
pressure erodes the glass away. This effect is even more pronounced if alkaline feed additives are being
used. To resist this, a special borosilicate glass is used for the higher pressures, but can only give
limited protection. For pressures above 3400 Kn/m2 some means must be used to prevent the water
from coming into direct contact with the surf ace of the glass. Placing a sheet of mica between them
usually does this. Due to the ribbed glass, the reflex-type gauge cannot make use of this form of
protection, and so is not suitable for use with high pressure boilers.

REFLEX TYPE SINGLE GLASS PLATE WATER LEVEL GAUGE.

Fig: 44.
Water level indicator suitable for use on high-pressure water tube boilers.
All boilers must have at least two independent means of indicating the water level, and in the case of
high pressure water tube boilers working at values above 3400 kN/m2, these usually take the form of
double-sided, plate-glass type water level indicators, with mica protection for the glass plates. This
protection is necessary as at high pressures hot distilled water erodes the glass away, and unless a sheet
 36

of mica is placed between the glass and the water, attack take place quickly, indeed at the higher
pressure ranges the glass will burst within a few hours if this protection is omitted.
The general arrangement of a typical double-plate water level gauge is shown in Fig: (45). It consists
basically of a hollow centerpiece with flats machined on each side to take the two plates of toughened
glass. These are held firmly in place by means of a clamp plate. Care must be taken during assembly to
prevent undue stresses being set up which will cause the glass plate to shatter when put into service.
Thus the following procedure should be carried out. Strip down the faulty gauge glass. Discard the
used glass plates, mica sheets, and joints. Make sure all joint faces are scrupulously clean. Cheek frame
and cover plates for flatness; any warping can cause the glass to shatter. Build up the gauge, inserting
the new joints, together with the mica sheets, in their correct sequence. The clamping bolts should be
pulled finger tight onto the louver plate. Then starting from the centre, tighten these nuts in the order.
Do not over tighten and pull up evenly, preferably using a torque spanner. The louvre plate at the back
of the gauge is placed with its slots angled upwards so that it directs the light rays from the electric
lamps in such a manner that the actual water level in the glass appears as a plane of light when viewed
from below.
A ball valve is fitted at the lower end of the gauge to shut off the water in the event of the glass plates
shattering. It should be noted that some forms of double plate gauge glasses could be placed on the
boiler upside down. This places the ball valve at the top of the gauge, where it rolls down and obstructs
the steam passage, so causing a false reading. It is thus advisable to mark this type of fitting so as to
clearly identify the top and bottom ends of the gauge.
When installing a new gauge glass, first shut the steam and water cocks, and open the drain. Remove
the defective unit and fit the new gauge. Leave it in this condition, with the steam and water, cocks
closed and drain open, to heat up for some hours. Then just crack open the steam cock. After about
twenty minutes follow up the clamp nuts in the correct sequence, preferably using a torque spanner.
Then close the drain, and fully open the steam and water cocks, to put the gauge into operation. Do not
stand directly in front of the gauge during these operations in case the glass shatters.
Remote reading type water level indicator suitable for a high-pressure water tube boiler.
Difficulty is often experienced in observing the water level as indicated by the direct reading water
level gauges mounted on the steam drums of water tube boilers. Thus it is usually considered necessary
to provide an additional means of indicating the water level at same point convenient to the starting
platform or control room. This can be done by a remote reading indicator such as the (Igema) gauge
shown in the figure No: 46.
This consists basically of a U-tube, the two legs connected to the steam drum as shown. Red indicating
fluid, which is insoluble in water, fills the lower end and remains there since its density is greater than
that of the water. Above this fluid the two legs of the U-tube are filled with water; one being kept filled
to a constant head by means of steam condensing in the un-lagged condenser. The level in the other leg
corresponds to that in the steam drum. Thus the heads supported by the indicating fluid vary. As the
water level in the drum rises so it tends to balance the constant head, and the indicating fluid rises in
the glass. The opposite happens when the drum water level falls, the level of the indicating fluid in the
glass also falling.

The sharp contrast between the red indicating fluid and the water enables the operator to see the
indicated water level at a glance. A completely empty or full glass is immediately obvious.
When taking the boiler out of service, shut off the remote indicator by first closing the gauge isolating
valve (3), then the steam isolating valve (1), and finally the water isolating valve (2).

When opening up, first open the steam valve (1), then the water valve (2), and finally the gauge
isolating valve (3).
If the remote indicator is connected to the same balance connections as one of the direct reading water
level gauges, it is important that the remote indicator is isolated before the water level gauge is blown
 37

through. Otherwise water may be drawn out of the legs of the U-tube so causing a false water level to
be indicated by the remote reading gauge.
After cleaning, etc. the following procedure should be carried out to refill the indicator. First close the
isolating valves (1) and (2) on the boiler, and the regulating screw (4). Remove all filling plugs. Then
pour in the indicating fluid through the indicator filling plug (5) until the lower part of the U-tube is
completely filled, fluid overflowing at the filling plug.
Close the gauge-isolating valve (3) and replace the filling plug (5). Then slowly pour distilled water
into the water filling plugs (6) on top of the dirt traps until it overflows. Replace the filling plugs.
Finally pour water into the top filling plug (7), until again it overflows the plug is then replaced.
The remote reading gauge glass should now show completely red. Leave it in this condition until full
boiler pressure has been raised.
When the boiler is under steam open the steam valve (1), then the water valve (2) followed by the
gauge-isolating valve (3). Leave for about 15 minutes to settle down, then crack open the regulating
screw (4) and slowly bleed off excess indicating fluid, dropping the level about 6 mm at a time, with
about fifteen minutes between, until finally the level of indicating fluid at the centre of the glass
corresponds to the water level at the centre of the direct reading water level gauge glass.
Although subjected to boiler pressure, the remote indicator glass is not at high temperature and very
rarely gives trouble. However, the apparatus should be cleaned out about once every six months. The
indicator should be isolated, drained, and the flushed through with clean water. The indicator must
never, under any circumstances be blown through either with steam or water.
The glass is illuminated from behind, access to these lights being obtained by removing the sheet metal
easing at the back of the gauge.

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SAFETY VALVES:

The function of a safety valve is to prevent excessive pressure from building up in a steam boiler. It
prevents boiler pressure from rising above a certain predetermined pressure by opening to allow excess
steam to escape into the atmosphere when that point is reached, thus guarding the boiler against
possible explosion.
Each boiler must have at least one safety valve but, if the boiler has more than 46.4 sq m of water
heating surface, it should have two or more safety valves. In any case, a safety valve should have a
capacity such as to discharge all the steam the boiler can generate without allowing pressure to rise
(accumulation) more than 10% above the maximum allowable working pressure, which is normally
stamped on the boiler.
Safety valves are to be set to operate (set pressure) at a pressure not exceeding 3% over the maximum
allowable working pressure (maximum design pressure) of the boiler.
When a boiler is equipped with a superheater and with safety valves on both the superheater outlet and
the steam drum, the safety valve on the superheater should open first. This maintains adequate flow of
steam through the superheater and prevents the superheater elements from being damaged by high
temperature gases, which would result it all the steam, were to be discharged directly through the drum
safety valves.
The safety valve on the superheater outlet header is to be set at a pressure not more than:
Set pressure of drum safety valves -- 0.35 kg/cm2.
To prevent starvation of superheater element and subsequent overheating, the safety valve on the
superheater is also made to reseat (close) last, having the longest 'blow-down' amongst all the other
safety valves fitted.
The difference between the set pressure (opening) and closing pressure (re-seating) of a safety valve is
called 'Blow down' or 'Blow back'. Too much blow down causes wastage of steam, too less would give
 38

an unstable condition and it should he limited from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 4% of the set
pressure. The minimum blow down (ASME-code) should not be less than 0.14 kg/cm2.

Types of safety valves:

The most commonly found safety valves, known as spring loaded safety valves, are available in
various categories.
1. Ordinary lift safety valve in which the valve member lifts automatically a distance of at least
one twenty-fourth of the bore of the seating member, (or the lift: D/24), with an overpressure
(accumulation) not exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
2. High lift type, with a lift = D/16, accumulation not exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
3. Improved high lift type, with a lift D/12, accumulation not exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
4. Full lift valves with a lift = D/4, accumulation not exceeding 5% of the set pressure.
5. Pilot operated safety valve, the operation of which is initiated and controlled by the steam
discharge from a pilot valve which is itself a direct operated safety valve. Two independent
pilot device systems shall be provided for each main safety valve. The lift of the main valve
shall be achieved with an over pressure not exceeding 5% of the set pressure.

Description of low lift safety valves: (Fig: 47).

For low-pressure boilers, the most common valves found today are the improved high lift type of
safety valves, which are developed from the ordinary spring loaded valves.
In a spring loaded valve, the valve lid is subjected to boiler pressure, which tends to open it against the
compression of a heavy spring, the tension of which can be adjusted by a compression nut screwed into
a bush in the top cover. When boiler pressure exceeds spring pressure, the valve opens and waste steam
escapes to atmosphere.
The lip on the periphery of the valve disc gives additional uplift once it is raised from the valve seat by
steam pressure. This additional uplift helps to counteract the increase in spring load as the spring is
compressed by the valve lifting.
Description of high-lift and improved high-lift safety valves.
(Fig: 48 & 49).
In the case of the Cockburn high-lift and improved high lift valves, a further additional lift is obtained
through the pressure in the waste steam space acting on a piston connected to the valve spindle. Thus
the waste steam energy is utilised to assist the valve lift.
With reference to figures 14 (a) and (b), the waste-steam pressure acts on area 'A' of the piston
member, moving vertically in a loose or floating ring held down by the pressure on the annular area D.
In the event of piston member and loose ring adhering, the combination is still operative -- the loose
ring also lifts with the spindle. A split compression ring is fitted to fill the gap between he collar of the
adjusting nut and top of the cover push this prevents any alteration of setting and to further safeguard
the adjustment, a cap is fitted over the spindle. Through slots in the cap and spindle a cotter is pad-
locked in place. Adequate clearances must be maintained at the cotter, above the top of the valve lid
and t the top of the spindle so that the valve can open freely.
The easing gear associated with this type of valve is also compulsory. This helps in lifting the valve by
hand, when in emergency, from either a remote or local position. The forks on the easing gear shaft fit
under a collar on the cap. Turning the shaft lifts the cap until the cotter lifts the valve spindle and the
valve against the spring compression to relieve the boiler pressure.
A safety valve, which has, in recent years, gained in popularity because of its relative simplicity and
consequent low cost, is illustrated in figure 50. These valves are currently fitted to auxiliary tank type
and water tube boilers operating below 35bar. High lift valve of this type consists of hardened chrome
steel balls between the spindle, valve disc holder and the valve disc. This arrangement ensures correct
alignment for safe operation and proper sealing of the valve under all conditions. Single ring 'blow
down' or closing control is an additional feature of this valve. The blow down ring can be adjusted up
 39

