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LessonsInElectricCircuitsVolumeI
Chapter1
BASICCONCEPTSOFELECTRICITY
Staticelectricity
Conductors,insulators,andelectronflow
Electriccircuits
Voltageandcurrent
Resistance
Voltageandcurrentinapracticalcircuit
Conventionalversuselectronflow
Contributors

Staticelectricity
Itwasdiscoveredcenturiesagothatcertaintypesofmaterialswouldmysteriouslyattractoneanotherafterbeingrubbed
together.Forexample:afterrubbingapieceofsilkagainstapieceofglass,thesilkandglasswouldtendtosticktogether.
Indeed,therewasanattractiveforcethatcouldbedemonstratedevenwhenthetwomaterialswereseparated:

Glassandsilkaren'ttheonlymaterialsknowntobehavelikethis.Anyonewhohaseverbrushedupagainstalatexballoon
onlytofindthatittriestosticktothemhasexperiencedthissamephenomenon.Paraffinwaxandwoolclothareanother
pairofmaterialsearlyexperimentersrecognizedasmanifestingattractiveforcesafterbeingrubbedtogether:

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Thisphenomenonbecameevenmoreinterestingwhenitwasdiscoveredthatidenticalmaterials,afterhavingbeenrubbed
withtheirrespectivecloths,alwaysrepelledeachother:

Itwasalsonotedthatwhenapieceofglassrubbedwithsilkwasexposedtoapieceofwaxrubbedwithwool,thetwo
materialswouldattractoneanother:

Furthermore,itwasfoundthatanymaterialdemonstratingpropertiesofattractionorrepulsionafterbeingrubbedcouldbe
classedintooneoftwodistinctcategories:attractedtoglassandrepelledbywax,orrepelledbyglassandattractedtowax.
Itwaseitheroneortheother:therewerenomaterialsfoundthatwouldbeattractedtoorrepelledbybothglassandwax,or
thatreactedtoonewithoutreactingtotheother.

Moreattentionwasdirectedtowardthepiecesofclothusedtodotherubbing.Itwasdiscoveredthatafterrubbingtwo
piecesofglasswithtwopiecesofsilkcloth,notonlydidtheglasspiecesrepeleachother,butsodidthecloths.Thesame
phenomenonheldforthepiecesofwoolusedtorubthewax:

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Now,thiswasreallystrangetowitness.Afterall,noneoftheseobjectswerevisiblyalteredbytherubbing,yetthey
definitelybehaveddifferentlythanbeforetheywererubbed.Whateverchangetookplacetomakethesematerialsattractor
repeloneanotherwasinvisible.

Someexperimentersspeculatedthatinvisible"fluids"werebeingtransferredfromoneobjecttoanotherduringtheprocess
ofrubbing,andthatthese"fluids"wereabletoeffectaphysicalforceoveradistance.CharlesDufaywasoneoftheearly
experimenterswhodemonstratedthatthereweredefinitelytwodifferenttypesofchangeswroughtbyrubbingcertainpairs
ofobjectstogether.Thefactthattherewasmorethanonetypeofchangemanifestedinthesematerialswasevidentbythe
factthatthereweretwotypesofforcesproduced:attractionandrepulsion.Thehypotheticalfluidtransferbecameknown
asacharge.

Onepioneeringresearcher,BenjaminFranklin,cametotheconclusionthattherewasonlyonefluidexchangedbetween
rubbedobjects,andthatthetwodifferent"charges"werenothingmorethaneitheranexcessoradeficiencyofthatone
fluid.Afterexperimentingwithwaxandwool,Franklinsuggestedthatthecoarsewoolremovedsomeofthisinvisiblefluid
fromthesmoothwax,causinganexcessoffluidonthewoolandadeficiencyoffluidonthewax.Theresultingdisparity
influidcontentbetweenthewoolandwaxwouldthencauseanattractiveforce,asthefluidtriedtoregainitsformer
balancebetweenthetwomaterials.

Postulatingtheexistenceofasingle"fluid"thatwaseithergainedorlostthroughrubbingaccountedbestfortheobserved
behavior:thatallthesematerialsfellneatlyintooneoftwocategorieswhenrubbed,andmostimportantly,thatthetwo
activematerialsrubbedagainsteachotheralwaysfellintoopposingcategoriesasevidencedbytheirinvariableattraction
tooneanother.Inotherwords,therewasneveratimewheretwomaterialsrubbedagainsteachotherbothbecameeither
positiveornegative.

FollowingFranklin'sspeculationofthewoolrubbingsomethingoffofthewax,thetypeofchargethatwasassociatedwith
rubbedwaxbecameknownas"negative"(becauseitwassupposedtohaveadeficiencyoffluid)whilethetypeofcharge
associatedwiththerubbingwoolbecameknownas"positive"(becauseitwassupposedtohaveanexcessoffluid).Little
didheknowthathisinnocentconjecturewouldcausemuchconfusionforstudentsofelectricityinthefuture!

PrecisemeasurementsofelectricalchargewerecarriedoutbytheFrenchphysicistCharlesCoulombinthe1780'susinga
devicecalledatorsionalbalancemeasuringtheforcegeneratedbetweentwoelectricallychargedobjects.Theresultsof
Coulomb'sworkledtothedevelopmentofaunitofelectricalchargenamedinhishonor,thecoulomb.Iftwo"point"
objects(hypotheticalobjectshavingnoappreciablesurfacearea)wereequallychargedtoameasureof1coulomb,and
placed1meter(approximately1yard)apart,theywouldgenerateaforceofabout9billionnewtons(approximately2
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billionpounds),eitherattractingorrepellingdependingonthetypesofchargesinvolved.Theoperationaldefinitionofa
coulombastheunitofelectricalcharge(intermsofforcegeneratedbetweenpointcharges)wasfoundtobeequaltoan
excessordeficiencyofabout6,250,000,000,000,000,000electrons.Or,statedinreverseterms,oneelectronhasachargeof
about0.00000000000000000016coulombs.Beingthatoneelectronisthesmallestknowncarrierofelectriccharge,this
lastfigureofchargefortheelectronisdefinedastheelementarycharge.

Itwasdiscoveredmuchlaterthatthis"fluid"wasactuallycomposedofextremelysmallbitsofmattercalledelectrons,so
namedinhonoroftheancientGreekwordforamber:anothermaterialexhibitingchargedpropertieswhenrubbedwith
cloth.Experimentationhassincerevealedthatallobjectsarecomposedofextremelysmall"buildingblocks"knownas
atoms,andthattheseatomsareinturncomposedofsmallercomponentsknownasparticles.Thethreefundamental
particlescomprisingmostatomsarecalledprotons,neutronsandelectrons.Whilstthemajorityofatomshavea
combinationofprotons,neutrons,andelectrons,notallatomshaveneutronsanexampleistheprotiumisotope(1H1)of
hydrogen(Hydrogen1)whichisthelightestandmostcommonformofhydrogenwhichonlyhasoneprotonandone
electron.Atomsarefartoosmalltobeseen,butifwecouldlookatone,itmightappearsomethinglikethis:

Eventhougheachatominapieceofmaterialtendstoholdtogetherasaunit,there'sactuallyalotofemptyspacebetween
theelectronsandtheclusterofprotonsandneutronsresidinginthemiddle.

