Strength of Materials

Second Edition
STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS
A.K. Srivastava • P.C. Gope

Strength of Materials
Strength of Materials
SECOND EDITION
A.K. SRIVASTAVA
Manager (Design)
Aircraft Upgrade Research and Design Centre
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Nasik
P.C. GOPE
Professor
College of Technology
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnager
New Delhi-110001
2012
` 350.00
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, Second Edition

A.K. Srivastava and P.C. Gope
© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4522-5
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Third Printing (Second Edition) ¼ ¼ ¼ Febraury, 2012
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Meenakshi Art Printers, Delhi-110006.
Dedicated to
MY LATE FATHER
Contents
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Preface to the First Edition xvii
1. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STRESS 1–48

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Stress 1
1.3 Uniformly Distributed Stress 3
1.3.1 Tensile and Compressive Stresses 3
1.3.2 Stress Due to Bending Moment 4
1.3.3 Stress Due to Twisting Moment 5
1.4 Complex Stresses 6
1.4.1 Plane Stress 6
1.4.2 Stresses on an Inclined Plane 7
Exercises 46
2. ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 49–94

2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 Force Distribution 49
2.3 The State of Stress at a Point 50
2.4 Stress Notations 50
2.5 Stress Tensor at a Point 50
2.6 Stress Gradient 51
2.7 Differential Equations of Equilibrium 51
2.8 Equilibrium Equations for Plane Stress State 53
2.9 Generalized Hooke’s Law 53
2.10 Direction Cosines 55
2.11 Normal and Shear Stresses 56
vii
viii Contents
2.12 Principal Directions 57

2.13 Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane 57
2.14 Principal Stress 59
2.15 Stress Invariants 60
2.16 Principal Directions 61
2.17 Octahedral Stress 68
2.18 Mean and Deviator Stresses 70
2.19 Strain Analysis 74
2.20 Strain-Displacement Relation 75
2.21 Three-dimensional Strains 79
2.22 Normal and Shearing Strains 80
2.23 Principal Strains 80
2.24 Principal Strain Directions 81
2.25 Concept of Compatibility 81
2.26 St-Venant’s Equations of Compatibility 83
2.27 Solution of Stress Differential Equation 86
2.28 Types of Airy’s Stress Function 88
2.29 Application of Airy’s Stress Function 90
2.30 Mohr’s Circle for the Three-dimensional State of Stress 92
Exercises 94
3. THEORY OF FAILURE 95–139

3.1 Introduction 95
3.2 Failure Theory for Ductile Material 96
3.2.1 Maximum Shear Stress Theory 96
3.2.2 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory 102
3.2.3 Strain Energy Density or Total Strain Energy Criterion 105
3.3 Theory of Failure or Yield Criterion for Brittle Materials 106
3.3.1 Maximum Principal Stress Criterion 106
3.3.2 Maximum Principal Strain Criterion 107
3.4 Mohr’s Theory 108
3.5 Experimental Verification of Theory of Failure 111
3.5.1 Comparison of Failure Criteria 113
3.6 Theory of Failure for Cyclic Loads 123
3.6.1 Stress Parameters 123
3.6.2 Strength Parameter 124
Exercises 139
4. ENERGY METHODS 140–157

4.1 Introduction 140
4.2 Strain Energy 140
4.2.1 Strain Energy with Simple Loading 143
4.2.2 Strain Energy due to Moment M 143
Contents ix
4.2.3 Strain Energy due to Torsional Loading 143

4.2.4 Strain Energy due to Transverse Shear 144
4.3 Castigliano’s First Theorem 147
Exercises 156
5. DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 158–195

5.2 Relation between Slope, Deflection and Radius of Curvature 158
5.3 Method for Slope and Deflection 159
5.3.1 Double Integration Method for Slope and Deflection 160
5.3.2 Macaulay’s Method 172
5.3.3 Moment Area Method 179
5.3.4 Mohr’s Theorems 181
5.4 Indeterminate Structure 185
5.5 Continuous Beam 186
5.6 Clapeyron’s Theorem of Three Moments 186
Exercises 194
6. CURVED BEAM 196–224

6.2 Stresses in Curved Beam (Winkler–Bach Theory) 196
6.3 Position of Neutral Axis 200
6.4 Values of h2 200
6.4.1 Rectangular Cross-section 201
6.4.2 Circular Cross-section 201
6.4.3 I-section 202
6.4.4 T-section 202
6.4.5 Trapezoidal Cross-section 203
6.5 Stresses in a Ring 214
6.6 Stresses in a Chain Link 220
Exercises 223
7. THIN CYLINDER AND SPHERE 225–240

7.2 Classification of Pressure Vessels 225
7.3 Stresses in a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an Internal Pressure 225
7.4 Circumferential or Hoop Stress 226
7.5 Longitudinal Stress 227
7.6 Effect of Internal Pressure on the Dimensions of a Thin Cylindrical Shell 230
7.7 The Spherical Shells Subjected to an Internal Pressure 236
7.8 Change in Dimensions of Thin Spherical Shell due to an Internal Pressure 237
Exercises 240
x Contents
8. THICK AND COMPOUND CYLINDER 241–262

8.2 Lame’s Theory 241
8.3 Application of Theories of Failure 250
8.4 Compound Cylindrical Shell 252
8.5 Thick Spherical Shells 256
Exercises 262
9. UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 263–281

9.2 Definitions 263
9.3 Stresses due to Unsymmetrical Bending 264
9.4 Deflection of Beam due to Unsymmetrical Bending 266
9.5 Shear Centre 275
9.5.1 Shear Centre for Channel Section 275
9.5.2 Shear Centre of Unequal I-section 278
Exercises 280
10. COLUMNS AND STRUTS 282–307

10.2 Definitions 282
10.3 Classification of Column 282
10.4 Assumptions Made in the Euler’s Column Theory 283
10.5 Expressions for Crippling Load of Different Cases 283
10.5.1 Both the Ends are Hinged or Pinned 283
10.5.2 One End is Fixed and Other is Free 284
10.5.3 Both Ends are Fixed 286
10.5.4 One End is Fixed, Other is Hinged 287
10.6 Effective Length of a Column 288
10.7 Slenderness Ratio 289
10.8 Crippling Stress in Terms of Effective Length and Radius of Gyration 289
10.9 Limitation of Euler’s Formula 290
10.10 Rankine’s Formula 296
10.11 Eccentric Loading 302
10.12 Johnson’s Formula for Columns 304
10.12.1 Johnson’s Straight Line Formula for Columns 304
10.12.2 Johnson’s Parabolic Formula for Columns 305
Exercises 305
11. SPRING 308–333

11.2 Definitions 308
11.3 Types of Springs 309
Contents xi
11.4 Helical Spring 309

11.4.1 Closely-coiled Helical Springs 309
11.4.2 Open-coiled Helical Springs 312
11.5 Strain Energy in the Spring 314
11.6 Springs under Impact Load 315
11.7 Springs in Series 315
11.8 Springs in Parallel 315
11.9 Leaf Springs or Carriage Springs 326
11.9.1 Semi-elliptical Spring 326
11.9.2 Quarter-elliptical Leaf Spring 330
Exercises 333
12. ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 334–349

12.2 Rotating Disc 334
12.2.1 Strain Considerations 335
12.3 Hollow Disc (Disc with a Central Hole) 337
12.4 Solid Disc 338
12.5 Disc of Uniform Strength 338
12.6 Rotating Cylinder 340
12.7 Solid Cylinder 342
12.8 Hollow Cylinder 343
Exercises 348
13. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD AND ITS APPLICATION USING ANSYS

SOFTWARE 350–391
13.2 The Steps 350
13.3 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy 351
13.3.1 Potential Energy 352
13.4 Computer Aided Stress Analysis Technique 353
13.5 Elements Type and Shapes 354
13.6 One-dimensional Problems 358
13.6.1 Natural Coordinate (Intrinsic Coordinate) 358
13.6.2 Isoparametric Element 359
13.6.3 Element Strain Displacement Matrix 359
13.6.4 Element Stiffness Matrix 360
13.6.5 Forces 362
13.7 Application of Finite Element Analysis Using the Ansys Software 367
13.7.1 Application of Finite Element Analysis Using 1D Element 367
INDEX 393–394
Foreword
It is my pleasure to write the Foreword for this comprehensive and practice-oriented text on
Strength of Materials by Mr. A.K. Srivastava and Dr. P.C. Gope.
The book deals with the basic principles involved in the analysis of structural components. To
enhance the scope of this text, it includes a chapter on Finite Element Method (FEM) and its
application by FE software, which is a widely used numerical technique for solving various
engineering problems.
This book is intended to serve as a textbook for undergraduate students of mechanical
engineering, production engineering and industrial engineering. Besides, it would be useful to the
design personnel working in the industry.
Finally, I take this opportunity to congratulate the authors and wish a grand success to the book.
Best wishes
P.K. KHANWALKAR
General Manager
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Nasik
xiii
Preface
The main objective of the second edition is to enhance the scope of strength of materials in a single
volume. Keeping in view the importance of the stress and strain analysis in component design, failure
analysis and reliability assessment of a component, this edition includes four new chapters, namely
Simple and Compound Stress, Theory of Failure, Energy Methods and Finite Element Method and
its Applications Using ANSYS Software. The chapter on Analysis of Stress and Strain has been
thoroughly revised. These chapters cover in detail one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-
dimensional state of stress.
Till now, no book discusses the application of Finite Element Method (FEM) and validation with
analytical calculation using the strength of materials approach. This revised edition exposes the
reader to the field of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) techniques as practised in the industry. The book
additionally covers the fundamentals of finite element analysis and its applications using the software
ANSYS. Most of the finite element examples are compared with the examples solved by the
strength of materials approach. If readers have any problems with the instructions given in
the chapter on Finite Element Method and its Applications Using ANSYS Software, they can email
at aksri76@rediffmail.com
This book is primarily intended for the undergraduate students of mechanical engineering,
production engineering, and industrial engineering. In addition, it would be useful to project work,
higher studies, and practising professionals.
We express our thanks to the readers for sending in many useful comments and suggestions, and
hope the interaction would continue in future.
Finally, we thank the hard-working staff of PHI Learning for their cooperation at all stages
during the printing of the book.
A.K. SRIVASTAVA
P.C. GOPE
xv
Preface to the First Edition
The subject strength of materials involves analytical methods for determining stress, strength,
stiffness and stability of various engineering components and structures. A thorough understanding
of the basic principles involved in the analysis of such components and structures is useful to
mechanical engineers, civil engineers, architecture, agricultural engineers and design engineers of
almost all branches of engineering. Intended as a textbook for the course, Strength of Materials for
the undergraduate students of mechanical, production and industrial engineering, this book presents
the fundamentals and advanced level topics with illustrations and solutions of the practical problems.
Most of the examples are taken from the recent examination of the Indian technical universities as
well as professional examining bodies.
Each chapter is written in a simple and logical manner, explaining the fundamentals and
applications of the theory involved followed by the example. The book is organized in nine chapters.
Chapter 1 deals with 3D analysis of stress and strain. Methods for determining the principal stresses
graphically and analytically and compatibility concepts have been considered in this chapter.
Chapter 2 discusses the determination of slope and deflection of determinate and indeterminate
beams. Detailed theory and applications of double integration method, Macaulay’s method and
moment area method have been included in this chapter. Chapter 3 covers analysis of curved beam.
Methods for determining stresses using Wrinkler–Bach theory has been described in detail. Chapters
4 and 5 explore stress analysis of thin, thick cylindrical and spherical vessels subjected to internal
and external pressures. The design and analysis of pressure vessels are illustrated by numerical
problems in which solutions have been made simpler and avoided the chance of incomplete
understanding of the theory involved and its significance. Chapter 6 presents stress analysis of
unsymmetrical bending and determination of shear centre. Buckling analysis of columns and struts
using Euler’s and Rankine’s theory is reviewed in Chapter 7. In Chapter 8, analyses of closed, open
coiled helical springs and leaf spring are introduced. Finally, Chapter 9 addresses the analysis of
rotating disc and cylinder.
At the end of each chapter, problems for practice are given. The solved examples are also
included, and they have been so selected that almost all the possible types of problems are covered.
The contents covered in the book meet the syllabi of most of the Indian universities at degree level.
xvii
xviii Preface to the First Edition
Despite of best efforts by all concerned, it is possible that some errors might have crept into the
book. The authors would appreciate being informed of these errors and will acknowledge them by
name and institution in the subsequent editions. Authors are thankful to the publisher for their
co-operation at all stages during the printing of this book.
A.K. SRIVASTAVA
P.C. GOPE
1 Simple and Compound Stress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanics of materials is the study of the relationship between the external forces applied on a body
and the intensity of internal forces or disturbances produced in a deformable body. The external
forces applied to any structure are either concentrated loads or distributed forces per unit volume or
per unit area. The loads may be axial, tangential or inclined to the surface of the body. The nature
of the load may be axial tension, axial compression, bending moment or twisting moment.
1.2 STRESS
Consider a body as shown in Fig. 1.1. The forces acting on the body are F1, F2, and F3, etc. These
forces may be moment, couple or distributed over the surface area.
Fig. 1.1 Forces acting on a body.
The effect of these forces on the body can be studied from the internal disturbances produced due
to these loads. To study this it is necessary to establish the concept of the state of stress.
To develop the concept of the state of stress, consider a section on the body as shown through
AB in Fig. 1.1. Consider that the sectioned area consists of a number of small area DA. Now
assuming the material to be continuous and cohesive, a finite small force DF acting on the small area
DA is shown in Fig. 1.2. The small force DF may have any direction but the force can be resolved
1
2 Strength of Materials
into three components acting parallel to the three mutually perpendicular axes. Let these components
be DFx, DFy and DFz in the x, y and z directions respectively. As these forces are parallel to three
coordinates, they are normal and tangential to the area. The ratio of force and area defines the stress
and describes the intensity of the internal force on the area.
Fig. 1.2 Components of forces in the x, y and z directions.
Now, if DFx acts normal to the area, the force per unit area is known as normal stress and is
given as
'Fx
T xx lim (1.1)
'A0 'A
The other two tangential forces produce tangential stresses and are known as shear stress.
'Fy
txy = lim (1.2)
'A0 'A
'Fz
txz = lim (1.3)
'A0 'A
In Eqs. (1.1) through (1.3), the double subscript notation is used to denote the direction of the stress
and the plane on which the stress is acting. For example, the subscript xy means the stress is acting
in the y-direction and is on the x plane. Here y denotes the outward normal direction drawn on the
plane. The y plane is nothing but xz plane. Now, if the external force produces uniform deformation,
then the normal stress produced is uniform of magnitude s and the each cross-sectional area DA will
be subjected to equal force of DF.
Hence DF = sDA.
The average stress is
Ô 'F = T Ô 'A (1.4)
F
s= (1.5)
A
where F is the average force acting through the centroid of the total area. The units of the stress are
N/mm2 (MPa), N/m2 (Pa).
Chapter 1: Simple and Compound Stress 3
Now we can summarize that

1. Stress is defined as the internal resistance developed in the body due to external disturbances
over unit area of its cross section.
2. The intensity of force normal to the section is called the normal stress and the intensity of
force tangential to the plane is called the tangential or shear stress. The normal stress may
be positive or negative depending upon the direction and cause it produces on the element.
If the normal stress acting on the surface produces tension, then it is called the tensile stress
and if it is producing compression on the element then, it is called the compressive stress.
3. The stress is generally expressed numerically in the unit of N/m2 (Pa) or N/mm2 (MPa).
(1 N/mm2 = MPa, 1GPa = 109 Pa, 1 MPa = 106 N/m2 = 106 Pa).
1.3 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED STRESS

1.3.1 Tensile and Compressive Stresses
If the stresses set up inside the material due to external loading elongates the fibres of the material,
then the stress is said to be tensile. On the other hand, if the stress shortens the fibres, then the stress
is said to be compressive.
The example of tensile stress (Fig. 1.3) is the tension rod. The normal stress induced in the rod
is obtained as
F
T (1.6)
A
where F is the average tensile force and A is the cross section of the tension member.
Fig. 1.3 Tensile stress.
The compressive stresses are obtained when the bar is compressed. A component under the
compressive load is shown in Fig. 1.4.
A proper sign should be used for tension and compression loading. In case of compression, there
is a limitation of length to diameter ratio. The L/D ratio should be less than 2, otherwise buckling
may occur and the relations discussed above may not be accurate.
Fig. 1.4 Compressive stresses.
1.3.2 Stress Due to Bending Moment

When a straight prismatic beam of uniform cross section and made of a homogeneous material is
subjected to bending moment, the bending stress can be obtained from the flexure relation given as
M T E
(1.7)
I y R
where M = applied bending moment
I = moment of inertia of the beam cross section
E = modulus of elasticity
R = radius of curvature
y = distance from the neutral axis
s = stress developed due to application of bending moment.
The flexure relation is based on the following assumptions:
1. The beam is straight and subjected to pure bending. It means that the beam is under the
action of pure bending only. No axial load either tension or compression and torsional load
exists. Hence, shear stress is also absent.
2. The cross section of the beam is uniform.
3. The cross section of the beam remains plane during the bending. It means the plane cross
section of the beam initially perpendicular to the axis of the beam remains plane during the
deformation and is perpendicular to the deflected neutral plane.
4. The material must be isotropic, homogeneous and follows Hooke’s law.
The variation of bending stress and sign convention used for y is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 (a) Bending of a beam, (b) cross section of the beam, and (c) stress distribution.
Thus, the bending stress is

My
T (1.8)
I
Equation (1.8) shows that
1. The maximum normal stress in the member occurs at a point on the cross section located
furthest from the neutral axis. The neutral axis is the locus of all points where the bending
stress is zero. For a circular section, the maximum value of y is d/2, d is the diameter of the
section.
2. It is applicable to members whose cross section is symmetrical with respect to the axis and
the moment M is applied perpendicular to this axis.
The moment of inertia and y are obtained as follows for different cross sections.
Solid circular cross section of diameter d
Qd4 d
I= y =
64 2
Hollow circular cross section of outer and inner diameter do and di
Q (do4 di4 ) do
I= y=
64 2
Square cross section with side a
a4 a
I= y=
12 2
Rectangular cross section with sides b ´ d
bd 3 d
I= y=
12 2
1.3.3 Stress Due to Twisting Moment

When a bar is subjected to moment which causes twisting of the bar, the bar is said to be in torsion
(Fig. 1.6). When a bar is subjected to twisting moment T, the relation between shear stress developed
t, the angle of twist q, length of the bar l, polar moment of inertia J and the modulus of rigidity G
is given by
T GR U
(1.9)
J l r
Fig. 1.6 Torsion of circular bar.

The derivation of the above equation is based on the following assumptions.

1. The bar is straight before the application of torque and of circular cross section.
2. The bar is subjected to pure torque only.
3. The adjacent cross section originally plane and parallel, remains plane and parallel after
twisting.
4. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and follows Hooke’s law.
5. The magnitude of the applied torque is not sufficiently high to yield the material.
Equation (1.9) shows that the shear stress varies linearly with radius of the bar. It is zero at the centre
and maximum at the outer surface or fibre of the bar. If d is the diameter of a circular bar, the
maximum shear stress is obtained as
Td
U max (1.10)
2J
The polar moment of inertia for a circular solid cross section is
Qd4
J
32
and for the hollow cross section (do = outer diameter and di = inner diameter)
Q (do4 di4 )
J
32
1.4 COMPLEX STRESSES

In the previous section we discussed that stress at a point is the average force acting over an area
and it is obtained as the limiting value of the small force acting over a small area passing through
the point. Generally, a surface is defined through the direction of outward normal drawn on it. In
other words, the outward normal defines the orientation of the area. Now, in the limiting conditions,
this small area tends to a point and the state of stress is obtained. It can now be discussed that through
a point infinite number of planes can be drawn whose outward normal will be different. Through
these surfaces infinite small area can be considered to obtain the state of stress. The totality of all
such stresses acting on every possible plane passing through the point is defined to be the state of
stress at the point. For understanding the definition of state of stress if the body which we considered
in Fig. 1.1, is further sectioned by planes x-y plane (outward normal is in the z-direction) and
y-z plane (outward normal is in the x-direction), three faces will contain nine components of stress,
three on each face. This is shown in Fig. 1.7. The stress components shown on the faces describe
the state of stress at the point for the element.
1.4.1 Plane Stress

A state of stress is said to be plane state of stress when there is no stress in any one direction or in
any one plane. If we consider that there is no stress in the z-direction, the plane stress condition
exists. So setting the stresses in the z-direction or z-plane zero, the state of stress will become plane
stress.
Fig. 1.7 Three-dimensional stress system.
This can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8 Two-dimensional stress system (plane stress system).
1.4.2 Stresses on an Inclined Plane

Consider a bar subjected to biaxial load as shown in Fig. 1.9. Now it is required to find out the
stresses on an element which is located at an angle of q to one of the loading axis, say, the x-axis.
In other words, it is required to determine the normal and shear stress acting on a plane inclined at
an angle q with respect to the x-axis, i.e., outward normal of the plane makes an angle q with the
x-axis. The sign convention for angle is as follows. The anticlockwise measurement of angle from
reference direction, i.e., x-axis is taken as positive and clockwise measurement form the x-axis is
taken as negative.
The ABCD is a plane subjected to biaxial stresses as shown in Fig. 1.9. Let EF be an oblique
plane inclined at an angle q to the x-axis. The forces acting on the element EFG are shown in
Fig. 1.10.
snn and tns are normal and tangential stress on the oblique plane EF. Let A be the area of the
oblique plane EF. The area of other two planes GF and EG are A sin q and A cos q respectively. The
forces acting on each face can be obtained by multiplying the stress with area. Now resolving the
forces in x and y directions and applying the force equilibrium conditions, the two unknown stress
components acting on the plane EF can be determined.
Fig. 1.9 Biaxial loading.
Fig. 1.10
Fig. 1.11 Components of forces on oblique plane.

Resolving the forces in the x-direction, we can write the equilibrium condition as
S Fx = 0
T nn cos R EF U ns sin R EF T xx EG U xy GF = 0
Substituting the values of area EF, EG and GF,
T nn cos R A U ns sin R A T xx A cos R U xy A sin R 0
Simplifying, we get
T nn cos R U ns sin R T xx cos R U xy sin R = 0 (i)
Similarly the force equilibrium in the y-direction is obtained as
S Fy = 0
T nn sin R EF U ns cos R EF T yy GF U xy EG = 0
Substituting the values of area EF, EG and GF, we obtain
T nn sin R A U ns cos R A T yy A sin R U xy A cos R 0
on simplification, we get
T nn sin R U ns cos R T yy sin R U xy cos R 0 (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
T nn T xx cos2 R T yy sin 2 R U xy sin 2R (iii)

By substituting, we get
1 cos 2R 1 cos2R
cos2 R and sin 2 R
2 2
Equation (iii) can be simplified as
T xx T yy T xx T yy
T nn T x x
cos2R U xy sin 2R (1.11)
2 2
Now the normal stress perpendicular to snn is obtained by substituting q = 90 + q as
T n n = T xx sin 2 R T yy cos2 R U xy sin 2R

T xx T yy T xx T yy
Tn n = T y y

cos 2R U xy sin 2R (1.12)
2 2
Similarly, tangential stress component can be obtained by eliminating snn. The corresponding
equation after eliminating normal stress is
T xx T yy
U ns sin 2R U xy cos 2R (1.13)
2
The stresses on the inclined plane are shown in Fig. 1.12.
Fig. 1.12 Stresses on inclined planes.
Maximum shear stress

The plane of the maximum shear stress is obtained by differentiating tns with respect to q and
equating to zero.
dU ns
= 0
dR
È T xx T yy Ø
É Ù 2 cos 2R 2U xy sin 2R = 0
Ê 2 Ú
(T xx T yy )
tan 2R s = (1.14)
2U xy
Equation (1.14) gives us two values of 2qs, which differs by 180°, i.e., two values of qs differ
by 90°. Substituting these values in Eq. (1.13), the maximum shear stress is
È T xx T yy Ø
2
U max É Ù U xy
2
(1.15a)
Ê 2 Ú
These two values act at the right angle to each other.

Substituting the value of sin 2qs and cos 2qs in Eq. (1.11), the normal stress is given as
T xx T yy
T nn (1.15b)
2
Maximum normal stress

The plane of maximum normal stress is obtained similarly by differentiation Eq. (1.11) with respect
to q and equating to zero.
T nn
=0
R
Ë T xx T yy T xx T yy Û
Ì cos 2R U xy sin 2R Ü = 0
R Í 2 2 Ý
T xx T yy
2 sin 2R 2U xy cos 2R = 0
2
After simplification the resulting equation is
2U xy
tan 2R p (1.16)
T xx T yy
The multiplication of two Eqs. (1.14) and (1.16) shows that
tan 2 R s tan 2 R p = 1 (1.17)
This shows that these two 2q values differ by 90°. In other words, maximum shear stress planes are
± 45° to the principal stress plane.
EXAMPLE 1.1
A machine member having 50 mm inner diameter and 75 mm outside diameter, 300 mm long and
fixed at one end is subjected to tensile load F = 20 kN. Determine the tensile and maximum shear
stress.
Fig. 1.13 Example 1.1.

Solution:
Q Q
A= (D2 d 2 ) (0.0752 0.052 ) 2.454 10 3 m 2
4 4
F 20 103
sxx = 3
8.149 10 6 N/m 2 = 8.149 MPa
A 2.454 10
txy = 0
Maximum normal stress smax = 8.149 MPa
1 1
Maximum shear stress tmax = T max 8.149 4.074 MPa
2 2
EXAMPLE 1.2
A circular tension member of diameter 50 mm is to carry an axial load of 360.3 kN. Determine the
stresses on a plane: (a) normal to the load applied, (b) inclined at an angle 30° with respect to loading
direction and (c) locate the plane of maximum shear stress and magnitude of maximum shear stress.
Solution:
(a) Stress on a plane normal to the load applied
AB is normal to the applied load F [Fig. 1.14(a)]. The cross-sectional area of AB plane is
Q Q
A= d2 502 1963.49 mm 2
4 4
F 30 1000
sxx = 183.499 N/mm 2 183.5 MPa
A 1963.49
As there is no force acting on other planes, the stresses on other planes are zero. Hence, the
state of stress is written as
Ë183.5 0 0Û
Ì Ü
T Ì0 0 0Ü
Ì Ü
Í0
Ì 0 0 ÜÝ
Fig. 1.14(a) Stress distribution of Example 1.2, (b) State of stress.
(b) Stresses on an oblique plane

The oblique plane is shown in Fig. 1.14(c), snn and tns are normal and tangential stresses on
the oblique plane AB. n is the outward normal drawn on the oblique plane which is at an
angle of 30° to the x-axis, the direction of the applied load F.
Fig. 1.14(c) Stresses on oblique plane of Example 1.2.
From the relation

T xx T yy T xx T yy
T nn T x x
cos2R U xy sin 2R
2 2
We can simplify by substituting

syy = txy = 0
T xx T xx
snn = T x x =

+ cos 2R
2 2
183.5 183.5
snn = T x x =

+ cos 60 = 137.625 N/mm 2
2 2
Normal stress perpendicular to n(x¢x¢) direction is
T xx T xx
Tn n = Ty y =

cos 2R
2 2
183.5 183.5
= cos 60°
2 2
= 45.874 N/mm2
T xx T yy
U ns = sin 2R + U xy cos 2R
2
183.5 0
= sin 60°
2
= – 79.456 N/mm2
(c) Plane of maximum shear stress
T xx T yy
tan 2Rs = À
2U xy
2qs = 90°
qs = 45°
Hence, the maximum shear stress occurs at 45° to the loading axis. The magnitude of the maximum
shear stress is
È T xx T yy Ø
2
U max = É Ù + U 2xy
Ê 2 Ú
2
È 183.5 0Ø
= É Ù +0
Ê 2 Ú
= ± 91.75 N/mm2
Principal stresses
It is shown that the magnitude of normal and shear stress on any oblique plane depends on the inclination
of the plane. The orientation and plane of the maximum normal and shear stresses can be obtained
from the results discussed above. The plane on which shear stress is zero is known as principal plane
and the associated normal stresses are principal stresses.
The normal stress on any oblique plane defined by angle q is given as
T xx + T yy T xx T yy
T nn = + cos 2R + U xy sin 2R (i)
2 2
The maximum value of this normal stress can be obtained by substituting the condition for maximum
normal stress as given by
2U xy
tan 2R p = (ii)
T xx T yy
The solution has two roots and angles 2q are differing by 180°. Depending upon the sign
(positive or negative) of txy and (sxx – syy) two triangles are drawn in Fig. 1.15.
Fig. 1.15 Computation of principal stresses.
From Fig. 1.15, we can derive one set of angles as
U xy
sin 2R p1 = (iii)
T yy Ø
2
È T xx
É Ù + U 2xy
Ê 2 Ú
and
È T xx T yy Ø
É 2 Ù
Ê Ú
cos 2R p1 = (iv)
2
È T xx T yy Ø
É Ù + U 2xy
Ê 2 Ú
and for other set of angles, the equations are
U xy
sin 2R p 2 =

2
È T xx T yy Ø
É Ù + U 2xy
Ê 2 Ú
È T xx T yy Ø
É 2 Ù
Ê Ú
and cos 2R p 2 =
È T xx T yy Ø 2
É Ù
+ U 2xy
Ê 2 Ú
Substituting Eq. (iii) and (iv) in Eq. (i), we obtain two principal stresses from two sets of angles
defined by equations (iii) and (iv).
T xx + T yy È T xx T yy Ø
2
T1 = + É Ù + (U xy )2 (1.18a)
2 Ê 2 Ú
2
T2 = + É Ù + (U xy )2 (1.18b)
2 Ê 2 Ú
The sets of equations given by Eq. (1.18) are known as principal stresses and the corresponding
planes on which they act are called principal planes. The two principal stresses are right angle
to each other. Furthermore, on these planes no shear stress acts. Hence, principal planes are also
known as shear less planes.
Mohrs circle for plane stress

Mohr’s circle is a graphical method for analysis of state of stress or determination of principal
stresses. For two dimensional state of stress (plane stress), Mohr’s circle is platted on s – t
coordinate axes. Let the two dimensional state of stress be given as
ËT xx U xy Û
T = Ì Ü
ÌU xy T yy ÜÝ
Í
The normal and shear stress components on any oblique plane defined by q after rearranging
the terms we can express as given below. Consider the normal and shear stress on an oblique plane
given as:
T nn = T x x =

+ cos 2R + U xy sin 2R
2 2
T xx T yy
U ns = sin 2R + U xy cos2R
2
Rearranging the stresses, we can write
T nn = cos2R + U xy sin 2R (1.19)
2 2
È T xx T yy Ø
U ns = É Ù sin 2R + U xy cos 2R (1.20)
Ê 2 Ú
Squaring and adding Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20) and after simplification, we can write
È T xx + T yy Ø 2 È T xx T yy Ø
2
É T nn
2
Ù + U ns = É Ù + U 2xy (1.21)
Ê 2 Ú Ê 2 Ú
Now denoting
È T xx T yy Ø
2
R= É Ù + U xy
2 (1.22a)
Ê 2 Ú
T xx + T yy
Tm = (1.22b)
2
Equation (1.21) can be written as
(T nn T m )2 + U ns
2
= R2 (1.23)
Equation (1.23) is the equation of a circle having radius R and centre on s-axis at a point with
coordinates (sm, 0). This circle is known as Mohr’s circle as it was first studied by German
Engineer Otto Mohr.
The Mohr’s circle can be drawn on the basis of following sign convention.
The normal stress component s and shear stress t are positive when they act on a positive face
and in the positive direction. For example s is positive when it acts in the x-direction on the x face
and t is positive when it is in up direction or acting in anticlockwise direction measured with
reference to the positive x face. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.16.
In Fig. 1.16(a) shear stress txy is positive for positive x face and in Fig. 1.16(b) txy is negative.
Fig. 1.16 Sign conventions of shear stress.
The steps involved in drawing Mohr’s circle are explained below:

Step 1: Plot sxx and syy in the s-axis with a suitable scale according to the magnitude and
nature (tensile or compression).
Step 2: Since the stress components such as sxx, syy and txy are known, determine the centre
of the circle C(sm, 0) using
T xx + T yy
Tm =
2
Step 3: Determine the radius of the circle. To obtain the radius, determine at least one point
on the circle. The procedure is discussed below:
Consider the case when the normal on the oblique plane coincides with the x-axis [Fig. 1.17(a)].
In this case the inclination angle of the plane with x-axis is zero. Hence, q = 0.
Fig. 1.17 State of stress for q = 0° and q = 90°.

In this case,
T nn = T x x = T xx

and
U ns = T x y = U xy

Now taking the coordinates as A(sxx, txy), locate the point A. This can be considered as a
reference point. Now join CA. CA is the radius of the circle.
Now rotate the nn axis (presently the nn axis is coincident with the x axis) through 90°
anticlockwise as shown in Fig. 1.17(b). In this case q = 90°. From Eqs. (1.11) and (1.13), we get
snn = syy = sx¢x¢ and tns = – txy
These values correspond to the coordinate of point B which is opposite to point A as shown
in Mohr’s circle (Fig. 1.18). The radial line CB is 180° anticlockwise from line CA. Hence, 90°
anticlockwise rotation in the element is 180° anticlockwise rotation (same direction) in Mohr’s
circle.
Fig. 1.18 Mohrs circle.
Step 4: Two points where this circle cuts the s axis, gives the magnitude and nature of the
principal stresses.
Step 5: The principal stresses act on planes defined by angles qp1 and qp2 as shown in
Fig. 1.18. They are represented by two times of these values in the Mohr’s circle and are measured
from the radial reference line CA to line CB and CD, respectively.
Step 6: The normal and shear stress components on any arbitrary plane defined by angle q
can be obtained from Mohr’s circle by locating the point and its coordinates. To locate the point
two times of the angle is measured counterclockwise if q positive or clockwise if negative on the
circle from the radial reference line CA. The point P on the circle defines the normal and shear
stress on the given plane defined by angle.
EXAMPLE 1.3
State of stress is given by (Fig. 1.19)
Fig. 1.19 State of stress of Example 1.3.
(a) Draw Mohr’s circle and determine principal stresses.

(b) Determine stresses at a plane having its normal 45° anticlockwise to the direction of y-axis
(c) Determine the maximum shear stress.
Solution:
Fig. 1.20 Mohrs circle for Example 1.3.