or down and serves dual purpose. On initial valve lift, steam deflected by the blow down ring acts on
the enlarged part of the valve disc and creates additional upward or opening thrust giving quick and
additional lift.
Secondly, when the valve is closing the blow down ring, creates a retarding effect with the waste steam
cushioning the final valve seating. Raising or lowering the ring giving an increase or reduced blow
down respectively thus controls degree of blow down.
Full bore safety valve (relay operated type): (Fig: 51).
Conventional spring-loaded valves have limitation to deal with steam at high pressures and
temperatures. Full bore relay operated safety valve is well suited for high pressure boilers, having no
springs on the main valve to be affected by high temperature steam.
The control valve (relay) seat is small and is less liable to distortion. The boiler pressure acting on the
main valve provides positive closing of the valve, which is reverse condition to that of a spring-loaded
valve. The discharge capacity is four times that of an ordinary spring-loaded valve, of equivalent size.
For the valve to operate, first the pilot valve lifts at its set pressure and blanks-off the parts leading to
the atmosphere. The steam pressure then builds-up and acts upon the operating piston attached to the
main valve spindle. This piston has about twice the area of the main valve and the forces set up cause
the main valve to open by one-quarter of its diameter, so giving full bore conditions for the boiler
steam to the atmosphere through the waste steam pipe. When the excess pressure has been relieved
from the boiler, the pilot valve closes, so opening the ports that vent the operating steam to the
atmosphere. The escaping steam helped by the valve's return spring, closes the main valve.
For superheater application, the control valve can be fitted on the steam drum so that it operates on
saturated steam. In this way, the control valve spring and the opening piston are protected from the
high temperature superheated steam. The main valve, of course, is fitted on to the superheater outlet
header.
Up to a pressure of 100 bars, this valve gives satisfactory result except that the material of the valve
parts is then of high alloy-steel.
Safety valves of each boiler may be fitted to a common chest connected to the boiler with only one
connecting neck. Each safety valve chest is to be drained by a pipe fitted to the lowest part and led with
a continuous fall to a tank, clear of the boiler. No valves or cocks are to be fitted to these drain pipes.
Adjustment of safety valves on tank boilers.
1. Before attempting to adjust the safety valves of any boiler, it is essential that the accuracy of the
boiler pressure gauge to be verified. There should be at least two pressure gauges to be verified
while the safety valves are being adjusted.
2. Consider that the valves have been assembled correctly without the top hood and the easing
gear. Cheek the drains and waste steam pipes and make sure that those are clear.
3. Steam pressure is raised and the boiler put on banked fire, light load to maintain steady
pressure during setting process.
4. Screw down each compression nut a few turns more than the previous setting.
5. Raise the boiler pressure and maintain the blow-off pressure at which the safety valves are
required to be set.
6. Adjust one valve at a time. Slacken the compression nut slowly till the valve on test lifts under
the set steam pressure.
7. Stop firing immediately when the valve lifts. Keep tapping the spindle top softly for the valve
to sit back smartly and remain seated in place. This setting of the valve would be slightly less
than the blow-off pressure.
8. Restore water level if necessary and start raising the boiler pressure back.
9. Try-out again for lifting (floating) of the safety valve to check if the pressure at which the valve
lifts and sits back is correct; if not, re-set the valve with the same procedure.
10. The valve setting is done with a bit of trial and error procedure and with practice can be
achieved fairly quickly.
 40

11. On valves with blow-down control, the blow-down ring is initially set at a particular position as
per the manufacturer's instructions and fine adjusted during the floating of the safety valve.
12. Once set, the valve adjusted, should be gagged (by means of special tool) and the other valve
should now be floated and adjusted with the same procedure as the first one.

Note: The gag fitted should only be finger tight on the spindle and should never be fitted when the
boiler is cold, to avoid any chance of the spindle bending due to thermal expansion as the temperature
rises.
13. The gag from the first valve is now removed.
14. Next the boiler is fired again to cheek that both the safety vales adjusted open and close
simultaneously.
15. A caliper measures distance from the bottom of the compression nut to the top of the safety
valve cover bush and split ring is made and fitted in that space.
16. Next the hood is locked to the spindle with a cotter key and the easing gear is fitted into place.
17. Both the safety valves are now manually lifted by means of the easing gear to ensure its correct
operation.
18. A padlock then locks one end of the hood cotter key.
For the floating of the safety valve, the surveyor brings along his own pressure gauge - this helps in
checking the accuracy of the boiler pressure gauges.
Accumulation Test:
The pressure rise in excess of working pressure is termed accumulation pressure.
It is a requirement that when initially installed, accumulation tests are to be carried out on the safety
valve of boilers.
For cylindrical and unfired boilers - during a test of 15 minutes with the stop valve closed and under
full firing conditions the accumulation of pressure is not to exceed 10 per cent of the design pressure.
During this test no more feed water should be supplied than is necessary to maintain a safe working
water level.
For water-tube boilers - test to be carried out with the stop valve closed and under full firing conditions
for a period not exceeding 7 minutes. The accumulation is not to exceed 10% of the design pressure.
Where accumulation test might endanger the super-heaters or economisers, the test may be omitted
provided that the safety valves fitted are of the approved type.

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BLOW DOWN VALVES AND BLOWING DOWN OPERATION: Fig: 52.

The Bottom Blow-down Valve is connected to the lowest part of the boiler and is used on occasions
when boiler is required to be emptied or for periodic short or flash blow-downs to remove accumulated
deposits from the boiler drums; this keeps the boiler water density, alkalinity and chloride level under
control.
This valve must be fluid-tight at all pressures and parallel slide valve design is so chosen on-account of
its reliability in this respect. Here, two parallel discs slide between parallel seat faces. A light spring
holds the discs against the seats when the valve is not under pressure. When the valve is closed, and
under pressure, the disc at the outlet side is held in contact with its seat by the pressure. On being
opened, the discs slide over the seat faces until they are completely clear of the bore of the seat, thus
giving an unobstructed passage through the valve and causing a minimum pressure drop. The sliding
action, in opening and closing, removes from the seat faces any grit or sediment, which might
otherwise build up, and cause leakage past the seat faces.

The Surface Blow off Valve, located at the top of the boiler is used to blow lightweight impurities from
the water line. The valve is connected to a scum pan or a slotted pipe, which is fitted inside the boiler
shell or drums and placed at the normal water level. The Surface Blow Valve should be used wherever
 41

evidence of foaming or oil is noted in the gauge glass. These valves should never be left unattended
when they are in use and never more than one half a gauge glass should be blown down to the desired
half-glass level.
Blow Down Arrangement
A blow down piping system will have a Shipside blow-down cock or valve, which would discharge the
boiler effluent overboard. This blow-down cock is connected to the bottom blow-down valve via a
non-return valve. The non-return valve prevents any back flow either from other discharging boilers or
from the sea (in case of vacuum formation in the boiler and skin cock left open).
Blowing Down Procedure (For a Auxiliary Boiler 10 bar working pressure).
To blow the boiler right down, the following should be done in sequence.
(a) Take the boiler out of service.
(b) Allow pressure to fall to about 4 bars.
(c) Open shipside cock.
(d) Open scum valve and scum boiler before blowing down and then close scum valve.
(e) Open blow down valve and continue to blow down.
(f) Stop blow down when noise level falls, pressure is observed to be low and the pipe next to the
blow down cock gets cold. Close the bottom blow down valve.
(g) Then close the shipside cock.
(h) Wait till pressure in the boiler is near atmospheric and open the air vent to prevent vacuum
formation inside the boiler.
It is always advisable to open shipside cock first and close it last, so as to avoid undue pressure rise on
the blow down line, which is very liable to corrosion.
Blowing down to reduce density and sludge is also regularly carried out but these lasts only for a few
seconds and can be carried out when the boiler is running on load. Very careful attention has then to be
paid to the water level and it is always advisable to reduce the boiler load as much as possible and
increase water level in the gauge glass before a short blow down exercise is carried out.
The shipside valve has a special guard fitted so that its operating spanner cannot be removed when the
cock is in operation and the spanner can only be removed when the cock is fully shut. This
arrangement prohibits the possibility of the cock remaining open after the blowing down operation has
been over. The spanner is kept fixed to a hook on the adjacent bulk- head frame next to the cock for
ready use. If the vessel is in port, check that ships side is clear in way of the outlet from the blow down
line and inform the deck department that blowing is to be carried out.

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Steam Stop Valve. Fig: 53.

At one time steam stop valve and safety valve chests were made of cast iron, but the liability of this
material to fracture under shock loading, which, may occur from water-hammer and other causes, has
resulted in its use being superseded by steel.
Main stop valves for ordinary tank boilers are usually of the screw-lift type, whereas in the case of
water-tube boilers non- return valves are normally fitted-the reason for the differentiation is seen when
a comparison is made of the evaporative power and water capacity of the two types of boiler. If screw-
lift stop valves were fitted to each of a battery of four water-tube boilers and while steaming hard a
serious tube burst occurred, the contents of the four boilers (6 tons each against 30 tons for a Scotch
boiler) could very soon be lost through the ruptured tube. The non-return or self-closing stop valves
fitted to water-tube boilers act, therefore, as a safeguard against loss of water.
Contrary to the observation that non-return or self-closing valves are normally fitted as main stop
valves in water-tube boiler installations, it must be mentioned that the Liberty class vessels built during
the last war are fitted with screw-lift-type valves. The reason is that when non-return valves are used to
supply steam to a reciprocating prime mover they are very prone to damage through hammering.
Types of Steam Stop Valve:
 42

The types of main stop valve in general use are legion, and it is not proposed to detail them all. The
main stop valve as fitted to the ordinary tank-boiler shell is normally a right-angled cast-steel globe
valve with a pressed-in pinned gunmetal seat, the gunmetal lid guided in the seat by wings or a center
pintle and the screwed spindle attached to the valve by a nut and collar, working in an external bridge
on the chest cover. The material of the valve lid and scat is Monel metal in the case of stop valves used
in conjunction with superheated steam. In all cases the stop-valve chests must be fitted with ample
drainage arrangements.
The main stop valves of water-tube boilers, mounted on the superheater outlet header, operate under
high temperature and pressure conditions, 850*F. and 850 lb. /sq. in. frequently being used. In view of
the high temperatures to which these valves are subjected, it is important that suitable materials are
used in their construction. Under the combined effect of high temperature and stress some materials
alter their physical properties and progressively flow or creep in a manner similar to that of an
extremely viscous fluid. The materials used must, therefore, have creep strength in excess of their
service loading throughout the operating temperature range.
For stop valves dealing with superheated steam temperatures up to 800*F. it is usual for the valve chest
to be made of normal cast steel, with a forged or cast-steel cover, the valve lid and seat being either
Monel metal, stellited steel or stainless steel, according to temperature conditions. When the steam
temperature is above 800*F. heat resisting alloy steels are used, 0.5% molybdenum cast steel for the
valve-chest cover and seat, stainless steel for the valve lid and creep-resisting steel for the cover studs.
Securing of Valve Seat.
The valve-seats are secured in the chests in several ways.
(a) The scat is made with a slight interference fit, pressed in cold, after which the chest is peened
over the top edge of the seat.
(b) The scat is screwed in with a fine thread, the top of the scat having a collar which lands on a
facing in the chest.
(c) The seat and guide for the valve are combined in one unit, which is secured by set bolts to the
valve chest, and is thus easily removable.

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FEED CHECK VALVE. Fig: 54 & 55.