Thiscrudemodelisthatoftheelementcarbon,withsixprotons,sixneutrons,andsixelectrons.Inanyatom,theprotons
andneutronsareverytightlyboundtogether,whichisanimportantquality.Thetightlyboundclumpofprotonsand
neutronsinthecenteroftheatomiscalledthenucleus,andthenumberofprotonsinanatom'snucleusdeterminesits
elementalidentity:changethenumberofprotonsinanatom'snucleus,andyouchangethetypeofatomthatitis.Infact,if
youcouldremovethreeprotonsfromthenucleusofanatomoflead,youwillhaveachievedtheoldalchemists'dreamof
producinganatomofgold!Thetightbindingofprotonsinthenucleusisresponsibleforthestableidentityofchemical
elements,andthefailureofalchemiststoachievetheirdream.

Neutronsaremuchlessinfluentialonthechemicalcharacterandidentityofanatomthanprotons,althoughtheyarejustas
hardtoaddtoorremovefromthenucleus,beingsotightlybound.Ifneutronsareaddedorgained,theatomwillstillretain
thesamechemicalidentity,butitsmasswillchangeslightlyanditmayacquirestrangenuclearpropertiessuchas
radioactivity.

However,electronshavesignificantlymorefreedomtomovearoundinanatomthaneitherprotonsorneutrons.Infact,
theycanbeknockedoutoftheirrespectivepositions(evenleavingtheatomentirely!)byfarlessenergythanwhatittakes
todislodgeparticlesinthenucleus.Ifthishappens,theatomstillretainsitschemicalidentity,butanimportantimbalance
occurs.Electronsandprotonsareuniqueinthefactthattheyareattractedtooneanotheroveradistance.Itisthisattraction
overdistancewhichcausestheattractionbetweenrubbedobjects,whereelectronsaremovedawayfromtheiroriginal
atomstoresidearoundatomsofanotherobject.

Electronstendtorepelotherelectronsoveradistance,asdoprotonswithotherprotons.Theonlyreasonprotonsbind
togetherinthenucleusofanatomisbecauseofamuchstrongerforcecalledthestrongnuclearforcewhichhaseffectonly
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underveryshortdistances.Becauseofthisattraction/repulsionbehaviorbetweenindividualparticles,electronsandprotons
aresaidtohaveoppositeelectriccharges.Thatis,eachelectronhasanegativecharge,andeachprotonapositivecharge.
Inequalnumberswithinanatom,theycounteracteachother'spresencesothatthenetchargewithintheatomiszero.This
iswhythepictureofacarbonatomhadsixelectrons:tobalanceouttheelectricchargeofthesixprotonsinthenucleus.If
electronsleaveorextraelectronsarrive,theatom'snetelectricchargewillbeimbalanced,leavingtheatom"charged"asa
whole,causingittointeractwithchargedparticlesandotherchargedatomsnearby.Neutronsareneitherattractedtoor
repelledbyelectrons,protons,orevenotherneutrons,andareconsequentlycategorizedashavingnochargeatall.

Theprocessofelectronsarrivingorleavingisexactlywhathappenswhencertaincombinationsofmaterialsarerubbed
together:electronsfromtheatomsofonematerialareforcedbytherubbingtoleavetheirrespectiveatomsandtransfer
overtotheatomsoftheothermaterial.Inotherwords,electronscomprisethe"fluid"hypothesizedbyBenjaminFranklin.

Theresultofanimbalanceofthis"fluid"(electrons)betweenobjectsiscalledstaticelectricity.Itiscalled"static"because
thedisplacedelectronstendtoremainstationaryafterbeingmovedfromoneinsulatingmaterialtoanother.Inthecaseof
waxandwool,itwasdeterminedthroughfurtherexperimentationthatelectronsinthewoolactuallytransferredtothe
atomsinthewax,whichisexactlyoppositeofFranklin'sconjecture!InhonorofFranklin'sdesignationofthewax'scharge
being"negative"andthewool'schargebeing"positive,"electronsaresaidtohavea"negative"charginginfluence.Thus,
anobjectwhoseatomshavereceivedasurplusofelectronsissaidtobenegativelycharged,whileanobjectwhoseatoms
arelackingelectronsissaidtobepositivelycharged,asconfusingasthesedesignationsmayseem.Bythetimethetrue
natureofelectric"fluid"wasdiscovered,Franklin'snomenclatureofelectricchargewastoowellestablishedtobeeasily
changed,andsoitremainstothisday.

MichaelFaradayproved(1832)thatstaticelectricitywasthesameasthatproducedbyabatteryoragenerator.Static
electricityis,forthemostpart,anuisance.Blackpowderandsmokelesspowderhavegraphiteaddedtopreventignition
duetostaticelectricity.Itcausesdamagetosensitivesemiconductorcircuitry.Whileitispossibletoproducemotors
poweredbyhighvoltageandlowcurrentcharacteristicofstaticelectricity,thisisnoteconomic.Thefewpractical
applicationsofstaticelectricityincludexerographicprinting,theelectrostaticairfilter,andthehighvoltageVandeGraaff
generator.

REVIEW:
Allmaterialsaremadeupoftiny"buildingblocks"knownasatoms.
Allnaturallyoccurringatomscontainparticlescalledelectrons,protons,andneutrons,withtheexceptionofthe
protiumisotope(1H1)ofhydrogen.
Electronshaveanegative()electriccharge.
Protonshaveapositive(+)electriccharge.
Neutronshavenoelectriccharge.
Electronscanbedislodgedfromatomsmucheasierthanprotonsorneutrons.
Thenumberofprotonsinanatom'snucleusdeterminesitsidentityasauniqueelement.

Conductors,insulators,andelectronflow
Theelectronsofdifferenttypesofatomshavedifferentdegreesoffreedomtomovearound.Withsometypesofmaterials,
suchasmetals,theoutermostelectronsintheatomsaresolooselyboundthattheychaoticallymoveinthespacebetween
theatomsofthatmaterialbynothingmorethantheinfluenceofroomtemperatureheatenergy.Becausethesevirtually
unboundelectronsarefreetoleavetheirrespectiveatomsandfloataroundinthespacebetweenadjacentatoms,theyare
oftencalledfreeelectrons.

Inothertypesofmaterialssuchasglass,theatoms'electronshaveverylittlefreedomtomovearound.Whileexternal
forcessuchasphysicalrubbingcanforcesomeoftheseelectronstoleavetheirrespectiveatomsandtransfertotheatoms
ofanothermaterial,theydonotmovebetweenatomswithinthatmaterialveryeasily.

Thisrelativemobilityofelectronswithinamaterialisknownaselectricconductivity.Conductivityisdeterminedbythe
typesofatomsinamaterial(thenumberofprotonsineachatom'snucleus,determiningitschemicalidentity)andhowthe
atomsarelinkedtogetherwithoneanother.Materialswithhighelectronmobility(manyfreeelectrons)arecalled
conductors,whilematerialswithlowelectronmobility(fewornofreeelectrons)arecalledinsulators.

Hereareafewcommonexamplesofconductorsandinsulators:

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Conductors:
silver
copper
gold
aluminum
iron
steel
brass
bronze
mercury
graphite
dirtywater
concrete

Insulators:
glass
rubber
oil
asphalt
fiberglass
porcelain
ceramic
quartz
(dry)cotton
(dry)paper
(dry)wood
plastic
air
diamond
purewater

Itmustbeunderstoodthatnotallconductivematerialshavethesamelevelofconductivity,andnotallinsulatorsare
equallyresistanttoelectronmotion.Electricalconductivityisanalogoustothetransparencyofcertainmaterialstolight:
materialsthateasily"conduct"lightarecalled"transparent,"whilethosethatdon'tarecalled"opaque."However,notall
transparentmaterialsareequallyconductivetolight.Windowglassisbetterthanmostplastics,andcertainlybetterthan
"clear"fiberglass.Soitiswithelectricalconductors,somebeingbetterthanothers.