(a) The principal stresses are 105 MPa and – 65 MPa

(b) Point A is the state of stress which is obtained by rotating at the angle of 2q = 2 ´ 45 =
90° anticlockwise of diameter CD. The normal shear stresses on this plane are 80 MPa and
60 MPa respectively.
(c) Maximum shear stress is 85 MPa.
EXAMPLE 1.4
Draw Mohr’s circle for uniaxial tensile load, uniaxial compressive load and pure shear loading
corresponding to yielding of the material. The yield strength in tension and compression are
different and yield strength in compression is more than yield strength in tension.
Solution: Let the yield strength under uniaxial tension be syt and under compression is syc. It is
given that
syc > syt
Under the uniaxial tensile loading the principal stresses corresponding to yielding are:
s1 = syt, s2 = s3 = 0
Under the uniaxial compressive loading the principal stresses corresponding to yielding are
s1 = – syc, s2 = s3 = 0
Under the pure shear loading the state of stress is
sxx = syy = szz = 0
txy = t (let)
The principal stresses are
2
T1 , T 2 = É Ù + U 2xy
2 Ê 2 Ú
Substituting, we get
s1, s2 = ± t
ÿ ÿ s1 = t
ÿÿÿÿ ÿ s2 = – t
Mohr’s circles are shown in Fig. 1.21.
Fig. 1.21 Mohrs circle under axial tension, compression and pure shear loading.
EXAMPLE 1.5
A force of 1 kN is applied at the end of the beam. Determine and compare the magnitude of
the maximum stresses for each cross section. Compare the moment carrying capacity of each
section.
1500 mm 1.0 kN
The cross-section of the beam may be
50 20
60
100
0
10
100 20
100 100 100
(All dimensions are in mm)
Fig. 1.22
Solution: The bending stress is given by
M M M I
T= y= = where Z =
y
I I/ y Z
(a) Circular section
Q Q
I= d4 = (0.1)4 = 4.909 10 6 m 4
64 64
d 100
y= = = 50 mm = 0.05 m
2 2
I 4.909 10 6
Z= = = 9.818 10 5 m3
y 0.05
1000 1.5 N
T= 5
= 15.278 106 = 15.278 MPa
9.818 10 m2
(b) Square section
a4 (0.1)4
I= = = 8.333 10 6 m 4
12 12
a 100
y= = = 50 mm = 0.05 m
2 2
I 8.333 10 6
Z= = = 1.67 10 4 m3
y 0.05
1000 1.5
T= = 9.0 MPa
1.67 10 4
(c) Rhombus section

a4 (0.1)4
I= = = 8.333 ´ 10–6 m4
12 12
a 100
y= = = 70.711 mm = 0.0707 m
2 2
I 8.333 10 6
Z= = = 1.178 ´ 10–4 m3
y 0.0707
1000 1.5
T= = 12.728 MPa
1.178 10 4
Fig. 1.23(a)
(d) Hollow section
Q Q
I= (D 4 d 4 ) = [(0.1)4 (0.05)4 ] = 4.602 ´ 10–6 m4
64 64
D 100
y= = = 50 mm = 0.05 m
2 2
I 4.602 10 6
Z= = = 9.204 ´ 10–5 m3
y 0.05
1000 1.5
T= = 16.298 ´ 106 N/m2
9.204 10 5
= 16.298 MPa
(e) I-section
BD3 bd 3 0.1 0.13 0.08 0.063

I= = = 6.89 10 6 m 4
12 12 12 12
D d
b=B–h
Fig. 1.23(b)
D 100
y= = = 50 mm = 0.05 m
2 2
I 6.89 10 6
Z= = = 1.379 ´ 10–4 m3
y 0.05
1000 1.5
T= = 10.88 MPa
1.379 10 4
If the shaft is made of same material, allowable stress will be same for each section. Hence
from bending equation, M = s ´ Z = constant ´ Z.
M µ Z
The section modulus for hollow section is more as compared to other sections considered in
this problem, the moment carrying capacity of hollow section is more as compared to other sections
considered in this problem.
Combined stress due to bending moment and torque

In practice, bending moment, torque and transverse shear forces are subjected to a machine
component. Under the action of moment M, torque T and shear force V, the different elements on
a section of the component are subjected to different kinds of stress systems. To explain this aspect,
let us consider a part of a solid shaft of diameter d under the action of M, T and V as shown in
Fig. 1.24.
Consider four points A and C on the extremities along the y-axis and B and D on the extremities
along the z-axis. The stresses due to M, T and V acting on A, B, C and D are shown in Fig. 1.25.
1. At the extremities along the z-axis (BD points), bending stresses are zero.
2. At the extremities of the vertical diameter (y-axis), i.e., points A and C are subjected to
maximum tensile and compressive stresses, respectively due to bending moment.
Fig. 1.24 Shaft under combined loading due to moment, torque and shear force.
Fig. 1.25 Stress distribution due to M, T and V.
3. The shear stress due to shear force V is maximum on the extremities along the z-axis, i.e.,
at points B and D.
4. Shear stress due to torque is same at all points, i.e., A, B, C and D points are subjected to
equal shear stress due to T.
The value of stresses are calculated as follows:

32 M
Due to bending moment M Tb =
Q d3
16 T
Shear stress due to torque T U max = 3
Qd
3V 16V
Flexural shear stress due to V Uf = =
4A 3Q d 2
EXAMPLE 1.6
A compound shaft made of steel and aluminium transmits 75 kW at 900 rpm. Determine the
maximum shear stress and relative angle of twist between surfaces at two extreme ends located at
A and C. Neglect any strain concentration effect. Esteel = 207 GPa, EAl = 73 GPa, nAl = 0.334, and
nsteel = 0.33.
Aluminium Steel
B C
A
60 75
800 1000
All dimensions are in mm
Solution: For solid circular section, the maximum shear stress is given by
16T
U max = 3
Qd
The maximum shear stress depends on torque transmitted and minimum diameter of the shaft.
The torque transmitted can be obtained from
kW 1000 60 75 1000 60
T = = = 795.775 N.m
2Q rpm 2Q 900
Shears tress between section A-B will be maximum as the diameter is minimum.
16T 16 795.775
U max = = = 18.763 MPa
Qd
3
Q (60/1000)3
The angle of twist of B relative to A
2(1 + O ) È Tl Ø
R B/A = É Ù
E Ê J Ú
4
Q Q È 60 Ø
J= d = 4 = 1.27  10–6 m4
É 1000 Ù
32 32 Ê Ú
2(1 + 0.334) È 795.775 0.8 Ø

R B/A = É Ù = 0.0183 rad
73 10 9
Ê 1.27 10 6 Ú
The angle of twist of C relative to B
2(1 + 0.33) È 795.775 1 Ø

RC/B = É Ù
= 3.292 ´ 10–3 rad
207 10 9 Ê 3.106 10 6 Ú
4
Q Q È 75 Ø
where J = 4
d = É 1000 Ù
= 3.106 ´ 10–6 m4
32 32 Ê Ú
The total angle of twist of the shaft is

qC/A = qC/B + qB/A = (3.292 ´ 10–3 + 0.0183) rad = 0.0216 rad
EXAMPLE 1.7
A stepped shaft made of steel is fixed at one end and 1.5 kN.m torque is applied at other end. What
additional torque that can be applied at point B if the maximum shear stress is not to be exceeded
105 MPa and the total angle of twist should not exceeds 3°. The modulus of elasticity of steel may
be taken as 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio as 0.3.
Solution:
JBC = Polar moment of inertia for shaft of BC part
Q
= (0.074 0.0454 ) = 1.955 10 6 m 4
32
T = 1.5 kN.m
The maximum shear stress will occur at the minimum cross section
Tdo 1.5 1000 0.07

U max = = = 26.86 MPa
2J 2 1.955 10 6
The angle of twist of C relative to B
2(1 + 0.3) È 1500 0.6 Ø

RC/B = É Ù = 5.985 ´ 10–3 rad
200 10 9 Ê 1.955 10 6 Ú
The two conditions given are maximum shear stress and angle of twist, hence maximum torque
that can be taken by AB portion of the shaft is obtained from the following relation.
Q
U max J AB 2 105 106 (0.094 0.074 ) 2
T= = 32 = 9529.50 N.m = 9.53 kN.m
Do 0.09
Let qB/A be the rotation of B with respect to A.

qC/A = qB/A + qC/B = rotation of C with respect to A.
3 Q
It is given that the maximum permissible angle of twist is 3° = = 0.0524 rad
180
qC/A = qB/A + qC/B
0.0524 = qB/A + 5.985 ´ 10–3
Þ qB/A = 0.0464 rad
Hence, a torque in the same direction can be applied at B. The magnitude of the torque is
obtained as
2(1 + O ) È Tl Ø 2(1 + 0.3) È T 0.75 Ø

R B/A = É JÙ = 0.0464 = É 4 Ù
Ê Q /32{0.09 0.07 } Ú
9 4
E Ê Ú 200 10
200 10 9 Q /32 {0.094 0.074}

T = 0.0464 = 197973.33 N.m = 197.97 kN.m
2(1 + 0.3) 0.75
Hence, at B 9.53 kN.m torque can be applied to satisfy both the conditions.
EXAMPLE 1.8
A solid circular steel shaft of 25 mm diameter is used for power transmission through a pulley and
gear system as shown in Fig. 1.28. The tension in the pulley belts are 1.5 kN and 400 N and acting
in the vertical direction. The pitch circle diameter of the pinion and gear is 200 and 400 mm
respectively. The pinion is driven by 7 kW motor operating at 550 rpm. Determine the state of stress
of the element undergoing greatest stress condition due to bending and torsion, deflection and angle
of twist. Take E = 200 GPa, pressure angle f = 20°.
Solution: The torque produced at C due to gear is

kW 60 1000 7 1000 60
TC = = = 121.54 N.m
2Q rpm 2Q 550
Assuming that torque at B is same as torque at C, the torque produced at B due to pulley is
TB = TC = (T1 – T2)Rp = (1500 – 400) ´ Rp = 121.54 N.m
Þ Rp = 110.5 mm
Dp = 221.0 mm
The tangential component of gear force is obtained from
Ft ´ Rg = TC
where Rg is the radius of the gear.
221.185 N
607.7 N
Fig. 1.29(a) Gear forces.

121.54
Ft = = 607.7 N
0.2
The radial component of gear force is
Fr = Ft tan f = 607.7 ´ tan 20° = 221.185 N
The forces and reactions acting on the shaft are shown in Fig. 1.29(b).
Fig. 1.29(b) Net effect of the loading on the shaft.
Considering the equilibrium conditions in horizontal and vertical plane, reactions are
determined as follows.
– RAy – RDy + 1900 – 221.185 = 0 (i)
and
RAz + RDz – 607.7 = 0 (ii)
Taking moment of forces in the y-direction about D
RAy ´ 500 – 1900 ´ 300 + 221.185 ´ 100 = 0
RAy = 1095.763 N
From Eq. (i), RAy + RDy = 1678.815
RDy = 583.052 N
Taking the moment of forces in the z-direction about D
RAz ´ 500 – 607.7 ´ 100 = 0
RAz = 121.54 N
From Eq. (ii), RAz + RDz = 607.7
RDz = 486.16 N
To calculate the bending moment in two different planes, i.e., xy plane and xz plane, forces are
shown in Fig. 1.29(c), separately for two planes.
Fig. 1.29(c)
Forces and bending moment in the xz plane are shown in Fig. 1.29(d).
Fig. 1.29(d) Bending moment diagram.
The maximum moment at point B and C is given by
MB = M y2 + M z2
M B = ( 219.15)2 + ( 24.31)2 = 220.5 N·m
MC = ( 58.31)2 + ( 48.62)2 = 75.92 N·m
The resultant maximum bending moment occurs at point B.

In case of circular cross section the resultant bending moment obtained by vector addition of
moments My and Mz is located at the angle of b from z-axis. The angle is obtained from
ÑÎ M y ÑÞ
C = tan 1 Ï ß (1.24)
ÑÐ Mz Ñà
It is shown in Fig. 1.30.
Fig. 1.30 Location of resultant bending moment for bending of symmetric beam in two planes.
The sign convention used is according to the convention used in stress analysis. If the outward
normal is in the positive coordinate direction, all forces and moments are taken as positive. If
outward normal is in negative direction, all forces and moments are taken as negative. Moment
vectors are shown as positive (according to right hand rule) with a normal in the positive direction
and negative with normal in the negative direction.
Î My Ñ
Ñ Þ 1 Î 219.15 Þ
C = tan 1 Ï ß = tan Ï ß = 84.45°
Ñ Mz à
Ð Ñ Ð 24.31 à
Fig. 1.30(a)
The maximum tensile stress occurs at point S1 and maximum compressive stress occurs at S2
point on the surface of the shaft. The stresses are given by
At S1
M 220.5 (0.025/2)
T xx = ymax = = 143.74 MPa
I (Q /64) (0.025)4
At S2, the maximum compressive stress of magnitude 143.74 MPa occurs. The shear stress due
to torque is given as
Td 121.54 0.025
U = = = 39.62 MPa
2J 2 (Q /32) (0.025) 4
The state of stress in MPa is

Ë14.74 39.62 Û
T= Ì Ü
ÍÌ 39.62 0 ÝÜ
EXAMPLE 1.9
A shaft is subjected to a force as shown in Fig. 1.31. Determine the state of stress at A, B, C and D.
Fig. 1.31 Figure for Example 1.9.
Solution: The shaft is subjected to axial bending and torsional load. Each load can be analysed
separately and added algebraically for the same nature of stresses and by vector method for
different nature of stresses.
Axial load F causes normal stresses in all four points A, B, C and D as shown in Fig. 1.32. The
magnitude of normal stress due to F is obtained as
4F 4 80000
Ta = = = 10.19 10 6 N/m 2 = 10.19 MPa
Qd 2
Q (0.1)2
Fig. 1.32 Figure for Example 1.9.

Stresses due to Bending moment M

Force P produces the bending stress as well as transverse shear stress. The bending moment is given
as
Mz = – PL = –25 ´ 1000 = 25,000 kN.mm = 25 kN·m
The bending stress is
Mz
Tb = y
Iz
Qd4
Iz =
64
The bending stresses at different points A, B, C and D are
PL
(T xx
b
)A = (0) = 0
(Q /64) d 4
PL 32PL 32 25000 1
(T bxx ) B = ( d/2) = = = 254.65 10 6 N/m 2
(Q /64) d 4
(Q d )3
Q (0.1) 3
= 254.65 MPa
PL
(T xx
b
)C = (0) = 0
(Q /64) d 4
PL 32PL 32 25000 1
(T bxx ) D = ( d/2) = = = 254.65 10 6 N/m 2
(Q /64) d 4
(Q d ) 3
Q (0.1)3
= – 254.65 MPa
The shear stress due to transverse load P is given by
V
U = Ay
Ib
Hence,
V
(U xy )B = Ay = 0
Ib
V
(U xy ) D = Ay = 0
Ib
4Vy 4Vy 16( P ) 16 P

(U xy ) A = = 2
= 2
=
3A 3(Q /4) d 3Q d 3Q d 2
16 25000
= = – 4.244 ´ 106 N/m2 = – 4.244 MPa
3Q (0.1) 2
(txy)C = – 4.244 MPa

Shear stress due to torque T
The maximum shear stress is given by
16 T
U xy = 3
Qd
The torsional shear stresses at A, B, C and D are
16 10000
U xy = 3
= 50.93 ´ 106 N/m2 = 50.93 MPa
Q (0.1)
State of stress at A
At point A the shear stress due to torque and transverse load exists. The normal stress due to axial
load also exists. The bending stress is zero. By the principle of superposition, we can add equal
nature of stresses algebraically. Adding shear stresses algebraically, the shear stress component of
the stress at point A is
16 T È 16 P Ø
(U xy ) A = 3
+ É 2Ù
= 50.93 + (– 4.244) = 46.686 MPa
Qd Ê 3Q d Ú
= 46.686 MPa
The normal stress at A is
4F
T xx = = 10.19 MPa
Qd2
Fig. 1.33(a)
State of stress at point B

At point B the normal stress due to the bending moment and axial force exists which can be added
algebraically to get the net stress. The shear stress that exists at point B is due to torque only. No
transverse shear stress develops at point B which is located at the transverse load line.
4F 32 PL
T xx = + = 10.19 + 254.65 = 264.84 MPa
Qd 2
Qd3
16 T
(U xy ) B = 3
= 50.93 MPa
Qd
Fig. 1.33(b)
State of stress at point C
16 T È 16 P Ø
(U xy )C = 3
+ É Ù
= 50.93 + 4.244 = 55.174 MPa
Qd Ê 3Q d 2 Ú
4F
T xx = = 10.19 MPa
Qd2
55.147
10.19 C
Fig. 1.33(c)
State of stress at point D
16 T
(U xy )D = 3
= 50.93 MPa
Qd
4F 32 PL
(T xx ) D = = 10.19 – 254.65 = – 244.46 MPa
Qd 2
Q d3
50.93
244.46 D
Fig. 1.33(d)
EXAMPLE 1.10
A tube with external diameter 50 mm and 5 mm thickness is subjected to loads as shown in
Fig. 1.34. Determine the sate of stress at point A (0, 25, 0) and B (0, –25, 0) and principal stresses.
0.5 kN
y
500 m
m
0 mm
20
1.5 kN
z
x
Fig. 1.34
Solution: State of stress at A(0, ± 25, 0 mm)

Point A will be subjected to both bending moment and twisting moment. The force 0.5 kN will
produce bending moment and twisting moment at point A of the following magnitudes.
The twisting moment is given by
200
T = 500 = 100 N·m
1000
The bending moment is
M = 500 ´ 0.5 = 250 N·m
The stresses are:
T
U xz = r
J
Given do = 50 mm = 0.05 m
di = do – 2t = 50 – 2 ´ 5 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
16 Tdo 16 100 0.05

U xz = = = 6.9 ´ 106 N/m2 = 6.9 MPa
4
Q (do di4 ) 4
Q (0.05 0.044 )
32 Mdo 32 250 0.05

T xx = = = 34.50 ´ 106 N/m2 = 34.50 MPa
Q (do4 di4 ) Q (0.054 0.04 4 )
Similarly, force 1.5 kN will produce bending moment and axial stress at point A of following
magnitude.
The bending moment is
M = 1500 ´ 0.2 = 300 N·m
32 Mdo 32 300 0.05

T xx = = = 41.41 ´ 106 N/m2 = 41.41 MPa
Q (do4 di4 ) Q (0.054 0.04 4 )
The direct stress is
4F 4 1500
T xx = = = 2.122 ´ 106 N/m2 = 2.122 MPa
Q (do2 di2 ) Q (0.052 0.042 )
The like stresses can be added algebraically, by the principle of superposition method. The total
normal stress at point A (0, 25, 0) is
s = 34.50 + 41.41 + 2.122 = 78.032 MPa
The shear stress at point A is
t = 6.9 MPa
At point B(0, –25, 0)
s = –34.50 – 41.41 + 2.122 = –73.788 MPa
t = 6.9 MPa
EXAMPLE 1.11
A machine member is subjected to forces as shown in Fig. 1.35. Determine the stresses.
3 kN·m
A 1.5 kN·m
20 kN 75
B 50
300

Solution:
Q Q
A= (D 2 d 2 ) = (0.0752 0.052 ) = 2.454 10 3 m 2
4 4
Q Q
I= (D4 d 4 ) = (0.0754 0.054 ) = 1.246 10 6 m 4
64 64
J = 2.493 ´ 10–6 m4
Stresses at point A
Due to force F,
F 20 10 3
Ta = = = 8.149 ´ 106 N/m2 = 8.149 MPa
A 2.454 10 3
Due to moment M = 3000 ´ 0.3 = 900 N·m
M 900 0.0375
Tb = .y=
6
= 27.087 ´ 106 N/m2 = 27.087 MPa
I 1.246 10
Due to torque T
TD 1500 0.0375
U xy = = = 22.563 ´ 106 N/m2 = 22.563 MPa
2J 2.493 10 6
Hence, sxx = sa + sb = 8.149 + 27.087 = 35.236 MPa (tensile)
txy = 22.563 MPa
Stresses at point B
sxx = sa – sb = 8.149 – 27.087 = –18.938 MPa (Compression)
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ txy = 22.563 MPa
ÿ
EXAMPLE 1.12
While testing a metallic rod, it is observed that the diameter of the rod is reduced by 0.0025 mm
at an axial pull of 20 kN. The original diameter of the rod is 15 mm. Find the Young’s modulus.
The rigidity modulus is 50 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given Dd = 0.0025 mm, d = 15 mm, F = 20 kN
F 4F
Stress = =
A Qd2
4 20 103
T= = 113.177 N/mm2
Q (15)2
'd 0.0025
Lateral strain = =
d 15
elat = 1.67 ´ 10– 4
stress
\ E=
longitudinal strain
stress 113.177
Longitudinal strain = elong =
E E
F lat
\ Poisson’s ratio =
F long
1.67 10 4 E
O=
113.177
= 1.476 ´ E ´ 10–6
We have from the relation of E and G as
E = 2G(1 + n)
= 2 ´ 50 ´ 103 (1 + 1.476 ´ 10–6 E)
2 50 103
\ E= = 117.32 103 N/mm 2
0.8524
EXAMPLE 1.13
The two-dimensional state of stress is given as sxx = 10 MPa, syy = 5 txy MPa and txy = 2.5 MPa.
Determine the following on a plane inclined at an angle of 30° from the x-plane in anticlockwise
direction. (i) Normal stress, (ii) shear stress, (iii) resultant stress and (iv) principal stresses.
Solution: Given sxx = 10 MPa, txy = 2.5 MPa
syy = 5txy = 5 ´ 2.5 = 12.5 MPa
The stresses are shown in Fig. 1.36.

AB is the inclined plane at an angle 30° from the x-axis.
From the equation the normal stress on the inclined plane is given as
(i) T nn = + cos 2R + U xy sin 2R
2 2
10 + 12.5 10 12.5
= + cos(60°) + 2.5 sin 60°
2 2
= 12.79 MPa
Fig. 1.36
T xx T yy
(ii) Shear stress U ns = sin 2R + U xy cos 2R
2
10 12.5
= sin 60° + 2.5 cos 60°
2
tns = 2.333 MPa
2 2
(iii) Resultant stress U R = T nn + U ns
= (12.79)2 + (2.333)2 = 13.00 MPa
(iv) Principal stresses
2
T1,3 = É Ù + U 2xy
2 Ê 2 Ú
2
10 + 12.5 È 10 12.5 Ø
= É Ù + (2.5)2
2 Ê 2 Ú
= 11.25 ± 2.795
\ s1 = 14.045 MPa, s3 = 8.455 MPa
EXAMPLE 1.14
The state of stress at a critical section is shown in Fig. 1.37. Determine the state of stress on the
element inclined at an angle of 30° clockwise from the x-axis. Represent these stresses on the
element.
50 MPa
100 MPa
25 MPa
Fig. 1.37 State of stress of Example 1.14.
Solution: Given that sxx = 100 MPa, syy = – 50 MPa, txy = –25 MPa, q = –30° or q = 90° – 30°
= 60°.
The inclined plane is shown in Fig. 1.38.
Fig. 1.38 State of stress and inclined plane.
Consider plane CB. The stress components on the plane CB can be obtained from the relation
Tx x =
+ É Ù cos 2R + U xy sin 2R
2 Ê 2 Ú
Here q = 30° (–ve) as it is measured clockwise from reference axis x-axis.
100 50 100 + 50
\ Tx x =
+ cos ( 60°) + ( 25) sin ( 60°)
2 2
= 84.15 MPa
T xx T yy
Shear stress U x y =

sin 2R + U xy cos 2R
2
100 + 50
= sin ( 60°) + ( 25) cos ( 60°)
2
= 52.45 MPa
The positive sign indicates that tx¢y¢ acts in the positive direction.
The stresses on other perpendicular planes such as CD can be obtained by substituting q =

90° – 30° = 60°.
Ty y =

2 2
100 50 100 + 50
= + cos (120°) + ( 25) sin (120°)
2 2
= – 34.151 MPa
100 + 50
Ux y =

sin (120°) + ( 25) cos (120°)
2
= – 52.45 MPa
The stress components are shown in Fig. 1.39.
Fig. 1.39 Stresses on plane inclined at 30° to the x-axis clockwise.
EXAMPLE 1.15
The stress components for a plane stress situation are given as sxx = –20 MPa, syy = 100 MPa,
txy = 60 MPa. Determine the principal stresses and orient them to an element.
Solution: The principal stresses are obtained from the relation
2
T 1,2 = É Ù + U 2xy
2 Ê 2 Ú
2
20 + 100 È 20 100 Ø
= É Ù + (60)2
2 Ê 2 Ú
s1,2 = 40 ± 84.85
ÿ ÿ s1 = 124.85 MPa
ÿ ÿ s2 = – 44.85 MPa
The inclination of the principal stresses can be obtained from the relation
2 U xy 2 60
tan 2R p = = = 1
T xx T yy ( 20 100)
\ tan 2qp = –1 or 2qp = – 45°

\ ÿ qp = – 22.5°.
The difference between two angular positions of two principal stresses is 180°. Hence,
2qp1 = 180° + 2qp2 = 135 qp1 = 67.5°
Two angles are –22.5° and 67.5°.
Now substituting any angle in the following equation we can determine the corresponding
stress. The normal stress equation is
Tx x =

2 2
20 + 100 20 100
= + cos( 45°) + 60 sin ( 45°)
2 2
= – 44.85 MPa
Hence, s2 = – 44.85 MPa acts on the plane defined by qp2 = – 22.5° and s1 = 124.85 MPa acts
on the plane defined by qp1 = 67.5°. The results are shown in Fig. 1.40, including the state of stress
in terms of elemental stresses.
Fig. 1.40 Elemental and principal stresses on an element.
EXAMPLE 1.16
The state of stresses at a critical point is sxx = –15 MPa, syy = 20 MPa, txy = 10 MPa. Determine
the principal stresses using Mohr’s circle method.
Solution: The stresses are given as sxx = –15 MPa, syy = 20 MPa, txy = 10 MPa.
Fig. 1.41 Mohrs circle values shown as in MPa.
The principal stresses are indicated by points C and D. The point C corresponds to the value of
s1 = –20.156 + 2.5 = –17.656 MPa
The point D corresponds to the second principal stress and the value is
s2 = 20.156 + 2.5 = 22.656 MPa
Drawing details
Take s as the x-axis and t as the y-axis. To convert the value of stress to small unit 1 mm =
0.5 MPa is considered. Taking O as reference point sxx = –15 MPa is taken as –ve x-axis and
syy = 20 MPa is taken as +ve x-axis. Considering shear stress as +ve downward, 10 MPa is taken
downward at A and upward at B. Points E and F thus obtained are joined which is the diameter of
the circle. The points C and D thus show the two principal stresses.
The orientation of the principal plane is obtained by angle 2qp.
10
tan 2R p = = 0.571
20 2.5
qp = 14.87°
EXERCISES
1.1 Define the stress at a point?
1.2 Draw Mohr’s circle for
(a) pure shear, (b) pure biaxial tension, (c) pure uniaxial compression and (d) pure uniaxial
tension.
1.3 From the given Mohr’s circles (Fig. 1.42) state the nature of the stresses on a differential
element in the x and y planes.
y-axis y-axis y-axis
x-axis
x-axis x-axis
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.42
1.4 Determine the normal and shear stress on the plane AA as shown in Fig. 1.43. The state of
stress is shown below.
75 MPa
A
80 MPa
150
150 MPa
80
30°
80 A
75
Fig. 1.43
1.5 A point in a strained material is subjected to tensile stress 65 MPa, compressive stress
45 MPa, acting on two mutually perpendicular planes and a shear stress of 10 MPa on those
planes. Determine the normal stress, tangential stress and resultant stress on a plane inclined
to 30° with the plane of the compressive stress.
1.6 At a point in a body the normal and shear stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes are
given as sxx = –100 MPa, syy = 40 MPa and txy = 50 MPa. Using Mohr’s circle, determine
the principal stresses and their planes.
1.7 At a point in a strained material, there are normal stresses of 30 MPa tension, and 20 MPa
compression on two planes at right angles to each other, together with shear stress of 15 MPa
on the same planes. If the loading on the material is increased so that the stresses reach
values of k times those given, find the maximum value of k, if the maximum value of direct
stress in the material is not to exceed 80 MPa, and maximum shear stress is not to exceed
50 MPa.
1.8 If two stress systems as shown in Fig. 1.44 are superposed, determine the principal stresses
and the direction.
y y
100 MPa
30°
x + x
75 MPa
80 MPa
Fig. 1.44
2 Analysis of Stress and Strain
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the three-dimensional theory of stress of a continuous medium. A
continuous medium is a material in which each volume of a substance is sufficiently dense so that
the concepts (e.g., mass density, stress, etc.) have meaning at every point in the region occupied
by the material. The theory of stress depends upon Newton’s law of motion, which is independent
of the nature of continuous material. Therefore, the relationships derived here are applicable to
all continuous material, whether they behave elastically, plastically, visco-elastically or in any other
manner.
2.2 FORCE DISTRIBUTION

The forces acting on a body can be of following types:
(a) Internal forces
(b) External forces
(a) Internal forces: The internal forces are the reactive forces, which are set up due to
external applied forces and within elastic limits, the internal forces are numerically equal
to the external forces.
(b) External forces: The state of stress and strain in a body arises out of external influences.
The external forces acting on a body can be divided into two types.
(i) Surface forces: The forces which are distributed over the surface or boundary of the
body and acting from the surrounding medium like atmospheric pressure, hydraulic
pressure or contact pressure exerted by one body on another.
(ii) Body forces: The forces which act through the body and are not produced by
physical contact with other bodies. Body force intensities are designated as forces per
unit volume. Examples of this kind of force are the gravitational force, magnetic force
and inertia force.
49
2.3 THE STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT

Since an infinite number of planes can be drawn through a point, we get an infinite number of stress
vectors acting at a given point, each stress vector characterized by corresponding plane on which it
is acting. The totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible plane passing through the point
is defined to be the state of stress at the point. The knowledge of state of stress is important for
designer to determine the critical stresses.
2.4 STRESS NOTATIONS

In order to understand clearly the state of stress at a point, double subscript system representing stress
components is utilized. The first subscript denotes the direction of the outward drawn normal on the
plane on which the stress acts, and the second subscript denotes the direction towards which the stress
acts. Therefore, on the positive x face of an elementary parallelopiped, the stresses are txx, txy and
txz in the cartesian coordinate system of axes. Out of which txx is the normal stress because the first
subscript denotes the direction (i.e., x direction) of the outward drawn normal on the plane x and the
second subscript x, denotes the direction (i.e., x direction) along which the stress acts. Whereas txy
and txz are the shear stresses because the subscript x gives the direction of the outward drawn normal,
i.e., the x direction and the subscripts y and z give the directions (i.e., y and z directions) along which
the stresses are measured. The nature of a stress i.e., positive or negative is determined from the
direction of the stress and plane on which stress is acting. The product of these two gives the nature
of the stress. For example, let if a stress sxx is acting in the negative direction and the outward normal
of the plane is also in the negative direction, then the stress sxx is positive. Similarly, if a stress is
acting on a negative plane (i.e., outword normal is in the negative direction) and the direction of the
stress is in positive direction, the stress is said to be negative.
2.5 STRESS TENSOR AT A POINT

The state of stress at a point in the cartesian co-ordinates can be represented by the following nine
component of stress known as the stress tensor:
ËU xx U xy U xz Û
Ì Ü
tij = ÌU yx U yy U yz Ü
Ì Ü
ÌU
Í zx
U zy U zz ÜÝ
The first subscript in tij can be considered to identify a row of the array of terms whereas the second
subscript can be considered to identify a column of the array. The principle or leading diagonal terms
are all normal stress and all off-diagonal terms are shear stresses. The normal stresses can also be
written as sxx, syy, szz or sx, sy, sz instead of txx, tyy, tzz or tx, ty, tz. Throughout this book we shall
write the normal stresses as sx, sy and sz or sxx, syy and szz. Therefore, the stress tensor may be
written as:
ËT xx U xy U xz Û
Ì Ü
Ì U yx T yy U yz Ü
Ì
ÌÍ U zx U zy T zz ÜÜÝ
Chapter 2: Analysis of Stress and Strain 51
All the stress components have been shown on a parallelopiped in Fig. 2.1. It can be noted that there
are nine components of stress in total for a general state of stress.
Fig. 2.1 Components of stress tensor acting on the faces of a rectangular parallelopiped.
2.6 STRESS GRADIENT

The variation of stress with distance is called stress gradient. If the stress tensor at a point is known,
then the stress components in the neighbourhood of the point can be known by expanding the stress
components by Taylor series expansion. Thus, if sxx is the stress at a point, then the stress at a point
at an infinitely small distance Dx will be given by

Txx T 'x + Higher order terms
x xx
Neglecting higher order terms, we get
T xx
Txx 'x
x
In general, it can be written as:
T ij
T ij 'x j
x j
2.7 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

So far, attention has been focused on the state of stress at a point. One of the important sets of
equations used in the analyses of such problems deals with the conditions to be satisfied by the stress
components when they vary from point to point. These conditions will be established when the body
is in equilibrium. We isolate a small element of the body and derive the equations of equilibrium
from its free-body diagram (Fig. 2.2).
The inertial or body forces, such as those caused by the weight or the magnetic effect, designated
as Bx, By and Bz are associated with the unit volume of the material.
Then
+ve
ÇF x 0
Fig. 2.2 Variation of stresses.
È T xx Ø È U xy Ø È U xz Ø
or ÉÊ T xx x dx ÙÚ dydz T xx dydz É U xy y dy Ù dxdz U xy dxdz ÉÊ U xz z dz ÙÚ dxdy
Ê Ú
– txz dxdy + Bx dxdydz = rdxdydz a –x

where
Bx = Component of the body force in the x direction, expressed per unit volume
a x– = Acceleration in the x direction
r = Density of the material of the parallelopipeds
Simplifying, we get
T xx U xy U xz
Bx SB x
x y z
Similarly, considering the equilibrium of forces in the y and z direction, we get, respectively
U yx T yy U yz
By SB y
x y z
U zx U zy T zz
Bz SB z
x y z
In the absence of inertia force and body forces, we get equilibrium equations as:
T xx U xy U xz Þ
0Ñ
x y z Ñ
U yx T yy U yz ÑÑ
0ß (2.1)
x y z Ñ
U zx U zy T zz Ñ
0Ñ
x y z Ñà
In tensor notation, Eq. (2.1) can be written as sij, j = 0, where i = x, y and z, j = x, y and z.
Comma (,) denotes partial derivative. Hence comma j (i, j) denotes partial derivative with respect
to j.
2.8 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRESS STATE

A state of stress is said to be plane state of stress or plane stress state when stresses on one direction
vanish. If in a given state of stress, there exists a plane stress in the xy plane, then stresses in the
z-direction vanish and
szz = 0, txz = 0 and tyz = 0 (2.2)
The state is said to have a plane state of stress parallel to xy plane. This state is also generally known
as a two-dimensional state of stress. Thus, differential equations of equilibrium become
T xx U xy Þ
0Ñ
x y Ñ
ß (2.3)
T yy U yx Ñ
0Ñ
y x à
2.9 GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW

The functional relation of stress and strain, rather load versus deformation was first given by Robert
Hooke in 1676. Hooke’s law states that
Within elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.
The following are the generalized Hooke's law equations. It can be given a precise expression
in terms of stress and strain by stating, in most general form that, if tij ¹ tji,
sxx = f1(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
144444444244444443
syy = f2(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
szz = f3(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
txy = f4(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
tyz = f5(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz) (2.4)
tzx = f6(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
tyx = f7(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
tzy = f8(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
txz = f9(exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, gzx, gyx, gzy, gxz)
or any stress component sxx, syy, szz, etc. are a function of all the strain components, exx, eyy, etc.
These functions f1 ® f9 could be linear or nonlinear. For a small deformation, an elastic material can
be considered to be linearly elastic and in that case the functions f1 ® f9 become linear. Hence, we
can write in tensor form:
s ij = aijkl e kl (2.5)
This is the Cauchy’s formulation for generalized Hooke’s law. In the most general case, s ij and e kl
will have nine components each and aijkl will have eighty-one components, as given herein after:
sxx = a1,1 exx + a1,2eyy + a1,3ezz + a1,4gxy + a1,5gyz + a1,6gzx + a1,7gyx + a1,8gzy + a1,9gxz
1444444424444443
syy = a2,1exx + a2,2eyy + a2,3ezz + a2,4gxy + a2,5gyz + a2,6gzx + a2,7gyx + a2,8gzy + a2,9gxz
szz = a3,1exx + a3,2eyy + a3,3ezz + a3,4gxy + a3,5gyz + a3,6gzx + a3,7gyx + a3,8gzy + a3,9gxz (2.6)
– – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – –
txz = a9,1exx + a9,2eyy + a9,3ezz + a9,4gxy + a9,5gyz + a9,6gzx + a9,7gyx + a9,8gzy + a9,9gxz
Special case
(a) If the stress and strain tensor are symmetrical, t ij = t ji the above set will consist of only
six equations, with thirty-six constants, i.e., from a11 to a66. The stress and strain tensors
will have only six components, as:
1444444424444443
sxx = a1,1exx + a1,2eyy + a1,3ezz + a1,4gxy + a1,5gyz + a1,6gzx
syy = a2,1exx + a2,2eyy + a2,3ezz + a2,4gxy + a2,5gyz + a2,6gzx
szz = a3,1exx + a3,2eyy + a3,3ezz + a3,4gxy + a3,5gyz + a3,6gzx (2.7)

– – – – – – –
– – – – – – –
tzx = a6,1exx, + a6,2eyy + a6,3ezz + a6,4gxy + a6,5gyz + a6,6gzx
(b) These equations contain thirty-six elastic constants. These elastic constants are independent
of the stress components, at a point for an elastic body to be homogeneous. It should be
same at all points within a region. Material is known as isotropic if its elastic constants are
the same in all directions at the point. The numbers of independent elastic constant are only
two for a perfectly isotropic material. The considerations of homogeneity restrict the total
elastic constant within a region to finite value of thirty-six, further the consideration of
isotropy reduces these constants to only two.
The generalized Hooke’s law equations then reduce to
14444442444443
exx = a11sxx + a12(syy + szz)

eyy = a11syy + a12(szz + sxx)
ezz = a11szz + a12(sxx + syy)
(2.8)
gxy = 2(a11 – a12)txy
gyz = 2(a11 – a12)tyz
gzx = 2(a11 – a12)tzx
To calculate the values of a11 and a12, let us take uniaxial stress in the x-direction:
syy = szz = 0
This gives
F xx 1
a11 =
T xx E
where E is Young’s modulus of elasticity. Also,

eyy = ezz = a12sxx = a12Eexx
1 F yy O
a12 =
E F xx E
where n = 1/m = Poisson’s ratio
Substituting these in Eq. (2.8), we get the final equations as follows:
1
exx = [T O (T yy T zz )] (2.9)
E xx
1
eyy = [T O (T xx T zz )] (2.10)
E yy
1
ezz = [T O (T xx T yy )] (2.11)
E zz
2(1 O )
gxy = U xy (2.12)
E
2(1 O )
gyz = U yz (2.13)
E
2(1 O )
gzx = U zx (2.14)
E
2.10 DIRECTION COSINES

Suppose a plane ABC has some inclination to each of x, y and z axes as shown in Fig. 2.3. The
normal to the plane ABC is ON as shown makes angles a, b, g with the x, y and z axes. The cosines
of those angles are known as direction cosines and the three direction cosines, cosa = l, cos b = m
and cosg = n effectively determine the inclination of the plane ABC, in space. These symbols l, m,
n are often used in older books. However, a more comprehensive notation for direction cosines that
will be adopted in this book is based on tensor type notation with double subscripts. Thus, any
direction cosine is termed aij, which is equal to the cosine of the angle between any two lines i and
j. According to this system, l, m, n are anx, any and anz, respectively. It is also convenient to use the
direction cosines as nx, ny and nz instead of l, m and n.
z
N
g
A
a
b
x
O C
B
y
Fig. 2.3 Direction cosines.
2.11 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES

Consider a rectangular parallelopiped as shown in Fig. 2.4 subjected to the three-dimensional stress
system. Let sr be the resultant stress on a plane passing through the point O, and srx, sry and srz
its components along three axes of reference.
y
n
sry
sr
srx
O x
tns sn
srz
z
Fig. 2.4 Normal, shear and resultant stress components.
The direction cosines of the resultant stress are:

T rx T ry T
arx = , ary = , arz = rz
Tr Tr Tr
Let sn and tns be the normal and shear stresses on the plane whose normal n has direction
cosines anx, any and anz.
Now, sn = sr anr
where anr = anx arx + any ary + anz arz

\ sn = sr (anx arx + any ary + anz arz)
= srx anx + sry any + srz anz
Resolving the forces acting on the parallelopiped along the coordinates axes, we can show that
srx = sxxanx + txy any + txz anz
sry = txy anx + syy any + tyz anz
srz = txz anx + tyz any + szz anz

Hence
sn = sxx a2nx + syy a2ny + szz a2nz + 2(txy anx any + tyz any anz + txz anx anz)
Now, sr2 = sn2 + tns2
tns = T r2 T n2 (2.15)
where sr2 = srx2 + sry2 + srz2 (2.16)

The direction cosines of the shear stress may be determined as follows:
Let asx, asy, asz be the direction cosines of tns.
Now, srx = snanx + tns asx

1
asx = [T rx T n anx ]
U ns
Similarly,
1
asy = [T ry T n any ]
U ns
1
and asz = [T rz T n anz ]
U ns
2.12 PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS

For the three principal stresses s1, s2 and s3, the principal directions may be determined as follows.
For s1 stress, let
T yy T 1 U yz
A1 =
U yz T zz T 1
U xy U yz
B1 =
U xz T zz T1
U xy T zz T1
C1 =
U xz U yz
A1
Then anx1 =
A12 B12 C12
B1
any1 =
A12 B12 C12
C1
anz1 =
A12 B12 C12
A plane which is equally inclined to the three coordinate axes is called the octahedral plane
and the stresses acting on this plane are called octahedral stresses. This plane has the direction
cosines each equal to 1/ 3.
2.13 STRESS COMPONENTS ON AN ARBITRARY PLANE

Now, we can start from small cuboids of material as shown in Fig. 2.5 and cut an elementary
tetrahedron OABC, from one corner, as shown. Consider a small tetrahedron at O with three of its
faces normal to the coordinate axes. Let the arbitrary plane be identified by its outward drawn normal
n whose direction cosines are nx, ny and nz and h be the perpendicular distance from P
B
O A
C x
z
Fig. 2.5 Elementary cut from corner of a cuboid.
(point where state of stress is required) to inclined face. If the tetrahedron is isolated from the body
and a free-body diagram is drawn, then it will be in equilibrium under the action of the surface force
and the body forces. The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6 Tetrahedron at point O.
Let T n be the resultant stress vector on face ABC. This can be resolved into components Txn, Tyn,
Tzn parallel to the three axes x, y and z.
Area of BOC = Projection of area ABC on the yz plane = Anx
Area of COA = Projection of area ABC on the xz plane = Any
Area of AOB = Projection of area ABC on the xy plane = Anz
Let the body force components in xy and z direction be Bx, By and Bz per unit volume, respectively.
The volume of the tetrahedron is equal to (1/3)Ah. Thus, for equilibrium in the x direction,
1
TxnA – sxx Anx – txy Any – txz Anz + AhBx = 0
3
1
or Txn = sxx nx + txy ny + txz nz – Bh
3 x
Similarly, for equilibrium in the y and z direction,

1
Tyn = tyx nx + syy ny + tyz nz – B h
3 y
1
and Tzn = tzx nx + tzy ny + szz nz – Bh
3 z
In the limit as h tends to zero, the oblique plane ABC will pass through point O consequently, one
gets from above equations:
Txn = sxx nx + txy ny + txz nz
1442443
Tyn = tyx nx + syy ny + tyz nz (2.17)
Tzn = tzx nx + tzy ny + szz nz
Equation (2.17) is known as Cauchy stress formula.
If T n is resultant stress vector on plane ABC, we have
2 2 2 2
T n = Txn Tyn Tzn
If sn and ts are the normal and shear stress components, we have
2
Tn = T n2 U s2
But normal stress can also be expressed as
T n Txn cos B Tyn cos C Tzn cos H