The basic duty of the feed valve is to shut off the flow of water to the boiler when necessary but there
must also be an arrangement to prevent reversal of flow through the feed line from the boiler towards
the pump side which way cause serious damage to the line. So there are two types of designs available-
one is a stop valve which includes a device for preventing a reversal of flow even when the valve is
open and another comprises two valves one shut-off and one cheek valve, all housed in one single
chest.
In the combined stop & Check valve, a dashpot arrangement is provided. When the valve is opened,
the valve head, not being connected to the spindle, is lifted from its seat by the water pressure at the
inlet and is free to re-seat itself independently in the event of a reversal of flow. It is very important
that the contact of the valve and seat is fluid tight and very accurate machining work and fitting is
done. These valves are always fitted with the spindle vertical so that there will be less chances of
misalignment.
These could be either angle-type or straight- type valve.

With two independent valves in one chest, care should be taken when overhauling the valves to see that
the attachment of the shut-off valve lid to its spindle is good since if the valves becomes detached it
will stop any feed entering the boiler.

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Marine Boiler Fuel System.
 43

The vast majority of steam ships will currently be fuelled with a residual type of oil, which is likely to
be of high density and viscosity. The reception and storage of this aboard ship is of importance with
regard to successful boiler operation. Oil is fed to the boiler via pumping and heating equipment so that
the oil arrives with the correct viscosity and energy for the atomising system in use. The pipe system
conducting the fuel is arranged so that prior to lighting up, adequately heated oil can be recirculated
providing a supply at suitable conditions as soon as light up is attempted. Flexible connections between
the burner front manifold and the individual burners must be kept as short as possible to limit the
amount of cold oil within. In addition the pipe system will include fuel flow control valves actuated by
the automatic combustion control system, isolating valves, quick closing valves actuated by safety
devices such as low water level and individual burner shut off valves.
The choice of combustion equipment and design of combustion chamber are complementary to the
attainment of the three Ts -time, temperature and turbulence- to a degree necessary for good
combustion. Time is required for combustion air and fuel to mix and to burn completely within the
confines of the combustion chamber. Modern marine boiler plant provides for this with larger furnaces
than were previously found. Its most advanced form is in radiant boiler designs with roof mounted
burners firing down the long vertical axis of the furnace with an outlet to one side at the bottom.
High temperature is needed to vaporise the fuel and to ensure rapid ignition. Most combustion
equipment incorporates some form of bluff body to create a low pressure area and recirculation zone to
drawback some of the atomised and ignited fuel into the path of incoming fuel spray, creating a stable
area of high temperature. Turbulence is necessary to aid mixing of fuel and air so that complete
combustion can be achieved without the need for more air than that required to consume the
combustibles carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. The arrangement of the air admission apparatus is
important. The apparatus comprises the air inlet trunking, the windbox containing the air registers and
the air registers them selves controlling the air to each burner. The design of the furnace chamber is
also of some importance as, for example, in the Combustion Engineering tangentially fired furnace and
in other cases where arches or similar projections have been made into the furnace with the object of
encouraging turbulence. Generally speaking such devices have proved unnecessary as shown by the
success of radiant boilers where sufficient time and turbulence have been obtained with burners firing,
substantially, vertically downwards. Simple furnace shapes and circular air register designs are widely
available. Of further importance for efficient, complete combustion of heavy fuel oil is the design and
performance of the fuel atomiser. There are a number of systems available involving the energy either
contained in the pressurised fuel itself or in a separate atomising agency. Using the pressure of the fuel
is the oldest and simplest method, but, since oil flow rate through the atomiser is proportional to the
square root of the oil pressure, a very high maximum pressure is required if a large turn down is
needed. Oil pressure at 70 bar or more has been used but a value of 20 bar is much more common. This
will only allow a turn down to 70% of maximum oil flow at an oil pressure of 10 bar, below which
atomisation is seriously impaired. In this case in order to reduce the boiler output below about 70% of
maximum, burners have to be shut down in sequence and relit when load increases again. At one time
such a practice was common and great skill was achieved by firemen in anticipating the number of
burners needed on each occasion. With modern, automatically controlled plant where there may be no
one on the firing platform it is necessary from a safety aspect to have all burners firing at all times.
This means that a turn down of at least 10:1 is desirable otherwise at very low steam demand it may be
necessary to dump excess evaporation to the condenser with consequent fuel wastage. To achieve a
very high turn down ratio without using excessive maximum oil pressure requires an atomising system
where the energy in a separate atomising medium is used. One such system utilises a spinning cup
rotated at high revolutions per minute by an electric motor. Oil is fed at low pressure onto the inside
face of the cup, the spinning action of which causes the fuel to progress down the slightly conical
surface and shear off the rim in a fine spray. Sufficient energy for atomisation is provided by the
electric motor for all rates of oil flow. Another system uses a separate atomising fluid. Steam is the
usual choice when available although when lighting up before steam becomes available compressed air
 44

may be used. Steam at 10bar or so is used with a maximum oil pressure of about 20 bar. The steam and
fuel mix within the atomiser just prior to the point of discharge, where the energy released by the steam
shears the fuel into an extremely fine mist. This provides a simple system with no moving parts.
Operation with a constant steam pressure and a varying oil pressure gives adequate turn down with the
high quality atomisation necessary for complete combustion of heavy oil fuel with a minimum of
excess air.
Natural gas as a fuel at sea will be found on ships designed to transport liquefied natural gas in
insulated tanks. Since it is carried at virtually atmospheric pressure the liquid gas must be cooled to
about 180*C, any heat leakage into the cargo resulting in some boil off. The degree of boil off will
depend on the design of the tanks, the tank insulation, the nature of the voyage and weather conditions.
This will be collected, heated and compressed then fed to the boiler through special gas burners,
providing steam for all purposes. It is a requirement to always burn a pilot quantity of fuel oil and so if
steam demand is greater than can be met from the boil off gas the oil quantity is increased. Use of
gaseous fuels requires special care with regard to safety aspects and the requirements in this respect are
covered by the classification societies. Most boiler types would be suitable for use with natural gas, the
main consideration being that there should be no risk of pockets of explosive gas mixtures forming
within the unit and that no such mixtures should leak into the machinery spaces. Top fired radiant
boilers would appear to be less acceptable in this respect but this has not proved to be the case as
arrangements are made to vent the top of the furnace into the uptakes via the division wall. This is in
any case desirable even with oil fuel firing, as in certain circumstances small pockets of combustibles
could accumulate in that zone. Prevention of leakage into the machinery spaces can be achieved by use
of all welded enclosure walls or by double casings with combustion air between. Fuel lines to the
burners are double pipes with inert gas in the annulus at a pressure greater than the fuel gas, which will
be about 1 bar. A ventilation hood connected to an extractor fan is arranged above the firing platform
so that there is a continuous sweep of air across the burner zone for discharge outboard with gas
detection devices. (See Fig:57).
During the 1980s a number of coal fired ships were built. There was much speculation concerning
how best to deal with this renewed interest in a fuel, which had lost favour when oil first became
plentiful and cheap. The predominant means of burning coal ashore was established in central power
stations where the coal was pulverised to a fineness of 70% less than 75g and fired in a burner which
could also handle oil fuel as a support fuel. Translating this to the marine environment presented
problems as the grinding mills were bulky, heavy and susceptible to vibration. Indeed it was not clear
whether the ship would adversely affect the mills or vice versa. An alternative was to pulverise ashore
and bunker in this condition. This would have required the bunkers to be kept under inert gas as coal in
a finely divided state presents a spontaneous combustion risk.
At the same time great interest was being shown in combustion of coal in a fluidised bed. This had
potential advantages for burning coal at sea in so far as combustion residues could be more easily dealt
with and a wider range of coal types consumed. However, there were but few examples of this
technology in use ashore and marine industry was not ready to adopt any process so important to the
success of the ship if it had not already gained acceptance elsewhere. This left industrial experience
ashore, of which there was a great deal where coal was burned on mechanical stokers. Bearing in mind
the likelihood that coal quality would vary between bunkering ports and that a good response to
changes in load demand was a requirement, the favored choice for use at sea soon became the spreader
stoker. We will not go in to details of coal burning ships in these notes.
Combustion of fuel in Boilers:
The combustion of a residual fuel oil in a boiler furnace takes in a number of stages. The oil is first
heated in steam or electric fuel oil heaters. This reduces its viscosity and makes it easier to pump, filter,
and finally to atomize. However it must not be overheated at this stage, otherwise a process known as
'cracking' occurs, leading to carbon deposits, and the formation of gas in the fuel oil lines, etc. The gas,
due to its large volume, reduces the mass of oil passing through the burner, which in turn leads to a
 45

possible reduction in the steaming rate of the boiler owing to the reduced amount of fuel actually burnt.
This gasification can also cause instability in the combustion process itself, resulting fn a fluctuating
flame formation. The heated oil is now passed through the burners where it is atomized; this process
breaks it up into a fine spray of droplets, so presenting a very large surface area of oil to the
combustion processes. The droplets formed are of two main types, i.e. very fine particles consisting of
the lighter fractions of the fuel, which form a fine mist, and slightly larger droplets formed by the
heavier fractions of the residual fuel.
The burner also imparts rotational energy to the fuel so that it leaves the burner tip as a hollow, rotating
cone formed of fine droplets of oil. The combustion stage itself can now commence, and in a boiler
furnace a type of combustion often referred to as a 'suspended flame' is used. For this a stream of oil
particles and, air enters the combustion zone at the same rate at which the products of combustion
leave it. The actual flame front therefore remains stationary, while the particles pass through it,
undergoing the combustion process as they do so. The combustion zone itself can be sub-divided into
two main stages; these are referred to as the primary and secondary flames.
PRIMARY FLAME: Fig: 56.
For the oil to burn, it must be raised to its ignition temperature, where continuous vaporization of the
oil required for its combustion takes place. Note this temperature should not be confused with the flash
point temperature of the oil, where only the vapour formed above the oil in storage tanks, etc. will
burn. The ignition or burning temperature should normally be at least some 20*C above this value.
For the reasons already stated this ignition temperature cannot be obtained in the fuel oil heaters, and
therefore the heat radiated from the flame itself is utilized so that, as the cone of atomized oil leaves
the burner, the lighter hydrocarbons are rapidly raised to the required temperature by the heat from the
furnace flame; they then vaporize and burn to form the primary flame. The heat from this primary
flame is now used to beat the heavier constituents of the fuel to their ignition temperature as they,
together with the incoming secondary combustion air, pass through the flame.
The stability of the combustion process in the furnace largely depends upon maintaining a stable
primary flame and, to ensure it is not overcooled, a refractory quarl is usually placed around it so as to
radiate heat back to the flame. The primary flame should just fill the quarl. If there is too much
clearance excessive amounts of relatively cool secondary air enter the furnace; too little and the heavier
oil droplets impinge on the quarl and form carbon deposits.
Another important factor for the formation of the primary flame is that it must be supplied with
primary air in the correct proportion and at the right velocity. In the case of air registers using high
velocity air streams this is done by fitting a tip plate which spills the primary air over into a series of
vortices, as indicated in the figure. This ensures good mixing of the air and fuel and, by reducing the
forward speeds involved, helps to maintain the primary flame within the refractory quarl.