Forinstance,silveristhebestconductorinthe"conductors"list,offeringeasierpassageforelectronsthananyother
materialcited.Dirtywaterandconcretearealsolistedasconductors,butthesematerialsaresubstantiallylessconductive
thananymetal.

Itshouldalsobeunderstoodthatsomematerialsexperiencechangesintheirelectricalpropertiesunderdifferent
conditions.Glass,forinstance,isaverygoodinsulatoratroomtemperature,butbecomesaconductorwhenheatedtoa
veryhightemperature.Gasessuchasair,normallyinsulatingmaterials,alsobecomeconductiveifheatedtoveryhigh
temperatures.Mostmetalsbecomepoorerconductorswhenheated,andbetterconductorswhencooled.Manyconductive
materialsbecomeperfectlyconductive(thisiscalledsuperconductivity)atextremelylowtemperatures.

Whilethenormalmotionof"free"electronsinaconductorisrandom,withnoparticulardirectionorspeed,electronscan
beinfluencedtomoveinacoordinatedfashionthroughaconductivematerial.Thisuniformmotionofelectronsiswhatwe
callelectricity,orelectriccurrent.Tobemoreprecise,itcouldbecalleddynamicelectricityincontrasttostaticelectricity,
whichisanunmovingaccumulationofelectriccharge.Justlikewaterflowingthroughtheemptinessofapipe,electrons
areabletomovewithintheemptyspacewithinandbetweentheatomsofaconductor.Theconductormayappeartobe
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solidtooureyes,butanymaterialcomposedofatomsismostlyemptyspace!Theliquidflowanalogyissofittingthatthe
motionofelectronsthroughaconductorisoftenreferredtoasa"flow."

Anoteworthyobservationmaybemadehere.Aseachelectronmovesuniformlythroughaconductor,itpushesontheone
aheadofit,suchthatalltheelectronsmovetogetherasagroup.Thestartingandstoppingofelectronflowthroughthe
lengthofaconductivepathisvirtuallyinstantaneousfromoneendofaconductortotheother,eventhoughthemotionof
eachelectronmaybeveryslow.Anapproximateanalogyisthatofatubefilledendtoendwithmarbles:

Thetubeisfullofmarbles,justasaconductorisfulloffreeelectronsreadytobemovedbyanoutsideinfluence.Ifa
singlemarbleissuddenlyinsertedintothisfulltubeonthelefthandside,anothermarblewillimmediatelytrytoexitthe
tubeontheright.Eventhougheachmarbleonlytraveledashortdistance,thetransferofmotionthroughthetubeis
virtuallyinstantaneousfromtheleftendtotherightend,nomatterhowlongthetubeis.Withelectricity,theoveralleffect
fromoneendofaconductortotheotherhappensatthespeedoflight:aswift186,000milespersecond!!!Eachindividual
electron,though,travelsthroughtheconductoratamuchslowerpace.

Ifwewantelectronstoflowinacertaindirectiontoacertainplace,wemustprovidetheproperpathforthemtomove,just
asaplumbermustinstallpipingtogetwatertoflowwhereheorshewantsittoflow.Tofacilitatethis,wiresaremadeof
highlyconductivemetalssuchascopperoraluminuminawidevarietyofsizes.

Rememberthatelectronscanflowonlywhentheyhavetheopportunitytomoveinthespacebetweentheatomsofa
material.Thismeansthattherecanbeelectriccurrentonlywherethereexistsacontinuouspathofconductivematerial
providingaconduitforelectronstotravelthrough.Inthemarbleanalogy,marblescanflowintothelefthandsideofthe
tube(and,consequently,throughthetube)ifandonlyifthetubeisopenontherighthandsideformarblestoflowout.If
thetubeisblockedontherighthandside,themarbleswilljust"pileup"insidethetube,andmarble"flow"willnotoccur.
Thesameholdstrueforelectriccurrent:thecontinuousflowofelectronsrequirestherebeanunbrokenpathtopermitthat
flow.Let'slookatadiagramtoillustratehowthisworks:

Athin,solidline(asshownabove)istheconventionalsymbolforacontinuouspieceofwire.Sincethewireismadeofa
conductivematerial,suchascopper,itsconstituentatomshavemanyfreeelectronswhichcaneasilymovethroughthe
wire.However,therewillneverbeacontinuousoruniformflowofelectronswithinthiswireunlesstheyhaveaplaceto
comefromandaplacetogo.Let'saddahypotheticalelectron"Source"and"Destination:"

Now,withtheElectronSourcepushingnewelectronsintothewireonthelefthandside,electronflowthroughthewire
canoccur(asindicatedbythearrowspointingfromlefttoright).However,theflowwillbeinterruptediftheconductive
pathformedbythewireisbroken:

Sinceairisaninsulatingmaterial,andanairgapseparatesthetwopiecesofwire,theoncecontinuouspathhasnowbeen
broken,andelectronscannotflowfromSourcetoDestination.Thisislikecuttingawaterpipeintwoandcappingoffthe
brokenendsofthepipe:watercan'tflowifthere'snoexitoutofthepipe.Inelectricalterms,wehadaconditionof
electricalcontinuitywhenthewirewasinonepiece,andnowthatcontinuityisbrokenwiththewirecutandseparated.

IfweweretotakeanotherpieceofwireleadingtotheDestinationandsimplymakephysicalcontactwiththewireleading
totheSource,wewouldonceagainhaveacontinuouspathforelectronstoflow.Thetwodotsinthediagramindicate
physical(metaltometal)contactbetweenthewirepieces:

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Now,wehavecontinuityfromtheSource,tothenewlymadeconnection,down,totheright,anduptotheDestination.
Thisisanalogoustoputtinga"tee"fittinginoneofthecappedoffpipesanddirectingwaterthroughanewsegmentof
pipetoitsdestination.Pleasetakenotethatthebrokensegmentofwireontherighthandsidehasnoelectronsflowing
throughit,becauseitisnolongerpartofacompletepathfromSourcetoDestination.

Itisinterestingtonotethatno"wear"occurswithinwiresduetothiselectriccurrent,unlikewatercarryingpipeswhichare
eventuallycorrodedandwornbyprolongedflows.Electronsdoencountersomedegreeoffrictionastheymove,however,
andthisfrictioncangenerateheatinaconductor.Thisisatopicwe'llexploreinmuchgreaterdetaillater.

REVIEW:
Inconductivematerials,theouterelectronsineachatomcaneasilycomeorgo,andarecalledfreeelectrons.
Ininsulatingmaterials,theouterelectronsarenotsofreetomove.
Allmetalsareelectricallyconductive.
Dynamicelectricity,orelectriccurrent,istheuniformmotionofelectronsthroughaconductor.
Staticelectricityisanunmoving(ifonaninsulator),accumulatedchargeformedbyeitheranexcessordeficiencyof
electronsinanobject.Itistypicallyformedbychargeseparationbycontactandseparationofdissimilarmaterials.
Forelectronstoflowcontinuously(indefinitely)throughaconductor,theremustbeacomplete,unbrokenpathfor
themtomovebothintoandoutofthatconductor.