Txn nx Tyn ny Tzn nz
Substituting Txn , Tyn and Tzn , we get
T n T xx nx2 T yy n2y T zz nz2 2 U xy nx ny 2 U yz ny nz 2 U zx nz nx

which is same as expression derived earlier.
2.14 PRINCIPAL STRESS

We have seen the normal and shear stress components can be determined on any plane with normal
n, using Cauchy’s formula given by Eq. (2.17). Let us assume that there is a plane n with direction
cosines nx, ny and nz on which the stress is wholly normal. Let s be the magnitude of this stress
vector. Then, we have
Tn = sn
The components of this along the x, y and z axes are:
Txn = s nx, Tyn = s ny, Tzn = s nz (2.18)
Also, from Cauchy’s formula, i.e., Eq. (2.17),
Txn = sxx nx + txy ny + txz nz
Tyn = tyx nx + syy ny + tyz nz
Tzn = tzx nx + tzy ny + szz nz
Subtracting Eq. (2.18) from the above set of equations, we get

(sxx – s) nx + txy ny + txz nz = 0
tyx nx + (syy – s) ny + tyz nz = 0
tzx nx + tzy ny + (szz – s) nz = 0
These set of equations are three simultaneous equations involving the unknown nx, ny and nz. These
direction cosines define the plane on which the resultant stress is wholly normal. The determinant
of the coefficients of nx, ny and nz must be equal to zero, for non-trivial solution, i.e.,
T xx T U xy U xz
U yz T yy T U yz =0
U zx U zy T zz T
Expanding the above determinant, we get a cubic equation in s as:

s 3 – (sxx + syy + szz) s2 + sÿ (sxxsyy + syyszz + szzsxx – txy2 – tyz2 – tzx2)
– (sxxsyyszz – sxxt yz2 – syy tzx2 – szz txy2 + 2txytyztxz) = 0 (2.19a)
or T 3 I1T 2 I 2T I3 0 (2.19b)
where I1, I2, and I3 are defined in the next section. Equation (2.19b) is known as Characteristic
equation of Principal stresses. The three roots of Eq. (2.19) give three principal stresses.
2.15 STRESS INVARIANTS

The coefficients of s 2, sÿ and the last term in the cubic Eq. (2.19a) can be written as follows:
I1 = sxx + syy + szz
= Sum of all normal stress component of stress matrix
T xx U xy T yy U yz T xx U xz
I2 =
U yx T yy U zy T zz U zx T zz
= Sum of all 2 ´ 2 stress matrix whose diagonal must be from the diagonal of main stress
matrix
T xx U xy U xz
I3 = U yx T yy U yz
U zx U zy T zz
= Value of determinant of stress tensor sij
I1, I2 and I3 are known as the first, second and third invariants of stress, respectively.
If the reference coordinate is taken as principal axes (1, 2, 3) instead of (x, y, z), the stress matrix
becomes
ËT1 0 0 Û
Ì Ü
T Ì0 T2 0Ü
Ì Ü
ÌÍ 0 0 T 3 ÜÝ
The stress invariants are
I1 = s1 + s2 + s3
T1 0 T2 0 T1 0
I2 =
0T2 0 T3 0 T3
= s1s2 + s2s3 + s1s3
T1 0 0
I3 = 0 T2 0
0 0 T3
= s1 s2 s3
2.16 PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS

Once the principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 are obtained, the principal directions are obtained by seting
s = s1, s = s2 and s = s3 in turn, and solving the following equations for anx, any and anz
(sxx – s) anx + txy any + txz anz = 0
txy anx + (syy – s) any + tyz anz = 0
txz anx + tyz any + (szz – s) anz = 0
2
Such that the condition of direction cosines anx any
2
anz
2
1 must satisfy.
EXAMPLE 2.1
In a triaxial stress system, the six components of the stress at a point are:
sxx = 6 MPa txy = 1 MPa
syy = 5 MPa tyz = 3 MPa
szz = 4 MPa tzx = 2 MPa

Determine the normal and shearing stress on the plane whose direction cosines are 1/ 3 , 1/ 3 ,
1/ 3 . Also calculate the direction of the shear stress.
Solution: Resolving the stresses along the three coordinate axes, we have
srx = sxx anx + txy any + txz anz
1 15
= (6 5 4) MPa
3 3
sry = txy anx + syy any + tyz anz
1 9
= (1 5 3) MPa
3 3
srz = txz anx + tyz any + szz anz
1 9
= (2 3 4) MPa
3 3
Resultant stress sr = T rx2 T ry2 T rz2

1
= (225 81 81)
3
= 11.35 MPa
Normal stress sn = srx anx + sry any + srz anz
1
= (15 + 9 + 9) = 11 MPa
3
Q Shear stress tns = T r2 T n2

= 128.82 121 = 2.79 MPa
The direction of the shear stress is obtained as follows:
1
asx = [T rx T n anx ]
U ns
1 Ë 15 11 Û
= Ì Ü = 0.827
2.79 Í 3 3Ý
1
asy = [T ry T n any ]
U ns
1 Ë 9 11 Û
= Ì Ü = –0.413
2.79 Í 3 3Ý
1
asz = [T rz T n anz ]
U ns
1 Ë 9 11 Û
= Ì Ü = – 0.413
2.79 Í 3 3Ý
EXAMPLE 2.2
The state of stress at a point is given by
sxx = x2y2 + 30, txy = 3x3y2
syy = xz3 + y2 + 15, tyz = x2yz
szz = xy2z + 30, tzx = xz2
Determine the body force distribution at the point (2, 3, 1) so that the stresses are in equilibrium.
All units of stresses are in MPa.
Solution: Using the equilibrium equation:

T xx U xy U xz
Bx = 0
x y z
2xy2 + 6x3y + 2xz + Bx = 0
Bx = – (2xy2 + 6x3y + 2xz)
At the point (2, 3, 1), Bx becomes
Bx = – (2 ´ 2 ´ 9 + 6 ´ 8 ´ 3 + 2 ´ 2 ´ 1)
= – (36 + 144 + 4) = –184 N/m3
Similarly,
U xy T yy U yz
By = 0
x y z
9x2y2 + 2y + x2y + By = 0
By = – (9x2y2 + 2y + x2y)
= – (9 ´ 4 ´ 9 + 2 ´ 3 + 4 ´ 3)
= – (324 + 6 + 12) = –342 N/m3
Similarly, using the third equilibrium equations, we get
Bz = – (z2 + x2z + xy2)
= – (1 + 4 ´ 1 + 2 ´ 9)
= – 23 N/m3
The body force distribution required for the equilibrium becomes
B = –184 î – 342 ĵ – 23 k̂
EXAMPLE 2.3
At a point in a stressed material the stress components are:
sxx = –30, syy = 75, szz = 110
txy = 72, tyz = 40, txz = 30, all are in MPa
Calculate the normal, shear and resultant stresses on a plane whose normal makes an angle of 40°
with the x axis and 60° with the y-axis.
Solution: Here, anx = cos 40° = 0.766
and any = cos 60° = 0.5
Then anz = 1 anx

2
any
2
= 1 (0.766)2 (0.5)2 = 0.404

\ srx = sxx anx + txy any + txz anz
= –30(0.766) + 72(0.5) + 30(0.404) = 25.14 MPa

sry = 72(0.766) + 75(0.5) + 40(0.404) = 108.81 MPa
and srz = 30(0.766) + 40(0.5) + 110(0.404) = 87.42 MPa
Resultant stress sr = (T rx )2 (T ry )2 (T rz )2
= (25.14)2 (108.81)2 (87.42)2 = 141.82 MPa
Shear stress tns = T r2 T n2

Normal stress sn = 25.14 (0.766) + 108.81 (0.5) + 87.42(0.404)
= 108.98 MPa
\ tns = (141.82)2 (108.98)2

= 90.75 MPa
EXAMPLE 2.4
In a triaxial stress system, the six components of the stress at a point are:
sxx = 6 MPa, txy = tyx = 1 MPa
syy = 5 MPa, tyz = tzy = 3 MPa
szz = 4 MPa, tzx = txz = 2 MPa
Find the magnitude of three principal stresses. (UPTU 2002–03)

3 2
Solution: Here, s – I1s + I2s – I3 = 0
Then I1 = sxx + syy + szz

= 6 + 5 + 4 = 15 MPa
2 2 2
I2 = sxxsyy + syyszz + szzsxx – t xy – t yz – t zx
= 6 ´ 5 + 5 ´ 4 + 4 ´ 6 – 12 – 32 – 22 = 60 MPa
2 2 2
and I3 = sxxsyyszz – sxxt yz – syyt zx – szzt xy + 2txytyztzx
= 6 ´ 5 ´ 4 – 6(3)2 – 5(2)2 – 4(1)2 + 2 ´ 1 ´ 3 ´ 2 = 54 MPa
\ s 3 – 15s 2 + 60s – 54 = 0
Solving s1 = 9 MPa
s2 = 4.732 MPa
s3 = 1.248 MPa
EXAMPLE 2.5
At a point P in a body, sxx = 30 kN/cm2, syy = –10 kN/cm2, szz = 10 kN/cm2 and txy = tyz = tzx
= 10 kN/cm2. Determine the normal and shearing stress on a plane that is equally inclined to all the
three axes.
(UPTU 2001–02)
Solution: A plane that is equally inclined to all the three axes will have direction cosines:
1
anx = any = anz =
3
\ srx = sxx anx + txy any + txz anz
1 50
= (30 + 10 + 10) = kN/cm2
3 3
sry = tyx anx + syy any + tyz anz
1 10
= [10 + (–10) + 10] = kN/cm2
3 3
and srz = tzx anx + tzy any + szz anz
1 30
= (10 + 10 + 10) = kN/cm2
3 3
2 2 2
È 50 Ø È 10 Ø È 30 Ø
Resultant stress sr = É Ù É Ù É Ù
Ê 3Ú Ê 3Ú Ê 3Ú
3500
= kN/cm2
3
Normal stress sn = srx anx + sry any + srz anz
Ë 50 1 10 1 30 1 Û
= Ì Ü = 30 kN/cm2
Í 3 3 3 3 3 3 Ý
Thus, tns = T r2 T n2
3500
= (30)2 = 16.33 kN/cm2
3
EXAMPLE 2.6
For the given state of stress, determine the principal stresses and their directions.
Ë0 1 1Û
Ì Ü
[U ij ] Ì1 0 1Ü
Ì1 1 0 ÜÝ
Í
Solution: First invariant I1 = 0, Second invariant I2 = –3, Third invariant I3 = 2

Then f (s ) = s 3 – I1s 2 + I2s – I3
or s 3 – 3s – 2 = 0
or – s 3 + 3s + 2 = 0
or (– s 3 – 1) + (3s + 3) = – (s + 1)(s 2 + 1 – s) + 3(s + 1)
= (s + 1)[–s 2 + sÿ – 1 + 3]
= (s + 1)[–s 2 + sÿ + 2]
= (s + 1)[–s 2 + 2s – s + 2]
= (s + 1)[s (–s + 2) + 1 (–s + 2)]
= (s + 1)(s + 1) (–s + 2)
s1 = s2 = –1 and s3 = 2.
Since two of the three principal stresses are equal and s3 is different, the axis of s3 is unique
and every direction perpendicular to s3 is a principal direction associated with s1 = s2.
For s3 = 2,
–2anx + any + anz = 0
anx – 2any + anz = 0
anx + any – 2anz = 0
and 2
anx any
2
anz
2
=1
These give
1
anx = any = anz =
3
Standard method of solution: Consider the cubic equation:

y3 + py2 + qy + r = 0
where p, q and r are constants.
1
Substitute y= x p
3
This gives
x3 + ax + b = 0
1
where a= (3q – p2)
3
1
b= (2p3 – 9pq + 27r)
27
b
Substitute cos f =
2( a3 /27)1/2
Determine f, and putting

a
g= 2
3
The solutions are:
cos G p
y1 = g
3 3
È G Ø p
y2 = g cos É 120 Ù
Ê 3 Ú 3
ÈG Ø p
y3 = g cos É 240 Ù
Ê 3 Ú 3
EXAMPLE 2.7
At a point P, the rectangular stress components are:
sxx = 1, syy = –2, szz = 4, txy = 2, tyz = –3 and tzx = 1
all in units of kPa. Find principal stresses and check for invariance.
Solution: Stress matrix is:
Ë1 2 1Û
Ì Ü
[U ij ] Ì2 2 3 Ü
Ì1 3 4 ÜÝ
Í
I1 = 1 – 2 + 4 = 3
I2 = (1) (–2) + (–2) (4) + 4(1) – 22 – (–3)2 – 12
= –2 + (–8) + 4 – 4 – 9 – 1 = – 20
I3 = 1(–8 – 9) – 2(8 + 3) + 1 (–6 + 2) = – 43
Then f (s ) = s 3 – I1s 2 + I2s – I3
For this cubic, following the standard method,
y = s , p = –3, q = –20, r = 43
1
a= (–60 – 9) = –23
3
1
b= (–54 – 540 + 1161) = 21
27
(21/2)
cos f =
(12167/27)1/2
f = –119°.40
The solutions are:

s1 = y1 = 4.25 + 1 = 5.25 kPa
s2 = y2 = –5.2 + 1 = –4.2 kPa
s3 = y3 = 0.95 + 1 = 1.95 kPa
Rearranging such that s1 ³ s2 ³ s3,

s1 = 5.25 kPa, s2 = 1.95 kPa, s3 = –4.2 kPa
In terms of the principal stresses, the invariants are:

I1 = s1 + s2 + s3 = 3
I2 = s1s2 + s2s3 + s3s1 = –20
I3 = s1s2s3 = –43
These agree with their earlier values.
2.17 OCTAHEDRAL STRESS

Let (1, 2, 3) be the principal stress axes. Now consider the planes whose unit normals satisfy the
following relation
1
l2 m2 n2
3
with respect to the principal stress axes (1, 2, 3). There are eight such planes as shown in Fig. 2.7.
1
Fig. 2.7 Octahedral plane for l = m = n = ± relative to principal axes (1, 2, 3).
3
Such planes are equally inclined to three principal axes. A plane which is equally inclinded to
three principal axes is known as octahedral plane. The normal and shear stress components
associated with these planes are called octahedral normal stress soct and octahedral shear stress
toct. The normal stress on any arbitrary plane defined by its direction cosines l, m, n is given as
T n 0 T 1l 2 T 2 m 2 T 3 n 2 (2.20)
1
Substituting the value of l = m = n = in Eq. (2.20), we get
3
1
T n0 (T 1 T 2 T 3 ) (2.21)
3
The normal stress given by Eq. (2.21) is known as octahedral normal stress. Hence,
1
soct = (s1 + s2 + s3)
3
I1
= (2.22)
3
The shear stress on any arbitrary plane is given as
U
2
= T r2 T n2 [from Eq. (2.15)] (2.23)
In terms of principal stresses s1, s2, s3, we can write

sn = s1l2 + s2m2 + s3n2 (i)
and T r = T 12 l2 + T 22 m 2 + T 32 n2 (ii)
Now Eq. (2.23) with the help of Eqs. (i) and (ii) becomes,
U
2
= T 12 l 2 + T 22 m 2 + T 32 n2 (T 1l2 + T 2 m2 + T 3 n2 )2 (2.24)
Now the octahedral shear stress can be obtained by substituting l = m = n = 1/3 in Eq. (2.24)
and simplifying,
1
2
U oct = [(T 1 T 2 ) 2 + (T 2 T 3 ) 3 + (T 3 T1 ) 2 ] (2.25)
9
2
or 9 U oct = 2(s1 + s2 + s3)2 – 6(s1s2 + s2s3 + s3s1) (2.26)
2
9 U oct = 2I12 6 I2
U oct = (2/9) I12 (2/3) I 2 (2.27)
2
U oct = (I12 3 I2 ) (2.28)
3
So far we have defined the octahedral stress with reference to principal coordinate system and
expressed in terms of stress invariants. Hence, these stresses can also be expressed in terms of sxx,
syy, szz, txy, etc. associated with arbitrary (x, y, z) axes. Thus,
I1 1
T oct = = (T xx + T yy + T zz ) (2.29)
3 3
2
U oct = (I12 3I 2 )1/2
3
2
= [(T xx + T yy + T zz )2 3(T xx T yy + T yyT zz + T zz T xx U xy
2
U yz2 U zx2 )]1/2 (2.30)
3
Simplifying, we get,
1
U oct = [(T xx T yy ) 2 + (T yy T zz )2 + (T zz T xx )2 + 6(U xy
2 2
+ U yz 2 1/2
+ U zx )] (2.31)
3
The octahedral normal and shear stress are very important in expressions used in yield criterion
for ductile material.
2.18 MEAN AND DEVIATOR STRESSES

We have discussed that octahedral normal stress is 1/3 (s1 + s2 + s3) which is same as mean stress
of three principal stresses. Hence, the octahedral normal stress also known as mean stress and
denoted as sm
\ sm = 1/3(s1 + s2 + s3)
= 1/3(sxx + syy + szz) (2.32)

Experiments indicate that the yielding of metals is independent of the mean stress. Hence, the total
state of stress can be written as follows. As the cross shear stresses are equal, hence txy = tyx etc.
are taken in the derivation.
ËT xx U xy U xz Û ËT m 0 0 Û ËT xx T m U xy U xz Û
Ì Ü Ì Ü Ì Ü
Ì U xy T yy U yz Ü = Ì 0 Tm 0 Ü + Ì U xy T yy T m U yz Ü (2.33)
Ì Ü Ì Ü Ì Ü
Í U xz
Ì U yz T zz ÜÝ Ì 0
Í 0 T m ÝÜ Ì
Í U xz U yz T zz T m ÜÝ
or T = Tm + Td (2.34)
The stress vector given by Tm is known as mean stress tensor and stress vector Td is known as
deviatoric stress tensor.
We know that if (x, y, z) coordinates are taken as principal coordinate axes, then
s1 = sxx, s2 = syy, s3 = szz and txy = tyz = tzx = 0.
Now Eq. (2.34) yields,
ËT 1 Tm 0 0 Û
Ì Ü
Td = Ì 0 T2 Tm 0 Ü
Ì Ü
Ì
Í 0 0 T 3 T m ÝÜ
The stress invariants for Td are
J1 = s1 – sm + s2 – sm + s3 – sm
=0
T1 T m 0 T2 Tm 0 T1 T m 0
J2 = + +
0 T2 T m 0 T3 T m 0 T3 Tm
Expanding and simplifying, we get
J2 = –1/6[(s1 – s2)2 + (s2 – s3)2 + (s3 – s1)2]
T1 T m 0 0
J3 = 0 T2 Tm 0
0 0 T3 T m
= (s1 – sm) (s2 – sm) (s3 – sm)
State of pure shear

A stress vector is said to be a state of pure shear when the first invariant I1 vanishes. Hence, for any
coordinate system I1 = 0 indicates that stress matrix is under state of pure shear. For a state of pure
shear, the octahedral normal stress is zero. Hence, Td as discussed represents a state of pure shear.
EXAMPLE 2.8
The nonzero stress components are sxx = –70 MPa, syy = 50 MPa and txy = 10 MPa.
(a) Determine the principal stresses
(b) Determine the stress invariants
(c) Determine the octahedral shear and normal stress.
Solution: Given sxx = –70 MPa, syy = 50 MPa and txy = 10 MPa.
We have I1 = sxx + syy + szz

= –70 + 50 + 0 = –20
I2 = sxxsyy + syyszz + szzsxx U xy
2
U 2yz U zx2
= –70 ´ 50 – 102 = –3600
I3 = 0
\ Principal stress equation is
s 3 – I1s 2 + I2s – I3 = 0
or s 3 + 20s 2 – 3600s = 0
or s (s 2 + 20s – 3600) = 0
\ s = 0 or ÿ s 2 + 20s – 3600 = 0
From the second condition, the roots are
20 202 + 4 1 3600

s1,2 =
2 1
s1,2 = –10 ± 60.827

\ s1 = –70.827 MPa
s2 = 50.827 MPa
and s3 =0
(c) Octahedral shear stress
2
U oct = (I12 3 I2 )
3
2
= [( 20)2 + 3 3600]1/2
3
2
= 105.83
3
= 49.890 MPa
EXAMPLE 2.9
Two given principal stresses are s1 and s3. If the order of three principal stresses is s1 > s2 > s3,
determine the value of s2 for which the octahedral shear stress attains an extreme value.
Solution: We have
9t2oct = (s1 – s2)2 + (s2 – s3)2 + (s3 – s1)2
Expanding, we get
2
9U oct = 2T12 + 2T 22 + 2 T 32 2T 1T 2 2T 2T 3 2T 3T 1
For extremum value of toct, differentiating toct with respect to s2, and equating to zero,
U oct
2 ´ 9U oct =0
T 2
= 4s2 – 2s1 – 2s3
U oct 1 (2 T 2 T 1 T 3 )
= =0
T 2 9 U oct
\ 2s2 – s1 – s3 = 0
T1 + T 3
\ s2 =
2
EXAMPLE 2.10
Two bodies are subjected to uniaxial tension to s0 value and torsion to t0. If the octahedral shear
stress for two loading conditions is the same, determine the ratio of the s0/t0.
Solution: Under uniaxial loading condition for first body, the state of stresses is
sxx = s0, syy = szz = txy = tyz = tzx = 0
The invariant of stress are

I1 = s0, I2 = 0 and I3 = 0
Hence,
2
U oct = (I12 3I 2 )
3
2
= T0 (i)
3
For the second body, the state of stresses are sxx = syy = szz = tyz = tzx = 0 and txy = t0.
The stress invariants are
I1 = 0, I2 = – t02, I3 = 0
2
U oct = (3 U 02 )
3
2
= U0
3
Hence, according to the given statement
2 2
U0 = T0
3 3
T0
\ = 3
U0
EXAMPLE 2.11
Prove that the state of s stress given below is a state of pure shear.
Ë5 3 2Û
Ì Ü
T= Ì3 7 4Ü
Ì Ü
Í2
Ì 4 12 Ü
Ý
Solution: A state of stress is said to be pure state of shear when the first invariant is zero. For the
given state of stress
I1 = sxx + syy + szz
= 5 + 7 – 12 = 0
Hence, the stress is pure shear state of stress.
2.19 STRAIN ANALYSIS

When a body is subjected to external forces, displacement of a point in the body relative to others
occurs. This displacment may be linear or angular one. Also, the deformation occurs in the body is
not uniform throughout its volume. These deformations are either characterized by the changes in
length of a line element or the changes in the angle between two line element defines the strain.
The elongation or contraction of a line element per unit length is known as normal strain. If a
line element as shown in Fig. 2.8 (undeformed body) becomes ds¢ after deformation, the strain of
the line element is defined as
ds ds
F =
ds
Fig. 2.8 Line segment PQ in undeformed and deformed body.
Similarly, when any change in angle occurs between two line element originally perpendicular to
each other, the deformation is referred to as shear strain. This deformation is denoted by g (gamma)
and is measured in radians. This is explained in Fig. 2.9.
(a) Undeformed body (b) Deformed body
Fig. 2.9 Angular deformation of two line element.
Now to develop the concept of state of strain and the strain-displacement relation, we consider
the following examples. Let a two demensional element ABCD extended in the x-direction by an
amount Du, the strain is said to be occurred in the x-direction and it is normal strain. Similarly, the
angular deformation shown in Fig. 2.10 defines the shear strain in the xy plane.
Fig. 2.10 Linear strain: (a) in x-direction, (b) y-direction, and (c) shear strain in x-y plane.
2.20 STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATION

Consider a body ABCD before deformation. The coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are
A(x, y), B(x + Dx, y), C(x + Dx, y + Dy) and D(x, y + Dy). Due to external loads the deformation of
the body ABCD occurred and due to deformation all the points A, B, C and D distored to A¢, B¢, C¢
and D¢. Let u, v be horizontal and vertical displacement of line AA¢. Now we can write
AM = u, A¢M = v
The cordinates of A¢ are A¢(x + u, y + v). Now we can write with reference to Fig. 2.11,
u 1 2 u
BN = u + 'x + ('x ) 2 + higher order terms
x 2 x 2
Fig. 2.11 Direct and shear strain.

Neglecting the smaller terms, we can write
u
BN = u + 'x (2.35)
x
Similarly, we can write the following equations.
v
NB = v + 'x (2.36)
x
u
DP = u + 'y (2.37)
y
v
D P = v + 'y = DT (2.38)
y
Horizontal component of A¢B¢ = A¢R
= MN
= AN – AM
= AB + BN – AM
u
= Dx + u + 'x – u
x
u
= Dx + 'x (2.39)
x
This is the final length of AB in the x-direction.
\ Strain in the x-direction is denoted as exx
u
'x + 'x 'x
F xx = x
'x
u
F xx = (2.40)
x
By similar argument, we can derive the strain in the y-direction. From Fig. 2.11, we can write
vertical components of A¢D¢.
= A¢Q = ST
= AT – AS
= AD + DT – AS
v
= Dy + v + Dy – v
y
v
= 'y + 'y (2.41)
y
which is the final length of AD in the y-direction.
\ Strain in the y-direction is
v
'y + 'y 'y
y
F yy =
'y
v
F yy = (2.42)
y
Now, if a and b are the angular displacements of two line element AB and AD, the shear strain
can be obtained from the change in angles or from a and b. Consider them as total angular
deformation.
B R
tan B =
A R
B N RN
=
MN
v
v+ 'x v
= x
u
'x + 'x
x
v
'x
= x (2.43)
È u Ø
ÉÊ1 + x ÙÚ 'x
From Eq. (2.42), Eq. (2.43) becomes
v
tan B = x (2.44)
1 + F xx
For small deformation theory if exx << 1, Eq. (2.44) reduces to
v
B = (2.45)
x
Similarly, we can derive
D Q
tan C =
A Q
u
y
= (2.46)
1 + F yy
Taking for small deformation theory eyy << 1.
u
C= (2.47)
y
The shear strain denoted as gxy defined as change in the right angle between two line elements
originally at the right angle is expressed as
gxy = a + b
u v
= + (2.48)
y x
Hence, in two-dimensional state of strain, the strain-displacement relations are
u Þ
F xx =
x Ñ
Ñ
v Ñ
F yy = ß (2.49)
y
Ñ
Ñ
u v
H xy = + Ñ
y x à
For simplicity if we define
1
F xy = H xy
2
1 È u v Ø
= É + Ù
(2.50)
2 Ê y x Ú
We can prove
1 È u v Ø
F yx = É + Ù
2 Ê y x Ú
= exy (2.51)
Hence, exy = eyx (2.52)
With this concept we can derive the strain-displacement relation for a three-dimensional case
too. Let u, v, w be displacements in the x, y and z directions respectively, we can write normal strain
as
u Þ
F xx =
x Ñ
Ñ
v Ñ
F yy
y ß
= (2.53a)
Ñ
w Ñ
Fzz = Ñ
z à
and the shear strain as
u v Þ
H xy = +
y x Ñ
Ñ
v w Ñ
H yz =
z
+
y ß (2.53b)
Ñ
w u Ñ
H zx = + Ñ
x z à
Expressing strain as eij where i = x, y or z and j = x, y or z, the strain displacement relations given
in Eq. (2.53a, 2.53b) can be written as
1 È ui u j Ø
F ij = É + Ù
(2.54)
2 Ê x j x i Ú
1
or F ij = (ui, j + u j, i ) (2.55)
2
2.21 THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRAINS

In the case of three-dimensional coordinate system, the components of strain are expressed by the
strain matrix:
F xx F xy F xz
eij = F yx F yy F yz
F zx F zy F zz
H xy H xz
F xx
2 2
H yx H yz
or F yy
2 2
H zx H zy
F zz
2 2
Such that gij = 2eij, i, j = x, y, z, where eij are normal strains and gij are the shearing strains.
2.22 NORMAL AND SHEARING STRAINS

Suppose on a plane the strain components are eij. The direction cosines of the normal to this plane
are anx, any and anz. The normal and shearing strains on this plane can be determined as follows:
H xy H xz
erx = F xx anx any anz
2 2
H yx H yz
ery = anx F yy any + anz
2 2
H zx H zy
erz = anx + any + ez zanz
2 2
Resultant strain er = 2
F rx F ry2 F rz2
Normal strain en = erx anx + ery any + erz anz
= exx a2nx + eyy a2ny + ezz a2nz + gxy anx any + gyz any anz + gzx anx anz
Shearing strain gns = F r2 F n2

The direction cosines of shearing strain may be determined from:
2
asx = [F rx F n anx ]
H ns
2
asy = [F ry F n any ]
H ns
2
asz = [F rz F n anz ]
H ns
2.23 PRINCIPAL STRAINS

The principal strains are the roots of the cubic equation:
e3 – j¢1e 2 + j¢2e – j¢3 = 0
where j¢1 = e xx + e yy + e zz
is the first invariant of strain.
1 2
j¢2 = e xxe yy + e yye zz + e zze xx – (H H yz
2
H zx2 )
4 xy
is the second invariant of strain.
F xx H 2yz F yyH zx
2 2
F zz H xy H xyH yz H zx
j¢3 = F xx F yy F zz
4 4 4 4
is the third invariant of strain.
The roots of equation may be determined by a hit-and-trial method or Newton–Raphson method.
2.24 PRINCIPAL STRAIN DIRECTIONS

The principal strain direction may be determined as follows:
For e1, let
H yz
F yy F1
2
A1 =
H yz
F zz F1
2
H xy H yz
2 2
B1 =
H zx
F zz F1
2
H xy
F yy F1
2
C1 =
H xz H yz
2 2
Then
A1
anx1 =
A12 B12 C12
B1
any1 =
A12 B12 C12
C1
anz1 =
A12 B12 C12
Similarly, direction of e2 and e3 may be determined.
2.25 CONCEPT OF COMPATIBILITY

In simple cases of statistical equilibrium, determinate and indeterminate problems can be
distinguished by comparing the number of equations with the number of unknowns. If these are
same, a unique solution can be easily obtained and the problem is termed determinate. Here, we
shall try to study another aspect of the problem, i.e., the number of equations being more than the
number of unknowns. This problem arises if we try to determine the displacement components u, v,
w from the strain components, exx, eyy, ezz, gxy, gyz, etc.
Here, we have six equations of the type:
u 
F xx =
x 
 (2.56)
v u 
H xy = 
x y 
for the three unknowns u, v, w. If the strains are arbitrarily specified, the set of six differential
equations given by Eq. (2.56) cannot be integrated to give single valued solutions for u, v and w.
Therefore, the strain component must satisfy certain other conditions as well to ensure the uniqueness
of the solution. These extra conditions are known as condition of compatibility.
This explains the need of compatibility conditions in a mathematical sense. In a physical way,
it can be stated that various portions of a deformable body should move, during strains, in such a
way that close contact is maintained everywhere along any imaginable interface without separation
or overlapping. Thus, on Fig. 2.12(a) , if the line elements AB, BC and AC forming a triangle as
shown at (i) deform to the shape given by AB, BC and CA¢ as shown at (ii) and (iii), the condition
of compatibility is violated. This means that the components of strains should have a mutual relation
so that the apex of the triangle ABC does not open at A, as shown in (ii) or overlap as shown in (iii),
after deformations have taken place.
Fig. 2.12 A physical picture for compatibility requirements.
Another example of compatibility requirements is shown in part (b) of the same figure using
area elements. In fact, compatibility means accommodation or matching of temperament in ordinary
English, and here we want to show the same thing, i.e., how the shape of same type of elements
before deformation should remain similar to each other after deformation. Thus, if square elements
a b c d, etc., of the 2D body shown at (iv) deform to parallelogram a¢ b¢ c¢ d¢, etc. then each element
of the deformed body should have similar shape. Hence, if we isolate an element a² b² c² d² from
the deformed body leaving a gap a¢ b¢ c¢ d¢, the shape and size of the isolated element and the gap
should be identical for compatibility. In Figure 2.12(v), this is the case and deformed elements
a² b²c² d², will completely fill the gap a¢ b¢ c¢ d¢. Hence no small gap will be left and compatibility
would be satisfied.
2.26 ST-VENANT’S EQUATIONS OF COMPATIBILITY

We start from the strain displacement relation and differentiate these to obtain mutual relations
between various strain components. First, consider the direct strains.
u
exx =
x
v
eyy =
y
2 F xx 3u
\
y 2 x y2
2 F yy 3 v
x 2
yx 2
Adding these, we get
2 F xx 2 F yy 3 u 3 v
=
y 2
x 2
x y 2
yx 2
2 È u v Ø
=
x y É
Ê y x Ù
Ú
2 F xx 2 F yy 2H xy
\ =
y 2 x 2 xy
Similarly, we can get two more equations. Now, consider the shear strains.
u v
gxy =
y x
H xy 2 u 2 v
=
z y z x z
H yz 2 v 2 w
Similarly, =
x x z y x
H zx 2 w 2 u
=
y x y z y
H xy H H 2 u
yz zx = 2
z x y zy
È H xy H yz H zx Ø 2 F xx
= 2
x ÉÊ z x y ÙÚ zy
Similarly, two more equations can be obtained. The entire set of St. Venant’s equation can be written
as:
2 F xx 2 F yy 2H xy Þ
Ñ
y 2 x 2 x y Ñ
Ñ
2 F yy 2 F zz 2H yz Ñ
Ñ
z 2 y2 y z
Ñ
2 F zz 2 F xx 2H zx Ñ
Ñ
x 2 z 2 z x Ñ
ß
2 F xx È H yz H zx H xy Ø Ñ
(2.57)

x ÉÊ x z ÙÚ
2
y z y Ñ
Ñ
2 F yy È H zx H xy H yz Ø Ñ
Ñ
y ÉÊ y x ÙÚ
2
zx z Ñ
Ñ
2 F zz È H xy H yz H zx Ø Ñ
Ñ
z ÊÉ z y ÙÚ
2
x y x Ñà
These equations were first found by St. Venant in 1860.
EXAMPLE 2.11
The stress components at a point are given by sxx = 20, syy = 10, szz = 15, txy = 10, tyz = 15,
tzx = 20 MPa. Calculate the strain components, taking E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio 0.3.
Solution:
E = 2G (1 + n)
E
or G=
2(1 O )
200 109
=
2 1.3
or G = 76.92 GPa
1
Now, exx = [s – n(syy + szz)]
E xx
1
= [20 – 0.3(25)] 106
200 109
= 0.0625 ´ 10–3 = 62.5 ´ 10–6
1
eyy = [s – n(szz + sxx)]
E yy
1
= [10 – 0.3(35)]106
200 109
= –2.5 ´ 10–6
1
and ezz = [15 – 0.3(30)] 106
200 109
= 30 ´ 10–6
U xy
Then gxy =
G
10 10 6
= = 130 ´ 10–6
76.92 10 9
15 10 6
g yz =
76.92 10 9
= 195 ´ 10–6
20 10 6
and g zx =
76.92 10 9
= 260 ´ 10–6
EXAMPLE 2.12
The strain components at a point are given by exx = 100, eyy = 50, ezz = 40 m strains and gxy = 20,
gyz = 10, gzx = 15 m radians. Calculate the normal and shearing strains on a plane whose normal has
the direction cosines 1/ 3, 2/3, 0.
Solution:
1 1
erx = exx anx + gxy any + g a
2 2 xz nz
1 1 2
= 100 20 0 = 65.9 m
3 2 3
1 1
ery = gxy anx + eyy any + g a
2 2 yz nz
1 1 2
= 20 50 0 = 46.598 m
2 3 3
1 1
erz = gxz anx + g a + ezz anz
2 2 yz ny
1 1 1 2
= 15 10 = 8.41 m
2 3 2 3
Then resultant strain er = (F rx ) 2 (F ry ) 2 (F rz )2
= (65.9) (46.59) (8.41) m = 81.143 m

2 2 2
Normal strain en = erx anx + ery any + erz anz
È È 1 Ø È 2Ø Ø
= É 65.9 É Ù 46.59 É 8.41(0) Ù m = 76.1 m
Ê Ê 3Ú Ê 3 ÙÚ Ú
H ns
Shearing strain = F r2 F n2
2
or gns = 2 (81.143) 2

(76.1)2 m = 56.34 m
2.27 SOLUTION OF STRESS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

We have discussed stress differential equations, stress-strain relations and compatibility equations.
Now these equations can be combined together to find the unknown parameters such as stress, strain
or displacements. In this section, we will consider plane stress and plane strain problems limited to
two-dimension only.
Plane stress case

The stress-strain relations for plane stress are
1
F xx = (T xx OT yy ) (2.58)
E
1
F yy = (T yy OT xx ) (2.59)
E
2(1 + O )
H xy = U xy (2.60)
E
The compatibility equation is given by
2 F xx 2 F yy 2 H xy
+ = (2.61)
y 2 x 2 x y
Substituting Eqs. (258) to (2.60) in Eq. (2.61), we get
1 Ë 2
2 Û
2
Ë 2 (1 + O) Û
Ì
2
(T xx OT yy ) + 2
(T yy OT xx ) Ü = Ì U xy Ü (2.62)
E x y E
ÍÌ y x ÝÜ Í Ý
From the stress-differential equations given as

T xx U xy

+ =0
x y 
 (2.63)
U xy T yy 
+ =0 
x y 
Equation (2.62) can be further simplified as
2T xx 2T yy 2U xy 2T yy 2T xx 2U xy
+ 2 =O +O + 2O
y2 x 2 x y y 2 x 2 x y
Ë 2T 2 2
xx U xy T yy Û
=O Ì
2
+2 + 2
Ü (2.64)
ÌÍ x x y y Ü Ý
Now defining a function f, known as Airy’s stress function as
2G 2G 2G
T yy = , T xx = and U xy = (2.65)
x 2
y 2 x y
Equations (2.65) should satisfy the differential equation (2.63). Now substituting Eq. (2.65) in
Eq. (2.64) and simplifying, we get
4G 4G 4G
+2 + =0
x 4 x 2 y2 y 4
or Ñ4f = 0 (2.66)
È 2
2 Ø
where 2
³ = É +
2 2Ù
Ê x y Ú
Since solution of Eq. (2.66) satisfy both compatibility and equilibrium equations, any solution
of this equation gives a possible stress distribution in an elastic body.
If the body force is included in the analysis, the stress differential equations are
T xx U xy 
+ + Bx = 0 
x y 
 (2.67)
U xy T yy 
+ + By = 0 
x y 
Now considering a potential function W so that
Bx = :x and By = :
y
Eq. (2.67) becomes
T xx
:x + yxy
U
x =0
U xy
or (T xx :) + =0 (2.68)
x y
U xy
and (T yy :) + =0
y x
Now assuming a stress function f so that

2G 
T xx = : +
y2 

2G 
T yy = : + 2  (2.69)
x 

2G 
txy = 
xy 
Equation (2.62) yields
2U xy 2 2
2(1 + O ) = (T xx OT yy ) + (T yy OT xx ) (2.70)
x y y 2 x 2
Substituting Eq. (2.69) in Eq. (2.70)
G Ø Ë G GØÛ
2 È 2 2 2 È 2

2(1 + O ) É Ù = 2
Ì: + 2
O É: + 2Ù
Ü
x y Ê x y Ú y ÌÍ y Ê x Ú Ü
Ý

2 Ë
2
G È G
2 ØÛ
+ 2
Ì: + 2
O É: + 2Ù
Ü
x ÌÍ x Ê y Ú Ü
Ý
After simplification, we get

4
G
4
G
4
G È 2 : 2
:Ø
4
+2 2 2
+ 4
+ (1 O) É 2
+ 2 Ù
=0
x x y y Ê x y Ú
or Ñ4f + (1 – n) Ñ2W = 0 (2.71)

For plane strain case ezz = 0 and hence
szz = n(sxx + syy)
Now modifying the stress-strain relations, we can derive
È 1 2O Ø
³
4
G+ É
2
Ù ³ : =0 (2.72)
Ê 1 O Ú
2.28 TYPES OF AIRY’S STRESS FUNCTION

The following types of stress functions are most commonly used for obtaining the solution:
(a) Algebraic functions
(b) Polynomials
(c) Fourier series
(d) Complex functions
(e) Trigonometric series

(f) Harmonic functions
Other methods for solving two-dimensional problems are:
(a) Integral transform method
(b) Real potential method
(c) Conformal transformation method
We shall illustrate some of the stress functions by the use of polynomial only.
(i) Polynomial of first degree.
f1 = a1x + b1y
2G1
sxx = =0
y2
2 G1
syy = =0
x 2
2 G1
txy = – =0
x y
This stress function gives a stress free body as shown in Fig. 2.13.
Fig. 2.13 State of stress for first degree polynomial stress function.
(ii) Polynomial of the second degree.

a2 2 c
f2 = x b2 xy 2 y2
2 2
2G2
sxx = = c2
y 2
2G2
syy = = a2
x 2
2G2
txy = = –b2
x y
This state of stress represented by a constant stress yield is shown in Fig. 2.14.
Fig. 2.14 State of stress under constant stress field.
2.29 APPLICATION OF AIRY’S STRESS FUNCTION

Pure tension: Consider a rectangular plate under simple tension as shown in Fig. 2.15. Let Airy’s
function be
c2 2
f (x, y) = y
2
Fig. 2.15 State of stress under simple tension.
2G
Hence sxx =
y 2
= c2
From boundary condition c2 = s0
sxx = s0
Similarly,
syy = G2
2
x
=0
2 G
txy = –
x y
=0
Pure shear: Consider the member under pure shear as shown in Fig. 2.16. Let Airy’s function be
f (x, y) = cxy
Fig. 2.16 State of stress under pure shear.
Hence sxx = 0
syy = 0
txy = c
Pure bending: Consider a member under pure bending. The following stress function is considered.
f = ax3 + bx2y + cxy2 + dy3
where a, b, c, and d are constants.