SECONDARY FLAME:
The larger oil droplets, heated in their passage through the primary flame zone, then vaporize and
begin to burn. This, although a rapid process, is not instantaneous, and so it is essential that oxygen is
supplied steadily and arranged to mix thoroughly with the burning particles of oil. An essential feature
for the stability of this suspended secondary flame is that the forward velocity of the air and oil
particles must not exceed the speed of flame propagation. If it does the flame front moves further out
into the furnace and the primary flame will now burn outside the quarl with resulting instability due to
overcooling. Careful design of the swirl vanes in the air register can be used to create the required flow
patterns in the secondary air stream. The secondary flame gives heat to the surrounding furnace for the
generation of steam.
Sufficient time must be given for complete combustion to take place before un-burnt oil particles can
impinge onto tubes or refractory material. This usually entails the supply of a certain amount of air in
excess of the theoretical amount required for complete combustion if these practical considerations
could be neglected, and unlimited time taken for the mixing of the air and fuel. The actual amount of
 46

excess air supplied depends upon a number of factors, such as the design of the furnace, the efficiency
of the combustion process for the condition of load, etc., but will in general reduce the boiler efficiency
to some extent due to the heat carried away by this excess air leaving the funnel. It can also lead to
increased deposits in the uptakes due to the increased amount of sulphur trioxide that will form from
sulphur dioxide in the presence of excess oxygen.
Fuel Oil Burners: Fig: 56.
A pressure jet oil burner forms a simple robust unit, widely used in marine boilers.
The basic assembly consists of a steel tube, or barrel, to which are attached swirl and orifice plates;
these are made of a high grade or low alloy steel, and are held in place by a cap nut. The complete unit
is clamped into a burner carrier attached to the boiler easing. This both holds the burner in its correct
position relative to the furnace, and also permits the, supply of fuel through an oil tight connection.
Some form of safety device must be fitted in order to prevent the oil being turned on when the burner
is not in place. The oil is supplied to the burner under pressure and, as it passes through, the burner
performs two basic operations. First it imparts rotational energy to the oil as it passes through angled
holes in the swirl plate. The rotating stream of oil thus formed is then forced under pressure through a
small hole in the orifice plate, which causes the jet to break up into fine droplets. This latter process is
referred to as atomization, although each individual droplet of oil is formed of vast numbers of atoms.
As the final result of these operations a hollow rotating cone, formed of fine particles of oil, leaves the
burner tip.
Many variations of design exist for the swirl and orifice plates. The choice of the actual design used
often depends upon the means employed by the manufacturer to carry out the accurate machining
processes required for these items. In this type of burner control over the throughput of oil is obtained
in two ways, by varying the oil supply pressure and/or by changing the diameter of the hole in the
orifice plate. Limitations exist which prevent either method being used as the sole means of control
over a wide range of throughput. The ratio of the maximum to minimum oil throughput of the burner is
known as the turn down ratio of the burner, and in the case of pressure jet burners this can be stated in
terms of the square root of the ratio of the maximum to minimum oil supply pressures.
In all pressure jet burners however, a minimum supply pressure in the order of 700 kN/m2 is necessary
to ensure efficient atomization is maintained. At the same time various practical considerations limit
the maximum pressure to about 7000 kN/m2, thus the turn down ratio with this type of burner is limited
to a value of about 3.5.
If a wider range of turn down is required a system incorporating a number of burners is used, which
controls the overall turn down on the basis of the number of burners in operation, or changing the
orifice size in addition to the variation in supply pressure considered above. However, while this
system is convenient for manual operation, it is not suitable for automatic control due to the need to
change orifice sizes when the oil supply pressure reaches its upper or lower limits.
The burners must be kept clean and care should be taken during this operation not to damage or scratch
the finely machined surfaces of the swirl and orifice plates. The latter should be renewed as the orifice
wears beyond a certain amount. This should be checked at regular intervals by means of a gauge. After
cleaning make sure all the various parts are correctly assembled. Any oil leaks must be rectified as
soon as possible as they can lead to fires in the air register or double casing of the boiler. Burners not in
use should be removed otherwise the heat from the furnace will cause any oil remaining in the burner
barrel to carbonize.
Rotating cup type of fuel oil burner: Fig: 57.
A rotating cup oil burner atomizes the oil by throwing it off the edge of a tapered cup being rotated at
high speeds of between 2000-7000 rpm by either an air turbine driven by primary combustion air, or by
an electric motor driving the cup shaft by means of vee belts.
The basic assembly consists of a tapered cup fitted onto the end of a central rotating spindle mounted
on ball or roller bearings. The fuel oil is supplied to the inner surface of the cup through the hollow end
of the spindle. Here centrifugal force causes it to spread out evenly into a thin film, which then moves
 47

out along the taper until it reaches the lip of the cup, where the radial components of velocity cause it
to break up into fine particles as it passes into the surrounding air stream. Thus like a pressure jet
burner this type of burner performs two functions: first, supplying rotational energy to the oil, and then
breaking it up into fine particles. The final result is a hollow rotating cone of oil droplets leaving the
burner.
High oil supply pressure is unnecessary as this pressure plays no direct part in the atomization process,
and only sufficient pressure to overcome frictional resistance to the flow of oil through the pipes is
required. Thus this type of burner can be used with a gravity type oil fuel supply system.
The oil throughput is controlled by a regulating valve placed in the fuel supply line, and thus can easily
be adapted to automatic control. Here the wide turn down ratio available with this type of burner is a
great advantage. Values of over 10: 1 are possible. The diameter of the cup must be large enough to
handle the required throughput, and there must be sufficient taper and rotational speed to ensure the oil
is thrown off with the desired velocity. These factors govern the maximum oil throughput of the
burner; the minimum throughput is limited only by the fact that sufficient oil must be supplied to
maintain a continuous film of oil inside the cup so as to provide a stable primary flame.
The flame produced by a rotating cup burner tends to be long and cigar shaped, although a shorter
flame can be obtained by careful design of the swirl vanes in the air register, so as to direct the flow of
air in such a manner as to give the desired flame shape.
In the smaller units it is possible to supply all the combustion air through the burner itself, the air
flowing through the space between the rotating cup and the fixed casing. However, in most cases only
the primary air, which in this type of burner is used mainly for atomization, is supplied in this way. It
only forms about 10% of the total air required, the remainder being delivered through a secondary air
register, to which it passes by means of a separate air duct with its own forced draught fan.
This type of burner is difficult to design for very large throughputs, and still give the required flame
shape, and so while very suitable for auxiliary boilers with their relatively small outputs, they are not
in general use for main water tube boilers. Here if more than one burner is to be fitted, the
complication inherent in each rotating cup burner, with its own drive motor, makes other systems of
atomization more suitable. Also rotating cup burners cannot be used in roof fired boilers.
Steam blast jet type fuel oil burner: Fig: 57.
With automated control systems it is advisable to avoid extinguishing and re-igniting burners while
manoeuvring, etc. It is also impracticable to change the size of the atomizing tip automatically. Thus
simple pressure jet burners with their limited turn down ratios on a single orifice size are not suitable,
since it is necessary to use a type of fuel oil burner with a large turn down ratio. Various forms of these
wide range burners are available, and one type in common use is the blast jet burner.

These atomize the oil by spraying it into the path of a high velocity jet of steam or air. Although either
medium can be used, steam is usually both more readily available and economical at sea. Compressed
air is therefore seldom used, except when lighting up from cold.
Y Jet type:
In this the steam flows along the central passage, and is then expanded through a convergent divergent
nozzle, where its pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy resulting in a high velocity jet of
steam. Oil sprayed into this jet is entrained by it, being torn to shreds and atomized in the process. The
exit ports are arranged tangentially, thus giving the necessary swirl to the oil droplets in order to form
the hollow rotating cone of fine particles of oil needed for the efficient combustion of a residual fuel
oil in the boiler furnace. However, the flame shape is not so clearly defined as those obtained with
pressure jet type burners due to the entrainment of air by the high velocity steam. This enables simple
air registers to be used. There is no need to fit the usual swirl vanes for the secondary air stream - only
a venturi shaped throat and tip plate are required.
The throughput of oil is controlled by varying the oil supply pressure. Since the atomizing effect is not
obtained directly by the use of, pressure, the same limit is not imposed on the use of very low oil
 48

supply pressures as with simple pressure jet burners; large turn down ratios of up to 20:1 are therefore
available with blast jet burners without having to resort to unduly high pressures. The oil supply
pressure ranges from about 140-2000 kN/m2, with corresponding steam pressures of 140-1500 kN/m2,
Care must be taken to use only dry steam, any water present having a chilling effect, which could
cause flame instability. The steam may be obtained directly from the boiler, the pressure being dropped
to the required value by passing it through reducing valves. Alternatively it may be obtained from an
auxiliary source such as a steam to steam-generator.
Excessive use of steam can be caused by incorrect setting of the burner, or by leakage across the joint
faces in the atomizing head of the burner, and in some versions gaskets are fitted to prevent this. Steam
is left on all the time the burner is in operation, even when the oil is turned off, in order to cool the
burner and prevent any remnants of oil in the burner passages from carbonizing. Safety shut off valve
is fitted to the burner carrier; these are opened by projections on the burner so that oil and steam are
automatically shut off when the burner is removed.
Air register suitable for the supply of combustion air to the furnace of a water tube boiler:
The term air register is applied to the assembly of vanes, air swirler-plates, etc. fitted within the double
casing of the boiler in way of each burner position, in order to supply the air required for combustion
in the correct manner. The width of the easing at this point is determined by the design of the register
used. The register performs the following functions: it divides the incoming combustion air into
primary and secondary streams, and then directs these streams so as to give the air flow patterns
necessary for the efficient mixing of the air with the hollow rotating cone of oil particles leaving the
burner. Another important duty performed by the register is to regulate the amount of air supplied to
the individual burner. Earlier types of air registers dealt with large amounts of air flowing at low
velocities whereas later types, for corresponding amounts of fuel, admit smaller amounts of air moving
at much higher velocities. Carefully designed swirl vanes are used to direct the air as required.
Many variations in design exist, and here any constructional details apply only to the register shown in
Fig. 58, but some, or all of the components shown, are common to all types of air register.
The combustion air must pass through the air check in order to enter the register. In some cases the
check is formed by the swirl vanes themselves being rotated about their axes until they touch, so
shutting off the airflow to the burner. However, in most cases some form of sliding sleeve is used.
The air check may be operated by hand, usually being placed in a fully open or fully closed position.
However, in the case of wide range burners, especially where automated combustion control systems
are fitted, a pneumatic means of operation is used. In some cases the cheek may be placed in an
intermediate position in order to adjust the air supply to individual burners.
Baffles are then often fitted to separate the air into primary and secondary air flows; these are
concentric within the cylindrical register. The inner primary air stream flows along until it reaches the
tip plate fitted at the end of the burner tube.
Here the air impinges on the back of the plate, and then spills over to form a series of vortices which
have the effect of reducing the forward velocity of the air and so helps to retain the primary flame
within the quarl. Various designs of tip plates are used ranging from circular flat plates to more
complex swirl vanes, but all perform the same basic function; i.e. the formation of the vortices, which
is so important in modern air, registers with their high velocity airflows.
The outer, secondary air stream passes over swirl vanes which cause it to rotate as it passes through the
quart, so giving better conditions for the mixing of fuel and air in the secondary flame zone. Again by
careful design the air flow pattern can be made to form a series of vortices. In this way the forward
velocity of the burning oil particles is reduced, giving a longer period for combustion to take place
within the furnace. The secondary airflow also has some influence on the flame shape; this is
especially the case with rotating cup type burners.
A small amount of cooling air is often allowed to flow between the inside edge of the tip plate and the
atomizing tip of the burner. This amount of air must remain small otherwise it can upset the vortex
system formed by the tip plate. It is important that the air check forms a tight seal in order to prevent
 49