Electriccircuits
Youmighthavebeenwonderinghowelectronscancontinuouslyflowinauniformdirectionthroughwireswithoutthe
benefitofthesehypotheticalelectronSourcesandDestinations.InorderfortheSourceandDestinationschemetowork,
bothwouldhavetohaveaninfinitecapacityforelectronsinordertosustainacontinuousflow!Usingthemarbleandtube
analogy,themarblesourceandmarbledestinationbucketswouldhavetobeinfinitelylargetocontainenoughmarble
capacityfora"flow"ofmarblestobesustained.

Theanswertothisparadoxisfoundintheconceptofacircuit:aneverendingloopedpathwayforelectrons.Ifwetakea
wire,ormanywiresjoinedendtoend,andloopitaroundsothatitformsacontinuouspathway,wehavethemeansto
supportauniformflowofelectronswithouthavingtoresorttoinfiniteSourcesandDestinations:

Eachelectronadvancingclockwiseinthiscircuitpushesontheoneinfrontofit,whichpushesontheoneinfrontofit,and
soon,andsoon,justlikeahulahoopfilledwithmarbles.Now,wehavethecapabilityofsupportingacontinuousflowof
electronsindefinitelywithouttheneedforinfiniteelectronsuppliesanddumps.Allweneedtomaintainthisflowisa
continuousmeansofmotivationforthoseelectrons,whichwe'lladdressinthenextsectionofthischapter.

Itmustberealizedthatcontinuityisjustasimportantinacircuitasitisinastraightpieceofwire.Justasintheexample
withthestraightpieceofwirebetweentheelectronSourceandDestination,anybreakinthiscircuitwillpreventelectrons
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fromflowingthroughit:

Animportantprincipletorealizehereisthatitdoesn'tmatterwherethebreakoccurs.Anydiscontinuityinthecircuitwill
preventelectronflowthroughouttheentirecircuit.Unlessthereisacontinuous,unbrokenloopofconductivematerialfor
electronstoflowthrough,asustainedflowsimplycannotbemaintained.

REVIEW:
Acircuitisanunbrokenloopofconductivematerialthatallowselectronstoflowthroughcontinuouslywithout
beginningorend.
Ifacircuitis"broken,"thatmeansitsconductiveelementsnolongerformacompletepath,andcontinuouselectron
flowcannotoccurinit.
Thelocationofabreakinacircuitisirrelevanttoitsinabilitytosustaincontinuouselectronflow.Anybreak,
anywhereinacircuitpreventselectronflowthroughoutthecircuit.

Voltageandcurrent
Aswaspreviouslymentioned,weneedmorethanjustacontinuouspath(circuit)beforeacontinuousflowofelectronswill
occur:wealsoneedsomemeanstopushtheseelectronsaroundthecircuit.Justlikemarblesinatubeorwaterinapipe,it
takessomekindofinfluencingforcetoinitiateflow.Withelectrons,thisforceisthesameforceatworkinstatic
electricity:theforceproducedbyanimbalanceofelectriccharge.

Ifwetaketheexamplesofwaxandwoolwhichhavebeenrubbedtogether,wefindthatthesurplusofelectronsinthewax
(negativecharge)andthedeficitofelectronsinthewool(positivecharge)createsanimbalanceofchargebetweenthem.
Thisimbalancemanifestsitselfasanattractiveforcebetweenthetwoobjects:
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Ifaconductivewireisplacedbetweenthechargedwaxandwool,electronswillflowthroughit,assomeoftheexcess
electronsinthewaxrushthroughthewiretogetbacktothewool,fillingthedeficiencyofelectronsthere:

Theimbalanceofelectronsbetweentheatomsinthewaxandtheatomsinthewoolcreatesaforcebetweenthetwo
materials.Withnopathforelectronstoflowfromthewaxtothewool,allthisforcecandoisattractthetwoobjects
together.Nowthataconductorbridgestheinsulatinggap,however,theforcewillprovokeelectronstoflowinauniform
directionthroughthewire,ifonlymomentarily,untilthechargeinthatareaneutralizesandtheforcebetweenthewaxand
wooldiminishes.

Theelectricchargeformedbetweenthesetwomaterialsbyrubbingthemtogetherservestostoreacertainamountof
energy.Thisenergyisnotunliketheenergystoredinahighreservoirofwaterthathasbeenpumpedfromalowerlevel
pond:

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Theinfluenceofgravityonthewaterinthereservoircreatesaforcethatattemptstomovethewaterdowntothelower
levelagain.Ifasuitablepipeisrunfromthereservoirbacktothepond,waterwillflowundertheinfluenceofgravity
downfromthereservoir,throughthepipe:

Ittakesenergytopumpthatwaterfromthelowlevelpondtothehighlevelreservoir,andthemovementofwaterthrough
thepipingbackdowntoitsoriginallevelconstitutesareleasingofenergystoredfrompreviouspumping.

Ifthewaterispumpedtoanevenhigherlevel,itwilltakeevenmoreenergytodoso,thusmoreenergywillbestored,and
moreenergyreleasedifthewaterisallowedtoflowthroughapipebackdownagain:

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Electronsarenotmuchdifferent.Ifwerubwaxandwooltogether,we"pump"electronsawayfromtheirnormal"levels,"
creatingaconditionwhereaforceexistsbetweenthewaxandwool,astheelectronsseektoreestablishtheirformer
positions(andbalancewithintheirrespectiveatoms).Theforceattractingelectronsbacktotheiroriginalpositionsaround
thepositivenucleioftheiratomsisanalogoustotheforcegravityexertsonwaterinthereservoir,tryingtodrawitdownto
itsformerlevel.

Justasthepumpingofwatertoahigherlevelresultsinenergybeingstored,"pumping"electronstocreateanelectric
chargeimbalanceresultsinacertainamountofenergybeingstoredinthatimbalance.And,justasprovidingawayfor
watertoflowbackdownfromtheheightsofthereservoirresultsinareleaseofthatstoredenergy,providingawayfor
electronstoflowbacktotheiroriginal"levels"resultsinareleaseofstoredenergy.

Whentheelectronsarepoisedinthatstaticcondition(justlikewatersittingstill,highinareservoir),theenergystored
thereiscalledpotentialenergy,becauseithasthepossibility(potential)ofreleasethathasnotbeenfullyrealizedyet.

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Whenyouscuffyourrubbersoledshoesagainstafabriccarpetonadryday,youcreateanimbalanceofelectriccharge
betweenyourselfandthecarpet.Theactionofscuffingyourfeetstoresenergyintheformofanimbalanceofelectrons
forcedfromtheiroriginallocations.Thischarge(staticelectricity)isstationary,andyouwon'trealizethatenergyisbeing
storedatall.However,onceyouplaceyourhandagainstametaldoorknob(withlotsofelectronmobilitytoneutralizeyour
electriccharge),thatstoredenergywillbereleasedintheformofasuddenflowofelectronsthroughyourhand,andyou
willperceiveitasanelectricshock!

Thispotentialenergy,storedintheformofanelectricchargeimbalanceandcapableofprovokingelectronstoflow
throughaconductor,canbeexpressedasatermcalledvoltage,whichtechnicallyisameasureofpotentialenergyperunit
chargeofelectrons,orsomethingaphysicistwouldcallspecificpotentialenergy.Definedinthecontextofstatic
electricity,voltageisthemeasureofworkrequiredtomoveaunitchargefromonelocationtoanother,againsttheforce
whichtriestokeepelectricchargesbalanced.Inthecontextofelectricalpowersources,voltageistheamountofpotential
energyavailable(worktobedone)perunitcharge,tomoveelectronsthroughaconductor.