2G
Now T xx = = 2 cx + 6 dy
y 2
2G
T yy = = 6 ax + 2 by
x2
2 G
U xy = = (2 bx + 2 cy)
x y
This shows that all stresses vary linearly with respect to x and y. Now if a = b = c = 0, the state of
stress would correspond to pure bending as
ÿ ÿ ÿ sxx = 6dy
syy = 0
txy = 0
Thus, f = dy is the stress function for pure bending which satisfy Ñ4f = 0 condition too.
3
2.30 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL STATE OF STRESS

We know that in a general state of stress, at every point it is possible to reduce the stresses into three
mutually perpendicular normal stresses, i.e., s1, s2 and s3. If Mohr’s circles are drawn for three sets
of principal stresses, we get a figure, where all the three circles cluster in the same area [see Fig. 2.17].
Fig. 2.17 Mohrs circle in three dimensions.
The following procedure may be adopted to obtain the results:

1. Arrange the principal stresses such that algebraically s1 ³ s2 ³ s3 along the sn axis.
2. Locate the centres O1, O2 and O3 at distances 1/2(s2 + s3), 1/2(s1 + s3) and 1/2(s1 + s2)
from the origin O, respectively.
3. Draw three circles with centres O1, O2 and O3 having radii 1/2(s2 – s3), 1/2(s1 – s3) and
1/2(s1 – s2), respectively.
4. Draw vertical lines at s1. Set off angle a = cos–1 anx from the vertical line at s1 in the
anticlockwise direction and draw the line s1T1T2.
5. With centre O1 draw arc T1T2.
6. Set off angle g = cos–1 anz from the vertical at s3 in the clockwise direction and draw the
line s3 N1N2.
7. With centre O3 draw the arc N1N2.
8. Let P3 be the point of intersection of the arc T1T2 and N1N2.
9. From point P3 drop perpendicular P3A and P3P on sn and ts axes, respectively. Then
P3A = ts and OA = sn.
10. To check the construction set off angle b = cos –1 any on each side of the vertical at s2. Draw
arc P1P2 with O2 as centre. The arc should pass through P3.
EXAMPLE 2.13
The principal stresses at a point are 300 MPa, 50 MPa and –150 MPa. Determine graphically the
octahedral normal and shearing stresses and check analytically.
Solution: The direction cosines of the octahedral plane are:

1
anx = any = anz =
3
È 1Ø
a=b=g = cos–1 É Ù = 54° 44¢
Ê 3Ú
1
Normal stress sn = (s + s2 + s3)
3 1
1
= (–150 + 50 + 300) = 66.67 MPa
3
Resultant stress sr = (T 1 )2 (T 2 )2 (T 3 )2
= ( 150)2 (50)2 (300)2 = 195.78 MPa
and shear stress ts = T r2 T n2
= (195.78)2 (66.67)2 = 184.08 MPa
The graphical construction has been shown in Fig. 2.18. By measurement,

sn = OO2 = 66 MPa
ts = ON = 184 MPa
Fig. 2.18
EXERCISES
2.1 Write the short notes on the followings:
(i) Stress tensor
(ii) Concept of compatibility
(iii) Airy’s function
2.2 The cartesian components of stress at a point are:
sxx = 15 syy = szz = 8
txy = 6 tyz = 4 txz = 4 MPa
Determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane whose direction cosines are 1/ 3,
1/ 3, 1/ 3 .
[Ans. 19.57 MPa, 3.83 MPa]
2.3 The cartesian components of stresses at a point are:
sxx = 7, syy = 6, szz = 5, txy = 2, tyz = –2, txz = 0 MPa
Determine the values of principal stresses.
[Ans. 9 MPa, 6 MPa, 3 MPa]
2.4 The state of stress at a point for a given reference xyz is given by the following array of
terms:
Ë 15 8 6 Û
Ì Ü
Ì 8 12 5 Ü MPa
Ì 6 5 8 ÜÝ
Í
Determine the principal stresses.

[Ans. 19.19 MPa, 10.27 MPa, –10.02 MPa]
2.5 The principal stresses at a point on a plane are:
s1 = 50, s2 = 40, s3 = –20 MPa
Determine the normal and shear stresses on this plane if its direction cosines are:
1 2 3
, ,
14 14 14
[Ans. 2.14 MPa, 29.8 MPa]
2.6 The strain components at a point are given by
exx = 200, eyy = 100, ezz = 50 m strains and gxy = gyz = gzx = 40 m radian. Calculate normal
and shearing stains on a plane having direction cosines 1/ 3, 1/ 3, 1/ 3 .

[Ans. 156.67 ´ 10–6, 124.72 ´ 10–6]
2.7 Calculate the principal strain for data given in Problem 2.6.
2.8 The principal stresses at a point are 330 MPa, 50 MPa and –120 MPa. Determine graphically
the octahedral normal and shearing stresses and check analytically.
[Ans. Analytically sn = 86.76 MPa, tns = 185.52 MPa
Graphically sn = 86 MPa, tns = 186 MPa]
3 Theory of Failure
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The state of stress at any point on the structure may be simple or complex in nature. Hence, in
designing under complex loading or complex state of stress condition, it is difficult to set the maximum
limit of the stresses to define the failure condition. All engineering materials are classified as ductile
or brittle. A material is said to be ductile when the gross plastic deformation is more than 5% and brittle
when it is less than 5%. Hence, the material which shows failure strain ef ³ 5% is termed as ductile
material and if ef < 5%, then it is called brittle material. However, under some special conditions a
ductile material may fail in a brittle manner. If the material is ductile, the failure is usually specified
by the initiation of yielding, whereas if the material is brittle, the failure is characterized by fracture.
Hence, yield strength and ultimate strength are generally set as maximum limit stress in ductile and
brittle failure respectively. The yield strength and ultimate strength of any material are obtained from
tension or compression tests under uniaxial static loading condition. A load is said to be static when
the rate of loading is very small or the load is approximately stationary on the member.
The test is usually conducted at room temperature with a rate of loading less than 10 mm/min.
The material behaviour under uniaxial loading is represented by engineering stress-strain diagram.
The stress-strain diagram for ductile material is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Stress-strain behaviour. (in Fig. 3.1(b) line BB¢ is parallel to tangent drawn at A).
95
The point B in Fig. 3.1(a) and C in Fig. 3.1(b) is the proportional limit. This is the point where
the curve first begins to deviate from its linearity or straight line. If the load is removed from this
point, there will be no permanent deformation left on the specimen. The stress-strain relation in this
linear range according to Hooke’s law is
s = Ee (3.1)
where s and e are engineering stress and strain respectively. E is the slope of the linear part of the
stress-strain curve; E is known as modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus. It is the measure of
the stiffness of the material.
The point D in Fig. 3.1(b) is known as elastic limit. When the specimen is loaded beyond this
point, after removal of the load, a permanent deformation or set will be left on the specimen. The
points C to D are not straight line but the deformation up to point D is small enough and the relation
given above [Eq. (3.1)] holds true. When the load is further increased above the elastic limit, it
results in permanent deformation. This behaviour is known as yielding. The stress corresponding to
this zone is known as yield strength. In some materials such as low carbon steels, two distinct yield
point are seen. The upper yield point occurs first followed by a sudden decrease in strength to a
lower yield point. The upper and lower yield points are shown in Fig. 3.1(a) by points B and C
respectively. All materials do not have definite yield point. For those the material yield point is
obtained by an offset method as shown in Fig. 3.1(b). In offset method a line [BB¢ shown in
Fig. 3.1(b)] is drawn parallel to the initial slope or equal to e value with a permanent set equal to
0.2% of the original gauge length, i.e., (e = 0.002).
The ultimate strength is the highest strength on stress-strain diagram of a member under uniaxial
loading. The points are shown by D in Fig. 3.1(a) and E in Fig. 3.1(b).
Several theories of failures based on yielding or fracture have been proposed by many scientists.
These theories of failures are sometimes known as yield criteria. A yield criterion is a hypothesis
concerning the limit of elasticity under any possible combination of stresses, strains or energy. A
yield criterion is expressed mathematically by a yield function
f (sij, sy)
where sij is the state of stress and sy is the yield strength in uniaxial tension or compression.
Different yield criteria are
1. Maximum principal stress theory
2. Maximum shear stress theory
3. Maximum principal strain theory
4. Maximum strain energy theory
5. Maximum distorsion energy theory
6. Mohr’s failure criterion
All these theories are not suitable for both ductile and brittle materials because of their nature of
failure. Hence, the theory suitable for ductile material is discussed first.
3.2 FAILURE THEORY FOR DUCTILE MATERIAL

3.2.1 Maximum Shear Stress Theory
The maximum shear stress criterion, also known as Tresca criterion, states that yielding begins when
the maximum shear stress at a point reaches the maximum shear stress at yield under uniaxial tension
Chapter 3: Theory of Failure 97
or compression. For multiaxial state of stress, let the three principal stresses be s1, s2 and s3. The
shear stress is obtained as half of the difference between two principal stresses. Hence,
1
U3 |(T 1 T 2 )|
2
or
1
U1 |(T 2 T 3 )| (3.2)
2
or
1
U2 |(T 3 T 1 )|
2
The maximum shear stress is the largest of (t1, t2, t3).
If the order of principal stresses is s1 > s2 > s3, the maximum shear stress can be obtained from
the maximum and minimum principal stresses. Hence
1
U max |(T 1 T 3 )| (3.3)
2
Now consider on element of the material from uniaxial tensile test subjected to stress equals to
the yield strength of the material. The stresses under uniaxial loading condition is
sxx = sy syy = szz = txy = tyz = tzx = 0
Therefore, using the principal stress equations, these principal stresses are
T xx  T xx 
2
T 1,2      U xy
2
2  2 
Ty
Ty 
2
    0
2
2  2 
Hence, s1 = sy s2 = 0 and s3 = 0. (3.4)

The maximum shear stress for the uniaxial state of stress is
1
tmax = | (T 1 0) |
2
Ty
= (3.5)
2
Now if the principal stresses are unordered, yielding under multiaxial state of stress occurs for
any one of the following conditions:
|s1 – s2| = ±sy
|s2 – s3| = ±sy
|s3 – s1| = ±sy (3.6)
For two-dimensional state of stress (biaxial loading condition), let s2 = 0, the maximum shear
stress theory can be written from Eq. (3.6).
|s1| = ±sy
|s3| = ±sy
|s3 – s1| = ±sy (3.7)
The graphical representation of Eq. (3.7) is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2 Representation of maximum shear stress yield criterion for plane stress.
This shows that for a biaxial state of stress the yield surface predicted by maximum shear stress
yield criterion is an elongated hexagon in the s1 – s3 plane when s2 = 0.
If three principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 are considered, the yield surface for the maximum shear
stress criterion is a regular hexagon in principal stress space. This is shown in Fig. 3.3. To construct
Fig. 3.3, let us consider three mutually perpendicular axes Os1, Os2 and Os3; each is considered for
a particular principal stress.
Fig. 3.3 Stress space representation of yield criteria.

If the principal stresses at a point on the body are s1, s2 and s3 and the point is denoted by P
in Fig. 3.3, then we can write the coordinates of P as
OP1 = s1, P1M = s2 and MP = s3
Now consider a line OH which is equally inclined to three principal axes. Hence, direction
cosines of the line are
1 1 1
nx = , ny = and nz =
3 3 3
PN is perpendicular from the point P on line OH. Hence, we can write
ON = s1nx + s2ny + s3nz
1
= (s1 + s2 + s3) (3.8)
3
and
PN2 = OP2 – ON2
1
= (T 12 T 22 T 32 ) (T T 2 T 3 )2
3 1
1
= [(T T 2 )2 (T 2 T 3 )2 (T 3 T1 )2 ] (3.9)
3 1
1
PN = (T 1 T 2 )2 (T 2 T 3 )2 (T 3 T 1 )2 (3.10)
3
PN is the perpendicular distance from the line OH. Remember Line OH is equally inclined to all
three axes. The line PN can now be used to define the yielding. If PN is taken as radius, the every
point on the radius define the state of stress as used for point P(s1, s2, s3). Hence, the yield surface
is a cylinder of radius equal to PN and the centre of the cylinder is OH. The outer shape of the
cylinder depends upon the yield criteria used to determine the yield surface.
The plane that contains point P and is normal to the line OH is known as deviatoric plane. The
line OH is called hydrostatic axis. This is shown in Fig. 3.4. Similar to point P, point Q differs with
respect to hydrostatic stress component. But as we have already discussed that yield criteria are
independent of hydrostatic stress. Hence, the deviatoric plane passing through point Q is same as the
deviatoric plane passing through P. Hence,
PN = QM
All such planes when joined produced a solid cylinder, which defines the yield surface.
The deviatoric plane for which s1 = s2 = s3 = 0 or hydrostatic stress defined as
1
sm = (s + s2 + s3) = 0
3 1
is known as pÿ (pi) plane. Figure 3.5 shows a p plane.
The coordinates of point P shown in Fig. 3.3 are the projection lengths in Fig. 3.5(a). These
lengths are OP1, P1M and MP. The lengths can be obtained by seting (s1, s2 = s3 = 0) and using
Eq. (3.10).
Fig. 3.4 Deviatoric plane.
Equation (3.10) becomes
2
PN = OP1 = T (3.11)
3 1
Similarly by setting (s2, s3 = s1 = 0) and (s3, s1 = s2 = 0), we get
2
P1 M = T3 (3.12)
3
2
and MP = T2 (3.13)
3
Now if the coordinates of point P are (x, y) with respect to OB and Os3 axes
OX = x = OP1 cos 30° – MP sin 60°
2 3 2 3
x= T1 T2
3 2 3 2
T1 T 2
= (3.14)
2
y = PX = P1M – OP1 sin 30° – PM cos 60°
2 2 2
= T3 T 1 sin 30° cos 60°
3 3 3
Simplifying, we get
2T 3 T 2 T1
y= (3.15)
6
Now the Tresca (maximum shear stress criterion) yield criterion on p plane is obtained as
follows.
Fig. 3.5 Yield surface on p plane.
With reference to Fig. 3.5(b), the yield point along Os1 axis has a state of stress
s2 = s3 = 0 and s1 = sy (yield strength)
This point represents the initiation of yielding and the length of the projections on the p plane
is 2/3 sy. This point is marked as A in Fig. 3.5(b).
Let the state of stress in sector AOB be s1 ³ s3 ³ s2 and according to Tresca yield criterion,
we have
s1 – s2 = sy (3.16)
Hence, the yield point along OB axes can be located at a distance

Ty
xB = (3.17)
2
Equation (3.16) represents the yield locus in sector AOB is a line at a distance sy / 2 and parallel
to Os3 axis. Similarly, we can draw other points and lines to represent the yield locus on p plane
as shown in Fig. 3.5(b).
3.2.2 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

This theory is also known as von Mises theory. It states that yielding occurs when the distortional
strain energy at a point equals the distortional strain energy at yield under uniaxial tension or
compression. It has already been explained that the total state of stress at a point given by the
principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 can be decomposed into two parts consisting of hydrostatic state of
stress and deviatoric state of stress. The strain energy associated with the deviatoric state of stress
is known as distortion strain energy. Hence, the distortional strain energy is the energy associated
with distortion or change in shape of the body.
If s1, s2 and s3 are principal stresses and e1, e2 and e3 are principal strains, then the total strain
energy per unit volume is given as
1 1 1
UT = s1e1 + s2e2 + s3e3 (3.18)
2 2 2
From the stress-strain relation given as
T1 O
F1 =  (T 2 + T 3 )
E E
T2 O
F2 =  (T 1 + T 3 ) (3.19)
E E
T3 O
and F3 =  (T 1 + T 2 )
E E
Equation (3.18) can be simplified to
1
UT = {T 12 + T 22 + T 32  2O (T 1T 2 + T 2T 3 + T 3T1 )} (3.20)
2E
The energy associated with hydrostatic state of stress s1 = s2 = s3 = p is obtained as
 1  2O  2
UH =   (p) (3.21)
 E 
Taking p = 1/3 (s1 + s2 + s3), UH becomes
 1  2O 
 (T 1 + T 2 + T 3 )
2
UH =  (3.22)
 E 
The distortional energy per unit volume is the difference between energy from total and
hydrostatic state of stress. Hence,
UD = UT – UH
1
= [T12 + T 22 + T 32  2O (T 1T 2 + T 2T 3 + T 3T 1 )]
2E
 1  2O 
  (T 1 + T 2 + T 3 )
2
(3.23)
 E 
Simplifying, we get
1+O
UD = [T 12 + T 22 + T 32  T1T 2  T 2T 3  T 3T1 ] (3.24)
3E
The state of stress at yield under uniaxial state of stress is s1 = sy, s2 = s3 = 0. Now the
distortional energy per unit volume at yield under uniaxial tension or compression is
1+O
U DO = T 2y (3.25)
3E
Now according to the statement of the theory
UD = UDO
After simplification of Eqs. (3.24) and (3.25), we get
T 12 + T 22 + T 32  T 1T 2  T 2T 3  T 3T 1 = T y2 (3.26)
or (s1 – s2)2 + (s2 – s3)2 + (s3 – s1)2 = 2 T y2 (3.27)

For plane state of stress s2 = 0 and Eq. (3.27) becomes
T 12 + T 32  T 1T 3 = T y2 (3.28)
Equation (3.28) shows that von Mises criterion is an ellipse on s1 – s3 axes and the major and minor
axes are along the perpendicular bisectors of the angle between s1 and s3. The variation is shown
in Fig. 3.6.
Fig. 3.6 Mises yield locus for plane stress.

A point B s1 = s3 = s (let) (3.29)

From Eq. (3.28) s = ±sy
At point D s1 = s, s3 = – s (let)
Ty
From Eq. (3.28) T= (3.30)
3
For this state of stress, the maximum shear stress is
T1  T 3
U max D
= =T (3.31)
2
Therefore at yield s = tmax = ty, ty is the yield strength in shear.
From Eqs. (3.30) and (3.31)
1
ty = sy = 0.577 sy (3.32)
3
This value is 15% greater than the prediction made by Tresca criterion.
The coordinates of point B in Fig. 3.6 are (sy, sy). Hence, length OB is 2 sy. Therefore, the
major axis of the Mises ellipse is 2 2 sy.
The minor axis of Mises ellipse lies along CD. The coordinates of point D are ( 1/ 3 sy,
– 1/ 3 sy). Hence, minor axis CD is 2 (1/ 3 T y )2 + (1/ 3 T y )2 = 2 2/3 Ty .
From Eq. (3.10) and (3.27), we can write
2
PN = sy (3.33)
3
Hence, von Mises yield surface on s1–s2–s3 plane is a solid cylinder of radius 2/3 sy and on
p plane it is a circle of radius
2/3 sy. This is shown in Fig. 3.5(b). The stress space representation
of both Tresca and von Mises yield criterion are shown in Fig. 3.7.
Fig. 3.7 Yield surface on principal stress space.

3.2.3 Strain Energy Density or Total Strain Energy Criterion

The strain energy density criterion proposed by Beltrami states that yielding occurs when the strain
energy density at a point equals the strain energy density at yield in uniaxial tension or compression.
If s1, s2 and s3 are three principal stresses, the total strain energy per unit volume is given as
1
UT = [T12 + T 22 + T 32  2O (T1T 2 + T 2 T 3 + T 3T 1 )] (3.34)
2E
The state of stress at yield under uniaxial tension test is s1 = sy, s2 = s3 = 0. The strain energy
associated with above state of stress is thus
T y2
UTO = (3.35)
2E
According to strain energy density criterion
UT = UTO
or T 12 + T 22 + T 32  2O (T 1T 2 + T 2T 3 + T 3T 1 ) = T y2 (3.36)
For two dimensional state of stress (plane stress), let s2 = 0, (Eq. (3.36) reduces to
T 12 + T 32  2O T 1T 3 = T y2 (3.37)
The yield surface for the strain energy denstiy criterion is an ellipsoid in principal stress space
and the shape depends upon the value of Poisson’s ratio n. For n = 0, Eq. (3.37) becomes
T 12 + T 32 = T 2y (3.38)
and the ellipsoid reduces to a sphere with radius equal to the yield strength sy. The graphical
variation of yield locus of strain energy density criterion on s1 – s3 plane is shown in Fig. 3.8 for
various values of n.
Fig. 3.8 Strain energy density yield surface for plane stress state.
3.3 THEORY OF FAILURE OR YIELD CRITERION FOR BRITTLE

MATERIALS
3.3.1 Maximum Principal Stress Criterion

The maximum principal stress criterion proposed by Rankine states that yielding occurs at a point
when the maximum principal stress reaches the value equal to the maximum stress at yield under
uniaxial tension or compression. Hence, according to this theory yielding occurs, when
max |s1, s2, s3| = sy (3.39)
If the order of the principal stresses is s1 > s2 > s3, then according to the theory
s1 = sy (3.40)
However, brittle materials fail by fracture rather than yielding. Hence, the limiting stress under
uniaxial condition should be taken as ultimate strength sut. Replacing sy by sut, the mathematical
relation of the maximum principal stress is
s1 = sut 
 (3.41)
or s3 = sut 
for plane stress case. The Eq. (3.41) is shown graphically in Fig. 3.9.
Fig. 3.9 Maximum principal stress theory.
The compressive strength and tensile strength of many brittle materials are different and
compressive strength is more as compared to tensile strength. If the order of three principal stresses
is s1 ³ s2 ³ s3, the maximum principal stress theory predicts the failure as
s1 ³ sut or s3 £ – suc (3.42)
where sut is the ultimate strength in tension and suc is the ultimate strength in compression. The
graphical representation is shown in Fig. 3.10.
Fig. 3.10 Maximum principal stress theory.
3.3.2 Maximum Principal Strain Criterion

The maximum principal strain criterion known as St. Venant’s Criterion states that yielding occurs
when the maximum principal strain equals the maximum principal strain at yield under uniaxial
tension or compression.
The principal strains in terms of principal stresses are
T1 O
F1 =  (T 2 + T 3 )
E E
T2 O
F2 =  (T 1 + T 3 )
E E
T3 O
F3 =  (T 1 + T 2 ) (3.43)
E E
Assuming e1 ³ e2 ³ e3, the maximum principal strain is e1. e1 under uniaxial loading at yield
becomes
T1 Ty
F10 = = (3.44)
E E
According to the yield criterion, we can write e1 = e10
\ s1 – n(s2 + s3) = sy (3.45)
For s2 = 0 (biaxial loading), Eq. (3.45) reduces to
s1 – ns3 = sy (3.46)
For unordered principal strains, the other possibilities of yieldings are
s2 – n (s1 + s3) = sy
s3 – n (s1 + s2) = sy (3.47)
The yield surface for the maximum principal strain criterion for a biaxial loading is shown in
Fig. 3.11.
Fig. 3.11 Maximum principal strain yield locus for biaxial stress state.
3.4 MOHR’S THEORY

Mohr’s theory of failure is based on the Mohr’s circle of three simple test: tension, compression in
uniaxial condition and pure shear.
Let these tests were conducted on metal whose yield strength or ultimate strength is different in
tension and compression and ultimate or yield strength in compression is more than the tensile
strength. These three circles on s – t plane are shown in Fig. 3.12.
Fig. 3.12 Three Mohrs circle for uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension and pure shear syc is the
compressive yield strength, syt is the yield strength in tension.
The failure envelop is the line joining the three circles as shown by ABCDE above and below
s axis. In the initial stage, the theory is based on the fact that the line ABCDE may not be straight
one. Later on it was modified and known as Coulomb–Mohr theory or internal friction theory. This
theory is based on straight boundary, i.e., line BCD is straight one.
The mathematical derivation of the theory can be made assuming the principal stresses such that
order of stresses is s1 ³ s2 ³ s3.
Let C1, C2 and C3 be centre points of three circles, namely compression circle, tensile circle and
general state of stress having largest and smallest stresses as s1 and s3 respectively. Points A1, A2
and A3 are tangent points on the circle. These points are shown in Fig. 3.13.
Fig. 3.13 Mohrs circle.
Now, consider similar triangles OA1C1, OA2C2 and OA3C3. From the properties of similar
triangles, we can write
A3C3  A2 C2 A1C1  A2C2 (3.48)

=
OC3  OC2 OC1  OC2
Now from Fig. 3.13,
A3C3 = radius of middle circle
T1  T 3
=
2
A2C2 = radius of tensile cirlce
T yt
=
2
A1C1 = radius of compression circle
T yc
=
2
OC3 – OC2 = C2C3
= C2S + C3S
= C2S + C3s1 – Ss1
T yt T1  T 3
= +  T1
2 2
T yt T1 + T 3
= 
2 2
OC1 – OC2 = C1C2
= C1S + C2S
T yc T yt
= +
2 2
Now simplifying Eq. (3.48), we get
T1  T 3 T yt T yc T yt
 
2 2 = 2 2 (3.49)
T yt T1 + T 3 T yc T yt
 +
2 2 2 2
Simplifying Eq. (3.49), we get
T1 T
 3 =1 (3.50)
T yt T yc
Equation (3.50) can also be used for ultimate strength. The failure equation in terms of ultimate
strength in tension and compression is
T1 T
 3 =1 (3.51)
T ut T uc
Let now for plane stress case two non zero stresses are s1 and s3.
(i) If s1 ³ s3 ³ 0, s1 is the maximum principal stress and minimum principal stress is zero.
Hence, Eq. (3.51) reduces to following failure condition
s1 = sut (3.52)
(ii) If s1 ³ 0 ³ s3, the maximum and minimum principal stresses are s1 and s3 and failure
equation is same as given in Eq. (3.51).
(iii) If 0 ³ s1 ³ s3. In this case the failure equation becomes
s3 = – suc (3.53)
Figure 3.14(a) shows the Coulomb–Mohr theory of failure in s1–s3 plane.
Fig. 3.14(a) CoulombMohr theory of failure.

The yield surface for Mohr–Coulomb criterion has the form of an irregular hexagonal pyramid
in s1 =ÿs2 =ÿs3 axis. The axis of the pyramid is the hydrostatic axis. This is shown in Fig. 3.14(b)
in principal stress space and p plane.
Fig. 3.14(b) Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in (i) principal stress space, (ii) intersection with the p plane.
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THEORY OF FAILURE

The most common method of experiment is the use of thin walled tube subjected to combined stress
as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Fig. 3.15 Thin walled tube under T and F.
T T 
2
T1 = +   + U2
2 2
T T 
2
T3 =    +U
2
(3.54)
2  
2
and s2 = 0.
T 
2
Thus, T1  T 3 = 2   + U 2 (3.55)
2
and Tresca criterion becomes
s1 – s3 = sy
T 
2
2   + U2 = Ty
2
Squaring and simplifying, we get
2 2
T   U 
  +   =1 (3.56)
 Ty   (T y /2) 
von Mises criterion yields
(s1 – s2)2 + (s2 – s3)2 + (s3 – s1)2 = T 2y
After substituting the values of s1, s2 and s3 and on simplification, it gives
2 2
T   U 
  +   =1 (3.57)
 Ty   (T y / 3) 
The variation of Eqs. (3.56) and (3.57) is shown in Fig. 3.16.
Fig. 3.16 Experimental verification of Mises and Tresca criterion.
Most of the experimental data falls between the two ellipse shown in Fig. 3.16, but the maximum
data points inclined towards the Mises ellipse. Experimental data points from Ni-Cr-Mo steel, 2024
T4 Al alloys, AISI 1023 steel shows that either maximum shear stress theory or von Mises theory
are suitable for modelling failure of the material which fails in ductile manner. The material whose
behaviour in tension and compression is different and their strengths are different in tension and
compression, Mohr’s theory is most suitable. However, Mohr’s theory of failure requires three test,
i.e., in tension, compression and shear which are difficult to conduct and expensive, hence modified
Mohr’s theroy known as Coulomb–Mohr theory, which requires only tensile and compressive yield
strength can be applied with accuracy.
Failure of gray cast iron is shown in Fig. 3.17 along with maximum principal stress theory and
Coulomb–Mohr theory. Experimental data shows that when the state of stress falls in the first
quadrant, i.e., for s1, s3 ³ 0, both theory predict the same failure and data are very close to the
prediction. Hence, under such state of stress maximum principal theory is easy to use and hence most
suitable. However, when the state of stress falls in the fourth quadrant Coulomb–Mohr theory suits
best as compared to maximum principal stress theory.
Fig. 3.17
3.5.1 Comparison of Failure Criteria

The variation of all theories of failure for plane stress situation is shown in Fig. 3.18.
Figure 3.18 shows that when the state of stress falls on first quadrant the failure prediction made
by different theories is quite close to each other when maximum discrepancy is seen for fourth
quadrant. It also indicates that when the minimum and maximum principal stresses are same, i.e.,
s1 = s3 = s, and s ³ 0, all theories predict the same result. On the other hand, if the material is
subjected to pure shear t, then the theories have the largest discrepancy in the prediction of failure.
Hence, special care must be taken while predicting the failure loads in pure shear from tension test
Fig. 3.18 Comparison of different theory of failure.
data. Table 3.1 shows the prediction made by different theories and the relation between yield
strength in tension and shear.
Table 3.1 Comparison of theory of failure
(a) (b) (c)
Yield criterion Predicted maximum Predicted maximum Relation between

utilizable value as utilizable value as syt and ty
obtained from tensile obtained from
test/comparison test torsion test
Maximum principal smax = syt smax = ty ty = syt

stress theory
Maximum principal emax = syt /E emax = (5/4) ty /E ty = (4/5) syt
strain theory
Maximum shear stress tmax = syt /2 tmax = ty ty = 0.5 syt
(Tresca) theory
Distortion energy UD = s 2yt /6G UD = ty/2G ty = (1/ 3 ) syt
(von Mises) theory
Design equations
Theory of failure discussed in the previous sections is used to determine the limiting condition of
component failure. The equations can be modified for design purposes by reducing the strength
values associatyed with the failure equation. The commonly used failure theories for design purposes
are as follows:
Ductile materials
1. Maximum shear stress theory:
Ty
| s1 – s3 | = if s1 ³ s2 ³ s3
N
Ty
or | s1 – s2 | = if s1 ³ s3 ³ s2
N
Ty
and | s3 – s2 | = if s3 ³ s1 ³ s2
N
2. von Mises theory or distortion energy theory
Ty
T 12 + T 32 T 1T 3 =
N
3. Strain energy density or total strain energy theory
Ty
T 12 + T 32 2O T 1T 3 =
N
4. Mohr’s theory
T1 T 1
3 =
T yt T yc N
Brittle material
1. Maximum principal stress theory:
T ut
s1 = if s1 ³ s2 ³ s3
N
T ut
or s2 = if s2 ³ s3 ³ s1
N
T ut
or s3 = if s3 ³ s1 ³ s2
N
2. Maximum principal strain theory:
Ty
s1 – ns3 = if s1 ³ s3 and s2 = 0
N
T ut
or s1 – ns3 =
N
3. Coulomb–Mohr theory
T ut
if s1 ³ s3 ³ 0 s1 =
N
T1 T 1
if s1 ³ 0 ³ s3 3 =
T ut T uc N
T uc
if 0 ³ s1 ³ s3 | s3 | £
N
In all above equations N is the factor of safety.
EXAMPLE 3.1
In a steel member, at a point the major principal stress is 180 MPa and minor principal stress is
compressive. If the tensile yield point of the steel is 225 MPa, find the value of minor principal stress
using different yield criteria at which yielding will commence. Take Poisson’s ratio = 0.26.
Solution:
Major principal stress s1 = 180 MPa
Yield stress sy = 225 MPa
Maximum shear stress criteria:
s1 – s2 = sy
s2 = s1 – sy
= 180 – 225
s2 = – 45 MPa (compressive)
Maximum strain energy criteria:
s 12 + s 22 – 2ns1s2 = T y2
(180)2 + T 22 – 2 ´ 0.26 ´ 180 ´ s2 = (225)2
T 22 – 93.6s2 – 18225 = 0
93.6 (93.6) 2 4 18225

s2 =
2
= – 96.08 MPa (compressive)
Maximum distortion energy criteria:
T 12 T 22 T 1T 2 = T y2
(180)2 + T 22 – 180 ´ s2 = (225)2
T 22 – 180s2 – 18225 = 0
s2 = 180 ± (180) 4 18225

2
2
= – 72.25 MPa (compressive)
EXAMPLE 3.2
A cylindrical shaft made of steel of yield strength 700 MPa is subjected to static load consisting of
bending moment 10 kN·m and a tensional moment 30 kN·m. Determine the diameter of shaft using
different theories of failure, and assuming a factor of safety 2.
Take E = 210 GPa, Poisson’s ratio = 0.25.
Solution: Given sy = 700 MPa, M = 10 kN·m, T = 30 kN·m, FS = 2, E = 210 GPa, n = 0.25
Q
Then section modulus of shaft Z = d 3 = 0.0982d3 mm3, FS = 2
32
M
Bending stress sb =
Z
10 106
=
0.0982d 3
101.8 106
= MPa
d3
16T
Shear stress ts =
Qd3
16 30 106 152.8 10 6
= = MPa
Q d3 d3
We know that the maximum principal stress is given by
T xx T yy È T T yy Ø
2
s1 = É xx ÙÚ U xy
2
2 Ê 2
sxx = sb and txy = ts and syy = 0

Now,
2 2
101.8 10 6 È 101.8 10 6 Ø È 152.8 10 6 Ø
s1 = É Ù É Ù
2d 3 Ê 2d 3 Ú Ê d3 Ú
50.9 10 6 161 10 6 211.9 106

= 3
3
MPa
d d d3
The minimum principal stress is:
T xx T yy È T T yy Ø
2
s2 = É xx ÙÚ U xy
2
2 Ê 2
50.9 106 161 106 110.1 106

= MPa
d3 d3 d3
According to maximum shear stress theory,
1 Ty
(T T 2 ) =
2 1 2 FS
161 10 6 700
or =
d 3 22
or d = 97.2 mm
According to maximum strain energy theory,
ÈTy Ø
2
T T 2OT 1T 2 =
2
1
2
2 É FS Ù
Ê Ú
2 2 2
È 211.9 10 6 Ø È 110.1 10 6 Ø 211.9 10 6 110.1 10 6 È 700 Ø
or É Ù É Ù 2 0.25 É
Ê d3 Ú Ê d3 Ú d3 d3 Ê 2 ÙÚ
44902 1012 12122 1012 11665 1012

or 122500
d6 d6 d6
68689 1012
or = 122500
d6
or d = 90.8 mm
EXAMPLE 3.3
A shaft of circular cross section having diameter 100 mm is subjected to static bending moment
M = 10 kN·m, static torque T = 30 kN·m and axial load of 50 kN. If the yield strength of the shaft
material is 750 MPa, determine the design factor of safety using
(a) maximum shear stress theory
(b) von Mises theory
Solution:
Given M = 10 kN·m = 10 ´ 106 N·mm
T = 30 kN·m = 30 ´ 106 N·mm
P = 50 kN = 50 ´ 103 N
d = 100 mm
sy = 750 N/mm2
Calculation of elemental stresses due to bending moment M
32 M
Tb =
Q d3
32 10 106
= = 101.859 MPa
Q (100)3
Stress due to axial tensile force F = 50 ´ 103 N
4F
Ta =
Qd2
4 50 103
= = 6.366 MPa
Q (100)2
Stress due to Torque T = 30 ´ 106 N·mm
16 T
U = 3
Qd
16 30 10 6
= = 152.789 MPa
Q (100)3
The stresses due to M, T and F on an element is shown in Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.19
The maximum normal stress is the addition of stresses due to axial force and bending moment.
s = sxx = sa + sb
= 6.366 + 101.859
= 108.225 MPa
Shear stress t = 152.789 MPa.
Calculation of principal stresses
T ÈT Ø
2
T 1,3 = É 2Ù + U2
2 Ê Ú
2
108.225 È 108.225 Ø
= É + (152.789)2
2 Ê 2 ÙÚ
= 54.1125 ± 162.088
\ s1 = 216.20 MPa
s3 = –107.9755 MPa
s2 = 0
(a) Maximum shear stress theory gives design factor of safety by
Ty
T1 T 3 =
N
Ty
\ N=
T1 T 3
750
= = 2.314
216.20 + 107.9755
(b) von Mises theory
Ty
T 12 + T 32 T1T 3 =
N
Ty
N=
or
T12 + T 32 T 1T 3
750
=
(216.2)2 + (107.9755)2 216.2 ( 107.9755)
750
= = 2.623
285.912
EXAMPLE 3.4
A 30 mm diameter rod made of a ductile material with a yield strength of 200 MPa is subjected to
bending moment of 150 N·m. A torque is then gradually applied. Determine the value of the torque
when the rod begins to yield using Tresca theory.
Solution: Given M = 150 N·m, d = 30 mm, sy = 200 MPa, T = ?