combustion air entering the register when the burner is not in use, otherwise thermal shock caused by
the relatively cool combustion air leaking through can damage the refractory quarles.
An insulated front plate must be fitted in some cases to prevent over heating of the boiler front due to
radiant heat from the furnace penetrating through the gaps between the swirl plates, etc.
In some types of registers, especially those used with simple pressure jet burners with their small turn
down ratios, very little adjustment of the relative positions between the various vanes, air swirler
plates, etc. can be carried out. In others a whole range of minor adjustments may be carried out to suit
different fuels, conditions of load, etc.
It may be noted that, in the case of steam jet burners, the steam provides additional energy for the
mixing of the air and fuel, and. the swirl vanes for the secondary air stream may be omitted from air
registers used with this type of burner.
Boiler fuel oil system: (Fig: 59 & 60).
Figure No: 59, shows the diagrammatic lay out of a semi-automatic fuel oil system, which makes use
of wide range burners operating on a variable oil supply pressure. The basic layout consists of a ring
main supplying the individidual burners by a series of dead legs. Oil is pumped into the settling tanks,
and any Water allowed to settle out. This can then be drained off by means of spring-loaded drain
cocks.
When required for use, the high suction valve on the settling tank is opened and oil allowed to pass to
the cold filters fitted on the suction side of the fuel oil service pump.
Due to the high viscosity of the unheated residual oil only a coarse filter, just sufficient to prevent
damage to the pump, can be used at this stage. This consists of a positive displacement pump operating
at a constant delivery pressure. A spring-loaded relief valve fitted on the discharge side of the pump
allows any excess oil to spill back to the suction side of the pump in the event of over pressure.
After leaving the pump, the oil temperature is raised in a fuel oil heater. This is done in order to lower
the viscosity of the oil, making it easier to filter and finally to atomize. The correct oil temperature is
maintained by means of a thermostat placed in the outlet from the fuel oil heat or, which controls the
supply of steam to the heater.
The hot filters fitted after the heaters are normally of an auto-clean type; in some cases they are
constantly rotated by electric motors. These filters provide a fine filtration. This prevents wear and
chokage of the fine passages in the atomizing tip of the fuel oil burners.
The heated and filtered oil now passes through an automatic pneumatically operated control valve
which varies the oil supply pressure to the burners in response to, variations in the main steam pressure
transmitted to a master pressure controller. The combustion air controller also varies in order to
maintain the correct ratio between the amounts of fuel and air supplied to the furnace.
Two emergency valves are now fitted; the first is a manually operated quick shut off valve which
enables the fuel oil to be shut off by hand from the boiler very rapidly in case of emergency. The
second is a shut off valve with a steam actuator, which operates to shut off, the fuel oil in the event of
loss of water in the boiler. The oil is now ready to enter the individual dead legs supplying oil to the
burners. An isolating valve and a safety cock, or similar device, is fitted to each leg.
To enable the oil temperature in the system to be brought quickly up to and then maintained at the
desired operating value, a re-circulating valve is fitted which enables oil to be circulated through the
ring main back to the pump suction. This valve is closed as the burners are brought into operation.
In the system shown in figure 59 the individual burners are ignited by means of a paraffin torch, but in
many cases automatic igniting devices are fitted. In this case it is advisable that a flame failure alarm
should also be fitted. The system uses gas oil to flash up from cold. Air pressure supplied to the gas oil
storage tank is used to force the oil through to the burner. The use of this oil continues until sufficient
steam has been generated to enable the fuel oil heaters to be put into operation so as to raise the
temperature of the residual fuel oil to the value required for its combustion. All necessary pressure
gauges, thermometers, air vents, etc. must be fitted for the proper operation of the system.
 50

Safety fittings include quick closing valves-operated from outside the engine room fitted to the suction
lines from the settling tanks, which enable fuel to be shut oil from the system in case of emergency.
There is also an emergency stop fitted to the fuel oil service pump.
All oil lines and fittings containing heated oil should be placed above the plates, in well-lit situations,
so that any leakage can be easily detected. The system can easily be changed to manual control by
simply bypassing the automatic control valve, and controlling the oil supply pressure by means of a
hand jacking wheel on the spring-loaded relief valve governing the discharge pressure from the fuel oil
service pump.
Refractory materials used in boilers:
The basic requirement of boiler refractory materials is that they should contain the heat generated in
the furnace. They must therefore have good insulating properties and be able to withstand the high
temperatures to which they will be exposed. They must also have sufficient mechanical strength to
resist the forces set up by the weight of adjacent brickwork, etc.; to withstand vibration; and the cutting
and abrasive action of the flame and flue dust. The materials must also be able to expand and contract
uniformly without cracking. At the present time no single refractory material can be used economically
throughout the boiler, and the temperatures to which they will be subjected generally govern the choice
of suitable materials for various parts of the boiler.
The material from which these refractory are manufactured can be grouped into three main types:
(1) Acid materials: Clay, silica, quartz, sandstone, gamister.
(2) Neutral materials: Chromite, graphite, plumbago, alumina.
(3) Alkaline or base materials: Lime, magnesia, zirconia.
It should be noted when choosing suitable materials that care must be taken to ensure acid and alkaline
substances are kept apart as, at high temperatures, they can react to form salts which destroy the
effectiveness of the refractory.
These refractory materials are available for installation in one of two basic forms:
1. FIREBRICKS.
These are formed into bricks and then fired at high temperatures in special kilns.
2. MONOLITHIC REFRACTORIES.
These are supplied in an unfired state, installed in the boiler, and fired in situ when the boiler is put into
service. This form of refractory can be subdivided into:
(a) Moldable refractory: This is used where direct exposure to radiant heat takes place. It must be
pounded into place during installation.
(b) Castablerefractory: Placed behind water walls and other parts of the boiler where it is protected
from direct exposure to radiant heat. It is installed in a similar manner to building concrete.
(c) Plastic chrome ore: This, bonded with clay, is used in the construction of studded water walls.
It can resist high temperatures, but has little mechanical strength, and is pounded onto steel
studs welded to the tubes. These studs provide both strength and means of attachment for the
refractory.
All the forms of refractory materials previously mentioned must be securely attached to the boiler
easing and, in addition to the above-mentioned studded tubes, various types of bolts, clips, and keys
are used for this purpose. To prevent undue stresses being set up in the refractory, ample expansion
spaces must be provided. Care must be taken to ensure these spaces do not become blocked in any way
as this can cause the refractory to break away from its attachments and bulge out, with the danger of
possible collapse. Refractory materials impose limits upon the time required for raising steam; the
greater the amount of refractory, the slower the steam raising process must be in order to prevent
damage to the refractory material.
Air checks should be closed immediately the corresponding burner is shut off, otherwise the relatively
cold air impinging upon the hot refractory causes a surface flaking, known as spalling, to take place.
This leads to a reduction in wall thickness. Flame impingement must be avoided as it leads both to a
build up of carbon deposits, and to damage caused by carbon penetrating into the refractory. Another
 51

form of damage is caused by impurities in the fuel: mainly vanadium and sodium salts reacting with
the refractory material to form a molten slag, which then runs down to the furnace floor. This both
reduces the wall thickness, and leads to a build up in the level of the furnace floor which can
eventually interfere with the shape of the flame.
Soot blowers:
In order to maintain the gas side heating surfaces of a boiler in a clean condition and so prevent an
undue build-up of deposits, which can lead to corrosion and/or uptake fires, soot blowers are fitted.
Soot blowers consist of two main parts, the head or chest, and one or more nozzles attached to a tube
or spindle made of heat-resistant steel. An operating mechanism fitted in the chest rotating and, in
some cases, retracting the nozzles as required. The efficiency of the blower depends upon the
conversion of pressure energy in the blowing medium to kinetic energy; this results in a high velocity
jet of fluid impinging upon the sooted surfaces.
Although in a few cases the soot blowers operate with compressed air, the majority of marine soot
blowers use steam. Superheated steam is normally used to maintain dry conditions, and also to ensure
that the superheater is not starved of steam while blowing is in progress.
Soot blower steam lines should be sloped so as to be self-draining to a suitable drain valve. These are
often automatic to ensure they remain full open when the steam is shut off, closing when the steam is
turned on, but not until sufficient steam has been allowed to blow through in order to warm the lines.
The reason for leaving the drain full open, when the master valve supplying steam to the soot blowers
is closed, is to prevent any leakage past this valve leading to a build up of pressure, which would force
steam to leak past the blower seal rings and so cause corrosion of the blower nozzles.
When air or high-pressure steam is being used, a double shut off valve is fitted in addition to the seal
rings to ensure the air or steam only enters each soot blower as it actually commences its blowing
sequence.
It is operated by an electric motor driving through a reversing gearbox. The motor is started in its
correct sequence from a central control consol, moving the blower through its correct blowing
procedure until a cam arrangement in the gear box switches it off, and as it does so it gives a signal for
the next blower to start.
A handle can be fitted to the square at the end of the operating screw to enable the blower to be
operated manually.
The type shown in the figure is retractable, so first the operating screw extends the nozzle to its
blowing position. As it comes towards the end of its travel, the cam opens the double shut off valve,
allowing steam to pass through to the blower chest, where the seal rings have now moved to a position,
which allows the steam to enter the admission ports in the sliding spindle. The steam passes along this
spindle to the convergent divergent nozzle where the expansion process-taking place results in a high
velocity steam jet. A guide pin moving in a slot causes the nozzle to be rotated through its blowing are
while the steam is on. To prevent high-pressure steam eroding tubes in high temperature regions of the
boiler, restriction or orifice plates, fitted in the steam supply passage to the individual soot blowers,
reduce the pressure as required. Cooling air is sometimes supplied to the wall box tube. This air is
normally taken from the forced draught fan discharge before the air heater.
Boiler Operation:
Process of raising steam from cold on a Scotch boiler:
If the boiler has been opened up for cleaning or repairs cheek that all work has been completed, and
carried out in a satisfactory manner. Ensure that all tools, etc. have been removed. Examine all internal
pipes and fittings to see that they are in place, and properly fitted. Cheek that the blow down valve is
clear.
Then carry out the following procedure:
Fit lower manhole door. Check external boiler fittings to see they are in order. See that all blanks are
removed from safety valves, blow down line, etc.
 52