Becausevoltageisanexpressionofpotentialenergy,representingthepossibilityorpotentialforenergyreleaseasthe
electronsmovefromone"level"toanother,itisalwaysreferencedbetweentwopoints.Considerthewaterreservoir
analogy:

Becauseofthedifferenceintheheightofthedrop,there'spotentialformuchmoreenergytobereleasedfromthereservoir
throughthepipingtolocation2thantolocation1.Theprinciplecanbeintuitivelyunderstoodindroppingarock:which
resultsinamoreviolentimpact,arockdroppedfromaheightofonefoot,orthesamerockdroppedfromaheightofone
mile?Obviously,thedropofgreaterheightresultsingreaterenergyreleased(amoreviolentimpact).Wecannotassessthe
amountofstoredenergyinawaterreservoirsimplybymeasuringthevolumeofwateranymorethanwecanpredictthe
severityofafallingrock'simpactsimplyfromknowingtheweightoftherock:inbothcaseswemustalsoconsiderhow
farthesemasseswilldropfromtheirinitialheight.Theamountofenergyreleasedbyallowingamasstodropisrelativeto
thedistancebetweenitsstartingandendingpoints.Likewise,thepotentialenergyavailableformovingelectronsfromone
pointtoanotherisrelativetothosetwopoints.Therefore,voltageisalwaysexpressedasaquantitybetweentwopoints.
Interestinglyenough,theanalogyofamasspotentially"dropping"fromoneheighttoanotherissuchanaptmodelthat
voltagebetweentwopointsissometimescalledavoltagedrop.

Voltagecanbegeneratedbymeansotherthanrubbingcertaintypesofmaterialsagainsteachother.Chemicalreactions,
radiantenergy,andtheinfluenceofmagnetismonconductorsareafewwaysinwhichvoltagemaybeproduced.
Respectiveexamplesofthesethreesourcesofvoltagearebatteries,solarcells,andgenerators(suchasthe"alternator"unit
underthehoodofyourautomobile).Fornow,wewon'tgointodetailastohoweachofthesevoltagesourcesworks
moreimportantisthatweunderstandhowvoltagesourcescanbeappliedtocreateelectronflowinacircuit.

Let'stakethesymbolforachemicalbatteryandbuildacircuitstepbystep:

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Anysourceofvoltage,includingbatteries,havetwopointsforelectricalcontact.Inthiscase,wehavepoint1andpoint2
intheabovediagram.Thehorizontallinesofvaryinglengthindicatethatthisisabattery,andtheyfurtherindicatethe
directionwhichthisbattery'svoltagewilltrytopushelectronsthroughacircuit.Thefactthatthehorizontallinesinthe
batterysymbolappearseparated(andthusunabletoserveasapathforelectronstomove)isnocauseforconcern:inreal
life,thosehorizontallinesrepresentmetallicplatesimmersedinaliquidorsemisolidmaterialthatnotonlyconducts
electrons,butalsogeneratesthevoltagetopushthemalongbyinteractingwiththeplates.

Noticethelittle"+"and""signstotheimmediateleftofthebatterysymbol.Thenegative()endofthebatteryisalways
theendwiththeshortestdash,andthepositive(+)endofthebatteryisalwaystheendwiththelongestdash.Sincewe
havedecidedtocallelectrons"negatively"charged(thanks,Ben!),thenegativeendofabatteryisthatendwhichtriesto
pushelectronsoutofit.Likewise,thepositiveendisthatendwhichtriestoattractelectrons.

Withthe"+"and""endsofthebatterynotconnectedtoanything,therewillbevoltagebetweenthosetwopoints,but
therewillbenoflowofelectronsthroughthebattery,becausethereisnocontinuouspathfortheelectronstomove.

Thesameprincipleholdstrueforthewaterreservoirandpumpanalogy:withoutareturnpipebacktothepond,stored
energyinthereservoircannotbereleasedintheformofwaterflow.Oncethereservoiriscompletelyfilledup,noflowcan
occur,nomatterhowmuchpressurethepumpmaygenerate.Thereneedstobeacompletepath(circuit)forwatertoflow
fromthepond,tothereservoir,andbacktothepondinorderforcontinuousflowtooccur.

Wecanprovidesuchapathforthebatterybyconnectingapieceofwirefromoneendofthebatterytotheother.Forming
acircuitwithaloopofwire,wewillinitiateacontinuousflowofelectronsinaclockwisedirection:

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Solongasthebatterycontinuestoproducevoltageandthecontinuityoftheelectricalpathisn'tbroken,electronswill
continuetoflowinthecircuit.Followingthemetaphorofwatermovingthroughapipe,thiscontinuous,uniformflowof
electronsthroughthecircuitiscalledacurrent.Solongasthevoltagesourcekeeps"pushing"inthesamedirection,the
electronflowwillcontinuetomoveinthesamedirectioninthecircuit.Thissingledirectionflowofelectronsiscalleda
DirectCurrent,orDC.Inthesecondvolumeofthisbookseries,electriccircuitsareexploredwherethedirectionof
currentswitchesbackandforth:AlternatingCurrent,orAC.Butfornow,we'lljustconcernourselveswithDCcircuits.

Becauseelectriccurrentiscomposedofindividualelectronsflowinginunisonthroughaconductorbymovingalongand
pushingontheelectronsahead,justlikemarblesthroughatubeorwaterthroughapipe,theamountofflowthroughouta
singlecircuitwillbethesameatanypoint.Ifweweretomonitoracrosssectionofthewireinasinglecircuit,counting
theelectronsflowingby,wewouldnoticetheexactsamequantityperunitoftimeasinanyotherpartofthecircuit,
regardlessofconductorlengthorconductordiameter.

Ifwebreakthecircuit'scontinuityatanypoint,theelectriccurrentwillceaseintheentireloop,andthefullvoltage
producedbythebatterywillbemanifestedacrossthebreak,betweenthewireendsthatusedtobeconnected:

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Noticethe"+"and""signsdrawnattheendsofthebreakinthecircuit,andhowtheycorrespondtothe"+"and""signs
nexttothebattery'sterminals.Thesemarkersindicatethedirectionthatthevoltageattemptstopushelectronflow,that
potentialdirectioncommonlyreferredtoaspolarity.Rememberthatvoltageisalwaysrelativebetweentwopoints.
Becauseofthisfact,thepolarityofavoltagedropisalsorelativebetweentwopoints:whetherapointinacircuitgets
labeledwitha"+"ora""dependsontheotherpointtowhichitisreferenced.Takealookatthefollowingcircuit,where
eachcorneroftheloopismarkedwithanumberforreference:

Withthecircuit'scontinuitybrokenbetweenpoints2and3,thepolarityofthevoltagedroppedbetweenpoints2and3is"
"forpoint2and"+"forpoint3.Thebattery'spolarity(1""and4"+")istryingtopushelectronsthroughtheloop
clockwisefrom1to2to3to4andbackto1again.