Calculation of elemental stresses

Bending stress due to moment M = 150 N·m
32M
Tb =
Qd3
32 150 1000
= = 56.588 N/mm 2
Q (30) 3
Shear stress due to Torque T

16 T
U = 3
Qd
16 T
= = 1.8896 10 4 T
Q (30)3
Calculation of principal stresses
T ÈT Ø
2
T 1,3 = É 2Ù + U2
2 Ê Ú
2
56.588 È 56.588 Ø
= É + (1.886 10 4 T )2
2 Ê 2 ÙÚ
According to maximum shear stress theory
s1 – s3 = sy
2 Ë (28.294)2 + (1.886 10 4 T )2 Û = 200
ÌÍ ÜÝ
Squaring and solving for T

T = 508.56 N·m
EXAMPLE 3.5
A part made of cast iron is subjected to following state of stresses. Determine if the component will
fail. Assume the ultimate strength in tension as 280 MPa and ultimate strength in compression as
410 MPa.
The state of stresses are
(i) sxx = 200 MPa, syy = –120 MPa, txy = 100 MPa
(ii) sxx = –200 MPa, syy = –120 MPa, txy = 50 MPa
(iii) sxx = +200 MPa, syy = +200 MPa, txy = 100 MPa
Solution: The component is made of cast iron. Hence, the suitable theory of failure is either
maximum principal stress theory or Coulomb-Mohr theory.
(i) sxx = 200 MPa, syy = – 120 MPa, txy = 100 MPa
2
T1,3 = É Ù + U xy
2
2 Ê 2 Ú
2
200 120 È 200 + 120 Ø
= É Ù + (100)2
2 Ê 2 Ú
= 40 ± 188.679
s1 = 228.679 MPa
s3 = – 148.679 MPa
s2 = 0
(a) According to maximum principal stress theory failure occurs if
s1 (maximum value) ³ sut
According to the result we have
228.679 < 280 MPa
Hence, the component will not fail.
(b) According to Coulomb–Mohr theory:
The calculated stresses are
s1 > s2 > s3
Hence, the failure equation is
T1 T
3 =1
T ut T uc
228.679 ( 148.679)
LHS =
280 410
= 1.179
Hence, 1.179 > 1, Hence, the theory shows that component will fail for the given state
of stress.
(ii) The principal stresses for given state of stress are
2
200 160 È 200 + 120 Ø
T 1,3 = É Ù + (50)2
2 Ê 2 Ú
= – 160 ± 64.03
\ s1 = – 95.97 MPa
s3 = 224.03 MPa
s2 = 0
The order of the stresses is s2 > s1 > s3.
According to Coulomb–Mohr theory, failure occurs for the condition of

s3 = – suc
In the present case s3 = – 224.03
or
T3 224.03
= = 0.546 < 1
T uc 410
Hence, the component will not show yielding for the given stresses for given state of stress.
(iii) The principal stresses for the given state of stresses are
2
+200 + 200 È 200 200 Ø
T 1,3 = É Ù + (100)2
2 Ê 2 Ú
= 200 ± 100
\ s1 = 300 MPa
s3 = 100 MPa
s2 = 0
The order of stresses is s1 > s3 > s2. The state of stress falls on the first quadrant. The
Coulomb–Mohr theory for such state of stress is
s1 (maximum value) = sut
As s1 = 300 MPa is more than sut = 280 MPa, failure will occur.
3.6 THEORY OF FAILURE FOR CYCLIC LOADS

Theories of failures discussed so far are applicable for static loads. However, the magnitude of a load
on a component may vary during life span. The loads which vary between the two limits with respect
to time are known as cyclic loading. The kinds of stresses produced due to fluctuation of values are
known as repeated, alternating or fluctuating stresses. Under these conditions a component fails at
a load level much below the yield strength of the material. This phenomenon of decreased resistance
of material to fluctuating stresses is called fatigue.
3.6.1 Stress Parameters

Under cyclic loads, the magnitude of the stress varies between the two extreme limits. These limit
stresses are known as maximum stress and minimum stress. The failure equations under cyclic loads
are based on minimum and maximum stress amplitudes. The maximum stress and minimum stress
as shown in Fig. 3.20.
smax = greatest algebraic stress in a stress cycle
smin = smallest algebraic stress in a stress cycle
Stress cycle = smallest portion of the stress history which is repeated periodically and identically
Mean stress = algebraic mean of maximum and minimum stresses of a cycle. It is denoted by sm
T max + T min
then Tm =
2
Fig. 3.20 Variation of stress with time.
Variable stress or stress amplitude: It is the half of the algebraic difference between maximum
and minimum stress cycles. It is denoted by sa. Hence,
T max  T min
Ta =
2
3.6.2 Strength Parameter

Endurance limit or fatigue strength is taken as limit stress for cyclic load. Endurance limit or strength
is defined as the maximum reversed stress which may be repeated indefinite number of times
(>= 107) on a standard polished specimen in reversed bending without failure. It is determined from
a S–N tests. S–N test is also known as rotating bending fatigue tests where a specimen of standard
size and polished surface finish is subjected to completely reversed bending load till failures. The
number of times the load is repeated before failure is known as the number of cycles to failure and
denoted as N and the corresponding stress is known as fatigue stress and denoted as S. S–N curve
as shown in Fig. 3.21 are obtained from number tests at different stress amplitudes. The strength
corresponding to 107 cycles is known as endurance strength or fatigue limit.
In the absence of S–N data, endurance strength is obtained from the following empirical
relations.
Steel material Se* = 0.5 ´ sut if sut £ 1400 MPa
= 700 MPa if sut > 1400 MPa
Cast steel *
Se = 0.4 ´ sut
Gray cast iron Se* = 0.35 ´ sut
Malleable cast iron Se* = 0.4 ´ sut
Aluminium and magnesium alloys Se* = (0.25–0.5) sut
Copper alloy Se* = (0.3–0.4) sut
Fig. 3.21 SN curve.
Modifying factors for fatigue strength

The empirical relations given above are based on standard geometry of circular cross section and
diameter 7.6 mm, mirror polished surface finish and completely reversed bending load. However, in
actual component these conditions may differ. It is well known that fatigue strength is highly
influenced by all these factors. Hence, the endurance strength obtained from these empirical relations
must be modified before using in fatigue failure theories. The modifying factor for size, surface
finish and loading can be obtained from the following empirical relations.
Surface finish factor, k a
The surface finish factor is defined as the ratio between the endurance strength obtained with
arbitrary surface finish and that obtained with standard mirror polished. The regression equation from
the variation of surface finish factor with ultimate tensile strength for different surface conditions is
given as
ka = a(sut)b
where ka is surface finish factor and ultimate strength is in MPa.
Table 3.2 shows the values of regression coefficient of equation.
Table 3.2 Values of regression coefficients of equation
Surface finish As per Shigley

a, (MPa) b a, (MPa) b
Ground 1.58 0.086 1.58 0.085

Machined or cold rolled 4.45 0.265 4.51 0.265
Hot rolled 56.10 0.719 57.7 0.718
As forged 271.0 0.995 272 0.995
Size factor, kb
The size factor is defined as the ratio of the endurance strength obtained from any arbitrary sized
specimen to the endurance strength obtained from standard size specimen (diameter 7.6 mm). Based
on the experimental observation following data may be used as guide map to select the size factor
(Table 3.3).
Table 3.3 Size factor
Size of the part Axial loading Bending Torsion
Size factor, kb £ 7.6 mm 1.0 0.7 to 0.9 1.0

> 7.6 mm 0.9 0.7 to 0.9 0.9
Based on the experimental data set the size factor under bending and torsion is given as
 0.107
 d 
kb = 1.24d–0.107 or   2.79 £ d £ 51 mm
 7.62 
= 0.859 – 0.000837d 51 < d £ 254 mm

where d is the diameter of circular cross section in mm. For the other cross section d should be
replaced with the equivalent diameter de.
The equivalent diameter for rectangular section is de = 0.808 hb .
For axial load there is no size effect. Hence, kb = 1 for axial load.
Load factor, k c
The load factor is defined as the ratio of the endurance strength obtained from any arbitrary load to
the endurance strength obtained from completely reversed bending load. The following guide map
can be used for selection of load factor.
For bending load the endurance strength modifying factor is unity. Table 3.4 shows the load
factor.
Table 3.4 Loading factor
Axial loading Bending Torsion
Load factor, kc 0.8 1.0 0.55
The loading factor can also be obtained from the following regression models.
For torsional load kc = 0.258 (sut)0.125
For axial load kc = 1.434 (sut)– 0.0783
The endurance strength is now obtained from the relation
Se = Se* ´ ka ´ kb ´ kc
Fatigue reduction factor, k f
Because of any irregularities in the component or specimen stress concentration exits near the
discontinuity zone and stresses at this zone are higher than the nominal stress. These irregularities
may be due to the presence of holes, keyways, slots, shoulder, or even any inclusions or impurities
in the material. When there is any change in the cross section the distribution of stress does not
remain uniform throughout and the basic relations are unable to describe the state of stress at those
points. The actual state of stress at a point in a mechanical part is obtained from the product of the
nominal stress and the stress concentration factor at that point. The stress concentration factor is
defined as the ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal stress. The stress concentration factor kt
is thus
Actual stress at a point
kt =
Nominal stress at a point
Stress concentration is a highly localized effect. The variation in the stress distribution exists
only in a very small region in the vicinity of the discontinuity. This region is known as zone or area
of stress concentration. The stress raisers have a very little effect on the material with internal
irregularities such as gray cast iron, regardless of type of loading. For static loading the stress
concentration factor is important for those materials which behave in a brittle manner. In case of
ductile material the load applied to the member causes yielding at the discontinuity. The yielding
relieves the effect of stress concentration. However, for brittle material the stress relieved is
negligible. Engineering materials having some ductility behave in a ductile manner, it is not
necessary to use a stress concentration factor. Stress concentration must be considered when the part
is made of brittle materials or when they are subjected to fatigue loading. Even under these
conditions if a material is insensitive to notch or irregularities, or are not so sensitive to the existence
of the notches or discontinuities, full value of the stress concentration factor need not be used. For
those materials, it is necessary to use a reduced value of stress concentration factor, kt.
The reduced value of stress concentration factor is defined as fatigue stress concentration factor
which is the ratio of the endurance limit of the notch free specimen to the endurance of the notched
specimen.
Endurance strength of notch free specimen

kf =
Endurance strength of notched specimen
This is used for brittle materials under static loading also. Sometimes it is known as fatigue
strength reduction factor. The fatigue reduction factor and stress concentration factor are related
through notch sensitivity and is given as
kf  1
q=
kt  1
Based on the experimental results from steel and aluminium material, the Neuber equation for
notch sensitivity parameter q is
1
q=
a
1+  
r 
where
r = notch root radius, mm
a = material constant which depends on the strength and rigidity.
Table 3.5 presents material constant a of equation.
Table 3.5 Material constant a of equation
(a, mm)
Material Axial and bending load Torsional load
Steel, annealed and normalized 0.25 0.15

Steel quenched and tempered 0.06 0.036
Aluminium, sheet 0.51.25 0.30.75
Aluminium, bar 0.080.2 0.0480.12
Note: ‘a’ values for torsional load are obtained by multiplying 0.6 with the values for axial/bending load.
Hence, the fatigue reduction factor is obtained as

kf = 1 + q(kt – 1)
Failure theory for fluctuating stresses

The following are three theories of failure for cyclic loading.
(a) Gerber method
(b) Goodman diagram
(c) Soderberg diagram
The Gerber Equation

The Gerber equation is based on the equation of parabola. Gerber (1874) suggested that the failure
curve under fluctuating state of stress is of parabolic nature passing through the endurance strength
on the y-axis (variable stress axis) and ultimate strength on mean stress axis (x-axis).
The equation of parabola in these two coordinate system is
sa = B – as 2m
Fig. 3.22 Gerber failure locus.
where constants B and a can be obtained from boundary conditions.

When sm = 0 sa = Se (3.58)
When ÿ ÿ sa =0 sm = sut (ultimate strength) (3.59)
From Eq. (3.58) B = Se

From Eq. (3.59) 0 = B – as 2ut
or Se – as 2ut = 0
Se
Therefore, a=
T ut2
The equation of failure, according to Gerber is
2
T 
T a = Se  Se  m 
 T ut 
 T 
2
T a = Se 1   m  


  T ut  
For safe line, all mechanical properties must be divided by factor of safety n.
Se   nT m  
2
Ta =  1    
n 
  T ut  
Incorporating fatigue reduction factor we can write the safe design equation as
  nT 
2
S  
kf  Ta = e 1   m
 T ut

 
n    

The Goodman diagram

Goodman states that the failure locus is defined as the straight line joining the endurance limit on
the variable stress axis to the ultimate strength on the mean stress axis. Any combinations of mean
and variable stress falling below the triangular area bounded by Goodman line allow indefinite or
infinite life. Figure 3.23 shows a Goodman line.
Fig. 3.23 Goodman line.

Let D state of stress with (sm, sa).

DE = sa and CD = OE = sm
From similar triangles ABO and ADE
OA EA
=
OB DE
OA OA  OE
or =
OB DE
Substituting the values of OA, OB, DE
T ut T ut  T m
=
Se Ta
Simplifying, we get
Ta Tm
+ =1
Se T ut
Now applying stress concentration factor kf and factor of safety n to failure equation safe
Goodman equation becomes,
kf  Ta Tm 1
+ =
Se T ut n
The Soderberg criterion

The Soderberg line differs from the Goodman line only in that it extends from the endurance strength
on the variable stress axis to the yield strength instead of ultimate strength on the mean stress axis.
Figure 3.24 represents Soderberg diagram.
Fig. 3.24 Soderberg diagram.
Note: An alternate method is discussed below to derive the Soderberg equation. The procedure as explained
in the case of Goodman equation can also be applied to derive the Soderberg equation.
The equation of a straight line passing through endurance strength Se on the sa axis and yield
strength on sm axis is given as
sa = A + Bsm (3.60)
where constants A and B are evaluated from the conditions that
sa = Se when sm = 0 (3.61)
sm = sy when sa = 0 (3.62)
Substituting Eqs. (3.61) and (3.62) in Eq. (3.60)
A = Se
Se
B= 
Ty
Thus, putting values of A and B in Eq. (3.60)
Se  Tm 
T a = Se  T m = Se  1  
Ty  T y 
Ta Tm
or + =1 (3.63)
Se Ty
Now if fatigue strength reduction factor kf and factor of safety n are introduced, Eq. (3.63)
becomes
Ta Tm 1
kf + =
Se Ty n
The above equations can be extended to alternating stress in torsion also. In such a case the
stresses are to be replaced by shear stress. Under torsional stress the design equations are
2
n  k fs  U a  nU 
Gerber equation +  m =1
Ses  Uu 
Um Ua 1
Goodman equation + k fs =
Uu Ses n
Ua Um 1
Soderberg equation k fs + =
Ses Uy n
where
U max + U min
Um = = mean shear stress
2
U max  U min
Ua = = variable shear stress
2
As the experimental data for endurance strength in shear, yield strength in shear and ultimate
shear strength is limited; it may be estimated from von Mises relation or maximum shear stress
criterion.
According to von Mises condition of failure
Se
Endurance strength in shear Ses =
3
Ty
Shear yield strength U y =
3
T ut
and ultimate strength in shear U u =
3
According to Mohr’s circle of failure or maximum shear stress criterion,
Se
Endurance strength in shear Ses = ,
2
Ty
Shear yield strength U y =
2
T ut
and ultimate strength in shear U u =
2
Fatigue under complex loading (plane stress case)

When different nature of loads such as bending and torsion or axial and torsion exist, the fatigue
failure equations are modified and used along with static theory of failures.
Soderberg Criterion with theory of failure

When a component is subjected to bending load or axial load, the Soderberg criterion can be written
as
Ty Ty 
= Tm + k f  Ta  
n  Se 
The left-hand side of equation, i.e. sy /n is based on static strength and, hence, is known as “static
equivalent normal stress” sen.
 Ty 
\ T en = T m + k f  T a  
 Se 
If the structure or machine component is subjected to variable torsional load, then Soderberg
criterion becomes
Uy  Uy 
= U m + k fs  U a  
n  Ses 
where ty = 0.577sy from distortion-energy theory and Ses = kc ´ Se
The equivalent static shear stress is
 Uy 
U es = U m + k fs  U a  
 Ses 
The failure theory according to maximum shear stress theory is
Ty  T en 
2
 + U es
2
= 
2n  2 
Similarly, other criteria can be modified and any theory of failure can be applied considering sen
and tes as normal and shear stress component. The results are summarized in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Equivalent normal and shear stresses
Theory Equivalent normal stress Equivalent shear stress
 Ty   Uy 
Soderberg T en = T m + kf  T a   U es = U m + k fs  U a  
 Se   Ses 
 T ut   Uu 
Goodman T en = T m + kf  T a   U es = U m + kfs  U a  
 Se   Ses 
kf  T a  T ut
2  k fs  U a  U u2 
Gerber T en = T m 2 + 
 Se


U es = U m 2 +  
n n  Ses 
   
EXAMPLE 3.6
A steel machined shaft of diameter 30 mm is subjected to reversed bending moment. The endurance
strength and ultimate strength of steel are 300 MPa and 780 MPa respectively. If the stress
concentration factor and notch sensitivity are 1.8 and 0.82 respectively, estimate the maximum
bending moment for which the shaft will have indefinite life.
Solution: Given Se = 300 MPa, sut = 780 MPa, kt = 1.8, q = 0.82
Due to bending moment, the induced stress on the shaft is
32 M
T=
Qd3
32 M max
The maximum stress is smax = .
Q d3
The bending moment is completely reversed in nature. Hence, Mmax and Mmin are the same but
opposite in nature. Hence, the minimum stress is
32 M max
T min = 
Qd3
\ Stress amplitude or variable stress is
1
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ sa = (smax – smin )
2
32 M max
=
Q d3
Mean stress sm is
1
ÿ sm = (smax + smin )
2
=0
Fatigue reduction factor kf
kf = 1 + q(kt – 1)
= 1 + 0.82 (1.8 – 1) = 1.656
Using Goodman equation of failure,
Ta Tm
kf + =1
Se T ut
or kf sa = Se
32 M max
1.656  = 300
Q d3
300  Q  (30) 3
M max = = 480  10 3 N.mm
32  1.656
Mmax = 480 N·m
EXAMPLE 3.7
Estimate fatigue strength of rotating beam specimen of diameter 30 mm and made of steel having
ultimate strength 720 MPa. The surface of the specimen is machined one.
Solution: Given d = 30 mm, sut = 720 MPa
From empirical relation the uncorrected endurance strength S e* is
S e* = 0.5sut
= 0.5 ´ 720 = 360 MPa
Modifying factors
Surface finish factor ka = asutb
For machined surface we have
ka = 4.51 (sut)– 0.265
ka = 4.51 ´ (720)– 0.265

= 0.789
Size factor kb = 1.24(d)– 0.107
= 1.24 ´ (30)– 0.107 = 0.862
Load factor kc = 1 (bending load)
\ Endurance strength
Se = S e* ´ ka ´ kb ´ kc
= 360 ´ 0.789 ´ 0.862 ´ 1
= 244.84 MPa
EXAMPLE 3.8
A transmission shaft made of steel having ultimate strength 500 MPa and yield strength 320 MPa
is subjected to fluctuating torque which varies from –75 N·m to 300 N·m. Neglecting any stress
concentration effect, determine the diameter of the shaft. The corrected endurance strength is
175 MPa and factor of safety is 2.0.
Solution: sut = 500 MPa, sy = 320 MPa, Se = 175 MPa, Tmin = –75 N.m, Tmax = 300 N.m, n = 2.
Stress components
The shear stresses due to torque are
16 Tmax 16  300  103

U max = =+
Qd3 Qd3
48  10 5
=
Q d3
16 Tmin 16  75  103
U min = = 
Qd3 Q d3
12  10 5
= 
Q d3
The mean shear stress is
1
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ tm = (tmax + tmin )
2
1  48  10 5 12  10 5 
=   
2  Q d 3 Qd3 

18  10 5
=
Q d3
Variable stress ta is
1
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ta = (tmax – tmin )
2
1  48  10 5 12  10 5 
=  + 
2  Q d 3 Qd3 

30  10 5
=
Q d3
According to Soderberg criterion
Um Ua 1
+ =
Uy Se n
According to von Mises criterion
ty = 0.577 sy
= 0.577 ´ 320
= 184.64 MPa
18  10 5 30  10 5 1
\ + =
Q d  184.64
3
Q d  1753
2
3103.1 5456.7 1
or + =
3 3 2
d d
Solving the shaft diameter is
d = 25.77
= 26.0 mm
EXAMPLE 3.9
A machine shaft of diameter 30 mm made of steel is subjected to bending moment varies from
–100 N·m to 320 N·m and torque + 50 N·m to 100 N·m, if the yield strength of the material is
370 MPa and corrected endurance strength under bending and torsional loads are 230 MPa and
160 MPa respectively, determine (a) the factor of safety guarding against fatigue failure, and
(b) factor of safety guarding against static failure.
Solution: Given Tmax = 100 N·m, Tmin = +50 N·m, Mmax = 320 N·m, Mmin = –100 N·m, sy = 370 MPa,
Se(b) = 230 MPa, Ses = 160 MPa, d = 30 mm
Computation of stresses
Bending stress due to moment M
32 M max
T max =
Q d3
32  320  103
= = 120.70 MPa
Q  (30)3
 32  100  103
T min = =  37.73 MPa
Q  (30)3
1
Mean stress sm = (smax + smin)
2
1
= (120.70 – 37.73) = 41.485 MPa
2
1
Variable stress sa = (smax – smin)
2
1
= (120.70 + 37.73) = 79.215 MPa
2
Shear stresses due to torque T
16 Tmax
Maximum shear stress tmax =
Q d3
16  100  103
U max = = 18.863 MPa
Q  (30)3
16 Tmin
Minimum shear stress tmin =
Qd3
16  50  103
U min = = 9.43 MPa
Q  (30)3
Mean shear stress
1
tm = (tmax + tmin)
2
1
= (18.863 + 9.43) = 14.1465 MPa
2
Variable shear stress
1
ta = (tmax – tmin)
2
1
= (18.863 – 9.43) = 4.716 MPa
2
Factor of safety guarding against fatigue or static failure can be applied by determining
equivalent stresses using any one of the fatigue failure theory and applying any theory of failure.
Applying Soderberg criterion, the equivalent normal stress is
Ty Ta
T en = T m + kf
Se
370  79.215  1
= 41.485 + (k f = 1)
230
= 168.92 MPa
Equivalent shear stress is
U y U a  k fs
U es = U m +
Ses
(0.577  370)  4.716  1

= 14.1465 +
160
= 20.439 MPa
The state of stress is thus
20.439
168.92
Fig. 3.25
\ The principal stresses are

2
168.92  168.92 
T1,3 =    + (20.439)
2
2  2 
= 84.46 ± 86.898
\ ÿ ÿ s1 = 84.46 + 86.898 = 171.358 MPa
ÿ ÿ s3 = 84.46 – 86.898 = –2.438 MPa
Applying von Mises theory the equivalent von Mises stress is
T von = (171.358)2 + (  2.438)2 + (171.358  2.438)

Simplifying, we get
svon = 172.589 MPa
(a) Factor of safety guarding against fatigue failure can be obtained by equating svon to Seb.
Seb
\ nf =
T von
230
= = 1.33
172.589
Factor of safety against yielding, we get
Ty
ns =
T von
370
= = 2.144
172.589
EXERCISES
3.1 Define the yield criterion?
3.2 What is the necessity of theory of failure? Explain briefly theories of failure.
3.3 A shaft of diameter 100 mm is subjected to bending moment 10 kN·m and torque 15 kN·m.
Find the factor of safety according to
(a) maximum shear stress theory
(b) distortion energy theory
The elastic limit in simple tension is 300 MPa.
3.4 A circular cylindrical shaft is made of steel with a yield strength of 550 MPa. The shaft is
subjected to static bending moment 12 kN·m and static torsional moment 25 kN·m.
Determine the minimum shaft diameter. Take E = 207 GPa, n = 0.30.
3.5 A component made of brittle material is subjected to stresses sxx = 150 MPa, syy = 0 and
txy = 60 MPa. If the ultimate strength of the material is 600 MPa, determine the factor of
safety used in design.
3.6 A bar shown in Fig. 3.26 is made from a ductile material. The yield strength of the material
is 390 MPa. The load F shown in the figure makes 30° with the positive x-axis. Determine
the magnitude of F that will cause the yielding.
Fig. 3.26
4 Energy Methods
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The expressions of strain energy stored in a body are very useful in design and analysis of complex
structures. In this chapter the formulations for different energy methods are discussed.
4.2 STRAIN ENERGY

Many practical engineering problems involve complex systems. The deflection analyses by
geometric approaches or superposition techniques are not suitable for such complex systems. Energy
approaches are sometimes more advantageous and less difficult to get a solution.
A mechanical system is shown in Fig. 4.1. A force F is applied gradually at a particulate
point Q on the structure. As force is gradually increased, the deflection produced in the direction of
the applied force also increases. Also, the deflection produced is directly related to the applied load.
Fig. 4.1 A force system.

140
Chapter 4: Energy Methods 141
The force displacement diagram is shown in Fig. 4.2(a). The diagram depends on the
relationship between F and d. The linear and nonlinear F–dÿ relations are shown in Figs. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2 Force displacement diagram.
The total deflection of point Q due to application of force F is the vector sum of vertical and
horizontal deflections.
The work done is given by
E
W=  F dE (4.1)
0
This indicates that the work done is the area under the force deformation curve. If the relation
is linear (Fig. 4.2b), the work done is
1
W = FE (4.2)
2
Now, consider a cubical element with dimensions (Dx, Dy, Dz) subjected to uniaxial force in the
x-direction (Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3 Cube under uniaxial loading.

The work done is

1 . 1 Fx . E x
Fx E x =
W = A'x (4.3)
2 2 A 'x
where A = Dy ´ Dz = cross sectional area
1 Fx . E x 1
W= 'y 'z 'x = T xx F xx ( 'x 'y 'z )
2 A 'x 2
1
W= T xx F xx dV
2
Now the work done per unit volume is determined by dividing the volume (DxDyDz) and
denoting it by u
1
u= T xx F xx (4.4)
2
The work done per unit volume is known as strain energy. The strain energy can also be
expressed as follows by substituting exx = sxx /E.
1
u= T 2xx (4.5)
2E
The strain energy per unit volume for three-dimensional state of stress system with only normal
forces can be written as
1 1 1
u= T xx F xx + T yy F yy + T zz F zz (4.6)
2 2 2
Substituting the stress strain relations, the strain energy per unit volume becomes
1
u= [T 2xx + T 2yy + T zz
2
 2O (T xxT yy + T yyT zz + T zzT xx )] (4.7)
2E
If the shear stress is to be included in the analysis, the strain energy due to shear stress sxy can
be written as
1
u= T xyH xy (4.8)
2
Hence, for general state of stress, the strain energy can be written as
1
u= (T xx F xx + T yy F yy + T zz F zz + T xyH xy + T yz H yz + T zx H zx ) (4.9)
2
Substituting stress strain relations
1
u= [T 2xx + T 2yy + T zz
2
 2O (T xx T yy + T yyT zz + T zzT xx ) + 2(1 + O )(T 2xy + T 2yz + T zx
2
)] (4.10)
2E
4.2.1 Strain Energy with Simple Loading

The total strain energy in axial loading (Fig. 4.4) is given by
L 2 A, E
1 1 F L
Ua =
2    dV
E  A
0
As dv = dA . dx
L
1 1 F2
Hence, Ua =
2  E A
dx
Fig. 4.4 Uniaxial loading
0
1 E2 L
Ua = (4.11)
2 AE
4.2.2 Strain Energy due to Moment M
2
1 M 
U=   y  dV
2E  I 
M
2
1 M 2
As dV = dA . dx U=    (y dA) dx
2E  I 
1 M
2 L Fig. 4.5 Bending load.
Hence, U =
2 E  I   (y 2 dA )  dx
0
As  y 2 dA = I
M2L
U= (4.12)
2 EI
4.2.3 Strain Energy due to Torsional Loading
2
1 + O T 
U=  E  J 
r dV T
2 L
1 + O T 
U=  
E J  r 2 dA  dx
0
Fig. 4.6 Torsional load
1+O T L T L 2 2
U= = (4.13)
E J 2 GJ
4.2.4 Strain Energy due to Transverse Shear
1 + O  L k L
U=
 EA 
k 0 Vy2 dx =
2 AG 0 Vy2 dx (4.14)
The value of k (known as form correction factor for different cross section) is as follows.
Form correction factor for shear
Beam cross section k
Rectangular 1.2
Thin walled circular 2.0
Circular 1.11
I section, box section, channel section 1.0
EXAMPLE 4.1
Determine the total strain energy stored in a beam as shown in Fig. 4.7.
12 kN
50
500 1500 25
All dimensions are in mm. Take n = 0.3, E = 205 GPa
Solution: The beam is of rectangular cross section. Both strain energy due to bending moment and
shear force are to be calculated to obtain the total strain energy stored in the beam.
The beam reactions are determined from force equilibrium condition.
12 kN
A B
RA = 9 kN RB = 3.0 kN
Fig. 4.8(a) Beam reactions.
Taking the moment about A, the moment equilibrium equation is

RB ´ 2.0 = 12 ´ 0.5
Solving RB = 3 kN
From the force equilibrium, RA + RB = 12 Þ RA = 9.0 kN

Shear force equation
  9 kN 0 < x < 0.5
Vy = 
 3 kN 0.5 < x < 2.0
The Shear force diagram is given in Fig. 4.8(b).
9 kN
(–)
0 500 mm 2000 mm
(+)
3 kN
Fig. 4.8(b) Shear force diagram.
The bending moment equations are
 9 x kN.m 0 < x < 0.5

Mz = 
 9 x  12( x  0.5) kN.m 0.5 < x < 2.0
The bending moment diagram is given in Fig. 4.8(c).
4.5 kN·m
0 500 2000 (mm)
Fig. 4.8(c) Bending moment diagram.
Strain energy due to bending

0.5 2
1 1
Ub =
2 EI z  (9000 x )2 dx +
2 EI z  {9000 x  12000[x  0.5]}2 dx
0 0.5
1
Iz =  0.025  0.053 = 2.604  10 7 m 4
12
1  (9000)2  0.53 2.0 

Ub =
2 EI z

 3
+
0.5

{9000 x  12000 [ x  0.5]}2 dx 

1  90002  0.53 2.0 

Ub =
2 EI z


3
+
0.5

(9000x  12000x + 6000)2 dx 

1  9000 2  0.53 2.0 

Ub =
2 EI z

 3
+ 
0.5
(  3000x + 6000)2 dx 

1  9000 2  0.53 2.0 

Ub =
2 EI z


3
+ 
0.5
(3000 2 x 2 + 6000 2  2  3000  6000 x ) dx 

1   30002 (23  0.53 )  

Ub =  3.375  10 6
+  + 6000 2 (2  0.5)  18  10 6  3.75)  

2 EI z   3  
10 6
Ub =  13.5
2 EI z
106  13.5
Ub = = 126.5 N.m
2  205  109  260.4  10 9
Strain energy due to shear force Vy

L
1 + O 
V
2
UV =  k y dx
 EA  0
   0.5 2 
 
1 + 0.3
  1.2  (9000) dx + (3000)2 dx 
2
=
 205  10 9  0.025  0.05  0 
 0.5 
UV = 5.07 ´ 10–9 ´ 1.2(81 ´ 106 ´ 0.5 + 9 ´ 106 ´ 1.5)

= 0.329 N·m
= 329 N·mm
EXAMPLE 4.2
Two circular shafts are made of the same material, one of solid and other of hollow circular have
been subjected to torque. The maximum shear stress is to be the same in both the shafts. Find the
strain energy stored in both cases if the outer diameters are the same. The ratio of inner diameter
to outer diameter in the case of hollow shaft is k.
Solution:
Solid shaft
do = diameter of shaft
16Ts
U max = U s = (i)
Q  do3
where Ts is the applied torque.
Hollow circular shaft

do = outer diameter of shaft
di = inner diameter of the shaft
di
= k  di = kdo
do
16 Th do 16 Th
U max = U h = = (ii)
Q  (do4  di4 ) Q  do3 (1  k 4 )
Since the maximum shear stresses are the same

16 Th 16 Ts
=
Q  do3 (1  k 4 ) Q  do3
Th
= 1  k4
Ts
Strain energy stored in solid shaft
Ts2  l
Us =
2 GJ s
Strain energy stored in hollow shaft
Th2  l
Uh =
2 GJ h
Ratio of strain energy
2 2
Uh T   J  T   1   1 
= h   s= h   4 
= (1  k 4 )2   
Us  Ts   J h   Ts  1  k   1  k4 
Uh
= 1  k4
Us
Q Q
where J s = do4 and J h = d o4 (1  k 4 )
32 32
4.3 CASTIGLIANO’S FIRST THEOREM

Consider a series of gradually applied load or forces Fi (i = 1, 2, 3, …, n) to a structure. Let the
deflection along the direction of load at each load point be given by di (i = 1, 2, 3, …, n), Fig. 4.9.
Fig. 4.9 Applied forces and deflections.

The total work is

n
W=  Fi dE i
i =1
As energy is conserved, the total work done is equal to the total strain energy of the structure.
U=W
n
U=  Fi dE i (i)
i =1
n
 Fi E i
1
or U= for linear deformation system (ii)
2 i =1
Now, if one of the load let F1 be increased by an infinitesimal amount DF1 keeping the other
load the same, the corresponding deflection will also increase by infinitesimal amount Dd1. The
additional work done due to increase in load will cause an infinitesimal change in strain energy DU
of the system.
Fig. 4.10 Deflection curve for load which is increased by an amount of DF1.
The extra work done at station 1 is (Fig. 4.10)
'F1  'E1 + F1  'E1 =  'F1 + F1   'E1

1 1
'W1 = 'U1 = (iii)
2 2 
The deflection curve for other load/station is given in Fig. 4.11.
Extra work done
'W = 'U = F  'E for i = 2 to nth station (iv)
Hence, total increase in strain energy = Total extra work done
'Wt = 'U =  (Fi  'E i ) +  'F1 + F1   'E1

n
1
(v)
i2 2 
Fig. 4.11 Extra works done.
If the loads F1 + DF1, F2, etc. are applied gradually from zero, the total strain energy would be
1 1
U + 'U = (F1 + 'F1 ) (E1 + 'E1 ) + F2 (E 2 + 'E 2 ) + ...
2 2
n
1 1
=
2
(F1 + 'F1 ) (E1 + 'E1 ) +
2
 Fi (E i + 'E i )
i =2
Neglecting the product of small terms, we get

n n
1 1 1 1

1
U + 'U =
2
F1E1 +
2
'F1  E1 +
2
F1 'E1 +
2
FiE i +
2
 (Fi 'E i ) (vi)
i =2 i =2
n n
 
1 1 1
= FiE i + Fi 'E i + 'F1E1
2 i 1 2 i 1 2
n

1 1
U + 'U = U + (Fi 'E i ) + 'F1  E1 (vii)
2 i =1 2
Hence,
n
2'U =  (Fi 'E i ) + 'F1  E1 (viii)
i 1
Subtracting Eq. (v) from Eq. (viii), we get
'E i )   'F1 + F1   'E1

n n
'U = 'F1  E1 +  (Fi 'E i )  
1
2'U  (Fi 
i 1 i2 2 
n n
'U = 'F1  E1 +  (Fi 'E i )  
1
(Fi 'E i )  'F1 'E1
i 1 i 1 2
Neglecting the product of smaller terms, we get

DU = DF1 ´ d1
'U
or = E1 (4.15)
'F1
Hence, the partial derivative of strain energy with respect to force gives the deflection under the
load in the direction of load.
Similarly, we can derive for other loads also.
Castigliano’s theorem states that the rate of change of strain energy with respect to statically
independent load or force gives the component deflection of the force in the direction of the
load.
A similar derivation for angle of twist can be derived. This is written as
U
= Ri (4.16)
M i
Castigliano’s theorem applied to beams

In case of beam the internal strain energy is due to bending and shear. For a special case such as
if the beam is long and slender, the strain energy due to shear can be neglected compared with that
of bending. If a beam is subjected to bending moment M, the strain energy stored is given as
M 2 dx
U=  2 EI
The deflection can be obtained from the Castigliano’s theorem as
L
 M 2 dx
E =
P  2 EI
0
If E and I are constant, we can write as
L
 M  dx
E =  M 
 P  EI
0
where M is the moment due to external load P and d is the displacement of the point caused by the
load P.
EXAMPLE 4.3
Figure 4.12 shows a J-type hanger. A vertical load of 15 kN is acting at a distance of 75 mm from
the CG of the hanger as shown. Determine (a) the state of stress at section XX, (b) vertical deflection,
(c) horizontal deflection. Consider the deflection due to bending only.
Solution:
(a) Moment M = Fl = 15000 ´ 0.075 = 1125 N.m
The moment is acting on the section X-X.
The Stress due to moment M is
M 1125  (0.05/2)
Tb = y= = 91.67 ´ 106 N/m2 = 91.67 MPa
I (Q /64)  0.054
The axial stress due to axial load F is given by
F 15000
Ta = = = 7.639 ´ 106 N/m2 = 7.639 MPa
A (Q /4)  0.052
The total stress (maximum) is

s = sb + sa = 91.67 + 7.639 = 99.31 MPa
(b) As the deflection in both the directions is to be obtained by Castigliano’s theorem, apply
a dummy load in horizontal direction as shown in Fig. 4.13.
F
a
Fig. 4.13 Dummy load.

l
(Fa  Qx )2 dx
U=  2EI
0
l
(F 2 a2 + Q 2 x 2  2FaQx ) dx
=  2 EI
0
(F 2 a2 l + Q2 l 3 /3  FaQl 2 )
=
2 EI
The vertical deflection is obtained by setting Q = 0 and partially differentiating U with
respect to F.
U 1 Fa2 l
EV = = (2Fa2 l) =
F 2 EI EI
15000  (0.075)2  0.150

= = 2.063  10 4 m
200  10 9  (Q /64)  0.054
= 0.206 mm
(c) For horizontal deflection, U should be partially differentiated with respect to dummy load
Q and then Q should be set at zero.
U 1  2Ql 3 
EH = =   Fal 2 
Q 2 EI 
 3 
Setting Q = 0
U 1
EH = = (  Fal 2 )
Q 2 EI
 15000  0.075  (0.150)2

= = 4.125  10 4 m
200  109  (Q /64)  0.054
= 0.4125 mm
The negative sign indicates that the deflection is in the opposite direction of the load.
EXAMPLE 4.4
In Example 4.3, considering bending and axial loads, determine the vertical and horizontal deflection
using Castigliano’s theorem.
F
a
Q
B C
Solution: The strain energy equation for part BC is

a a
(Fy)2 dy Q2 dy
U BC =  2 EI
+  2 AE
0 0
The strain energy equation for part AB is

l l
(Fa  Qx )2 dx F 2 dx
U AB =  2 EI
+  2 AE
0 0
The total strain energy is the sum of all.

a a l l
(Fy)2 dy Q 2 dy (Fa  Qx )2 dx F 2 dx
U=  2 EI
+  2 AE
+  2 EI
+  2 AE
0 0 0 0
a a l l
(Fy)2 dy Q 2 dy (F 2 a2 + Q2 x 2  2FQax ) dx F 2 dx
U=  2 EI
+  2 AE
+  2 EI
+  2 AE
0 0 0 0
F 2 a3 Q2 a F 2 a2 l + Q 2 l 3 /3  FQal 2 F 2l
U= + + +
6 EI 2 AE 2EI 2 AE
The deflection in the direction of F is
U
EV =
F Q 0
U Fa3 Fa2 l Fl
EV = = + +
F 3EI EI AE
Fa 2  a  Fl
EV =  + l +
EI  3  AE
The deflection in horizontal direction is
U 2Qa 2Ql 3 /3  Fal 2

EH = = +
Q Q 0 2 AE 2 EI
U  Fal 2
EH = =
Q Q =0 2 EI
EXAMPLE 4.5
Find out deflection at free end using Castigliano’s theorem for cantilever beam of length l as shown
in Fig. 4.15.
Fig. 4.15 Cantilever beam under end concentrated load and moment.
Solution: Consider a section X-X at a distance x from free end. The bending moment at section
X-X is:
BM = Px + M
l
1
Strain energy due to bending moment, U = Ô ( BM ) 2 dx
2 EI 0
l
1
= Ô ( Px M )2 dx
2 EI 0
l
1
= Ô ( P 2 x 2 M 2 2 PMx ) dx
2 EI 0
1 È P 2 l3 Ø
= É M 2l PMl 2 Ù
2 EI Ê 3 Ú
U 1
Now, Slope i = = (2 Ml + Pl 2 )
M 2 EI
Ml Pl 2
= +
EI 2 EI
Deflection at free end,

U 1 È 2Pl 3 Ø
y= Ml 2 Ù
P 2EI ÉÊ 3 Ú
Pl 3 Ml 2
or y=
3EI 2 EI
EXAMPLE 4.6
Using Castigliano’s theorem, obtain the deflection under a single concentrated load applied to a
simply supported beam shown in Fig. 4.16. Given EI = 2 MN/m2.
50 kN
X
C
A B
3m 1m
x X
Fig. 4.16 Simply supported beam under concentrated load.
Solution: Let the load at C be denoted as P.