Fill boiler with water to about one-quarter of the water level gauge glass. If possible hot water heated
by means of a feed heater should be used. The initial dose of feed treatment chemicals, mixed with
water, can be poured in at the top manhole door at this stage if required. Then fit top manhole door.
Make sure air vent is open.
Set one fire away at lowest possible rate. Use the smallest burner tip available. By-pass air heater if
fitted. Change furnaces over every twenty minutes. After about one hour start to circulate the boiler by
means of auxiliary feed pump and blow down valve connection, or by patent circular if fitted. If no
means of circulation is provided, continue firing at lowest rate until the boiler is well warmed through
especially below the furnaces. Running or blowing out a small amount of water at this stage will assist
in promoting natural circulation if no other means is available. Continue circulating for about four
hours, raising the temperature of the boiler at a rate of about 6*-7*C per hour. Water drawn off at the
salinometer cock can be used to cheek water temperature below 100*C.
At the end of this time set fires away in all furnaces, still at the lowest rate. Close the air vent.
Nuts on manhole doors, and any new joints should be nipped up. Circulating the boiler can now be
stopped, and steam pressure slowly raised during the next 7 to 8 hours to within about 1 00 kN/m2 of
the working pressure. Test the water gauge. The boiler is now ready to be put into service. About 12
hours should be allowed for the complete operation provided some means of circulating the boiler is
provided. If circulation cannot be carried out, the steam raising procedure must be carried out more
slowly, taking about 18 to 24 hours for the complete operation. This is due to the fact that water is a
very poor conductor of heat, and convection currents leaving the water below the furnace cold will
carry heat from the furnace up. This will lead to severe stresses, being set up in the lower sections of
the circumferential joints of the boiler shell if steam raising is carried out too rapidly, and can lead to
leakage and 'grooving' of the end plate flanging.
If steam is being raised simultaneously on more than one boiler, use the feed pump to circulate each
boiler in turn, for about ten minutes each.
Procedure for opening up a Scotch boiler and its inspections:
Empty the boiler, preferably by allowing the boiler to cool down, and then running or pumping out. If
there is not sufficient time for this, allow boiler pressure to fall to 300-400 kN/m2 and blow down.
When pressure is off the boiler, open the air vent and allow the boiler to cool down.
When the boiler is cool, make sure there is no vacuum in the boiler; this should be done by opening the
drain cock on the water level gauge glass in case the air vent is choked.
Then commence to open up the boiler by first removing the top manhole door. To do this, slacken back
the nuts holding the dogs, but do not remove them until first breaking the joint. This precaution should
be taken in the event of pressure or vacuum existing in the boiler. The nuts and dogs can then be
removed, and the door removed. Depending upon the weight of the door, it may be necessary to rig a
lifting block to the door in order to do this. The opening should then be roped off, and all personnel
warned to keep clear. The bottom door can now be removed, again taking care when breaking the joint
in case water is still above the sill of the door. If this should be the case, pump out before removing
door. It is important that this sequence be followed as, when the lower door is removed, it allows a
through draught and hot vapour rising through the top door may scald anyone standing over the hole.
Hot vapour can remain in a Scotch boiler even after a considerable period of time allowed for cooling
down.
With the doors removed, allow the boiler to ventilate before attempting to enter. Do not allow naked
lights near the boiler until it has ventilated due to the danger of explosive gas in the boiler. If in doubt,
use a safety lamp to test the atmosphere in the boiler is safe to breathe before entering.
A preliminary internal inspection should be carried out before cleaning is commenced to cheek the
general condition. Note scale deposits and any special points.
Plug the orifice to the blow down valve to ensure it does not get choked during cleaning operations,
and place guards over the manhole landings to ensure they are not damaged. The boiler can now be
cleaned, and any internal work carried out.
 53

When all work is completed, a full internal examination must be carried out. It is advisable to keep a
record of the boiler, consisting of a drawing on which any troubles, repairs, etc. can be shown, and a
book in which remarks regarding scale formation, corrosion, deformation, etc, can be kept.
Cheek to see all cleaning, has been carried out efficiently, especially where the tubes enter the tube
plates. See that all tools and other articles have been removed from the boiler, paying special attention
to combustion chamber top, tube nests, and bottom of boiler. Make sure all openings are clear, taking
special care with the water level gauge connections to ensure they are clear and free from deposits.
Make sure all internal pipes and fittings have been replaced correctly, and are securely attached. The
guards can be removed, and the faces of the manhole doors and landings inspected to see they are clean
and undamaged.
Remove the plug from the blow down valve orifice. Replace the lower manhole doors, using a new
joint. Operate all boiler mountings and see they work correctly. Leave in a closed position, except for
water level gauge steam and water cocks, and air vents.
Hydraulic testing of a Scotch boiler:
New boilers having a design pressure in excess of 69OkN/m2 together with their components, must be
subjected to a hydraulic test at a pressure = (1.5 x design pressure + 350) kN/m2 upon completion. For
boilers working at pressures below this value the test value is 2 times design pressure.
The test must be carried out in the presence of an authorized surveyor, who upon satisfactory
completion of the test will stamp the boiler with the official DOT stamp if it is for a passenger vessel,
or if a classification society surveyor is concerned, their official stamp will be used. The surveyor's
initials are also put on alongside the stamp, which is usually on the bottom front plate, near the
furnace.
Boilers, which have undergone structural repairs, must be subjected to a hydraulic test at a pressure at
least equal to the design pressure.
The surveyor may call for a hydraulic test at any survey, the test pressure being to the surveyor's
requirements.
The procedure for such a test is carried out as follows. Close or blank off all openings. Measuring tapes
may be placed around the boiler, and deflection gauges in the furnace. Lagging should be removed as
required to facilitate inspection of joints, etc.
The boiler is then completely filled with water the air vent being left open until water shows to ensure
no air is trapped inside. It should be noted that the use of hot water places the boiler closer to working
conditions, but may scald in the event of failure if the water is hot enough to flash off into steam with
the resultant drop in pressure.
The force pump, and test gauges can now be fitted. The gauge glasses should be shut off if the test
pressure is to be above the design pressure. The readings on the measuring tapes, and deflection gauges
should be noted. The boiler can now be pressurized by means of the force pump. Care should be taken
to ensure that the pressure rises smartly in response to the pumping action; if it appears sluggish, open
the air vent to remove any air remaining in the boiler. Listen carefully during application of pressure in
case any combustion stays, etc. fracture.
Then examine all joints, especially if these are riveted. Cheek flanges for cracks. All flat surf aces
should be checked with a straight edge for signs of bulging due to stay failure, overheating, or thinning
of the plate. Look for signs of leakage at tell-tale holes in the combustion chamber stays and welded
compensating rings. Examine all tube ends for signs of leakage. Cheek, and note readings on
measuring tapes, and deflection gauges.
The test pressure must be maintained until the surveyor has completed his examination, and must in
any case be kept on for at least ten consecutive minutes. The pressure can then be released. Readings
on the measuring tapes and deflection gauges should again be checked to ensure they have returned to
their initial values. The boiler can then be emptied, and examined inside and out.
Procedure for closing up, and then raising steam on a water tube boiler:
 54

Before closing up the boiler inspect the internal surfaces to ensure they are clean, all openings to the
boiler mountings clear, and tubes proved to be free of obstruction by means of search balls, flexible
wires, air or water jets. Replace any internal fittings, which have been removed, checking to ensure
they are correctly positioned and secured. The header hand hole plugs and lower manhole doors are
now replaced. Operate all boiler mountings to ensure they work freely, leaving all the valves in a
closed position.
Check the gas side of the boiler is clean and in good order. Make sure the soot blowers are correctly
fitted, and operate over their correct traverse. Operate any gas or air control dampers fitted to ensure
they move freely for their full travel. Leave them closed or in mid-position as necessary. The boiler
easing doors are now replaced. Open the direct reading water level gauge isolating cocks, together with
all boiler vents, alarm and pressure gauge connections. The superheater drains are also opened. Cheek
that all other drains and blow down valves are closed.
Commence to fill the boiler with hot de-aerated water. At this stage the initial dose of chemical
treatment can be added through the top manhole doors, which are then replaced. Continue to fill until
water just shows in the water level gauges. Close any header vents as water issues.
Remove the funnel cover, and ensure that all air cheeks operate correctly and that the forced draught
fans are in working order. If gas air heaters are fitted they should be by-passed. Check the fuel oil
system to ascertain it is in good order. Start up the fuel oil service pumps and check for leaks. The
boiler is now ready to commence raising steam.
Heat the fuel oil to the required temperature, using the re-circulating line to get the heated oil through
the system. If no heat is available for this, use gas oil until sufficient steam is available to heat the
residual fuel oil normally used.
Start the forced draught fan, and with all the air checks full open purge the boiler, making sure any gas
control dampers are in mid-position so giving a clear air passage.
Carry out a final check to make sure water level gauge cocks are open, water is showing in the glass,
and that steam drum and superheater vents are open.
Now close all the air checks except for the burner to be flashed up, this being done by means of
ignition equipment or a paraffin torch. Use the lowest possible firing rate. Adjust the air supply so as to
obtain the best combustion conditions and check that, as the boiler heats up, the water level in the
gauge glass begins to rise.
After about one hour steam should show at the drum and superheater vents and, when issuing strongly,
open the superheater-circulating valve and close the air vents.
When the steam pressure has reached a value of about 300 kN/m2, blow through the water level gauges
to ensure they are working correctly. The isolating valves on the remote reading water level indicator
can now be opened, and the indicator placed in service.
With the steam pressure at about 1000kN/m2 follow up the nuts on all new boiler joints.
At a pressure of about 1400kN/m2 open the drains on the auxiliary steam lines, crack open the auxiliary
stop valve and warm the Auxiliary line through. Now close the drains and fully open the auxiliary stop
valve.
Various auxiliary equipment such as fuel oil heaters, turbo-feed pumps, etc, can be put into service and,
provided this entails a flow of steam through the superheater, the superheater circulating and drain
valves are closed. Bring the boiler up to working pressure, keeping the firing rate as steady as possible,
and avoiding intermittent flashing up. Check the water level alarms.
Open the main steam line drains, and crack open the main stop valve and warm through the main
steam line. Then close the drains and fully open the main stop valve.
The procedure from flashing up to coupling up at full working pressure should take about four to six
hours. Only in emergency should it he carried out more rapidly. If new refractory material has been
installed, carry out the procedure more slowly.
 55

At all times during the raising of steam the superheaters must be circulated with steam to prevent them
overheating. If the temperature of the superheaters goes above the permitted value for the boiler,
reduce the rate of firing.
NOTE: Due to the great variety of water tube boiler designs in use, the foregoing procedure is only to
be taken as a guide; for example, header boilers with their greater amount of refractory material will
require about eight hours to reach full pressure. Thus the engineer should always follow the procedure
laid down for his particular boiler, which may vary in detail from the basic principles previously stated.