Nowlet'sseewhathappensifweconnectpoints2and3backtogetheragain,butplaceabreakinthecircuitbetweenpoints
3and4:

Withthebreakbetween3and4,thepolarityofthevoltagedropbetweenthosetwopointsis"+"for4and""for3.Take
specialnoteofthefactthatpoint3's"sign"isoppositeofthatinthefirstexample,wherethebreakwasbetweenpoints2
and3(wherepoint3waslabeled"+").Itisimpossibleforustosaythatpoint3inthiscircuitwillalwaysbeeither"+"or
"",becausepolarity,likevoltageitself,isnotspecifictoasinglepoint,butisalwaysrelativebetweentwopoints!

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REVIEW:
Electronscanbemotivatedtoflowthroughaconductorbythesameforcemanifestedinstaticelectricity.
Voltageisthemeasureofspecificpotentialenergy(potentialenergyperunitcharge)betweentwolocations.In
layman'sterms,itisthemeasureof"push"availabletomotivateelectrons.
Voltage,asanexpressionofpotentialenergy,isalwaysrelativebetweentwolocations,orpoints.Sometimesitis
calledavoltage"drop."
Whenavoltagesourceisconnectedtoacircuit,thevoltagewillcauseauniformflowofelectronsthroughthat
circuitcalledacurrent.
Inasingle(oneloop)circuit,theamountofcurrentatanypointisthesameastheamountofcurrentatanyother
point.
Ifacircuitcontainingavoltagesourceisbroken,thefullvoltageofthatsourcewillappearacrossthepointsofthe
break.
The+/orientationofavoltagedropiscalledthepolarity.Itisalsorelativebetweentwopoints.

Resistance
Thecircuitintheprevioussectionisnotaverypracticalone.Infact,itcanbequitedangeroustobuild(directlyconnecting
thepolesofavoltagesourcetogetherwithasinglepieceofwire).Thereasonitisdangerousisbecausethemagnitudeof
electriccurrentmaybeverylargeinsuchashortcircuit,andthereleaseofenergyverydramatic(usuallyintheformof
heat).Usually,electriccircuitsareconstructedinsuchawayastomakepracticaluseofthatreleasedenergy,inassafea
manneraspossible.

Onepracticalandpopularuseofelectriccurrentisfortheoperationofelectriclighting.Thesimplestformofelectriclamp
isatinymetal"filament"insideofaclearglassbulb,whichglowswhitehot("incandesces")withheatenergywhen
sufficientelectriccurrentpassesthroughit.Likethebattery,ithastwoconductiveconnectionpoints,oneforelectronsto
enterandtheotherforelectronstoexit.

Connectedtoasourceofvoltage,anelectriclampcircuitlookssomethinglikethis:

Astheelectronsworktheirwaythroughthethinmetalfilamentofthelamp,theyencountermoreoppositiontomotion
thantheytypicallywouldinathickpieceofwire.Thisoppositiontoelectriccurrentdependsonthetypeofmaterial,its
crosssectionalarea,anditstemperature.Itistechnicallyknownasresistance.(Itcanbesaidthatconductorshavelow
resistanceandinsulatorshaveveryhighresistance.)Thisresistanceservestolimittheamountofcurrentthroughthecircuit
withagivenamountofvoltagesuppliedbythebattery,ascomparedwiththe"shortcircuit"wherewehadnothingbuta
wirejoiningoneendofthevoltagesource(battery)totheother.

Whenelectronsmoveagainsttheoppositionofresistance,"friction"isgenerated.Justlikemechanicalfriction,thefriction
producedbyelectronsflowingagainstaresistancemanifestsitselfintheformofheat.Theconcentratedresistanceofa
lamp'sfilamentresultsinarelativelylargeamountofheatenergydissipatedatthatfilament.Thisheatenergyisenoughto
causethefilamenttoglowwhitehot,producinglight,whereasthewiresconnectingthelamptothebattery(whichhave
muchlowerresistance)hardlyevengetwarmwhileconductingthesameamountofcurrent.

Asinthecaseoftheshortcircuit,ifthecontinuityofthecircuitisbrokenatanypoint,electronflowstopsthroughoutthe
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entirecircuit.Withalampinplace,thismeansthatitwillstopglowing:

Asbefore,withnoflowofelectrons,theentirepotential(voltage)ofthebatteryisavailableacrossthebreak,waitingfor
theopportunityofaconnectiontobridgeacrossthatbreakandpermitelectronflowagain.Thisconditionisknownasan
opencircuit,whereabreakinthecontinuityofthecircuitpreventscurrentthroughout.Allittakesisasinglebreakin
continuityto"open"acircuit.Onceanybreakshavebeenconnectedonceagainandthecontinuityofthecircuitre
established,itisknownasaclosedcircuit.

Whatweseehereisthebasisforswitchinglampsonandoffbyremoteswitches.Becauseanybreakinacircuit's
continuityresultsincurrentstoppingthroughouttheentirecircuit,wecanuseadevicedesignedtointentionallybreakthat
continuity(calledaswitch),mountedatanyconvenientlocationthatwecanrunwiresto,tocontroltheflowofelectronsin
thecircuit:

Thisishowaswitchmountedonthewallofahousecancontrolalampthatismounteddownalonghallway,orevenin
anotherroom,farawayfromtheswitch.Theswitchitselfisconstructedofapairofconductivecontacts(usuallymadeof
somekindofmetal)forcedtogetherbyamechanicalleveractuatororpushbutton.Whenthecontactstoucheachother,
electronsareabletoflowfromonetotheotherandthecircuit'scontinuityisestablishedwhenthecontactsareseparated,
electronflowfromonetotheotherispreventedbytheinsulationoftheairbetween,andthecircuit'scontinuityisbroken.

Perhapsthebestkindofswitchtoshowforillustrationofthebasicprincipleisthe"knife"switch:

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Aknifeswitchisnothingmorethanaconductivelever,freetopivotonahinge,comingintophysicalcontactwithoneor
morestationarycontactpointswhicharealsoconductive.Theswitchshownintheaboveillustrationisconstructedona
porcelainbase(anexcellentinsulatingmaterial),usingcopper(anexcellentconductor)forthe"blade"andcontactpoints.
Thehandleisplastictoinsulatetheoperator'shandfromtheconductivebladeoftheswitchwhenopeningorclosingit.

Hereisanothertypeofknifeswitch,withtwostationarycontactsinsteadofone:

Theparticularknifeswitchshownherehasone"blade"buttwostationarycontacts,meaningthatitcanmakeorbreak
morethanonecircuit.Fornowthisisnotterriblyimportanttobeawareof,justthebasicconceptofwhataswitchisand
howitworks.

Knifeswitchesaregreatforillustratingthebasicprincipleofhowaswitchworks,buttheypresentdistinctsafetyproblems
whenusedinhighpowerelectriccircuits.Theexposedconductorsinaknifeswitchmakeaccidentalcontactwiththe
circuitadistinctpossibility,andanysparkingthatmayoccurbetweenthemovingbladeandthestationarycontactisfreeto
igniteanynearbyflammablematerials.Mostmodernswitchdesignshavetheirmovingconductorsandcontactpoints
sealedinsideaninsulatingcaseinordertomitigatethesehazards.Aphotographofafewmodernswitchtypesshowhow
theswitchingmechanismsaremuchmoreconcealedthanwiththeknifedesign:

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Inkeepingwiththe"open"and"closed"terminologyofcircuits,aswitchthatismakingcontactfromoneconnection
terminaltotheother(example:aknifeswitchwiththebladefullytouchingthestationarycontactpoint)providescontinuity
forelectronstoflowthrough,andiscalledaclosedswitch.Conversely,aswitchthatisbreakingcontinuity(example:a
knifeswitchwiththebladenottouchingthestationarycontactpoint)won'tallowelectronstopassthroughandiscalledan
openswitch.Thisterminologyisoftenconfusingtothenewstudentofelectronics,becausethewords"open"and"closed"
arecommonlyunderstoodinthecontextofadoor,where"open"isequatedwithfreepassageand"closed"withblockage.
Withelectricalswitches,thesetermshaveoppositemeaning:"open"meansnoflowwhile"closed"meansfreepassageof
electrons.