The reaction at A is obtained as
P
RA =
4
Consider a section XX at a distance x from A. The moment at section XX is
 Px
0  x  3
 4
Mx = 
 Px
 P (x  3) 3  x  4
 4
x
 4 0  x  3
M x
Now, = 
P  x  (x  3) 3  x  4
 4
We have d = U
P
M 2 dx
where U =  2EI
 M 2 dx
\ d=
P  2EI
1 M 2 M
=  2EI M P
dx
M M
d=  EI P
dx
Now substituting the values of M and its derivatives we have

3 4
1 È Px Ø È xØ 1 Ë Px Û Ëx Û
d= Ô ÊÉ dx ÔÌ 4 P( x 3) Ü (x 3) Ü dx
EI 0
4 ÚÙ ÊÉ 4 ÚÙ EI 3Í
Ì
Ý Í4 Ý
3 4
P x3 9P È x3 2
Ø
= 16 x 4x
16 EI 3 16 EI ÉÊ 3 Ù
Ú
0 3
3P
=
4EI
3 50 103
and d= = 1.875 ´ 10–2 m
4 2 106
= 18.75 mm
EXERCISES
4.1 What do you understand by strain energy absorbed by a system, complimentary strain energy
and elastic strain energy?
4.2 State Castigliano’s first and second theorem for strain energy? What are their uses?
4.3 Derive an expression for strain energy in a cantilever beam due to bending and shear under
concentrated edge load?
4.4 Derive an expression for strain energy stored in a shaft tapering from a diameter D to a
diameter d over a length L and subjected to torque T.
4.5 Mild steel has more toughness than high strength steel. Explain in terms of strain energy.
4.6 A steel rod of dimater 30 mm and length 200 mm is subjected to axial tension of 10 kN.
Find the strain energy produced if (a) the load is applied gradually, (b) the load is applied
suddenly.
4.7 Find the strain energy stored in the shaft shown in Fig. 4.17.
Fig. 4.17
4.8 Using Castigliano’s theorem, determine the deflection of point C of the beam shown in
Fig. 4.18.
Fig. 4.18
[Ans. (24.772 ´ 103)/EI m]

4.9 A simply supported beam of span 2 m is carrying two loads of 500 kN and 100 kN at 1 m
and 1.5 m, respectively from the left hand support. Using Castigliano’s theorem, calculate
the deflection at the centre. Take E = 210 GPa, I = 70 ´ 10–6 m4.
[Ans. 12 mm]
5 Deflection of Beams
5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is observed that when a beam or a cantilever is subjected to some type of loading it deflects from
its initial/original position. The amount of deflection depends upon its cross-section and bending
moment. Strength and stiffness are the two main design criteria for a beam or a cantilever.
According to strength criterion of the beam design, the beam should be adequately strong to
resist shear force and bending moment. In other words, the beam should be able to resist shear
stresses and bending stresses. But according to stiffness (being mathematically calculated as W/d
where W is the applied load and d is the maximum deflection or sag) criterion of beam design, the
beam should be stiff enough not to deflect more than the permissible limit.
5.2 RELATION BETWEEN SLOPE, DEFLECTION AND RADIUS OF

CURVATURE
Figure 5.1 shows a small portion AB of a beam bent into an arc.
C
B
y da
dy
A
dx
a + da
a
O
x
Fig. 5.1 Section of beam under bending.
158
Chapter 5: Deflection of Beams 159
Let ds = Length of beam AB

C = Centre of the arc
a = Angle which the tangent at A makes with xx axis
a + da = Angle which the tangent at B makes with yy axis
We find from geometry of the figure, that Ð ACB = da and ds = Rda
ds dx
\ R= = (Assuming ds = dx)
dB dB
1 dB
or =
R dx
If coordinate of point A are x and y then
dy
tana =
dx
dy
or a=
dx
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. x, we get
dB d2 y
=
dx dx 2
1 d2y
= (5.1)
R dx 2
Also, we know that
M E
=
I R
I
or M=E´ (5.2)
R
Now, substituting Eq. (5.1) in Eq. (5.2) we get
d2 y
M = EI (5.3)
dx 2
5.3 METHOD FOR SLOPE AND DEFLECTION

Though there are many methods to find out the slope and deflection at a section in a loaded beam,
yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Double integration method
2. Macaulay’s method
3. Moment area method
The first and third methods are suitable for a single load, whereas the second one is suitable for
several loads.
5.3.1 Double Integration Method for Slope and Deflection

We have already discussed in Section 5.2 that the bending moment at a point is:
d2 y
M = EI (5.4)
dx 2
Integrating Eq. (5.4), we get
EI
dy
dx
= I M (5.5)
Integrating Eq. (5.5), we have

EIy = II M
It is thus obvious, that after first integration, we get the value of slope at any point. On further
integrating, we get the value of deflection at any point. While integrating twice the original
differential equation, we will get two constants C1 and C2. The value of these constants may be found
by using the end conditions.
Cantilever subjected to concentrated load at free end: A cantilever AB of length L fixed at

a point A and free at the point B, and carrying a point load at the free end B is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Consider the free end at the origin and measuring distance x from it.
X W
A
B
x
L
X
Fig. 5.2 Cantilever beam under concentrated load at free end.
Referring to Fig. 5.2, and taking hogging moment negative.

Mx = –Wx
d2 y
i.e., EI = –Wx
dx 2
dy Wx 2
or EI =– + C1
dx 2
dy
At x = L, =0
dx
WL2
or 0=– + C1
2
WL2
or C1 =
2
dy Wx 2 WL2
\ EI =– +
dx 2 2
Integrating,
Wx 3 WL2
EI. y = – + x + C2
6 2
The boundary condition is:
At x = L, y = 0
WL3 WL2
0 =– + L + C2
6 2
1 1
or C2 = –WL3
2 6
WL3
=–
3
Wx 3 WL2 WL3
\ EI y = + x–
6 2 3
At free end, x = 0.
1 WL2 = WL 2
dy
dx
=
EI 2 2 EI
1 WL WL
3 3
EI 3
and y = =
3EI
Cantilever subjected to moment at free end: Figure 5.3 shows a cantilever beam of span L,
flexural rigidity EI subjected to hogging moment M.
x M
L
X
Fig. 5.3 Cantilever beam under moment at free end.
Taking origin O at free end, moment at distance x is given by

Mx = –M
d2 y
i.e., EI = –M
dx 2
dy
\ EI = –Mx + C1 (5.6)
dx
Mx 2
and EI y = + C1x + C2 (5.7)
2
The boundary conditions available are:
dy
(A) At x = L, =0
dx
(B) At x = L, y = 0
From boundary condition (A), we get
0 = –ML + C1
or C1 = ML
From boundary condition (B), we get
ML2
0=– + C1L + C2
2
Substituting the value of C1 and rearranging, we have
ML2 ML2
C2 = – ML2 =
2 2
From Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7), we get
dy
EI = –Mx + ML = M (L – x)
dx
Mx 2 ML2
and EIy = – + MLx –
2 2
=M
x2
Lx
L2 "#
! 2 2 #$
At free end, x = 0.
dy 1 ML
= ML =
dx EI EI
1
L2 ML2
and y=
EI
M
2 =–
2 EI
ML2
i.e., y= downward
2 EI
Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load: A cantilever AB of length L fixed at point

A and free at point B, carrying a uniformly distributed load throughout the beam span is shown in
Fig. 5.4. Consider the free end at the origin and measuring distance x from it.
X
W/unit
length
A B
x
L
Fig. 5.4 Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed load.
Referring to Fig. 5.4 and taking hogging moment negative,

Wx 2
Mx =
2
2
d y Wx 2
EI =
dx 2 2
dy Wx 3
\ EI = + C1
dx 6
dy
At x = L, =0
dx
WL3
\ 0 =– + C1
6
WL3
\ C1 =
6
dy Wx 3 WL3
\ EI =– (5.8)
dx 6 6
Integrating Eq. (5.8) again, we get
Wx 4 WL3 x
EIy = – + C2
24 6
At x = L, y = 0
WL4 WL4
\ 0 = + C2
24 6
WL4 WL4
or C2 =
6 24
WL4
=–
8
Wx 4 WL3 x WL4
\ EIy = + –
24 6 8
At free end where x = 0, we get
dy WL3
=
dx 6 EI

1 WL4
and y=
EI 8
WL4
or y= downward
8 EI
Simply supported beam with a central point load: Consider a simply supported beam AB of
length L and carrying a point load W at the centre of beam C as shown in Fig. 5.5. From the geometry
of the figure, we find that the reaction at A and B,
W
RA = RB =
2
W X
A C
B
yc x
L/2 L/2
X
Fig. 5.5 Simply supported beam with a point load.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from B. We know that the bending moment at this section,
W
Mx = x (plus sign due to sagging)
2
d2 y Wx
\ EI 2
= (5.9)
dx 2
dy Wx 2
EI = + C1 (5.10)
dx 4
L dy
where C1 is the first constant of integration. We know when x = , = 0. Substituting these
2 dx
values in Eq. (5.10), we have
WL2 WL2
0= + C1 or C1 = –
16 16
Substituting this value of C1 in Eq. (5.10), we obtain
dy Wx 2 WL2
EI = – (5.11)
dx 4 16
This is the required equation for the slope, at any section, by which we can get the slope at any
point on the beam. A little consideration will show that the maximum slope occurs at A and B. Thus,
for maximum slope at B, substituting x = 0 in Eq. (5.11),
WL2
EI. iB =
16
WL2
\ iB = (Minus sign means that tangent at B makes an angle with AB in the negative or
16 EI
anticlockwise direction)
WL2
or iB = radians
16 EI
By symmetry,
WL2
iA = radians
16 EI
Integrating Eq. (5.11) once again,
Wx 3 WL2
EIy = – x + C2
12 16
where C2 is the constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, y = 0. Substituting these values
in Eq. (5.11), we get
C2 = 0
Wx 3 WL2
\ EIy = – x (5.12)
12 16
This is the required equation for the deflection, at any section, by which we can get the
deflection at any point on the beam. A little consideration will show that maximum deflection occurs
L
at the mid point C. Thus, for the maximum deflection, substituting x = in Eq. (5.12), we get
2
W L 3
WL2 L
EIyc =
12 2 –
16 2
 
WL3 WL3 WL3

= – =
96 32 48
WL3
or yc = (Minus sign means that the deflection is downwards)
48 EI
Simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load: Consider a simply supported
beam AB of length L and carrying a uniformly distributed load of W per unit length as shown in
Fig. 5.6. From the geometry of the figure, we find that the reaction at A, and B are,
WL
RA = RB =
2
W/unit
length X
A B
C x
L/2 L/2
X
Fig. 5.6 Simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from B. We know that the bending moment at this section,
WLx Wx 2
Mx = –
2 2
d2 y WLx Wx 2
\ EI = – (5.13)
dx 2 2 2
Integrating Eq. (5.13),
dy WLx 2 Wx 3
EI = – + C1 (5.14)
dx 4 6
L dy
where C1 is the constant of integration. We know when x = , = 0. Substituting these values
2 dx
in Eq. (5.14),
WL L 2
W L 3
0=
4 2 –
6 2 + C1
WL3
or C1 = –
24
dy WLx 2 Wx 3 WL3
\ EI = – – (5.15)
dx 4 6 24
This is the required equation for the slope at any section, by which we can get the slope at any
point on the beam. We know that the maximum slope occurs at A and B. Thus, for maximum slope,
substituting x = 0 in Eq. (5.15),
WL3
EIiB =
24
WL3
\ iB =
24 EI
WL3
or iB =
24 EI
By symmetry,
WL3
iA =
24 EI
Integrating Eq. (5.15) once again,
WLx 3 Wx 4 WL3 x
EIy = – – + C2 (5.16)
12 24 24
where C2 is the constant of integration. We know when x = 0, y = 0. Substituting these values in
Eq. (5.16), we get C2 = 0.
WLx 3 Wx 4 WL3 x
\ EIy = – – (5.17)
12 24 24
This is required equation for the deflection at any section, by which we can get the deflection
at any point on the beam. We know that the maximum deflection occurs at the midpoint C. Thus,
for the maximum deflection, substituting x = L/2 in Eq. (5.17),
WL L 3
W L 4

WL3 L
EIyc =
12 2 –
24 2 –
24 2
WL4 WL4 WL4 5WL4
= – – =–
96 384 48 384
5WL4
or yc = (Minus sign means that the deflection is downwards)
384 EI
5WL4
Maximum deflection =
384 EI
Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load: Consider a simply supported beam
AB of length L, and carrying a gradually varying load from zero at B to W per unit length at A as
shown in Fig. 5.7. From the geometry of the figure, we find that the reaction at A,
WL WL
RA = and RB =
3 6
X
W
B
A x
X
L
Fig. 5.7 Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load.
Now, consider a section XX at a distance x from B. We know that the bending moment at this
section,
Wx x x
Mx = RBx – ´ ´
L 2 3
WLx Wx 3
= –
6 6L
d2 y WLx Wx 3
\ EI 2
= – (5.18)
dx 6 6L
Integrating Eq. (5.18), we obtain
dy WLx 2 Wx 4
EI = – + C1 (5.19)
dx 12 24 L
where C1 is the first constant of integration. Integrating Eq. (5.19) once again,
WLx 3 Wx 5
EIy = – + C1x + C2 (5.20)
36 120 L
where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, y = 0. Therefore,
C2 = 0. We also know that when x = L, y = 0. Substituting these values in Eq. (5.20), we get
WL W
0= ´ L3 – ´ L5 + C1L
36 120 L
WL4 WL4
= – + C1L
36 120
WL3 WL3 7WL3
\ C1 = + =
36 120 360
Now, substituting this value of C1 in Eq. (5.19)
dy WLx 2 Wx 4 7WL3
EI = – – (5.21)
dx 12 24 L 360
This is the required equation for slope at any section, by which we can get the slope at any
section on the beam. A little consideration will show that the maximum slope will be either at support
A or B. Thus, for slope at A, substituting x = L in Eq. (5.21), we have
WL W 7WL3 WL3
EI iA = ´ L2 – ´ L4 – =
12 24 L 360 45
WL3
\ iA =
45 EI
Now, for slope at B, substituting x = 0 in Eq. (5.21)
7WL3
EI iB = –
360
7WL3
\ iB = radians
360 EI
Now, substituting the value of C1 in Eq. (5.20),
WL 3 Wx 5 7WL3 x
EIy = x – –
36 120 L 360

1 WLx 3 Wx 5 7WL3 x
\ y =
EI 36

120 L

360 (5.22)
This is the required equation for the deflection at any section, by which we can get deflection
L
at any section on the beam. For deflection at the centre of the beam, substituting x = in Eq. (5.22),
2
"#

3 5
1 WL L W L 7WL3 L
! #$
yc =
EI 36 2 120 L 2 360 2
0.00651WL4
= (Minus sign means that the deflection is downwards)
EI
We know that the maximum deflection will occur, where slope of the beam is zero. Therefore,
equating the equation to zero,
WLx 2 Wx 4 7WL3
– – =0
12 24 L 360
\ x = 0.519L
Now, substituting this value of x in Eq. (5.22), we get
1
1 WL 3
0.519 L
W
6 5
0.519 L
7WL3
1 6 1 6"##
! $
ymax = 0.519 L
EI 36 120 L 360
0.00652 WL4
=
EI
EXAMPLE 5.1
A beam 4 m long, simply supported at its ends is carrying a point load W at its centre. If the slope
at the ends of the beam is not to exceed 1°, find the deflection at the centre of the beam.
Solution: Given L = 4 m, Central point load = W

Then Slope at A
1Q
iA = 1o = = 0.01745 radian
180
We know that the slope at the end,
WL2
iA =
16 EI
and deflection at the centre,
WL3 WL2 L
yc = = ´
48 EI 16 EI 3
 WL2 
= iA ´
L
'
 iA = 
16 EI 
3 
4
= 0.01745 ´ = 0.02327 m = 2.33 cm
3
EXAMPLE 5.2
A simply supported beam of span 6 m carries a uniformly distributed load (u.d.l.) of 5 kN/m. Find
the breadth and depth of the beam if the maximum bending stress is not to exceed 8 N/mm2 and
maximum deflection 20 mm. Take E = 104 N/mm2.
Solution: Given E = 104 N/mm2 = 104 ´ 106 N/m2 = 104 ´ 106 ´ 10–3 kN/m2 = 107 kN/m2
ymax = 20 mm = (20 ´ 10–3) m
5WL4
Then ymax =
384 EI
5 5 (6)4
or (20 ´ 10–3) =
(384) (10)7 I
or I = (4.218 ´ 10–4) m4 = (4.218 ´ 10–4) (1012) mm4
= (4.218) ´ 108 mm4
Now, (BM)max =
9. 2
=
5 (6) 2
8 8
= 22.5 kN-m = (22.5 ´ 106) N-mm
M T
Also =
I y
22.5 10 6 8
=
4.218 10 8 d /2
\ d = 300 mm
1
Then I= bd3
12
1 b (300) 3
or 4.218 ´ 108 =
12
or b = 187.5 mm
EXAMPLE 5.3
Find the deflection at free end in the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 5.8.
B
a C
L
Fig. 5.8
Solution: Deflection at free end in the cantilever beam is shown in Fig. 5.9.
yB = BD + DE
Wa 3 Wa 2
= + (L – a)
3EI 2 EI
Fig. 5.9
EXAMPLE 5.4
Find the deflection at free end in the cantilever beam, shown in Fig. 5.10.
W/unit
length
C
a
L
Fig. 5.10
Solution: Deflection at free end is shown in Fig. 5.11.

yC = CD + DE
yC = YB + (L – a) qB
Wa 4 Wa 3
= + (L – a)
8 EI 6 EI
B C
A qB
D
qB
a
E
L–a
Fig. 5.11
EXAMPLE 5.5
A cantilever beam carries a u.d.l throughout the span L. The beam is propped at the free end by an
unyielding support. Calculate the reaction at free end.
Solution: Deflection of the free end of a cantilever having u.d.l is given by

WL4
y1 =
8 EI
Upward deflection of beam,
RL3
y2 =
3EI
Net deflection y = y1 – y2
Unyielding support y1 = y2
3WL "#
R=
!8 $
W
L R
Fig. 5.12
5.3.2 Macaulay’s Method

The double integration method is convenient if only one symmetrical load is present on the beam.
But if there are more than one load then the bending moment equation changes at every load. For
such types of problems, Macaulay’s method is very useful.
Steps for Finding deflection using Macaulays Method:

(1) First the support reactions of simply supported beam are found out by usual method.
(2) Considering the LMS at the origin and measuring distance x from it, a single B.M. equation
is written indicating the segment lines.
(3) While integrating the bracketed expressions are integrated as a whole. The constants of
integration are added in the first segment only.
Deflection of simply supported beam with an eccentric point load: A simply supported
beam AB of length L and carrying a point load W at a distance a from left support and at distance
b from right support is shown in Fig. 5.13. The reactions at A and B are given by
Wb Wa
RA = and RB =
L L
Considering the LHS as the origin and measuring distance x from it, the B.M. for all sections
of beam can be expressed as:
Mx = RA x ½ –W(x – a) (5.23)
W X
A C B
a b
L
RA x RB
X
Fig. 5.13 Simply supported beam with an eccentric point load.
The B.M. at any section is also given by Eq. (5.1) as:

d2 y
M = EI (5.24)
dx 2
Hence equating Eqs. (5.23) and (5.24), we get
d2 y Wb
EI 2
= x W ( x a) (5.25)
dx L
dy Wb x 2 W ( x a)2
EI = C1 (5.26)
dx L 2 2
where C1 is a constant of integration. Integrating Eq. (5.26) once again, we get
Wb x 3 W ( x a) 3
EIy = C1 x C2 – (5.27)
L 6 32
where C2 is another constant of integration. The values of C1 and C2, obtained from boundary
conditions, are:
(i) At x = 0, y = 0. Substituting these values in Eq. (5.27) up to the first compartment, we get
0 = 0 + 0 + C2
or C2 = 0
(ii) At x = L and y = 0. Substituting these values in Eq. (5.27), we get (up to last terms)
Wb 3 W ( L a)3
0= L + C1L + 0 –
6L 32
0=
WbL2
6
+ C1 L –
Wb 3
6
( ' L – a = b)
Wb 2
(L – b2)
C1 = – (5.28)
6L
Substituting the value of C1 in Eq. (5.26), we get
dy Wb x 2  Wb 2  W
EI =   ( L  b 2 )   ( x  a) 2
dx L 2  6L  2
Wbx 2 Wb 2 W
= ( L b 2 ) ( x a) 2 (5.29)
2L 6L 2
Equation (5.29) gives the slope at any point in the beam. Slope is maximum at A or B. To find
the slope at A, substitute x = 0 in Eq. (5.29) up to first compartment,
Wb Wb 2
EI iA = ´0– (L – b2)
2L 6L
Wb 2
=– (L – b 2)
6L
Wb
or iA = – (L2 – b2)
6 EIL
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (5.27), we get
Wb 3
x +
Wb 2
(L b 2 ) x + 0
W "#
EIy =
6L 6L ! 6 $
(x – a)3 (5.30)
Deflection at point C under the load, substitute x = a in Eq. (5.30),

Wb 3 Wb 2
EI yc = a – (L – b2)a + 0
6L 6L
Wb Wab 2
= a(a2 – L2 + b2) = – (L – a2 – b2)
6L 6L
=–
Wab
6L
[(a + b)2 – a 2 – b2] ( ' L = a + b)
Wab 2
=– [a + b2 + 2ab – a2 – b 2]
6L
Wab Wa 2 b 2
=– (2ab) = –
6L 3L
Wa 2 b 2
or yc = –
3EIL
EXAMPLE 5.6
Find the slope and deflection at C, D and E for the beam shown in Fig. 5.14. Are the slopes at A
and B equal? Take E = 200 GPa, I = (450 ´ 106) mm4.
40 kN X 20 kN 60 kN
A C D E B
2m 3m 4m
1m
x
X
Fig. 5.14
Solution: Given E = 200 GPa = (200 ´ 106) kN/m2, I = (450 ´ 106) mm4 = (450 ´ 10–6) m4,
RA = 48 kN, RB = 72 kN
The general deflection equation is:
d2 y
M = EI = 48x½–40 (x – 2)½– 20 (x – 5)½–60 (x – 9)
dx 2
Integrating w.r.t. x,
dy = 24x ½– 20 (x – 2) ½– 10 (x – 5) ½– 30 (x – 9)
dx
2 2 2 2
EI + C1
Integrating w.r.t. x,
20 10
EI(y) = 8x3 + C1x + C2 + ½ (x – 2)3 ½
(x – 5)3 ½– 10(x – 9)3
3 3
(i) At x = 0, y = 0. Substituting these values in the deflection equation up to the first
compartment, we get
C2 = 0
(ii) At x = 10, y = 0. Substituting these values in the deflection equation using all the
compartments, we get
20 10
0 = 8(10)3 + C1 (10) – (10 – 2)3 – (10 – 5)3 – 10 (10 – 9)3
3 3
\ C1 = – 416
General slope equation is:
dy
EI
dx = 24x 2 – 416½–20(x – 2)2½–10(x – 5)2½–30(x – 9)2

 20  10
EI(y) = 8 Z3  416 Z ( Z  2)3 ( Z  5)3  10( Z  9)3
3 3
Slopes: At A, substitute x = 0 in slope equation in the first compartment,

dy
EI
dx = – 416
dy 416
=– = 4.6 ´ 10–3 radians
dx EI
At C, substitute x = 2 in slope equation in the first compartment,
dy
(EI) = 24(2)2 – 416
dx
dy 320
=– = 3.55 ´ 10–3 radians
dx EI
At D, substitute x = 5 in slope equation in the first and second compartments,
dy = 24(5)
dx
2
EI – 416 – 20(5 – 2)2
= (0.044 ´ 10–3) radians

At E, substitute x = 9 in the slope equation in first, second and third compartments,
dy = 24(9)
dx
2
EI – 416 – 20(9 – 2)2 – 10(9 – 5)2
dy 388
= = 4.31 ´ 10–3 radians
dx EI
At B, substitute x = 10 in the slope equation in all the compartments,
dy = 24(10) – 416 – 20(10 – 2)
dx
2 2
EI – 10(10 – 5)2 – 30(10 – 9)2
dy = 424 = 4.71 ´ 10 radians

dx EI
–3
Deflections:
At C, substitute x = 2 in deflection equation in the first compartment,
EI(y) = 8(2)3 – 416(2)
768
y = = 8.53 mm
EI
At D, substituting x = 5 in deflection equation in first and second segments,
20
EI(y) = 8(5)3 – 416(5) – (5 – 2)3
3
1260
y = = 14 mm
EI
At E, substitute x = 9 in deflection equation in first, second and third compartments,

20 10
EI(y) = 8 (9)3 – 416 (9) – (9 – 2)3 – (9 – 5)3
3 3
412
y= = 4.58 mm
EI
EXAMPLE 5.7
A simply supported beam of span 7 m carries loads as shown in Fig. 5.15. Compute deflection at
D and E. Point E is the mid point of DB. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 150 ´ 106 mm4.
X
24 kN 6 kN/m
A B
C D E
2m 2m 1.5 m 1.5 m
Fig. 5.15
Solution: Given E = 200 GPa = 200 ´ 106 kN/m2,

I = 150 ´ 106 mm4 = 150 ´ 10–6 m4, RA = 21 kN, RB = 21 kN
( d 2 y) 6 ( x 4) 2
M = EI 2
= 21x 24 ( x 2)
dx 2
( d 2 y)
EI 2
= 21x 24 ( x 2 ) 3 ( x 4 ) 2
dx
Integrating,
dy = 21x 2
+ C1 24 ( x 2) 3 ( x 4)
2 3
EI
dx 2 2 3
EI = 10.5x
dy
dx + C1½–12(x – 2)2½–(x – 4)3
2
Integrating,
( x 4) 4
EI(y) = 3.5x3 + C1x + C2½–4(x – 2)3½
4
(i) At x = 0, y = 0. Substituting it in the deflection equation in the first compartment, we get
C2 = 0
(ii) At x = 7, y = 0. Substituting it in the deflection equation upto the last segment,

0 = 3.5 (7)3 + 7C1 – 4 (7 – 2)3 – 0.25 (7 – 4)4
\ C1 = – 97.18
dy = 10.5x
dx – 97.18 – 12 ( x 2 ) 2 – ( x 4) 3
2
EI
General deflection equation is:

EI(y) = 3.5x3 – 97.18x|– 4(x – 2)3 | – 0.25 (x – 4)4
Deflection at D. x = 4 in first and second compartment,
\ EI(y) = 3.5(4)3 – 97.18 (4) – 4 (4 – 2)3
196.72
y= = 6.557 mm
EI
Deflection at E. x = 5.5 in the full deflection equation,
\ EI(y) = 3.5(5.5)3 – 97.18 (5.5) – 4 (5.5 – 2)3 – 0.25 (5.5 – 4)4
124.94
y= = 4.16 mm
EI
EXAMPLE 5.8
A simply supported beam having a span of 9 m is loaded as shown in Fig. 5.16. Calculate the
deflection of beam at mid point of CD. Take E = 200 ´ 103 N/mm2 and I = 270 ´ 106 mm4.
X
18 kN/m
A B
C D
2m 4m 3m
X
Fig. 5.16
Solution: Given E = 200 ´ 103 N/mm2 = 200 ´ 106 kN/mm2, I = 270 ´ 106 mm4 = 270 ´ 10–6 m4,
RA = 40 kN, RB = 32 kN
Note: For Macaulay’s method, the u.d.l must be reached up to the end. So the same load is extended
from D to B, and the same magnitude of load is removed from B to D as shown in Fig. 5.17.
18 kN/m
A
C D B
2m 4m 3m
18 kN/m
Fig. 5.17

d y
2
18 ( x 2 ) 2 18 ( x 6)2
M = EI dx 2
= 40x
2 2
EI
d y
2
dx = 40x 9 ( x 2 )2 9 ( x 6)2
Integrating,
dy = 20x
dx
2
EI + C1 3 ( x 2 )3 3 ( x 6) 3
Integrating,
20 3
x + C1x +  0.75( x  2)  0.75( x  6)
4 4
EI(y) =
3
(i) x = 0, y = 0 gives C2 = 0.
(ii) x = 9, y = 0 gives C1 = –346.67.
dy = 20x
dx – 346.67 3( x 2 )3 3( x 6) 3
2
EI
General deflection equation is:

20 3 3 3
x – 346.67x – ( x  2)  ( x  6)
4 4
EI(y) =
3 4 4
Deflection at mid point of CD, x = 4 m
20 3 3
EI(y) = (4) – 346.67(4) – (4 – 2)4
3 4
 972
or y= = 17.83 mm
EI
Slope at A,
x = 0 in slope equation in first compartment,
dy = 0 – 346.67
EI
dx
dy = 346.67 = 6.42 ´ 10
dx
–3
or radians
EI
5.3.3 Moment Area Method

Consider an element PQ of small length dx at a distance x from B, bent into arc P1Q1 as shown in
Fig. 5.18(b).
Area = Mdx
M (a)
P Q
B x A
dx
L
B
A
D dq Q1
y P1
dy
C (b)
R
dq
Fig. 5.18 Moment area method.
Let R = Radius of curvature of deflected part P1Q1

dq = Angle subtended by the arc P1Q1 at the centre
M = Bending moment between P and Q
P1C = Tangent at point P1
Q1D = Tangent at point Q1
For the deflected part P1Q1 of the beam, we have
P1Q1 = Rdq
But P1Q1 @ dx
\ dx = Rdq
dx
\ dq = (5.31)
R
But for beam, we have
M E EI
= or R=
I R M
Substituting the values of R in Eq. (5.31), we get
dx Mdx
dq =

EI
=
EI
(5.32)

M
Since the slope at point A is assumed zero, hence total slope at B is obtained by integrating
Eq. (5.32) between the limits 0 and L.
L L
Mdx 1
q= Ô = Ô Mdx
EI EI
0 0
L
But Mdx represents the area of B.M. diagram of length dx. Hence Ô
Mdx represents the area
of B.M. diagram between A and B. 0
1
q= [Area of B.M. diagram between A and B]
EI
Slope at B = iB. Therefore,
Area of B.M. diagram between A and B
iB = (5.33)
EI
If the slope at A is not zero then we have total change of slope between B and A is equal to
the area of B.M. diagram between B and A divided by the flexural rigidity EI.
Area of B.M. between A and B
or iB – iA = (5.34)
EI
Now, the deflection, due to bending of the portion P1Q1, is given by
dy = x dq
Substituting the value dq from Eq. (5.32), we get
Mdx
dy = x (5.35)
EI
Since deflection at A is assumed to be zero, hence the total deflection at B is obtained by
integrating Eq. (5.35) between the limits 0 and L.
L L
xM dx 1
y= Ô = Ô xM dx
EI EI
0 0
But xMdx represents the moment of area of the B.M diagram of length dx about a point B. Hence
L
Ô xMdx represents the total area of B.M. diagram between B and A multiplied by the distance of
0
the C.G. of the B.M. diagram area from B.
1 Ax
y= ´A´ x = (5.36)
EI EI
where A = Area of B.M. diagram between A and B
x = Distance e of C.G. of the area A
5.3.4 Mohr’s Theorems

The results given by equation for slope and for deflection are known as Mohr’s theorems. These
are stated as:
The change of slope between any two points is equal to the net area of the B.M. diagram
between these points divided by EI.
The total deflection between any two points is equal to the moment of the area of B.M. diagram
between the two points divided by EI.
Mohr’s theorems are conveniently used for the following cases:

1. Problems on cantilevers (single load)
2. Simply supported beams carrying symmetric loading (single load)
3. Beams fixed at both ends (single load)
Expressions for area and centroid are as follows:
(a) Area = bh
b
Distance of centroid G =
2
G h
b
(a)
1
(b) Area of triangle = bh
2
b
3
G b/3 h
b
(b)
2
(c) Area of ABC = bh
3
5
Distance of centroid G = b
8
C
D
Area A
h
(5/8) b
G
A
b B
(c)
1
(d) Area = bh
3
3b
4
h
(3/4) b
G
b
(d)
1 bh
(e) Area =
n 1
n 1 b
n 2
y = kxn
æ n +1ö
h ç ÷b
èn + 2ø
G
b
(e)
Fig. 5.19 Determination of area and centroids of simple geometry.
Slope and deflection of a simply supported beam carrying a point load at the centre:
Figure 5.20 shows a simply supported beam AB of length L and carrying a point load W at the centre
of the beam, i.e., at point C. The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 5.20(b). This is a case of symmetrical
loading hence slope is zero at the centre, i.e., at point C.
Now, using Mohr’s theorem for slope, we get
Area of B. M. diagram between A and C
Slope at A =
EI
Area of B.M. diagram between A and C = Area of triangle ACD
1 L WL WL2
= =
2 2 4 16
W
L
2 C
A B
W W
L
2 2
(a)
D
WL
4
A B
2 L C
¥
3 2
L
2
(b)
Fig. 5.20 (a) Simply supported beam, (b) Bending moment diagram.
WL2
\ Slope at A (or iA) =
16 EI
Now, using Mohr’s theorem for deflection, we get from Eq. (5.36),
Ax
y=
EI
where A = Area of B.M. diagram between A and C
WL2
=
16
x = Distance of C.G. of area ACD from point A
2 L L
= =
3 2 3
WL2 L
3
\ y = 16 3 = WL
EI 48 EI
Slope and deflection of a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load at
the centre: Figure 5.21 shows a simply supported beam AB of length L and carrying a uniformly
distributed load of W/unit length over the entire span. The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 5.21(b).
This is a case of symmetrical loading hence slope is zero at the centre, i.e., at point C.
(i) Now, using Mohr’s theorem for slope, we get
Area of B. M. diagram between A and C
Slope at A =
EI
But
Area of B.M. diagram between A and C = Area of parabola ACD
2
= ´ AC ´ CD
3
W/unit length
A B
L WL
WL 2
2 (a)
D
WL2
8
A B
5¥L C
8 2
L
2
(b)
Fig. 5.21 (a) Beam under uniformly distributed load (b) Bending moment diagram.
2 L WL2 WL3
= =
3 2 8 24
WL3
Slope at A =
24 EI
(ii) Now, using Mohr’s theorem for deflection, we get from Eq. (5.36),
Ax
y=
EI
where A = Area of B.M. diagram between A and C
WL3
A=
24
x = Distance of C.G of area ACD from A
5 5 L 5L
x = ´ AC = =
8 8 2 16
WL3 5 L
5 WL 4
y = 24
384 EI
\ 16 =
EI
5.4 INDETERMINATE STRUCTURE

Previously, we have dealt the cases of finding out stresses and strain where simple equation of statics
were sufficient to solve the problem. But sometimes the equilibrium equations are not sufficient to
solve such problems. Such problems are called statically indeterminate problems, and the structure
are called statically indeterminate structures. As an example, a cantilever fixed at one end and free
at other is statically determinate as the number of reactions is only three [Fig. 5.22(a)], and can be
easily found out the three equations for plane structures:
åFx = 0
åFy = 0
å Mz = 0
where å shows the sum, and Fx, Fy and M are forces in the x, y directions and moment about z axis,
respectively. However, if we add a prop, as shown in Fig. 5.22(b), the situation is now altered. Now,
we have four unknown reactions, R1 to R4, and only three equations. The problem is hence statically
indeterminate.
The excess of unknowns over the equations is termed degree of indeterminacy.
A B
L
(a)
P
A B
L
(b)
Fig. 5.22 (a) Fixed beam with concentrated load at free end (b) Indeterminate beam.
5.5 CONTINUOUS BEAM

Continuous beam is a beam which is supported on more than two supports. Figure 5.23 shows such
a beam, which is subjected to some external loading. The deflection curve is having convexity
upwards over the intermediate supports, and concavity upwards over the mid of the span. Hence
there will be hogging moments (i.e., negative) over the intermediate supports and sagging moments
(i.e., positive) over the mid of the span. The end supports of a simply supported continuous beam
will not be subjected to any bending moment. But the end support of fixed continuous beam will be
subjected to fixing moments. If the moments over the intermediate supports are known then the B.M.
diagram can be drawn.
W/unit
length
A B C D E
Fig. 5.23 Continuous beam.
5.6 CLAPEYRON’S THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS

The moments over the intermediate supports are determined by using Clapeyron’s theorem of three
moments which states that
If BC and CD are any two consecutive span of a continuous beam subjected to an external
loading then the moments MB, MC and MD at the supports B, C and D are given by
6 a1 x1 6a2 x 2
MB L1 + 2MC (L1 + L 2) + MD L 2 = (5.37)
L1 L2
where L1 = Length of span BC