************************Kv**************************
Emergency operation due to fire:
Fires can occur in the air heaters, economisers, superheaters and exhaust gas heat exchangers. These
heat-extracting units are all situated in the path of combustion gases and under certain conditions,
fortunately rare, can experience disastrous fires.
These fires are of two types. 1. Soot fires; 2. Hydrogen fires.
Soot fires: The ignition of an accumulation of soot, rich in carbon, caused by poor combustion either at
start or when operating at low load for prolonged periods, can when supplied with the necessary
oxygen be the source of a fire sufficiently intense to melt and burn steel. Air heaters, with their thin
steel plates or air tubes and an abundance of oxygen, can, unless kept clean, be very susceptible to this
kind of damage.
Immediately after lighting-up the boiler and during periods of low load operation, the temperature of
the gas leaving the air heater should be closely observed. Any sudden rise in this temperature can be an
indication of fire in the heater.
In the event of such a fire in the gas passage:
1. Shut-off fuel supply to all the burners.
2. Shut down the F.D. and I.D. fans.
3. Close all air-inlet dampers.
4. Determine the location of the fire and flood the area with water. (Do not use water spray).
5. Do not use the soot blowers provided. (This blows carbon dust in suspension, which may cause
a serious explosion).
6. After the fire has been extinguished and the unit has been cooled, thoroughly clean the unit and
make such repairs as may be necessary
Hydrogen fires: Instances have occurred in which the tubes of water tube boilers, superheaters,
economisers and exhaust gas heat exchangers have, as a result of an intense fire, literally melted
and run away in streams. Sometimes, in the case of vertical tubes, they have melted and flowed
back into their headers to solidify. These fires were subsequent to the overheating of tubes, which
were short of water or steam.
Dissociation of steam into hydrogen and oxygen by heat alone requires temperatures in the region of
2500*C. Iron will however burn in steam with the production of free hydrogen at much lower
temperatures of about 700*C. For example, if a superheater is severely overheated due to insufficient
steam circulation, the tube material may ignite at about 700*C and, burning in the steam, produce free
hydrogen. The iron will continue burning independently of any supply of oxygen from the air, and the
hydrogen produced by the reaction will burn on coming into contact with air.
This means that once such a fire has started, there are likely to be two fires burning simultaneously;
one, iron burning in steam and the other, hydrogen burning in air. This combined fire being self-
supporting and probably lasting until the supply of steam is exhausted.
The conditions necessary for the Initiation of a hydrogen fire are as follows:
1. Tube metal temperatures of over 700*C.
2. Tubes with some steam content.
3. The presence of a catalyst in the form of a carbon ash.
 56

If a soot fire starts in a finned tube exhaust gas heat exchangers or boilers, and if the unit is on fire and
if it is not being circulated with steam or water, the intense heat of the soot fire, rich in carbon, may
initiate a hydrogen fire. Unfortunately, an early indication of a hydrogen fire in a boiler is not there.
A hydrogen fire stops only when the supply of steam/water is exhausted.
Furnace explosions:
Furnace explosions or on a smaller scale blow backs, generally occur when volumes of oily vapour
and air, present in a furnace in explosive proportions are ignited; sudden admission of air to fuel rich
burner flame may well produce the same result. These explosions should not occur in boilers fitted
with automatic sequential controls, as these, apart from controlling the fuel to air ratio, also ensures
adequate purging before ignition.
Even in the best-designed systems, however, automatic light-up failures do occur, and it is then, when
going over to manual control, often in a hurry, that the wrong action is sometime taken, resulting in an
explosion. As a precaution, failure to obtain ignition at the first attempt must be followed by adequate
purging.
Precautions against furnace explosions:
1. Purge furnace thoroughly before light-up.
2. Check and clear the furnace of flammable deposits.
3. Purge furnace after every unsuccessful light-up attempt.
4. Soot blowers to be operated only at or above 50% of the normal rated out put of the boiler.
5. The furnace suction should be increased when soot blowing, sufficiently to prevent dust
blowing in to the boiler room.
6. Operation of regenerative type of air heaters at low loads for extended periods can result in
unstable burner flame due to the dilution of the burner air with flue gases being volumetrically
replaced in the cells of the heater. Operating with above normal excess air can minimize this.
7. Instructions for boiler operations, both in instruction manuals and on notice near the boiler,
should additionally contain adequate warning regarding extra precautions necessary with
degraded logic systems and over-rides on use. Operators must be sure they understand all the
implications of such instructions and act upon them.
8. Check the condition of the igniters and flame scanners, to ensure that they are in good working
order.
9. Automatic fuel oil shut off should, as a routine, be tested to ensure that the fuel valves operate
efficiently for fault conditions. (e.g. flame failure and combustion air failure).
10. Membrane walls are now a common and generally accepted feature of boiler design but as a
consequence of this form of construction, the furnace is largely enclosed in a rigid shell.
An explosive disruption of this shell may cause considerable structural damage to the boiler causing its
contents to be suddenly released into the boiler house thus presenting greater danger to personnel.
Such boilers are provided with extensive safety devices and alarms which must be maintained at high
efficiency and which should not be over-ridden unless absolutely necessary.
*******************************Kv********************************
Acknowledgement: Boiler manufacturers manuals, J.H. Miltons Marine Steam Boilers,
and The Institute of Marine Engineers publications.
**********************************Kv***********************************
END OF BOILER NOTES.

Kv/BITS/AMET/Boiler/03. Total number of pages inclusive of sketches: 132.

COMBUSTION OF FUEL IN A BOILER:

 57

THE BOILER FUEL CONSISTS OF MAINLY CARBON, HYDROGEN AND SULPHER, WHICH COMBUST WITH
OXYGEN IN THE AIR SUPPLIED AND LEBARATE HEAT.
THE BASIC REQUIREMENT OF ANY OIL BURNING SYSTEM INCLUDES THE SUPPLY OF THE LIQUID FUEL9
AT THE CORRECT TEMPERATURE, VISCOSITY AND PRESSURE TO ENABLE THE BURNER TO ATOMISE AND
INJECT TINY PARTICLES OF OIL INTO SUTABLY ARRANGED AIR STREAMS TO PRODUCE A FLAME OF
CORRECT SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS.
IN A BOILER FURNACE, THE TYPE OF COMBUSTION OFTEN REFERED TO AS A " SUSPENDED FLAME " IS
USED. FOR THIS A STREAM OF OIL PARTICLE ENTERS THE COMBUSTION ZONE AT THE SAME RATE AT,
WHICH THE PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION LEAVES IT. THE ACTUAL FLAME FRONT THEREFORE REMAINS
STATIONARY, WHILE THE PARTICLES PASSING THROUGH IT, UNDERGOING THE COMBUSTION PROCESS
AS THEY DO S0.
THE COMBUSTION ZONE ITSELF CAN BE SUB-DIVIDED IN-TO TWO MAIN STAGES, THESE ARE REFERED
TO A THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FLAMES.
PRIMARY FLAME IS ESTABLISHED NEAR THE BURNER WITH THE AID OF PRIMARY AIR STREAM, FLAME
STABILISER (Diffuser) AND THE LIGHTER FRACTIONS OF THE HYDROCARBONS IN THE FUEL INJECTED.
THE HEAT FROM THE PRIMARY FLAME IS NOW USED, TO HEAT THE HEAVIER CONSTITUENTS OF THE
FUEL TO THEIR IGNITION TEMPERATURE.
SECONDARY FLAME IS ESTBLISHED WITH THE AID OF SECONDARY AIR STREAM, AND THE LARGE OIL
DROPLETS, WHICH ARE HEATED BY THE PRIMARY FLAME. FOR THE STABILITY OF SECONDARY FLAME,
FORWARD VELOCITY OF AIR AND OIL PARTICLES MUST NOT EXCEED THE SPEED OF FLAME
PROPAGATION.
IMPORTANT POINTS DURING BOILER OPERATION:
When a boiler is flashed up initially, from cold, small size burner tips are used because: 1) if flashed on diesel oil, the
viscosity of this oil is low, as such good atomisation could he achieved only with small hole tips. 2) Low firing rate with a
small burner tip has to he maintained to slowly warm up the cold boiler, to minimise thermal loading.
Furnace explosions or on a smaller scale 'blow backs', generally occur when volumes of oil vapour and air is present in a
furnace in explosive proportions are ignited. Sudden admit ion of air to a fuel rich burner flame may well produce the same
result. To avoid such danger it is important to purge the furnace with air, before light-up at all times. Purge time cannot he
specified, as purging has to he kept on till the furnace is fully cleared of all the oily vapours and gases. It could he anything
from 5 to 15 minutes.
Superheater has to he taken care of during the light-up time of the boiler, to prevent it from over heating. For the above,
superheater can either he in dry condition or flooded with feed water, which depends on the arrangement provided by the
manufacturer. For dry condition superheater, the superheater vent on the outlet header is to be partially kept open, until the
boiler is kept on line. Crack open the superheater drain intermittently, while raising steam to drain any condensate that may
form. This is how the superheater is kept cool by the steam flowing from the steam drum in to the superheater and out
through its vents. After raising the boiler pressure, shut the superheater drains and leave the vents open for adequate cooling
of superheater elements. Superheater vent is closed as soon as the boiler is put on load to further raise the superheater
temperature. If dampers are fitted in the boiler to by-pass the superheater, those must he operated now to raise the
temperature.

The boiler steam pressure is maintained even during periods of fluctuating steam demand, by operating the boiler in
efficient way. Operate boiler at rated out put. Maintain correct air/fuel ratio to get good combustion. Maintain good feed-
water condition.
FLASHING UP AND RAISING STEAM PROCEDURE ON A SHUT DOWN BOILER.
1. Cheek that the boiler is properly closed-up after repairs (if any). Cheek that all boiler mountings and equipments
are in place and properly connected to tile boiler.
2. Cheek that all the appropriate valves are shut such as steam stop, blow down valve, chemical injection etc;
3. Open air vent completely.
4. Open auxiliary feed cheek valve and fill boiler with pure water up to 1/4 of the gauge glass level. Do not fill the
boiler up to the normal operating level, since the water will expand when heated and so cause the level to rise.
5. Start forced draft fan with dampers opened correctly to purge the furnace and combustion space off any foul gases.
If such gases are present, a blow back is possible. Some times a blow back may occur due to very dirty uptakes.
'Blow back' is a very rapid combustion of inflammable gases and is, in reality, all explosions, which can cause
serious damage to equipment and personnel.
6. Cheek must he made to ensure that there is no deposited oil in the furnaces. The oil burners to he cleaned of any
cold heavy oil and a light diesel oil re-circulation is started with fuel oil pump running and re-circulating valve
open and all burner valves shut. The initial light-up is normally done on diesel oil, which may later he changed
over to heavier oil. Most boilers can also start up on heavy oil.
7. Ascertain that the exhaust duct is clear and the burner system is operational.
 58

8. Select the smallest size burner tip and light-up the burner (normally center one), with a lighted torch, after closing
the re-circulating valve.
9. For a stable flame condition, the air register sleeves may be operated to reduce the airflow to a minimum at the
start so that a flame can he established, which is then adjusted to give a smoke-less combustion. Too much air
gives a colour less to whitish flue discharge through the funnel. If air is too less the boiler starts issuing black
smoke. The right combustion condition is established when a brown hazy discharge issues from the stack. A
periscope type of arrangement is normally provided to cheek the condition of the exhaust flue gas.
10. For initial warming of the boiler, the burner, is to he operated at low firing rate and the firing has to he intermittent,
i.c.5 minutes on and 10 minutes off, until a steady whiff of steam keeps coming from the boiler air vent.
11. Close the air vents and allow the boiler pressure to build up slowly and steadily.
12. Steady firing can now be continued.
13. Start heating up the fuel oil in the heater provided. As the fuel temperature approaches about 90*C, a change over
from diesel oil to heavy oil can then be made.
14. A bigger burner tip is chosen to go with the heavy oil and the steam pressure comes up quite quickly.
15. The gauge glass are blown through and checked for proper water level indication.
16. As the pressure comes up to the working pressure, the boiler safety valves can be operated by means of the easing
gear, to ensure that they are in good order.
17. The main steam stop valve is opened after opening its by-pass valve and after draining the steam lines sufficiently
to avoid water hammer. The stop valve must he opened very slowly, only when pressure equalization has been
achieved by the opening of the by-pass valve.
18. The auxiliary feed cheek is closed, the main feed cheek valves are opened and the main feed pump started up to
maintain boiler water level.
19. If the boiler is geared for automatic running, this is the time to change over the system to auto-control, when both
the water level and the steam pressure would he maintained with in a predetermined range. If the system is on
hand operation, close watch on water level, steam pressure and the fuel oil pressure, plus the condition of flue gas
through the funnel has to be maintained and regulated manually.
VITAL INFORMATION REQUIRED DURING BOILER OPERATION.
1. Correct water level in the boiler at all times.
2. Condition of flame.
3. Steam pressure,
4. Feed water pressure and temperature.
5. Temperature of steam at superheater out let.
6. Furnace pressure or air pressure differential between wind box and furnace.
7. Temperature of oil and oil pressure at burner entry.
8. Flue gas temperature and its colour.
9. Condition of feed water.
10. Good working of the automation and correct operation of the safety cut outs.
11. Make-up feed water consumption.
SOOT FIRES.
The ignition of an accumulation of soot, rich in carbon, caused by poor combustion either at the start or when operating at
low load for prolonged periods, can when supplied with the necessary oxygen he the source of a fire sufficiently intense to
melt and burn steel. Immediately after lighting-up the boiler and during the period of low load operation, the temperature of
the gas leaving the air beater, up-take should he closely observed. Any sudden raise in this temperature can be an indication
of fire in uptake.
In the event of such a fire in the gas passage: 1. Shut off the fuel supply to all the burners. 2. Shut down the force draft fans.
3. Close all air inlet dampers. 4. Determine the location of the fire and flood the area with water. (Do not use water spray).
5. Do not use soot blowers provided. This blows carbon dust in suspension, which may cause a serious explosion.
6. After the fire has been extinguished and the unit has been cooled, clean unit and make such repairs.
FURNACE EXPLOSIONS.
Furnace explosions or on a smaller scale 'blow backs', generally occur when volumes of oily vapour and air, present in the
furnace in explosive proportions are ignited; sudden admission of air to the fuel rich burner flame may well produce the
same result. These explosions should not occur in boilers fitted with automatic sequential controls, as these, apart from
controlling the fuel to air ratio, also ensures adequate purging before ignition. Even in the best-designed systems, however,
automatic light-up failures do occur, and it is then, when going over to manual control, often in a hurry, that the wrong
action is sometimes taken, resulting in explosion. As a precaution, failure to obtain ignition at the first attempt must he
followed by adequate purging.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FURNACE EXPLOSIONS.
1. Purge furnace thoroughly before light up.
2. Cheek and clear the furnace of flamable deposits.
3. Purge furnace after every unsuccessful light-up attempt.
 59