REVIEW:
Resistanceisthemeasureofoppositiontoelectriccurrent.
Ashortcircuitisanelectriccircuitofferinglittleornoresistancetotheflowofelectrons.Shortcircuitsare
dangerouswithhighvoltagepowersourcesbecausethehighcurrentsencounteredcancauselargeamountsofheat
energytobereleased.
Anopencircuitisonewherethecontinuityhasbeenbrokenbyaninterruptioninthepathforelectronstoflow.
Aclosedcircuitisonethatiscomplete,withgoodcontinuitythroughout.
Adevicedesignedtoopenorcloseacircuitundercontrolledconditionsiscalledaswitch.
Theterms"open"and"closed"refertoswitchesaswellasentirecircuits.Anopenswitchisonewithoutcontinuity:
electronscannotflowthroughit.Aclosedswitchisonethatprovidesadirect(lowresistance)pathforelectronsto
flowthrough.

Voltageandcurrentinapracticalcircuit
Becauseittakesenergytoforceelectronstoflowagainsttheoppositionofaresistance,therewillbevoltagemanifested(or
"dropped")betweenanypointsinacircuitwithresistancebetweenthem.Itisimportanttonotethatalthoughtheamountof
current(thequantityofelectronsmovingpastagivenpointeverysecond)isuniforminasimplecircuit,theamountof
voltage(potentialenergyperunitcharge)betweendifferentsetsofpointsinasinglecircuitmayvaryconsiderably:

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Takethiscircuitasanexample.Ifwelabelfourpointsinthiscircuitwiththenumbers1,2,3,and4,wewillfindthatthe
amountofcurrentconductedthroughthewirebetweenpoints1and2isexactlythesameastheamountofcurrent
conductedthroughthelamp(betweenpoints2and3).Thissamequantityofcurrentpassesthroughthewirebetween
points3and4,andthroughthebattery(betweenpoints1and4).

However,wewillfindthevoltageappearingbetweenanytwoofthesepointstobedirectlyproportionaltotheresistance
withintheconductivepathbetweenthosetwopoints,giventhattheamountofcurrentalonganypartofthecircuit'spathis
thesame(which,forthissimplecircuit,itis).Inanormallampcircuit,theresistanceofalampwillbemuchgreaterthan
theresistanceoftheconnectingwires,soweshouldexpecttoseeasubstantialamountofvoltagebetweenpoints2and3,
withverylittlebetweenpoints1and2,orbetween3and4.Thevoltagebetweenpoints1and4,ofcourse,willbethefull
amountof"force"offeredbythebattery,whichwillbeonlyslightlygreaterthanthevoltageacrossthelamp(between
points2and3).

This,again,isanalogoustothewaterreservoirsystem:

Betweenpoints2and3,wherethefallingwaterisreleasingenergyatthewaterwheel,thereisadifferenceofpressure
betweenthetwopoints,reflectingtheoppositiontotheflowofwaterthroughthewaterwheel.Frompoint1topoint2,or
frompoint3topoint4,wherewaterisflowingfreelythroughreservoirswithlittleopposition,thereislittleorno
differenceofpressure(nopotentialenergy).However,therateofwaterflowinthiscontinuoussystemisthesame
everywhere(assumingthewaterlevelsinbothpondandreservoirareunchanging):throughthepump,throughthewater
wheel,andthroughallthepipes.Soitiswithsimpleelectriccircuits:therateofelectronflowisthesameateverypointin
thecircuit,althoughvoltagesmaydifferbetweendifferentsetsofpoints.
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Conventionalversuselectronflow
"Thenicethingaboutstandardsisthattherearesomanyofthemtochoosefrom."

AndrewS.Tanenbaum,computerscienceprofessor

WhenBenjaminFranklinmadehisconjectureregardingthedirectionofchargeflow(fromthesmoothwaxtotherough
wool),hesetaprecedentforelectricalnotationthatexiststothisday,despitethefactthatweknowelectronsarethe
constituentunitsofcharge,andthattheyaredisplacedfromthewooltothewaxnotfromthewaxtothewoolwhen
thosetwosubstancesarerubbedtogether.Thisiswhyelectronsaresaidtohaveanegativecharge:becauseFranklin
assumedelectricchargemovedintheoppositedirectionthatitactuallydoes,andsoobjectshecalled"negative"
(representingadeficiencyofcharge)actuallyhaveasurplusofelectrons.

Bythetimethetruedirectionofelectronflowwasdiscovered,thenomenclatureof"positive"and"negative"hadalready
beensowellestablishedinthescientificcommunitythatnoeffortwasmadetochangeit,althoughcallingelectrons
"positive"wouldmakemoresenseinreferringto"excess"charge.Yousee,theterms"positive"and"negative"arehuman
inventions,andassuchhavenoabsolutemeaningbeyondourownconventionsoflanguageandscientificdescription.
Franklincouldhavejustaseasilyreferredtoasurplusofchargeas"black"andadeficiencyas"white,"inwhichcase
scientistswouldspeakofelectronshavinga"white"charge(assumingthesameincorrectconjectureofchargeposition
betweenwaxandwool).

However,becausewetendtoassociatetheword"positive"with"surplus"and"negative"with"deficiency,"thestandard
labelforelectronchargedoesseembackward.Becauseofthis,manyengineersdecidedtoretaintheoldconceptof
electricitywith"positive"referringtoasurplusofcharge,andlabelchargeflow(current)accordingly.Thisbecameknown
asconventionalflownotation:

Otherschosetodesignatechargeflowaccordingtotheactualmotionofelectronsinacircuit.Thisformofsymbology
becameknownaselectronflownotation:

Inconventionalflownotation,weshowthemotionofchargeaccordingtothe(technicallyincorrect)labelsof+and.This
waythelabelsmakesense,butthedirectionofchargeflowisincorrect.Inelectronflownotation,wefollowtheactual
motionofelectronsinthecircuit,butthe+andlabelsseembackward.Doesitmatter,really,howwedesignatecharge
flowinacircuit?Notreally,solongaswe'reconsistentintheuseofoursymbols.Youmayfollowanimagineddirection
ofcurrent(conventionalflow)ortheactual(electronflow)withequalsuccessinsofarascircuitanalysisisconcerned.
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Conceptsofvoltage,current,resistance,continuity,andevenmathematicaltreatmentssuchasOhm'sLaw(chapter2)and
Kirchhoff'sLaws(chapter6)remainjustasvalidwitheitherstyleofnotation.

Youwillfindconventionalflownotationfollowedbymostelectricalengineers,andillustratedinmostengineering
textbooks.Electronflowismostoftenseeninintroductorytextbooks(thisoneincluded)andinthewritingsofprofessional
scientists,especiallysolidstatephysicistswhoareconcernedwiththeactualmotionofelectronsinsubstances.These
preferencesarecultural,inthesensethatcertaingroupsofpeoplehavefounditadvantageoustoenvisionelectriccurrent
motionincertainways.Beingthatmostanalysesofelectriccircuitsdonotdependonatechnicallyaccuratedepictionof
chargeflow,thechoicebetweenconventionalflownotationandelectronflownotationisarbitrary...almost.