L2 = Length of span CD
a1 = Area of B.M. diagram due to vertical loads on span BC
a2 = Area of B.M. diagram due to vertical loads on span CD
x1 = Distance of C.G. of the B.M. diagram due to vertical loads on BC from B
x 2 = Distance of C.G. of the B.M. diagram due to vertical loads on CD from D.
Equation (5.37) is known as the equation of three moments or Clapeyron’s equation.
B D
C
L1 L2
(a)
x1
Mx
B
x dx C D
(b) B.M. diagram due to vertical moment for two spans
x¢1
Mx¢ MC
MB MD
B x dx C D
(c) B.M. diagram due to support moment for each two spans
Fig. 5.24 Beam with three supports.
EXAMPLE 5.9
A continuous beam ABC covers two consecutive spans AB and BC of lengths 5 m and 7 m carrying
uniformly distributed loads of 8 kN/m and 10 kN/m, respectively. If the ends A and C are simply
supported, find the support moments at A, B and C. Draw also B.M. and S.F. diagrams.
Solution: Given L1 = 5 m, L 2 = 7 m, W1 = 8 kN/m, W2 = 10 kN/m

Since the ends A and C are simply supported, the support moments at A and C will be zero.
\ MA = MC = 0
To find the support moment at B (i.e., MB) Clapeyron’s equation of three moments should be
applied. Hence, we get
6a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2) + MC L 2 =
L1 L2
6a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
or 0 ´ 5 + 2MB (5 + 7) + 0 ´ 7 =
L1 L2
6 a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
or 24MB = (i)
5 7
Now, a1 is the area of B.M. diagram due to u.d.l. on AB when AB is considered as simply
supported beam. Therefore,
2 2 W L2
a1 = ´ AB ´ Altitude = ´ AB ´ 1 1
3 3 8
2 8 52
= 5 = 83.33
3 8
Span
The distance of C.G. of this area from one end =
2
L1 5
or x1 =
= = 2.5 m
2 2
Here, a2 is the area of B.M. diagram due to u.d.l. on BC, therefore,
2 W L2 2 10 7 2
a2 = BC 2 2 = 7
3 8 3 8
= 285.83 m
L2 7
and x2 = = = 3.5 m
2 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
6 83.33 2.5 6 285.83 3.5
24MB = +
5 7
= 249.99 + 857.49 = 1107.48 kN-m
\ 24MB = 1107.48
MB = 46.15 kN-m
Now, B.M. diagram due to support moments is drawn as shown in Fig. 5.25 in which MA = 0,
MC = 0 and MB = 46.15 kN·m.
S.F. Diagram
First calculate the reactions RA, RB and RC at A, B and C, respectively. For the span AB, taking
moments about B, we get
5
RA ´ 5 – 8 ´ 5 ´ = MB
2
= – 46.15 ( ' MB = 46.15. Negative sign is taken as the movement at B is hogging.)
or 5RA – 100 = –46.15
46.15 100
or RA = = 10.77 kN
5
Similarly, for the span BC, taking moments about B, we get

7
RC ´ 7 – 10 ´ 7 ´ = – 46.15
2
or 7RC – 245 = – 46.15
245 46.15
or RC = = 28.41 kN
7
Now, RB = Total load on ABC – (RA + RC)
= (8 ´ 5 + 10 ´ 7) – (10.77 + 28.41)
= 70.82 kN
8 kN/m 10 kN/m
A 5m B 7m C
(a)
46.15
61.25
25
A B C
(b) B.M. diagram
41.59
10.77 C
A B
29.23 28.41
(c) S.F. diagram
Fig. 5.25
EXAMPLE 5.10
A continuous beam ABCD of length 15 m rests on four supports covering 3 equal spans, and carries
a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m length. Calculate the moments and reactions at the supports.
Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagram also.
Solution: Given L1 = 5 m, L2 = 5 m, L3 = 5 m, W1 = W2 = W3 = 2 kN/m

Since ends A and D are simply supported, the support moments at A and D will be zero.
\ MA = 0 and MD = 0
From symmetry
MB = MC
To find the support moments at B and D Clapeyron’s equation of three moments is applied for
ABC and for BCD. For ABC, we get
6a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
MAL1 + 2MB (L1 + L 2) + MC L 2 =
L1 L2
6a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
or 0 ´ 5 + 2MB (5 + 5) + MC ´ 5 =
5 5
6
or (a1 x1 a 2 x 2 )
20MB + 5MC =
5
Now, a1 = Area of B.M. diagram due to u.d.l. on AB when AB is considered as simply supported
beam
2
= ´ AB ´ Altitude
3
2
2 WL
= ´5´ 1 1
3 8
2 2 52
= ´5´ = 20.833 m2
3 8
L1 5
and x1 = = = 2.5 m
2 2
Due to symmetry
a2 = a1 = 20.833 and x 2 = x1 = 2.5

6
20MB + 5MC = (20.833 ´ 2.5 + 20.833 ´ 2.5)
5
6
´ 104.165 = 124.99
=
5
or 20MB + 5MB = 124.99 '
( MB = MC due to symmetry)
124.99
MB = = 4.99 kN-m
25
\ MB = MC = 4.99 kN-m
Now, the B.M. diagram due to support moments is drawn as shown in Fig. 5.26(b), in which
MA = 0, MD = 0, MC = 4.99 kN-m.
Let RA, RB, RC and RD are the support reactions at A, B, C and D respectively. Due to symmetry,
RA = RD
and RB = RC
For the span AB, taking moments about B, we get
5
MB = RA ´ 5 – 2 ´ 5 ´
2
or – 4.99 = RA ´ 5 – 25 ( ' MB = – 4.99)

\ RA = 4.002 kN
Due to symmetry,
RD = RA = 4.002 kN
Now, RA + RB + RC + RD = Total load on ABCD
or RA + RB + RB + RA = 2 ´ 15 '
( RC = RB, RD = RA)
or 2(RA + RB) = 30
or RA + RB = 15
or RB = 10.998 kN
Fig. 5.26
EXAMPLE 5.11
A continuous beam ABCD simply supported at A, B, C and D is loaded as shown in Fig. 5.27(a).
Find the moments over the beam and draw B.M. and S.F. diagrams.
Solution: Given L1 = 6 m, L2 = 5 m, L3 = 4 m, W1 = 10 kN, W2 = 12 kN, W3 = 5 kN/m

B.M. diagram due to vertical loads taking each span as simply supported
Consider beam AB as simply supported.
W1 a b 10 2 4
B.M. at point load at E =
L1
=
6
( ' Here a = 2 m, b = 4 m)
= 13.33 kN·m
Similarly, B.M. at F, considering beam BC as simply supported,
W2 a b 12 2 3
=
L2
=
5
( ' Here a = 2 m, b = 3 m and L2 = 5)
= 14.4 kN·m
The B.M. at the centre of a simply supported beam CD, carrying u.d.l.
W3 L23 5 42
= =
8 8
= 10 kN·m
B.M. diagram due to support moments
Let MA, MB, MC and MD are supports moments at A, B, C and D, respectively. But the end supports
of a simply supported beam are not subjected to any bending moment. Hence the support moments
at A and D will be zero.
\ MA = 0 and MD = 0
To find the support moments at B and C, Clapeyron’s equation of three moments applied for
ABC and for BCD.
(a) For spans AB and BC from equation of three moments, we have
6 a1 x1 6 a2 x 2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2) + MC L2 =
L1 L2
6
or 2MB (6 + 5) + 5MC = a1 x1 + a x (i)
5 2 2
Now a1 x1 = Moment of area of B.M. diagram due to vertical load on AB when AB is

considered as simply supported beam about point A
1 22 1 2 1 4
=
2
´ 2 ´ 13.33 ´
3
´ 4 ´ 13.33 ´
2 3
= 17.77 + 88.87 = 106.64
and a2 x 2 = Moment of area of B.M. diagram due to vertical load on BC when BC is
considered as simply supported beam about point C
1 2 1 3 1 2
=
2
´ 3 ´ 14.4 ´
3
´3+
2
´ 2 ´ 14.4 ´
3
= 43.2 + 52.8 = 96
6 96
22MB + 5MC = 106.64 + = 221.84 (ii)
5
(b) For spans BC and CD from equation of three moments, we have
6 a2 x 2 6 a3 x 3
MB L 2 + 2MC (L 2 + L3) + MD L3 =
L2 L3
or MB ´ 5 + 2MC (5 + 4) =
6 a2 x 2 6 a3 x 3
5

4
( ' MD = 0)
6 6
or 5MB + 18MC = a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 (iii)
5 4
where a2 x 2 = Moments of area of B.M. diagram due to vertical load on BC when BC is considered
a simply supported beam, about point B
1 2 1 2 1 3
=
2
´ 2 ´ 14.4 ´
3
´2+
2
´ 3 ´ 14.4 ´
3
= 19.2 + 64.8 = 84
and a3 x 3 = Moment of area of B.M. diagram due to uniformly distributed load (u.d.l.) on CD,
when CD is considered as simply supported beam, about point D
2 Base Altitude Base
=
3 2
2 4
= ´ 4 ´ 10 ´ = 53.33
3 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (iii), we get
6 6
5MB + 18MC = ´ 84 + ´ 53.33 = 180.79 (iv)
5 4
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iv), we get
MB = 8.32 kN·m and MC = 7.73 kN·m
Now, the B.M. diagram due to support moments is drawn as shown in Fig. 5.27(c), in which
MA = 0, MB = 8.32, MC = 7.73 and MD = 0.
Support reactions
Let RA, RB, RC and RD are the support reactions at A, B, C and D, respectively.
For the span AB taking moments about B, we get
MB = RA ´ 6 – 10 ´ 4
or –8.32 = 6RA – 40
40 8.32
or RA = = 5.28 kN
6
For the span CD taking moments about C, we get
4
MC = R D ´ 4 – 5 ´ 4 ´
2
or –7.73 = 4RD – 40
40 7.73
\ RD = = 8.06 kN
4
Now, taking moments about C for ABC, we get
MC = RA(6 + 5) – 10(5 + 4) + RB ´ 5 – 12 ´ 3
or –7.73 = 5.28 ´ 11 – 10 ´ 9 + 5RB – 36
\ 5RB = 90 + 36 – 7.73 – 58.08
\ RB = 12.03 kN
Now, RC = Total load on ABCD – (RA + RB + RD)

= (10 + 12 + 20) – (5.28 + 12.03 + 8.06) = 16.63 kN
Fig. 5.27
EXERCISES
5.1 What is the Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments? Derive an expression for Clapeyron’s
theorem of three moments.
5.2 What is moment area method? Derive an expression for finding out slope and deflection.
5.3 Differentiate first and second Mohr’s theorems.
5.4 Derive an expression for the slope and deflection of a beam subjected to uniform bending
moment. Prove that
d2 y
M = EI
dx 2
where M = Bending moment
E = Young’s modulus
I = M.O.I.
5.5 What is a Macaulay’s method? Where is it used? Find an expression for deflection at any
section of a simply supported beam with an eccentric point load using Macaulay’s method.
5.6 Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever of length l carrying a point
load at the free end.
Ans. R=
wl 2
,E =
wl 3 "#
! 2 EI 3 EI $
5.7 A cantilever beam of length 3 m carries a u.d.l. of 2 kN/m spread over the whole length and
a point load of 2 kN at the free end. Calculate the deflection at the free end. The cross-
section of the beam is 120 mm ´ 240 mm. Take E = 200 GPa. [Ans. y = – 1.38 mm]
5.8 A simply supported beam of span 6 m carries a u.d.l. throughout. If the maximum deflection
is not to exceed 10 mm. Calculate the value of u.d.l. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 40 ´
10–6 m4. [Ans. W = 4.74 kN/m]
5.9 A continuous beam consists of three successive spans of 8 m, 10 m and 6 m, and carries
loads of 6 kN/m, 4 kN/m and 8 kN/m, respectively on the spans. Determine the bending
moments and reactions at the supports.
[Ans. (i) M A = MD = 0, M C = 32.2 kN·m, M B = 40.16 kN·m (ii) RA = 18.98 kN,
RB = 49.82 kN, RC = 48.57 kN, RD = 18.63 kN]
5.10 A continuous beam ABC consists of two consecutive spans AB and BC of length 8 m and
6 m, respectively. The beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 1 kN/m throughout its
length. The end A is fixed and the end C is simply supported. Find the support moments and
the reactions. Also draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
[Ans. (i) MA = 5.75 kN-m, MB = 4.5 kN·m, MC = 0 (ii) RA = 4.15 kN, RB = 7.6 kN,
RC = 2.15 kN]
6 Curved Beam
6.1 INTRODUCTION
M T E
Bending equation = = was derived assuming the beam to be initially straight before the
I y R
application of a bending moment. However, machine member and structure subjected to bending are
not always straight as in the case of chain links and crane hooks, before a bending moment is applied
to them. For initially straight beam the simple bending formula is applicable and the neutral axis
coincides with the centroidal axis. A simple flexure formula may be used for curved beams for which
the radius of curvature is more than five times the beam depth. To deal with such cases Winkler–
Bach theory is used.
6.2 STRESSES IN CURVED BEAM (WINKLER–BACH THEORY)

The following assumptions are made in this analysis:
1. Plane sections (transverse) remain plane during bending.
2. Radial strain is negligible.
3. The material considered is isotropic and obeys
Hooke’s law.
4. The fibres are free to expand or contract without
any constraining effect from the adjacent fibres.
Consider a portion of a beam ABCD initially in
unstrained state and ABC¢D¢ be the strained position of
the beam. For simplicity the fibers AB shown on same as
before and after the application of bending.
Circumferential strain in EF,
EF EF EF
ec = = –1
EF EF
( R1 y1 )R T
= –1= (6.1)
( R y)G E
where s is the bending stress in EF. Fig. 6.1 Bending of a curved beam.
196
Chapter 6: Curved Beam 197
Let e ¢c is the strain in GH when it increases to GH¢. Then

GH GH GH
e ¢c = = 1
GH GH
R1R
= –1
RG
(1 + e ¢c)Rf = R1q
R R (1 F c )
= (6.2)
G R1
Substituting Eq. (6.2) in Eq. (6.1), we have
( R1  y1) R (1  F c )
ec =  –1
( R  y) R1
1 y (1 F )
R
1
c
1
= –1
y
1
R
According to assumption (2) radial strain is negligible. Hence
y = y1
È yØ
É1 R1 ÙÚ
Ê
ec = (1 F c ) – 1
È yØ
É1 Ù
Ê RÚ
y y y
1 Fc F c 1
R1 R1 R
=
y
1
R
y
Adding and subtracting e ¢c in the numerator and simplifying, we get
R
1 1 y
e c = e ¢c +
(1 F c )
R R
1
(6.3)
y
1
R
The tensile stress in EF¢ becomes
Ë È 1 1Ø Û
Ì (1 F c ) É Ù yÜ
Ê R1 RÚ Ü
s = ec E = E ÌF c
Ì Ü
(6.4)
y
Ì 1 Ü
Í R Ý
Total force on the section is:

F= ò s dA
Consider a small strip of elementary area dA, at a distance y from the centroidal layer GH, we have
Ë È 1 1Ø Û
Ì (1 F c ) É Ùy Ü
Ê R1 RÚ
F= E Ì Ô F c dA Ô dA Ü
Ì y Ü
Ì 1 Ü
Í R Ý
È 1 1Ø y dA
= Ee c¢ A + E(1 + e c¢) É (6.5)
Ê R1 R ÙÚ Ô y
1
R
The total resisting moment is given by
M = òs y dA
1 1
(1 F c )
R y dA
I

1 R
= Eò e ¢cy dA + E 2
y
1
R
1 1 y dA
R R I 1 y ' ydA = 0]
2
= 0 + E(1 + e ¢c) [
1
R
1 1 y dA
R R I 1 y
2
M = E(1 + e ¢c)
1
R
Let
1
I y
R
y 2
dA = Ah2 (6.6)
2
where h is the constant for the cross-section of the bar.
1 1
\ M = E(1 + e c¢)
R R
1
Ah2 (6.7)
Consider, I 1
y
y
dA = I Ry dA
Ry
R
I y Ry y dA

2
=
= I y dA – I
y dA 2
R y
=0–
1
I dA
y
1
y2
R
R
\ Ô
y dA
1
y
= –
R
1
I
1 y 2 dA
y
1
= – Ah2
R
(6.8)
R R
Hence Eq. (6.5) becomes
1 1 Ah
R R R
2
F = Ee c¢ A – E(1 + e c¢) (6.9)
1
Since transverse plane sections remain plane during bending,

F=0
1 1 Ah 2
R R R
0 = Ee c¢ A – E(1 + e c¢)
1
1 1 Ah
Ee ¢ A = E(1 + e ¢ )
2
or c
R R R
c
1
1 1 h
e ¢ = (1 + e ¢ )
2
or c
R R R
c
1
F R
c 1 1
= (1 + e ¢ )
h 2
R R
c
1
(6.10)
Substituting the value of Eq. (6.10) in Eq. (6.7), we get

F c R
M=E Ah2
h2
= Ee c¢ RA
M
e c¢ = (6.11)
EAR
Substituting the value of e c¢ in Eq. (6.4), we get
M y
F c R
s=
AR
+E
1
y h2
R
=
M
AR
+E
yM
y h EAR
R
2
' F = EAR
Ë
Ì c
M Û
Ü
1 Í Ý
R
M M Ry 1
= 1 y h 2
R
AR AR
s=
M
R2 y "#
or
AR
1 2
h! y R #$ (6.12)
On the other side of GH, y will be negative, and the stress will be compressive.
s=
M
R2 y "#
AR
1 2
h! R y #$ (6.13)
If the bending moment is applied in such a manner that it tends to increase the curvature of beam
then Eq. (6.12) will give tensile stress and Eq. (6.13) gives compressive stress.
6.3 POSITION OF NEUTRAL AXIS

At the neutral axis, s = 0.
M R2y "#
AR
1 2
!
h Ry #$ =0
R2 y
h2 R y = –1
R2y = – Rh2 – h2y

y(R + h2) = – Rh2
2
Rh 2
y =– R h
2 2
(6.14)
Hence neutral axis is located below the centroidal axis.
6.4 VALUES OF h2
Now, h2 =
1
A I y 2 dA
1
y
[Eq. 6.6]
= I
R y 2 dA
A Ry
=
R
A I %& y( y R) R ( y R) R ()dA
' yR *
2
RË R 2 dA Û
= Ì y dA Ô R dA Ô Ü
A ÌÍ Ô y R ÜÝ
"#
=
R
A
0 RA
!
R 2 dA
yR I #$
' Ô y dA = 0 and Ô dA = AÛÝ
Ë
Í
h2 =
R3
A I dA
Ry
– R2 (6.15)
6.4.1 Rectangular Cross-section

Figure 6.2 shows the rectangular section of width B and
depth dy at a distance y from the centroidal layer. dy dA
y D
Area of strip dA = Bdy
Area of section A = BD
D /2
R3 B dy
h2 = – R2
BD Ô R y R
D /2
B
R3
log e ( R y) D / 2 R 2
D/ 2
=
D
R3
2R D O
h2 =
D
log e
2R D – R2 (6.16)
Fig. 6.2 Rectangular cross-section.
6.4.2 Circular Cross-section

Figure 6.3 shows the circular section of diameter D of a curved
bar of radius of curvature R, from the centre of curvature O. b
Q dy
Area of cross section A = D2 y
4
Consider a strip of width b and depth dy at a distance y from
the centroidal layer. Then
D2
b=2 y2 R
4
Area of strip dA = bdy

O

2
D Fig. 6.3 Circular cross-section.
= 2 y 2 dy
4
D2
R 3 D /2 2 y2
4
Thus, h2 = Ô dy – R 2
A Ry
D/2
D2
8R 3 D /2 y2
4
= dy – R 2
Q D2 Ô Ry
D/2
Expanding the integral by binomial expression and then integrating, we get
D2 1 D4
h2 = +… (6.17)
16 128 R 2
6.4.3 I-section
Figure 6.4 shows a I-section.
Let R+y =a
Then dy = da
"#
I I I
R2 R3 R4
R3
#$ – R
dA dA dA
Now, h2 = 2
R y Ry Ry
A
! R1 R2 R3
"#
I I I
R2 R3 R4
3 b2 da t 3 da b1 da
#$ – R
R
= 2
A
! R1
a
R2
a
R3
a

R3 R2 R R 
=  b2 loge  t3 loge 3  b1 loge 4  – R 2 (6.18)

A R1 R2 R3 
where A = b1 t1 + b2 t2 + b3 t3
b1
dy t1
b3 y
R3
R4
t3
t2
R
b2 R2
R1
O O
Fig. 6.4 I-section.
6.4.4 T-section
Figure 6.5 shows a T-section.
Let R+y =a
Then dy = da
"#
I I
R2 R3
R3
#$ – R
dA dA
Now, 2
h = 2
Ry Ry
A
! R1 R2
"#
I I
R2 R3
3 b2 da t1 da
#$ – R
R
= 2
A
! R1
a
R2
a
R3 R2 R 
= b2 loge  t1 loge 3  – R 2 (6.19)
A R1 R2
where A = b1t1 + b2t2
t1
dy
y
b1
R3
t2
R
b2
R1 R2
O O
Fig. 6.5 T-section.
6.4.5 Trapezoidal Cross-section

Figure 6.6 shows trapezoidal cross-section.
Fig. 6.6 Trapezoidal cross-section.
Let Z= R +y
Then dZ = dy
B C (R
Now, b=C+
d d
1 2
2 – Z)
Thus, dA = bdy
B C 1 R Z 6"# dZ
! d d
= C
1 2 $ 2
I
R2
R3 BC dZ
Now, 2
h = [C ( R Z )] – R2
A d1 d2 2 Z
R1
"#
I
I
R2 R2
R3 CdZ BC ( R2 Z )
=
A
!R1
Z

d1 d2 R1
Z #$
dZ – R 2
R3 Ë R2 È B C Ø Û
= ÌC log e Z R1

ÉÊ d d Ù
| R2 log e Z Z |RR2 Ü – R 2
A 2Ú
1
Í 1 Ý
R3 Ë R2 È B C ØÎ R2 ÞÛ
= ÌC log e
ÉÊ d d Ù Ï R2 log e ( R2 R1 ) ßÜ – R 2
A Í R1 1 2ÚÐ R1 àÝ
R3 Ë È R d2 Ø È B C Ø È R d2 Ø Û
h2 = ÌC log e É Ù
É Ù ( R d2 ) log e É (B C ) Ü – R 2 (6.20)
A Í Ê R d1 Ú Ê d Ú Ê R d1 Ù
Ú Ý
B C d
where A=
2
d B 2C
d1 =
3 BC

d2 = d – d1
EXAMPLE 6.1
Figure 6.7 shows a circular ring of circular cross-section 8 cm in diameter. The inside diameter of
the ring is 16 cm. The load P is 25 kN. Calculate stresses at A and B.
P = 25 kN
B A
D = 8 cm
16 cm
Fig. 6.7
Solution: Area of cross-section A =

Q (8)2 = 50.26 cm2
4
D2 1 D4
Then h2 = +…
16 128 R 2
Here D = 8 cm
and R = 8 + 4 = 12 cm
64 1 64 64
\ h2 =
16 128 144 = 4.22 cm2
Here the bending moment is such that it is tending to increase the curvature of the ring.
Therefore Eq. (6.13) will give compressive stress and Eq. (6.12) gives tensile stress at point A.
Now, M = P. R = 25 ´ 103 ´ 12 ´ 10–2 = 3000 N-m
Stress at point A is:
sA = –
P M R2 d1 "#

A AR
1 2
h !R d1 #$
25 10 3 3000 10 6 (12 )2 4 "#
=–
50.26
´ 104 +
50.26 12
1
!
4.22 12 4 #$
= 84.86 MPa (Compressive)
Stress at point B is:
sB = –
P M R2 d "#
1 2
R d #$
2
A AR h ! 2
25 10 3 3000 10 6 (12 ) 2 4 "#

=–
50.26
´ 104 +
50.26 12
1
!
4.22 12 4 #$
= 43.43 MPa (Tensile)
EXAMPLE 6.2
An open ring having T-section, as shown in Fig. 6.8, is subjected to compressive load of 120 kN.
Determine stresses at A and B.
Fig. 6.8
A1 x1 A2 x 2
Solution: y1 =
A1 A2
100 20 10 20 150 150 20

2
= = 61 mm
100 20 20 150
Area of T-cross-section A = b1t1 + b2t2

= 100 ´ 20 + 20 ´ 150 = 5000 mm2
Now, r1 = 200 mm, r2 = 220 mm, r3 = 370 mm, R = 200 + 61 = 261 mm, y2 = 170 – 61 = 109 mm
\ h2 =
R3 r r
b2 ln 2 t1 ln 3
"# – R 2
A ! r1 r2 $
As b2 = 100 mm and t1 = 20 mm,
12616 100 ln 220 20 ln 370 "# – (261)

3
\
200 220 $
2 2
5000 !
h =
= 3555.91 [100 ´ 0.0953 + 20 ´ 0.519] – 68121

= 2677.16 mm2
Therefore, Eq. (6.13) will give compressive stress and Eq. (6.12) give tensile stress.
Stress at point A is:
sA = –
W M R2 y1 "#

A AR
1 2
h !
R y1 #$
120 10 3 120 10 3 261 (261) 2 61 "#
=–
5000

5000 261
1
!
2677.16 261 61 #$
= –24 – 162.26 = – 186.25 MPa (Compressive)
Stress at point B is:
sB = –
W M R2 y "#
1 2
R y #$
2
A AR h ! 2
120 10 3 120 10 3 261 (261) 2 109 "#

=–
5000

5000 261
1
!
2677.16 261 109 #$
= –179.90 MPa (Tensile)
EXAMPLE 6.3
Figure 6.9 shows a C frame subjected to a load of 100 kN. Determine the stresses at A and B.
A1 x1 A2 x 2 A3 x3
Solution: y1 =
A1 A2 A3
120 20 10 20 140 90 100 20 170
=
120 20 20 140 100 20
= 85.55 mm
y2 = 180 – 85.55 = 94.45 mm
Fig. 6.9
Area of cross-section for I-section = 120 ´ 20 + 20 ´ 140 + 100 ´ 20 = 7200 mm2

As per the notation shown in Figure 6.4.
R1 = 150 mm, R2 = 170, R3 = 170 + 140 = 310 mm, R4 = 150 + 180 = 330 mm,
R = 150 + 85.55 = 235.55 mm
R3 R R R
b ln 2 t ln 3 b1 ln 4
"# – R
h2 =
! $
2
Now,
A 2 R1 3 R2 R3
(235.55)3 170
20 ln
310
100 ln
330 "# – (235.55)
! $
2
= 120 ln
7200 150 170 310
= 1815.16 [120 ´ 0.125 + 20 ´ 0.6007 + 100 ´ 0.0625] – 55483.80
= 1815.16 [33.264] – 55483.80 = 4895.68 mm2
Therefore, Eq. (6.13) will give compressive stress and Eq. (6.12) gives tensile stress.
sA = –
W M
R2 y1 "#

A AR
1 2
!
h R y1 #$
100 10 3 100 10 3 235.55
(235.55)2 85.55 "#
=–
7200

7200

235.55
1
!
4895.68 235.55 85.55 #$
= –13.88 – 75.88 = –89.77 MPa (Compressive)
sB = –
W M
R2 y "#
1 2
R y #$
2
A AR h! 2
100 10 3 100 10 3 235.55

(235.55)2 94.45 "#
=–
7200

7200

235.55
1
!
4895.68 235.55 94.45 #$
= –45.05 MPa (Tensile)
EXAMPLE 6.4
A curved member shown in Fig. 6.10 has a solid circular cross-section 0.10 m in diameter. If a
maximum tensile and compressive stress in the member are not to exceed 150 MPa and 200 MPa,
respectively, determine the value of load P that can safely be carried by the member. (AMIE, 1996)
P
0.15 m
0.05 m
1
2
D = 0.10 m
R = 0.10 m
Fig. 6.10
Solution: Bending moment M = P (0.15 + 0.1) = 0.25P N-m

Area of cross-section is given by
Q
A= ´ (0.10)2 = 7.854 ´ 10–3 m2
4
D2 1 D4
Then h2 = +…
16 128 R 2
(0.10)2 1 (0.10)4
= = 7.031 ´ 10–4 m2
16 128 (0.10)2
Bending stress at point 1 is:
s1 = –
P M R2 y "#

A AR
1 2
!
h Ry #$ [\ tension]
1 (0.1) 0.05 "#

2
P P (0.25)
0.1 ! (7.031 10 ) 0.10 0.05 #$
150 ´ 106 = –
7.854 10 3 7.854 10 3 4
= –127.32P + 318.31P ´ 5.74 = 1699.78P

150 10 6
P= = 88.25 kN (i)
1699.78
Bending stress at point 2 is:
s2 = –
P M R2 y "#

A AR
1 2
h ! R y #$ [\ compression]
1 (0.1) 0.05 "#

2
P P (0.25)
0.1 ! (7.031 10 ) 0.10 0.05 #$
200 ´ 106 = –
7.854 10 3 7.854 10 3 4
= –127.32P – 318.31P ´ 13.22 = –4335.38P

200 10 6
P= = 46.13 kN [compression] (ii)
4335.38
Comparing Eqs. (i) and (ii), the safe load P will be lesser of these.
EXAMPLE 6.5
Determine the ratio of maximum and minimum value of stresses for a curved bar of rectangular
section in pure bending. Radius of curvature is 8 cm and depth of beam is 6 cm. Locate the neutral
axis. (UPTU – 2001–02)
D
Solution: Given R = 8 cm, D = 6 cm, d1 = d2 = = 3 cm
2
R3
2R D – R
h2 =

2
Then ln
D 2R D
8 3
16 6 – 8 = 3.28 cm
ln
6 16 6
2 2
=
Location of neutral axis,

Rh 2
y=–
R2 h 2
8 3.28
=– = –0.39 cm
64 3.28
"#
! #$
M R2 d1
Maximum stress smax = 1 2
AR h R d1
M R d "
#
2
smin
h R d #$
1 2
AR !
Minimum stress = 2
2
64 3
T max
1 10.707
3.28 8 3
64 3
Now, = =
T min
1
3.28 11
6.32
\ smax = 1.69smin
EXAMPLE 6.6
A curved bar of square section 3 cm, sides and mean radius of curvature 4.5 cm, is initially
unstressed. If a bending moment of 300 N-m is applied to the bar to straighten it, find the stresses
at inner and outer faces.
D
Solution: Given R = 4.5 cm, d1 = d2 = = 1.5 cm, M = 3 ´ 104 cm
2
R3
2R D
Then h2 =
D
ln

2R D – R2
(4.5)3 – (4.5) = 0.803 cm

12

2 2
= ln
3 6
M R d "
#
2
smax =
h R d #$
1 1
AR !
Now, 2
1
3 10 (4.5) 1.5 "

#
4 2
0.803 4.5 1.5 #$

1
9 4.5 !
=
= –86 MPa
smin =
M R2 d2 "#
and
AR
1 2
! h R d2 #$
3 10 4
(4.5)2 1.5 "#
=
9 4.5
1
!
0.803 4.5 1.5 #$
= 54.10 MPa
EXAMPLE 6.7
A curved beam of rectangular cross-section is subjected to pure bending with couple of 400 N-m.
The beam has width 20 mm, depth of 40 mm and is curved in a plane parallel to the depth. The mean
radius of curvature is 5 cm. Find the position of neutral axis and the ratio of maximum to the
minimum stress.
Solution: Area of cross-section A = 2 ´ 4 = 8 cm2

D
d1 = = 2 cm
2
R3
2R D
Then h2 =
D
ln

2R D – R2
(5) 3
2 54
=
4
ln

2 54 – (5)2 = 1.478 cm2

Rh 2
y=–
R2 h 2
5 1.478
=– = –0.279 cm
25 1.478
Bending stress at the inside face,
s1 =
M R2 d1 "#
AR
1 2
! h R d1 #$
4 10 4 25 2 "# = 102.8 MPa
=
85 !
1
1.478 5 2 #$
Bending stress at the outside face,
s2 =
M R2 d2 "#
AR
1 2
! h R d2 #$
4 10 4 25 2 "#
=
85 !
1
1.478 5 2 #$ = 58.3 MPa
T max T
Thus, = 1 = 1.76
T min T2
EXAMPLE 6.8
A curved beam trapezoidal in cross-section as shown in Fig. 6.11 30 mm
is subjected to pure bending with couple of 400 N-m. The mean
radius of curvature is 50 mm. Find the position of the neutral axis
and the ratio of the maximum to the minimum stress.
40 mm
Solution: Given C = 20 mm, B = 30 mm, d = 40 mm, R = 50 mm

d B 2C
Then d1 =

3 BC
40 30 40
=
3 30 20
= 18.67 mm 20 mm
and d2 = d – d1 Fig. 6.11

= 40 – 18.67 = 21.33 mm
Area of cross-section is:
B C ´ d
A=
2
=
30 20 ´ 40 = 1000 mm
2
2
R d2
BC R d2 "#
Thus, h2 =
R3
A !
C lnR d1

d
( R d2 )ln
R d1
( B C) – R 2
#$
(50 ) 50 21.33 30 20 (50 21.33) ln 50 21.33 (30 20)"# – (50)
20 ln
3
50 18.67 40 50 18.67 #$
2
1000 !
=
\ h2 = 140 mm2
smax =
M
R2 d1 "#

Now,
AR
1 2
!
h R d1
#$
400 10 50 18.67 "
# = 77.1 MPa
3 2
1000 50 ! 140 50 18.67 #$

= 1
M R d "
#
2
smin
h R d #$
1 2
AR !
and = 2
2
400 10 (50) 21.33 "

# = 50.7 MPa
3 2
140 50 21.33 #$
1
1000 50 !
=
T max 77.1
\ = = 1.52
T min 50.7
Rh 2
y=–
R2 h2
50 140
=– = –2.65 mm
2500 140
EXAMPLE 6.9
A central horizontal section of hook shown in Fig. 6.12 is a symmetrical trapezium 50 mm deep, the
inner width being 60 mm and outer width being 30 mm. Calculate the extreme intensities of stress,
when the hook carries a load of 30 kN, the load line passing 40 mm from the inside edge of section
and the centre of curvature being in the load line.
(UPTU 2002–03)
Solution: Given C = 30 mm, B = 60 mm, d = 50 mm

Area of cross-section is given as:
60 30 ´ 50 = 2250 mm
2
2
A=
d B 2C
=
3 BC
Then d1
60 mm
30 mm
A B
40 mm
50 mm
30 kN
Fig. 6.12

50 60 60
=

3 60 30 = 22.22 mm
and d2 = d – d1
= 50 – 22.22 = 27.78
\ Mean radius R = 40 + 22.22 = 62.22
R d2
BC R d2 "#
Now, h2 =
R3
A !
C lnR d1

d
( R d2 )ln
R d1
( B C) – R 2
#$
(62.22 ) 62.22 27.78 60 30 (62.22 27.78)
30 ln
3
=
2250 ! 62.22 22.22 50
62.22 27.78 (60 30)"# – (62.22)
ln
62.22 22.22 #$
2
= 107.055 [30 ´ 0.811 + 54 ´ 0.811 – 30] – 3871.33 = 210.03 mm2

P
Direct stress sd =
A
30 10 3
= = 13.33 MPa
2250
Bending stress at A,
sA =
M R2 y "#
AR
1 2
! h R y #$
M R 2
d "#
sA = 1
R d #$
2
AR !
or 2
h 2
30 10 3 62 .22 62.22 1 6 27.78 "#

2
=
2250 62.22
1
!
210.03 62.22 27.78 #$
= 89.186 (Compressive)
So the resultant stress at A is given by
(sr)A = sd + sA
= 13.33 (Tensile) – 89.186(Compressive)
(sr)A = 75.86 MPa
Bending stress at B,
sB =
M
R2 d1 "#
AR
1 2
!
h R d1 #$
30 10 3 62.22
(62.22 ) 2 22.22 "# = 123.18 MPa
=
2250

62.22
1
!
210.03 62.22 22.22 #$
So the resultant stress at B is given as:
(sr)B = sd + sB
= 13.33 + 123.18 = 136.51 MPa (Tensile)
6.5 STRESSES IN A RING

Consider a circular ring loaded as shown in Fig. 6.13. Let M2 be the bending moment at any section
x1 – x2 inclined at angle q with the line of action of the applied load W. The portion x1 DFx2 of the
ring is in equilibrium under the action of M1 at DF, pull W/2 at DF and the moment M2 at
x1 – x2 along with pull T at x1 – x2. We get
W
M2 = M1 + R(1 – sinq) (6.21)
2
Also from Eq. (6.7)
1 1 Ah
M2 = E(1 + e c¢ ) ´
R R
2
(6.22)
1
Comparing Eqs. (6.21) and (6.22), we get

1 1 Ah W
E(1 + e c¢ ) ´
R R R(1 – sinq)
2
= M1 + (6.23)
1 2
Multiplying both sides by Rdq and integrating from 0 to p /2, we have
Q /2
1 1
(1 + e ¢ ) Ah
Q /2 Q /2
W 2
R R R dq = M1R dq + R (1 – sinq )dq
2
E Ô c Ô Ô
0 1 0 0
2
W
H
J W1 x2
K
M2
x1
R
q
B C D E F
A
M1
R sin q
q
W/2 W/2
L
M
N
W1
W
Fig. 6.13 Closed ring.
Q /2 Q /2 Q /2 Q /2
R (1 F c) 2 W 2
or E Ô Ah dq – E Ô (1 + e c¢ ) Ah2 dq = Ô M1R dq + Ô R (1 – sinq )dq
0
R1 0
2
0 0
Now, R1 = R(1 + e c¢ )
Q /2
R (1 F c ) Q
\ Ô dq =
0
R1 2
\
Q EAh 2 – Q EAh 2(1 + e ¢ ) = Q M R + WR 2 Q 1
c 1

2 2 2 2 2
or
Q Q WR2 Q
\ –
2
EAh2 e c¢ =
2
M1R +
2 2
1
(6.24)
W
Now, W1 = sinq (6.25)
2
\

EA F c (1 F c )
%& 1 1 () h "# = 2 W
sinq
! ' R R* R $
1 2
(6.26)
From Eq. (6.23), we have
E(1 + e c¢ )
%& 1 1 () Ah 2
M1 W
(1 – sinq )
' R R* R
=
1 R 2
Substituting in Eq. (6.26), we get

W M W W M1
EAe c¢ = sin q + 1 (1 – sinq ) =
2 R 2 2 R
W M
or e c¢ = 1 (6.27)
2 EA EAR
Putting in Eq. (6.24), we get

R2 "#
! #$
WR 2
M1 = 1 (6.28)
2 Q R2 h 2

R2 "#
!
WR 2
sin R
#$
M2 = (6.29)
2 Q R2 h2
M2 will be maximum at q = 0° and q = 180°.