4. Soot blowers to he operated only at or above 50% of the normal rated out put of the boiler.
5. Air should be increased while soot blowing, to prevent dust blowing in to the boiler.
6. Instructions for boiler operation, both in instruction manual and on notices near the boiler, should additionally
contain adequate warning regarding extra precautions necessary with degraded logic system and over-riders in use.
Operators must be sure they understand all the implications of such instructions and act upon them.
7. Check the condition of igniters and flame scanners, to ensure that they are in good working order.
8. Automatic fuel oil shut offs should, as a routine, be tested to ensure that the fuel valves operate efficiently for fault
conditions such as flame failure and combustion air failure.
9. All safety devices and alarms should he maintained well.
Such explosions will cause considerable boiler structural damage and also present great danger to personnel working near
the boiler.
Factors that will decide the extent of the steam plant shut down after arrival at port are:
Number of days ship's stay in port for discharging or loading. Steam requirement for cargo discharge or loading.
Part shut down of steam plant if steam requirement is low. Complete shut down during, dry-docking /cleaning of boiler/
repairs/ survey.
Oil tankers discharging cargo still require large quantity of steam even though the main turbines are shut down because :
To beat up the oil in the cargo tanks and maintain its viscosity for proper and easier pumping. To run the high capasity
steam Turbo-pumps, to produce inert gas for oil tank safety.
Number of hours required for preparing a steam plant ready for sea. If boilers are on low steaming the turbine plant
warming will take around 4 to 5 hours. If boilers are shut down time required for boiler flashing up would he around 5
hours, plus turbine warming would take another 4 to 5 hours, as such total hours required would he around 9 to 10 hours.
Lighting up chart for a marine boiler, are instructions for boiler operation, both in the instruction manuals and on notices
near the boiler, should additionally contain adequate warning regarding extra precautions necessary with control systems
and over rides in use. Operators must be sure they understand all the implications of such instructions and act upon them.
ECONOMISER.
WATER TUBE BOILERS ARE FITTED WITH ECONOMISER FOR FEED WATER HEATINGNAND EXTRACTING
WITHIN PRACTICAL LIMITS THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF HEAT FROM FUEL, BEFORE RELEASING THE
COMBUSTION GASES TO ATMOSPHERE OR TO AN AIR HEATER.
ORDINARILY NO STEAM IS PRODUCED IN THE ECONOMISER, ALTHOUGH STEAMING ECONOMISERS ARE
NOW USED IN MANY BOILERS.
ECONOMISERS CONSIST OF MILD STEEL INLET AND OUTLET HEADERS BETWEEN WHICH ARE WELDED
MULTILOOP STEEL TUBES WITH EITHER STEEL FINS, OR CAST IRON FINNED SLEEVES SHRUNK-ON.
OVER THESE PASS THE FLUE GASES AND THUS TRANSFER SOME OF THE HEAT CONTAINED IN THE
GASES TO THE FEED WATER, WHICH IS CAUSED TO CIRCULATE THROUGH THE TUBES.
IN MODERN STEAM PLANT WITH A STEAMING ECONOMISER WHERE THE HIGH TEMPERATURE FLUE
GASES CAN BE BETTER USED AT THE EXIT OF THE GENERATING BANK WOULD BE THE BEST WAY TO
ACHIVE THE MAXIMUM THERMALEFFICIENCY.
AIR HEATERS.
THE AMOUNT OF AIR REQUIRED BY THE FUEL FOR COMBUSTION VARIES WITH ITS COMPOSITION.
A SMOKELESS FUNNEL ACCOMPANIED BY A HIGH CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) PERCENTAGE, LOW OXYGEN
(02) AND WITHOUT CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) IS IDEAL.
FOR GOOD COMBUSTION CORRECT AMOUNT OF AIR HAS TO BE GIVEN. IT IS USEFULL TO FIT AIR
HEATERS IN THE PATH OF THE FLUE GASES, AS APART FROM EXTRACTING HEAT FROM THESE GASES,
WHICH WOULD OTHER WISE BE WASTED. THE PREHEATED COMBUSTION AIR SO OBTAINED
ACCELERATES THE RATE OF COMBUSTION IN THE FURNACE. IN ADDITION, THE EFFECT OF COLD AIR
IMPINGING ON THE BOILER SURFACE IS AVOIDED AND THE BOILER EFFICIENCY IS IMPROVED.
THREE TYPES OF GAS/ AIR I-IEATERS HAVE BEEN USED ON SHIPS.
1. PLATE TYPE: USUALLY OF CAST IRON WITH INTEGRAL FINS ON BOTH AIR AND GAS SIDE.
2.TUBULAR TYPE: MADE OF PLAIN MILD STEEL TUBES.RARE OCCASIONS GLASS TUDES HAVE BEEN
USED.
3.REGENERATIVE TYPE: REVOLVING OR STATIONARY HEAT TRANSFER MATRIX.
SOOT BLOWERS:
BOILER TUBES AND HEATING SURFACES GET DIRTY BECAUSE OF AN ACCUMULATION OF SOOT AND FLY
ASH DURING OPERATION. THESE SUBSTANCES ARE EXCELLENT INSULATORS AND THEY RETARD THE
FLOW OF HEAT TO THE WATER AND STEAM. THEY MUST BE REMOVED OTHERWISE THE EFFICIENCY OF
THE BOILER WILL FALL. REMOVEL CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED BY THE USE OF SOOT BLOWERS. THE
PREFERRED SOOT BLOWING MEDIUMS ARE STEAM AND AIR. IF STEEM IS EMPLOYED STEAM SHOULD
BE DRY OR SUPERHEATED, TO ENSURE THAT NO SLUGS OF WATER ARE PROJECTED ON BOILER
SURFACE. IF AIR IS USED, IT MUST BE PREHEATED, AS COLD AIR MAY LOWER THE GASES BELOW ITS
DEW POINT. SOOT BLOWERS FOR OPERATION IN HIGH TEMPERATURE ZONE, AS IN SUPERHEATER
 60

ENTRANCES ARE USUALLY OF THE SINGLE NOZZLE TYPE AND MADE TO RETRACT IN TO THE FURNACE
WALL OR BOILER CASING WHEN NOT IN ACTUAL USE, WHERE THEY RECEIVE ADEQUATE PROTECTION
FROM THE HEAT PREVAILING IN THE FURNACE AND BOILER UPTAKE. SUPERHEATER:
SATURATED STEAM WHEN HEATED AT CONSTANT PRESSURE AWAY FROM THE STEAM DRUM IN A
SUPERHEATER CAN STORE MORE ENERGY, (POSSESS A LARGER VOLUME FOR THE SAME MASS) AND
CAN OPERATE A SYSTEM WITH BETTER EFFICIENCY, WITH OUT MUCH RUNNING PROBLEMS, LOSS OF
EFFICIENCY, THROUGH CONDENSATION, FRICTIONAL LOSSES AND EROSION IS AVOIDED.
SATURATED STEAM IS TAKEN AWAY FROM THE STEAM DRUM IN TO SUITABLY DESIGNED HEADERS OF
THE SUPERHEATER UNIT AND MADE TO FLOW THROUGH A SYSTEM OF TUBES LOCATED IN THE PATH OF
FURNACE GASES. THE TUBES RECEIVE ADDITIONAL HEAT FROM THE FLUE GASES TO PRODUCE
SUPERHEATED STEAM, WHICH IS COLLECTED FROM ONE OF THE SUPERHEATER HEADERS.
WITH LOW PRESSURE BOILERS, SUPERHEAT TEMPERATURE, IS USUALLY LIMITED TO ABOUT 340*C.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS, TEMPERATURE RANGE BETWEEN 450*C TO 540*C WOULD BE COMMON
DEPENDING ON SUPERHEAT TEMPERATURE.
THE TUBE MATERIALS ARE GRADED; VARYING FROM MILD STEEL INLET TO 2.25% Cr., 1 % Mo., STEEL AT
THE OUTLET.
ATTEMPERATORS AND DESUPERHEATERS:
THESE ARE HEAT EXCHANGERS DESIGNED TO REMOVE HEAT FROM SUPERHEATED STEAM. IN CASE OF
AN ATTEMPERATOR THIS IS USUALLY ACCOMPLISHED AT AN INTERMEDIATE STAGE OF A SUPERHEATER,
IN ORDER TO CONTROL THE FINAL STEAM TEMPERATURE AND TO PROTECT THE SECONDARY STAGE OF
THE SUPERHEATER FROM EXCESSIVE TEMPERATURE, BUNDLE OF STRAIGHT OR BENT TUBES
CONNECTED AT THEIR ENDS TO INLET AND OUTLET HEADERS, THE FULL UNIT IS INSTALED BELOW
WATER LEVEL IN SIDE A BOILER STEAM-WATER DRUM WITH CONNECTIONS TAKEN THROUGH DRUM
SHELL OR END. THIS SYSTEM DOES NOT CONTAMINATE THE FEED WATER.
NOTE: IN SOME BOILERS AIR COOLED ATTEMPERATORS ARE USED. COMBUSTION AIR FROM THE F.D.FAN
IS PASSED OVER THE FINNED SUPERHEATER TUBES, WHERE THE SUPERHEAT OF STEAM IS CONTROLED,
AND THE AIR HEATED, BEFORE IT IS ADMITED TO FUEL BURNERS.
WATER COOLED ATTEMPERATOR::

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KV/BITS/AMET/BE/02.