Manyelectricaldevicestoleraterealcurrentsofeitherdirectionwithnodifferenceinoperation.Incandescentlamps(the
typeutilizingathinmetalfilamentthatglowswhitehotwithsufficientcurrent),forexample,producelightwithequal
efficiencyregardlessofcurrentdirection.Theyevenfunctionwellonalternatingcurrent(AC),wherethedirectionchanges
rapidlyovertime.Conductorsandswitchesoperateirrespectiveofcurrentdirection,aswell.Thetechnicaltermforthis
irrelevanceofchargeflowisnonpolarization.Wecouldsaythen,thatincandescentlamps,switches,andwiresare
nonpolarizedcomponents.Conversely,anydevicethatfunctionsdifferentlyoncurrentsofdifferentdirectionwouldbe
calledapolarizeddevice.

Therearemanysuchpolarizeddevicesusedinelectriccircuits.Mostofthemaremadeofsocalledsemiconductor
substances,andassucharen'texaminedindetailuntilthethirdvolumeofthisbookseries.Likeswitches,lamps,and
batteries,eachofthesedevicesisrepresentedinaschematicdiagrambyauniquesymbol.Asonemightguess,polarized
devicesymbolstypicallycontainanarrowwithinthem,somewhere,todesignateapreferredorexclusivedirectionof
current.Thisiswherethecompetingnotationsofconventionalandelectronflowreallymatter.Becauseengineersfrom
longagohavesettledonconventionalflowastheir"culture's"standardnotation,andbecauseengineersarethesame
peoplewhoinventelectricaldevicesandthesymbolsrepresentingthem,thearrowsusedinthesedevices'symbolsallpoint
inthedirectionofconventionalflow,notelectronflow.Thatistosay,allofthesedevices'symbolshavearrowmarksthat
pointagainsttheactualflowofelectronsthroughthem.

Perhapsthebestexampleofapolarizeddeviceisthediode.Adiodeisaoneway"valve"forelectriccurrent,analogousto
acheckvalveforthosefamiliarwithplumbingandhydraulicsystems.Ideally,adiodeprovidesunimpededflowforcurrent
inonedirection(littleornoresistance),butpreventsflowintheotherdirection(infiniteresistance).Itsschematicsymbol
lookslikethis:

Placedwithinabattery/lampcircuit,itsoperationisassuch:

Whenthediodeisfacingintheproperdirectiontopermitcurrent,thelampglows.Otherwise,thediodeblocksallelectron
flowjustlikeabreakinthecircuit,andthelampwillnotglow.

Ifwelabelthecircuitcurrentusingconventionalflownotation,thearrowsymbolofthediodemakesperfectsense:the
triangulararrowheadpointsinthedirectionofchargeflow,frompositivetonegative:

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Ontheotherhand,ifweuseelectronflownotationtoshowthetruedirectionofelectrontravelaroundthecircuit,the
diode'sarrowsymbologyseemsbackward:

Forthisreasonalone,manypeoplechoosetomakeconventionalflowtheirnotationofchoicewhendrawingthedirection
ofchargemotioninacircuit.Iffornootherreason,thesymbolsassociatedwithsemiconductorcomponentslikediodes
makemoresensethisway.However,otherschoosetoshowthetruedirectionofelectrontravelsoastoavoidhavingtotell
themselves,"justremembertheelectronsareactuallymovingtheotherway"wheneverthetruedirectionofelectron
motionbecomesanissue.

Inthisseriesoftextbooks,Ihavecommittedtousingelectronflownotation.Ironically,thiswasnotmyfirstchoice.I
founditmucheasierwhenIwasfirstlearningelectronicstouseconventionalflownotation,primarilybecauseofthe
directionsofsemiconductordevicesymbolarrows.Later,whenIbeganmyfirstformaltraininginelectronics,my
instructorinsistedonusingelectronflownotationinhislectures.Infact,heaskedthatwetakeourtextbooks(whichwere
illustratedusingconventionalflownotation)anduseourpenstochangethedirectionsofallthecurrentarrowssoasto
pointthe"correct"way!Hispreferencewasnotarbitrary,though.Inhis20yearcareerasaU.S.Navyelectronics
technician,heworkedonalotofvacuumtubeequipment.Beforetheadventofsemiconductorcomponentsliketransistors,
devicesknownasvacuumtubesorelectrontubeswereusedtoamplifysmallelectricalsignals.Thesedevicesworkonthe
phenomenonofelectronshurtlingthroughavacuum,theirrateofflowcontrolledbyvoltagesappliedbetweenmetalplates
andgridsplacedwithintheirpath,andarebestunderstoodwhenvisualizedusingelectronflownotation.

WhenIgraduatedfromthattrainingprogram,Iwentbacktomyoldhabitofconventionalflownotation,primarilyforthe
sakeofminimizingconfusionwithcomponentsymbols,sincevacuumtubesareallbutobsoleteexceptinspecial
applications.Collectingnotesforthewritingofthisbook,Ihadfullintentionofillustratingitusingconventionalflow.

Yearslater,whenIbecameateacherofelectronics,thecurriculumfortheprogramIwasgoingtoteachhadalreadybeen
establishedaroundthenotationofelectronflow.Oddlyenough,thiswasdueinparttothelegacyofmyfirstelectronics
instructor(the20yearNavyveteran),butthat'sanotherstoryentirely!Notwantingtoconfusestudentsbyteaching
"differently"fromtheotherinstructors,Ihadtoovercomemyhabitandgetusedtovisualizingelectronflowinsteadof
conventional.BecauseIwantedmybooktobeausefulresourceformystudents,Ibegrudginglychangedplansand
illustrateditwithallthearrowspointingthe"correct"way.Ohwell,sometimesyoujustcan'twin!

Onapositivenote(nopunintended),Ihavesubsequentlydiscoveredthatsomestudentspreferelectronflownotationwhen
firstlearningaboutthebehaviorofsemiconductivesubstances.Also,thehabitofvisualizingelectronsflowingagainstthe

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arrowsofpolarizeddevicesymbolsisn'tthatdifficulttolearn,andintheendI'vefoundthatIcanfollowtheoperationofa
circuitequallywellusingeithermodeofnotation.Still,Isometimeswonderifitwouldallbemucheasierifwewentback
tothesourceoftheconfusionBenFranklin'serrantconjectureandfixedtheproblemthere,callingelectrons"positive"
andprotons"negative."

Contributors
Contributorstothischapterarelistedinchronologicalorderoftheircontributions,frommostrecenttofirst.SeeAppendix
2(ContributorList)fordatesandcontactinformation.

BillHeath(September2002):Pointedouterrorinillustrationofcarbonatomthenucleuswasshownwithsevenprotons
insteadofsix.

BenCrowell,Ph.D.(January13,2001):suggestionsonimprovingthetechnicalaccuracyofvoltageandcharge
definitions.

JasonStarck(June2000):HTMLdocumentformatting,whichledtoamuchbetterlookingsecondedition.

LessonsInElectricCircuitscopyright(C)20002015TonyR.Kuphaldt,underthetermsandconditionsoftheDesign
ScienceLicense.

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