WR 3
\ Mmax = (6.30)
Q ( R2 h 2 )
M2 will be zero, then
2 R2
sinq = (6.31)
Q ( R2 h 2 )
Thus, the bending moment and bending stress are zero at four points, one in each quadrant.
Substituting the value of M1 in Eq. (6.27) from (6.28), we get
e c¢ =
W
R2 "#
! $
(6.32)
AE Q ( R 2 h 2 )
1 1 y
e = e c¢ + (1 + e c¢ )
R R 1 y
1
R
and s = Ee
1 1 =
(1 + e c¢ ) R R
1 EAh
M1
2

WR
2 Ah 2 E
(1 – sinq)
%& M WR (1 sin R )() Ry

\
' EAh 2 Ah E
e = e c¢
* R y
1
2 2
W %K& R (K) %K& WR 2 R 1"# 1 WR (1 sin R )(K) Ry

2 2
AE 'KQ ( R h ) *K K' 2 ! Q R h #$ EAh 2 Ah E K* R y

= 2 2 2 2 2 2
Now, s = Ee
"# %K& 2 R 1"# WR (1 sin R )(K) Ry
K* R y
W R2 WR 2

=
!
A Q (R h )
2 2
#$ K'
2 Ah 2 ! Q ( R h ) #$ 2 Ah
2 2 2
W "# %K& 2 R sin R )(K) Ry "#

K* R y #$
2 2 2
R R

=
A ! Q (R h ) 2h
2 2 2
#$ !K' Q ( R h )
2 2
W K% 2 R sin R K() Ry "#

&
2 2 2
R R
=
A ! Q (R h ) 2h
2
2 2
K' Q (R h )
2 2
K* R y #$ (6.33)
W sin R
Then Direct stress sd = (6.34)
2A
and Resultant stress sr = sd ± s
(i) On a section taken along the line of action of W, q = 0° and the stresses become:
(a) At outside of ring,
1 R y "#
! h R y
R2 2

W
sr =
#$
2
QA R 2 h 2 2
2
and is tensile in nature.

(b) At inside of ring,
R y 1"#
! h R y #$
R2 2

W
sr = 1
QA R 2 h 2 2
1
and is compressive in nature.

(ii) On a section perpendicular to the line of action of W, q = 90°, and the stresses become:
(a) At outside of ring,
W R2

R2 2 R2
1
y2 K%& K() "# W
sr =
!
A Q ( R h ) 2h Q ( R h )
2 2 2 2 2 R y2 K' K* #$ 2 A
and is compressive in nature.
(b) At inside of ring,

W R2 2 R2 K%&

y1

R2

W K() "#
sr =
!
A 2h Q (R h )
2 2 2
K'1
R y1 Q (R h )
2 2 2A K* #$
and is tensile in nature.
EXAMPLE 6.10
A steel ring of 22 cm mean diameter has a rectangular cross-section 5 cm in the radial direction and
3 cm perpendicular to the radial direction. If the maximum tensile stress is limited to 150 MPa,
determine the tensile load the ring can carry.
Solution: Area of cross-section is:

A = 5 ´ 3 = 15 cm2
R3
2R D – R
h2 =

2
Then ln
D 2R D
113 22 5 – (11)
ln
22 5
2
= = 266.2 ln (1.5882) –121
5
= 2.144 cm2
The maximum tensile stress occurs at q = 0° on the outside of the ring.
1 R y "#
! h R y #$
R2 2

W
s= 2
QA R 2 h 2 2
2
4
W 10 È 121 ØË 121 È 2.5 ØÛ
or 150 ´ 106 = Ì1 Ü
Q 15 ÉÊ 121 2.144 ÙÚ Í 2.144 ÉÊ 11 2.5 ÙÚ Ý
or 150 ´ 106 = 2.3889 ´ 103 W
or W = 62.79 ´ 103 = 62.79 kN
EXAMPLE 6.11
A ring made of steel bar of 2.5 cm diameter carries a pull of 15 kN. Calculate the maximum tensile
and compressive stresses in the material of ring. The mean radius of the ring is 15 cm.
(UPTU 2003)
D2 1 D4
Solution: h2 = +…
16 128 R 2
(2.5)2 1 (2.5)4
= = 0.392 cm2
16 128 (15)2
Q
Area of cross-section = (2.5)2 = 4.909 cm2 = 4.91 cm2
4

R2 R2 y "#
!
W
sD = 1 2
R y #$
2
Now,
QA R h
2 2
h 2
Given R = 15 cm, h2 = 0.392 cm2, y2 = 2.5/2 = 1.25 cm
15 10 3
225 225
1.25 "#
=
Q 4.91
10 4

225 0.392
1
!
0.392 15 1.25 #$
15 10 7 225
=

Q 4.91 225.392 ´ [1 + 44.152]
15 kN
D
C
Mean radius
= 15 cm
2.5 cm A B
15 kN
Fig. 6.14
15 10 7 225 45.152
=
Q 4.91 225.392
= 43.83 ´ 107 Pa = 438.3 MPa (Tensile)
R y 1"#
! h R y #$
R2 2

W
sC = 1
QA R h 2
2 2
1
15 10 3 225 225 1.25 1 "#

=
Q 4.91
´ 10
225.392 ! 0.392 13.75 $
4
15 10 7 225
= ´ 51.18
Q 4.91 225.392
= 49.68 ´ 107 Pa = 496.8 MPa (Compressive)
%K& (K) y R "# W
*K R y Q ( R h ) #$ 2 A
W R2 2 R2 2
sA = – 1
'K
1
!
A 2h Q (R2 h 2 )
2
1
2 2
15 10 3 10 4 Ë 225 Î 2 225 Þ È 1.25 Ø 225 Û 15 10 7

=– Ì Ï 1ß É Ù Ü
4.91 Í 2 0.392 Ð Q (225 0.392) à Ê 13.75 Ú Q (225.392) Ý 2 4.91
15 10 7 15 10 7
=– [–9.51 – 0.318] +
4.91 2 4.91
= (300.24 + 15.27) ´ 106 Pa = 315.51 MPa (Tensile)
W Ë R2 R2 È 2 R2 ØÈ y ØÛ W
and sB = Ì É 1Ù
É
2
Ù
Ü
ÌÍ Q ( R 2h 2 Ê Q ( R 2 h 2)
2 2
A h ) Ú Ê R y2 Ú ÜÝ 2A
15 10 7 Ë 225 225 È 2 225 Ø È 1.25 Ø Û 15 10 7

= Ì 1Ù É ÙÜ
4.91 Í Q 225.392 2 0.392 ÉÊ Q 225.392 Ú Ê 16.25 Ú Ý 2 4.91
15 10 7 15 10 7
= [0.31776 – 8.0465] +
4.91 2 4.91
= (– 236.11 + 15.27) ´ 106 = – 220.84 ´ 106 Pa
= 220.84 MPa (Compressive)
Maximum tensile stress = 438.3 MPa
Maximum compressive stress = 496.8 MPa
6.6 STRESSES IN A CHAIN LINK

Consider a chain link as shown in Fig. 6.15. Let R be the mean
radius of the semicircular ends and ‘a’ be the length of the straight
sides. Consider the equilibrium of the portion x1 CD x2 of the link.
Taking moment about x1x2 section
WR
M2 = M1 + (1 – sin q ) (6.35)
2
1 1 Ah
Also from Eq. (6.7), M2 = E (1 + e c¢ ) R R
1
2
(6.36)
Hence by comparing Eqs. (6.35) and (6.36), we get
1 1 Ah
E(1 + e c¢ ) R R
1
2
= M1 +
WR
2
(1 – sin q) (6.37) Fig. 6.15 Chain link.
Multiplying both sides by Rdq and integrate from 0 to p/2,
E I0
Q /2
(1 + e c¢ )Ah 2
R
R1
dq – E I
0
Q /2
(1 + e c¢ ) ´ Ah2 dq = I
0
Q /2
M1R dq + I Q /2
o
WR 2
2
(1 – sinq )dq (a)
M1 a / 2
Slope of the tangent at L =
EI
\
(1 F c )
Hence, from Eqs. (a) and (b), we get

R1 I
dq =
0
Q M1a
Q /2

2 2 EI
R (b)
Q M a Q Q WR 2 Q
EAh2
2 2 EI – E(1 + e c¢ )Ah2 1
1
or = M1 R +
2 2 2 2
Q R Aah 2
WR 2 Q
Q
or M1 2 2 I =
2
1
2
EAh 2e c¢
2 (6.38)

1 W M1
Now, from Eq. (6.27) e c¢ =
EA 2

R (6.39)
Substituting Eq. (6.39) in (6.38), we get

Q R Aah 2
Qh
2 = WR2 Q Q
M1
2 2I 2 R 2
1
2
Wh 2
4
Now, I = Ak2
where k is radius of gyration.
WR 2
1
Q Q Wh 2
2 2 4
Then M1 =
Q R ah Q h 2
2
2 2k 2 2 R
R 2
R2 h 2
W Q
2

2
M1 = (6.40)
h2 ah 2
R 2
Qk R
È R2 R2 h2 Ø
É Ù
Ê Q 2 2Ú WR
and M2 = W 2 2
+ (1 – sinq ) (6.41)
ah h 2
R
Q k2 R
Substituting Eq. (6.40) in Eq. (6.39), we get

W R2 R2 h 2 "#
2 Q
#
##
1 W 2 2
e c¢ = (6.42)
EA 2 ah 2 h 2
!
R 2
Qk R #$
WR 2 R2 "# Ry W sin R
$ R y 2A
\ From Eq. (6.4), s = Ee c¢ + sin R
!
2 Q
(6.43)
2 Ah ( R h2)
2
EXAMPLE 6.12
A chain link (see Fig. 6.16) is subjected to a pull of 20 kN. It is composed of steel 2.5 cm diameter
and has a mean radius of 3 cm. Its semicircular ends are connected by straight pieces 7.5 cm long.
Estimate maximum compressive stress in the link and tensile stress at the same section.
Solution: Here
Q
A= ´ (2.5)2 = 4.91 cm2
4
20 kN
D2 D4
2
h =
16 128 R 2
3 cm radius
(2 .5 ) 2 (2 .5 ) 4 q
= =
16 128 9
0.4245 cm2
R
7.5 cm
2
R2 h2
W Q
2

2 2.5 cm
M1 =
h2 a h2
R
k 2Q R
Now, radius of gyration is:
I
Qd 4
k= = 64 = d
A Q d2 4 20 kN
4
Fig. 6.16
or k = 0.625 cm
\ k2 = 0.3905 cm2
9 9 0.4245 10
Q 2 2
2
20 10 3
Thus, M1 =
0.4245 7.5 0.4245
3
Q 0.3905 3
200 (2.8648 4.5 0.2122 )
=
3 2.59 0.1415
200 ( 1.8474)
= = – 64.46 N-m
5.7315
1 W M1
e0 =
EA 2

R
10 4 È 20 10 3 64.46 Ø
= É Ù
E 4.91 Ê 2 3 10 2 Ú
15.99 10 6
=
E
2R sin R "# Ry W sin R
#$ R y 2A
2
WR
s = Ee 0 +
2 Ah 2
! Q (R h )
2 2
Compressive stress is maximum at q = 0° on the inside part of the link,

\ y = –1.25 cm, q = 0°
20 10 3 3 108 29 "# 3 1.25

$ 1.75
s = 15.99 ´ 106 +
!
and
2 4.91 0.4245 Q 9.4245
15.99 + (–187.508) = –171.52 MPa
Tensile stress at this location (on the outside surface),
2 R "# Ry

2
WR
2 Ah ! Q ( R h ) #$ R y
2
s = 15.99 + 2 2 2
2
20 10 3 10 2 9 " 3 1.25
#
3 8
2 4.91 0.4245 ! Q 9.4245 $ 4.25

= 15.99 +
= 93.19 MPa
EXERCISES
6.1 A crane hook is of trapezoidal cross-section having inner side 80 mm, outer side 300 mm
and depth 120 mm. The radius of curvature of the inner side is 80 mm. If a load of 100 kN
is applied to the hook passing through the centre of curvature, determine the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses at the critical cross-section.
[Ans. 141.9 MPa, 74.8 MPa]
6.2 Determine the load carrying capacity of a hook of rectangular cross-section. The thickness
of the hook is 75 mm, the radius of the inner fibres is 150 mm, while that of the outer fibres
is 250 mm. The line of action of the forces passes at a distance of 75 mm from the inner
fibres. The allowable stress is 70 MPa. [Ans. 52.51 kN]
6.3 The section of a crane hook is a rectangle 6 cm ´ 4 cm. The centre of curvature of the section
is at a distance of 8 cm from the centroid of the section. A load of 15 kN is acting through
the centre of curvature. Determine the maximum and minimum bending stresses induced in
the hook. [Ans. 6.92 MPa, – 39.51 MPa]
6.4 A circular ring is subjected to a pull of 15 kN. The ring is of T-section as shown in
Fig. 6.17 and the internal radius is 10 cm. Determine the maximum and minimum stresses
in the ring. [Ans. 7.36 MPa, 5.26 MPa]
Fig. 6.17
6.5 A ring with a mean radius of curvature of 250 mm is subjected to a load of 2 kN as shown
in Fig. 6.18. The ring is made of circular section of 10 mm radius. Calculate the
circumferential stress on the inside of the fibre of the ring at A and B.
[Ans. sA = 12.30 MPa, sB = 9.71 MPa]
2 kN
B
Fig. 6.18
6.6 A ring is made of round steel bar 25 mm diameter and the mean radius of the ring is
150 mm. Calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the material of the ring
if it is subjected to a pull of 10 kN.
[Ans. 292.2 MN/m2 (Tensile), 331.2 MN/m2 (Comp)]
6.7 A ring is made of round steel bar 24 mm diameter and the mean diameter of the ring is
144 mm. Determine the greatest intensities of tensile and compressive stresses along a
diameter XX if the ring is subjected to pull of 12 kN along diameter YY.
[Ans. 160.2 MN/m2 (Tensile), 77.36 MN/m2 (Comp)]
6.8 A steel ring 24 cm mean diameter has a rectangular cross-section 6 cm in the radial direction
and 3.6 cm perpendicular to the radial direction. If the maximum tensile stress is limited to
144 MN/m2, determine the tensile load that the ring can carry. [Ans. 97.5 kN]
6.9 A chain link is subjected to a pull of 15 kN. It is composed of steel 2 cm diameter and has
a mean radius of 2.5 cm. Its semicircular ends are connected by straight pieces 2.5 cm long.
Estimate the maximum compressive stress in the link and the tensile stress at the same
section. [Ans. – 207.95 MPa, 113.23 MPa]
Chapter 7: Thin Cylinder and Sphere 225
7 Thin Cylinder and Sphere
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Many problems of practical importance are concerned with solids of revolution which are deformed
symmetrically with respect to the axis of revolution. The examples of such solids are circular
cylinders subjected to uniform internal and external pressures, spherical shells, rotating disc, etc.
In order to meet with several requirements, the fluids are stored under pressure in pressure
vessels or shells. The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as
in the case of steam boilers and air compressors.
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS

The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:
According to the dimensions: The pressure vessels according to their dimensions may be
classified as thin shell or thick shell. If the thickness of wall of the shell, t is less than 1/15 of the
diameter of the shell, d then it is called a thin shell. On the other hand, if the thickness of wall of
the shell is greater than 1/15 of the diameter of the shell then it is said to be a thick shell, i.e.,
t 1 d
£ or > 15
d 15 t
According to the end construction: The pressure vessels, according to the end construction may
be classified as open end or closed end. In case vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop
stress are induced by the fluid pressure, whereas in case of closed ends, longitudinal stress in addition
to circumferential stress are induced.
7.3 STRESSES IN A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL DUE TO

AN INTERNAL PRESSURE
The analyses of stresses induced in a thin cylindrical shell are made on the following assumptions:
1. The effect of curvature of the cylinder wall is neglected.
2. The tensile stresses are uniformly distributed over the section of the walls.
225
3. The effect of the restraining action of the heads at the end of the pressure vessel is neglected.
When a thin cylindrical shell is subjected to an internal pressure, it is likely to fail in the
following two ways:
(i) It may fail along the longitudinal section (i.e., circumferentially), as shown in Fig. 7.1(a).
(ii) It may fail across the transverse section (i.e., longitudinally) splitting the cylinder into
two cylindrical shells, as shown in Fig. 7.1(b).
When these cylinders are subjected to internal fluid pressure, the following three types of
stresses are developed:
(a) Hoop or circumferential stress: Hoop stress acts in a tangential direction to the circum-
ference of the shell.
(b) Longitudinal stress: Longitudinal stress acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the shell.
(c) Radial stress: Radial stress in case of thin shell are too small acting in radial direction and
can be neglected.
(a) Failure of cylindrical shell along (b) Failure of cylindrical shell along
the longitudinal section the transverse section
Fig. 7.1 Failure of cylindrical shell.
7.4 CIRCUMFERENTIAL OR HOOP STRESS

Consider a thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Figs. 7.2(a) and (b).
Tensile stress acting in a direction tangential to the circumference is called circumferential or hoop
stress. In other words, it is a tensile stress on longitudinal section.
Let P= Intensity of internal pressure
d= Internal diameter of the cylindrical shell
l= Length of the cylindrical shell
t= Thickness of the cylindrical shell
sq = Circumferential or hoop stress developed in the cylindrical shell.
We know that the total force acting on a longitudinal section (i.e., along the diameter XX) of the
shell,
= Intensity of pressure ´ Projected area
=P´d´l (7.1)
and the total resisting force acting on the cylinder walls
= sq ´ 2t ´ l (7.2)
Fig. 7.2 Circumferential or hoop stress.
From Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2), we have

sq ´ 2t ´ l = P ´ d ´ l
Pd
or sq =
2t
Pd
or t=
2T R
7.5 LONGITUDINAL STRESS

Consider a closed thin cylindrical shell subjected to an internal pressure as shown in Figs. 7.3(a)
and (b). Tensile stress acting in the direction of the axis is called longitudinal stress. In other words,
it is tensile stress acting on the transverse or circumferential section YY.
Let sL is the longitudinal stress. In this case, the total force acting on the transverse section (i.e.,
along YY)
= Intensity of pressure ´ Cross-sectional area
Q
=P´ (d) 2 (7.3)
4
and total resisting force = sL ´ p dt (7.4)
From Eqs. (7.3) and (7.4), we have
Q
sL ´ p dt = P ´ (d)2
4
Pd
\ sL =
4t
Pd
or t=
4T L
If hc is the efficiency of the circumferential joint then

Pd
t=
4T LI c
Fig. 7.3 The cylindrical shell.
From above, we see that the longitudinal stress is half of the circumferential or hoop stress.
Therefore, the design of a pressure vessel must be based on the maximum stress, i.e., hoop stress.
The state of stress on any element of a thin shell subjected to internal pressure is shown in Fig. 7.3(c).
EXAMPLE 7.1
A cylindrical vessel has inside diameter 1.2 m, thickness 20 mm and length 8 m. It is subjected to
internal pressure of 4.5 MPa. Compute: (a) Hoop stress, (b) Longitudinal stress, (c) Maximum shear
stress.
Solution: Here
Pd
(a) Hoop stress sq =
2t
4.5 1200
= = 135 MPa
2 20
TR
(b) Longitudinal stress sL =
2
= 67.5 MPa
TR T L
(c) Maximum shear stress =
2
135 67.5
= = 33.75 MPa
2
EXAMPLE 7.2
A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1.25 m contains a fluid at an internal pressure of 2 MPa.
Determine the maximum thickness of cylinder if
(a) The longitudinal stress is not to exceed 30 MPa.
(b) The circumferential stress is not to exceed 50 MPa.
Solution: Given
Internal diameter of cylinder d = 1.25 m
Internal pressure of fluid P = 2 MPa
Longitudinal stress sL = 30 MPa
Circumferential stress sq = 50 MPa
Pd
Circumferential stress sq =
2t
2 1250
or t= = 25 mm (i)
2 50
Pd
and Longitudinal stress sL =
4t
2 1250
or t= = 20.8 mm (ii)
4 30
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), it is clear that t should not be less than 25 mm.
EXAMPLE 7.3
A cylinder of thickness 15 mm has to withstand maximum internal pressure of 2 MPa. If the ultimate
tensile stress in the material of the cylinder is 300 MPa, factor of safety 3 and joint efficiency 80%,
determine the diameter of the cylinder.
Ultimate tensile stress
Solution: Allowable stress sa11 =
Factor of safety
300
= = 100 MPa
3
Pd
Hoop stress sq = = sa11
2 tI j
2T a11 tI j
or Diameter d =
P
2 100 15 0.8
= = 1200 mm
2
EXAMPLE 7.4
A water main 600 mm diameter contains water at a pressure head of 100 m. If the weight density
of water is 9810 N/m3. Find the thickness of the metal required for the water main. Given the
permissible stress as 40 MPa.
Solution: Pressure of water inside the water main is:

P = rgh
= 9810 ´ 100 N/m2 = 0.981 N/mm2
Pd
Hoop stress sq =
2t
0.981 600
\ Thickness t = = 7.3 mm
2 40
7.6 EFFECT OF INTERNAL PRESSURE ON THE DIMENSIONS OF A

THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL
We have
Pd
Hoop stress sq =
2t
Pd
Longitudinal stress sL =
4t
Then hoop or circumferential strain is:

TR O
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ eq = – TL (n = Poisson’s ratio) (7.5)
E E
Pd O Pd
= –
2 tE 4t E
Pd  O
= 1   (7.6)
2tE  2
Change in diameter Ed
Hoop strain eq = = (7.7)
Original diameter d
Equating the two values of eq given by Eqs. (7.6) and (7.7), we get
Ed Pd  O
= 1  2 
d 2tE  
Change in diameter is:
Pd 2  O
dd = 1   (7.8)
2tE  2
TL OTR
Longitudinal strain eL = – (7.9)
E E
Pd O Pd
= –
4tE 2tE
Pd 1 
= 2 O (7.10)
2tE  
Change in lengh
Longitudinal strain eL =
Original length
EL
= (7.11)
L
Equating the two values of eL given by Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11),
EL Pd  1 
=  O (7.12)
L 2tE  2 
PdL È 1 Ø
Change in length dL = É OÙ (7.13)
2tE Ê2 Ú
Change in volume
Volumetric strain eV =
Original volume
EV
= (7.14)
V
Also volumetric strain is given by

eV = 2 eq + eL (7.15)
2 Pd È OØ Pd È 1 Ø
= É1 + OÙ
2 Et Ê 2 ÙÚ 2Et ÉÊ 2 Ú
Substituting the values of eq and eL,

Pd È5 Ø
eV = É OÙ (7.16)
2 Et Ê4 Ú
So change in volume is:

d V = V(2eq + eL) (7.17a)
Pd È 5 Ø
= É OÙ V (7.17b)
Et Ê4 Ú
EXAMPLE 7.5
The air vessel of a torpedo is 530 mm external diameter and 10 mm thick, the length being 1830 mm.
Find a change in the external diameter and the length which changed with 10.5 MPa internal
pressure. Take E = 210 kN/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio n = 0.3.
Solution: Internal diameter = 510 mm
Pd
Circumferential stress sq =
2t
10.5 510
= = 267.75 MPa
2 10
TR
2
= 133.87 MPa
TR OT L
Circumferential strain eq = –
E E
1
= (T R OT L )
E
1
= (267.75 – 0.3 ´ 133.87) = 0.001084
210 10 3
Ed
Circumferential strain eq = = 0.001084
d
Change in external diameter d d = eq d
= 0.001084 ´ 530 = 0.5744 mm
TL OT R
Longitudinal strain eL = –
E E
1
= (T L OT R )
E
1
= (133.875 – 0.3 ´ 267.75) = 0.000255
210 10 3
Change in length d L = eLl
= 0.000255 ´ 1830 = 0.4667 mm
EXAMPLE 7.6
A cylindrical shell 900 mm long, 150 mm internal diameter, having thickness of metal as 8 mm, is
filled with a fluid at atmospheric pressure. If an additional 20000 mm3 of fluid is pumped into the
cylinder, find
(i) Pressure exerted by the fluid on the cylinder.
(ii) Hoop stress induced.
Take E = 200 GPa and n = 0.3.
Solution: Let the internal pressure be P. Then
Pd
Hoop stress sq =
2t
P 150
= = 9.375P MPa
2 8
TR
2
= 4.6875P MPa
TR OT L
Circumferential strain eq = –
E E
P
= (9.375 – 0.3 ´ 4.6875)
E
P
= 7.96875
E
1
Longitudinal strain eL = (T L OT R )
E
P
= (4.6875 – 0.3 ´ 9.375)
E
P
= 1.875
E
Volumetric strain eV = 2eq + eL

P
= (2 ´ 7.96875 + 1.875)
E
P
= 17.8125
E
Increase in volume d V = eVV = 20000 mm3
P Q
or 17.8125 ´ (150)2900 = 20000
200 10 3 4
(i) P = 14.12 MPa
Pd
(ii) Hoop stress sq =
2t
14.12 150
= = 132.4 MPa
28
EXAMPLE 7.7
A vertical steam boiler with 2 m internal diameter and 4 m high is constructed with 20 mm thick
plates for a working pressure of 10 kg/cm2. The end plates are flat. Calculate:
(i) The stress in the circumferential plates due to pressure on the end plates.
(ii) Stress in the circumferential plates due to resisting the bursting effect.
(iii) Increase in length, diameter and the volume.
Take passion’s ratio n = 0.3 and E = 2 ´ 106 kg/cm2.
Solution: (i) The stress in the plate due to the pressure to end plates will obviously be the
longitudinal stress.
Pd 1 2000
\ sL = =
4t 4 20
= 25 MPa
(ii) Circumferential stress sq = 2sL
= 50 MPa
TL OT R
(iii) Longitudinal strain eL = –
E E
TL
= (1 2O )
E
25
= (1 – 0.3 ´ 2)
200 10 3
25 0.4 EL
= =
200 10 3 L
25 0.4
Thus, increase in length dL = ´ 4000 = 0.2 mm
200 10 3
TR O
Circumferential strain eq = TL
E E
1
= (50 – 25 ´ 0.3)
200 10 3
42.5 Ed
= =
200 10 3 d
42.5
Increase in diameter dd = ´ 2000
200 10 3
= 0.425 mm
Volumetric strain eV = 2 eq + eL
2 42.5 25 0.4
= +
200 10 3
200 10 3
95 EV
= =
200 10 3 V
Increase in volume
95 Q
dV = (2000)24000
200 10 4 3
= 5969026.04 mm3 or 5.97 litres
EXAMPLE 7.8
A cylindrical shell 120 mm in diameter and 5 mm metal thickness is 840 mm long. It is filled with
incompressible fluid at atmospheric pressure. If an additional 10 cm3 fluid is pumped into the
cylinder, calculate the pressure exerted by the fluid on the wall of the cylinder. Take E = 200 GPa,
n = 0.3.
Solution: Due to additional 10 cm3 incompressible fluid, the volume of the cylinder is increased
by 10 cm3. Therefore,
d V = 10 cm3 = 104 mm3
Volume of the cylindrical shell is given by
Q
V= d 2l
4
Q
= (120)2 ´ 840 = 9500 ´ 103 mm3
4
EV Pd È 5 Ø
= 2O Ù
V 2tE ÉÊ 2 Ú
10 4 P 120
= (2.5 – 2 ´ 0.3)
9500 10 3
2 5 200 10 3
or P = 9.23 MPa
7.7 THE SPHERICAL SHELLS SUBJECTED TO AN INTERNAL

PRESSURE
Figure 7.4 shows a thin spherical shell of internal diameter d and thickness t and subjected to an
internal fluid pressure P. The fluid inside the shell has a tendency to split the shell into two
hemispheres along XX axis.
Fig. 7.4 Thin spherical shell.
The force F which has a tendency to split the shell is given as:
Q
F=P´ d2
4
The area resisting this force is:
A = p dt
Hoop or circumferential stress sq induced in the material of the shell is given by
Force F
sq =
Area resisting the force F
Q
P d2
= 4
Q dt
Pd
=
4t
The stress sq is tensile in nature. The fluid inside the shell is also having tendency to split the
shell into two hemispheres along YY axis. Then it can be shown that the tensile hoop stress will also
Pd
be equal to . Let this stress be sL.
4t
Pd
\ sL =
4t
The stress sL will be at right angles to sq.
7.8 CHANGE IN DIMENSIONS OF THIN SPHERICAL SHELL DUE

TO AN INTERNAL PRESSURE
The stress sq and sL are acting at right angles to each other and equal. Strain in any one direction,
TR O
e= – TL
E E
TR OT R ' T Pd
=
E
–
E R =T L =
4t
Pd
= (1 O ) (7.18)
4tE
We know that strain in any direction,
Ed
e = (7.19)
d
Equating the two values of e given by Eqs. (7.18) and (7.19),
Ed Pd
= (1 O ) (7.20)
d 4 tE
EV
Volumetric strain: eV = = 3e
V
V = Original volume
Substituting the value from Eq. (7.20), we get
EV 3Pd
= (1 O ) (7.21)
V 4tE
EXAMPLE 7.9
A spherical vessel 1.5 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 MPa. Find the thickness
of plate required if maximum stress is not to exceed 60 MPa and joint efficiency is 80%.
Pd
Solution: Circumferential stress sq =
4tI j
Pd
Thickness t =
4T R I j
2 1.5 10 3
= = 15.6 mm
4 60 0.8
EXAMPLE 7.10
A spherical shell is of 60 cm diameter and of 6 mm wall thickness. If the tensile stress is limited
to 600 kg/cm2, calculate the safe working pressure and its volume under the pressure. Take
E = 2 ´ 106 kg/cm2, n = 0.25.
Solution: Hoop stress sq = 60 MPa

T R 4t
or P=
d
60 4 6
= = 2.4 MPa
600
TR O
Circumferential strain eq = – TR
E E
TR
= (1 O )
E
Volumetric strain eV = 3eq
3T R
= (1 O )
E
3 60
= (1 0.25) = 6.75 ´ 10– 4
200 10 3
EV
eV = = 6.75 ´ 10– 4
V
4 600 3
dV =
3
Q
2 ´ 6.75 ´ 10– 4
= 76340.7 mm3
EXAMPLE 7.11
A thin spherical shell 1.5 m diameter with its wall of 1.25 cm thickness is filled with a fluid at
atmospheric pressure. What intensity of pressure will develop in it if 160 cu. cm of fluid is pumped
into it? Also calculate the hoop stress at that pressure and the increase in diameter. Take E = 2 ´
106 kg/cm2, n = 0.3.
Solution: Increase in volume = 160 cm3

4 3
Now, V= pr
3
4
= p (75)3 cm3
3
EV
Volumetric strain eV =
V
160
3eq =
V
160 Ed
eq = =
3V d
160 150
Increase in diameter dd =
4
3 Q (75) 3
3
= 0.00452 cm
TR
Hoop strain eq = (1 O )
E
TR EV
= (1 0.3) =
2 10 6
V
7T R 160
=
20 10 6 4 Q (75) 3 3
3
\ sq = 86.2 kg/cm2
Pd
Hoop stress sq =
4t
4tT R
P=
d
4 1.25 86.2
= = 2.87 kg/cm2
150
EXAMPLE 7.12
The thickness of thin cylindrical shell is reduced by 3 mm because of corrosion. As the effect of this
reduction the hoops stress is increased by 12% under the same internal pressure. Find the original
thickness of the shell.
Solution: Let t = Original thickness of the shell

(t – 3) = Reduced thickness due to corrosion
Pd
Then Hoop stress before corrosion =
2t
Pd
Hoop stress after corrosion =
2 (t 3)
But given that the hoop stress increases by 12% after corrosion. Therefore,
Pd Pd
= 1.12
2 (t 3) 2t
t = 1.12(t – 3)
t = 28 mm
EXERCISES
7.1 Derive the expressions for change in volume of a thin spherical shell and cylindrical shells.
Ë EV È Pd Ø EV Pd Û
Ì Ans. = 3É (1 O )Ù , = (5 4O ) Ü
Í V Ê 4tE Ú V 4tE Ý
7.2 A thin cylindrical shell of diameter 1200 mm is subjected to a fluid pressure of 4 MPa. What
should be the thickness of the wall if the maximum stress is not to exceed 100 MPa. Hence
what will be the change in volume per metre length. Take, E = 200 GPa, n = 0.3.
[Ans. d V = (1.074 ´ 106) mm3]
7.3 A thin spherical shell of diameter 0.5 m and thickness 4 mm is full of fluid under pressure.
The change in volume is observed to be 2 ´ 104 mm3. Calculate the internal fluid pressure
and hoop stress developed. Take, E = 200 GPa, n = 0.33. [Ans. sq = 30.31 MPa]
7.4 A thin cylindrical shell 3 m long is of 1 m diameter, 10 mm thick and subjected to an internal
pressure of 2 MPa. Determine the change in length, diameter and volume. Take,
E = 200 GPa, n = 0.25.
[Ans. d L = 0.375 mm, dd = 0.4375 mm, d V = 2.356 ´ 106 mm3, P = 5.1 MPa]
7.5 A thin cylindrical shell of length 2 m and having an internal volume of 2.26 m3 is subjected
to an internal pressure of 3 N/mm2. If the maximum permissible tensile stress in the material
is 180 MPa, evaluate the change in volume of the cylinder.
[Ans. d V = 38.7 ´ 105 mm3]
7.6 A cylindrical vessel of 3 m diameter is used for processing rubber and is 10 m long. If the
steel plates have the thickness of 24 mm, and vessel operates at 800 kPa internal pressure,
determine the total elongation increase in diameter and change in volume. Take, E =
200 GPa, n = 0.3. [Ans. d L = 0.492 mm, dd = 0.62 mm, d V = 32 ´ 106 mm3]
7.7 A thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends is subjected to internal pressure of 2 MPa.
The length of the cylindrical portion is 1 m and the diameter of both cylindrical and spherical
portions is 500 mm. Thickness of the metal is 16 mm. Find the change in volume. Take, E
= 210 GPa, n = 0.3.
[Ans. d Vl = 58187.5 mm3, d V2 = 10738 mm3, d V = 68925.5 mm3]
7.8 In a thin cylinder the longitudinal stress is 60 MPa, E = 200 GPa and n = 0.25. How much
is the volumetric strain?
Ans. EV
= 1.2 10 3
"#
! V $
7.9 In a thin cylinder the hoop strain is 3.5 times the longitudinal strain. How much is the
Poissons ratio? [Ans. n = 0.25]
7.10 A steel pipe 900 mm diameter has to carry water under a head of 200 m. If the permissible
tensile stress is 90 MPa. Determine the minimum value of thickness required for the pipe.
[Ans. t = 9.8 mm]
Chapter 8: Thick and Compound Cylinder 241
8 Thick and Compound Cylinder
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Thick cylinders are cylindrical vessels, containing fluid under pressure whose wall thickness to
t 1 . Radial stress varies along the thickness which is
diameter is not smaller than 1
15 d 15
maximum at the inner radius and minimum at the outer radius. The variations of radial as well as
circumferential stresses across the thickness are obtained with the help of Lame’s theory.
8.2 LAME’S THEORY

Consider a thick cylinder of length l, internal radius a and external radius b subjected to internal and
external uniformly distributed pressure of intensities Pa and Pb, respectively as shown in Fig. 8.1(a).
The following assumptions are made in determining the distribution of stresses in the cylinder:
(i) The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
(ii) Plane transverse sections remain plane under the action of internal pressure.
(iii) The material is stressed within elastic limit as per Hooke’s Law.
(iv) All the fibres of the material are stressed independently without being constrained by the
adjacent fibres.
Let sr = Radial stress at any radius r
sq = Hoop stress at any radius r
sL = Longitudinal stress
a = Internal radius of thick cylinder
b = External radius of thick cylinder
r = Internal radius of elemental ring
r + dr = External radius of elemental ring
Pa = Pressure at internal radius of thick cylinder
Pb = Pressure at external radius of thick cylinder
241
1
We have from Hooke’s law ez = [sz – v(sq + sr)]
E
Since ez, E, sz and v are all constants, therefore,
sq + sr = Constant = 2A (say) (8.1)
Consider an annular ring of the cylinder between radii r and r + dr as shown in Fig. 5.1(b).
Let the radial stress sr and sr + dsr at internal and external radius of annular ring r and r + dr,
respectively.
Fig. 8.1 Thick cylinder under pressure.
Applying force equilibrium condition,

SFr = 0
i.e., forces in radial direction equated to zero, we get
 T r 'R
 T r + r 'r  (r + 'r ) R  T r r 'R  2T R . 'r = 0
  2
Simplifying we get after neglecting small terms,
T
T r . 'r 'R + r r 'r R  T R 'r 'R = 0
r
T r
or Tr + r  TR = 0
r
T r
TR = T r
r
In the limiting case, we have
dT r d
sq = sr + r = (rsr) (8.2)
dr dr
Substituting in Eq. (8.1), we obtain
d
(rsr) + sr = 2A
dr
dT r
or r = 2(A – sr)
dr
dT r 2( A T r )
or =
dr r
dT r 2dr
or =
A Tr r
I
Integrating, we get
or
dT r
ATr
=
2dr
r I
–ln(A – sr) = 2lnr – lnB
or ln(A – sr) = –2lnr + lnB
B
or ln(A – sr) = ln
r2
B
or A– sr =
r2
B
or sr = A – (8.3)
r2
where A and B are constants. Substituting Eq. (8.3) in Eq. (8.1), we get
B
sq + A – = 2A
r2
B
or sq = A + (8.4)
r2
Equations (8.3) and (8.4) are known as the Lame’s equations.
Constants A and B can be determined from the boundary conditions at r = a and r = b.
(i) At r = a, sr = –Pa
(ii) At r = b, sr = –Pb

B
– Pa = A –
a2
B
and – Pb = A –
b2
1 1
Now, Pa – Pb = B
a b 2 2
b a
= B
2 2
a b 2 2
a2 b2 (Pa Pb )
\ B=
b2 a2
B
Then A= – Pa
a2
b2 (Pa Pb )
= – Pa
b2 a2
b 2 Pa b 2 Pb b 2 Pa a 2 Pa
or A=
b2 a2
Pa a 2 Pb b 2
=
b 2 a2
Substituting the values of constants A and B in Eqs. (8.3) and (8.4), we get
Pa a 2 Pb b 2 a2b2 P P
sr =
b a
2 2
–
r 2 b a
a
2
b
2
(8.5)
Pa a 2 Pb b 2 a2b2 P P
and sq =
b2 a 2 r2
+a
2
b
2 b a (8.6)
Now consider the cross-section of a thick cylinder with closed ends subjected to an internal
pressure Pa and external pressure Pb. For horizontal equilibrium,
Pa pa2 – Pb p b2 = sL p (b2 – a2)
Pa a 2 Pb b 2
or sL = (8.7)
b2 a 2
Special cases
CASE I A cylinder subjected to internal pressure: In this case, Pb = 0 and Pa = P. Then Eqs. (8.5)
and (8.6) become
Pa 2 1 b 2
sq =
b2 a 2
r 2
(8.8)
Pa 2 1 b 2
and sr =
b2 a 2
r
2
(8.9)
These equations show that sr is always a compressive stress and sq is a tensile stress. Figure 8.2
shows the variation of radial and circumferential stress across the thickness of the cylinder. Hoop stress
is maximum at the inner radius of the cylinder.
At r =a
P (a 2 b 2 )
sq = (Tensile) (8.10)
b2 a2
P
and sr = (a2 – b2) (Compressive)
b2 a2
= –P
= Applied pressure
At r = b,
2 Pa 2
sq =
b2 a2
and sr =0
P
sq
sr
Fig. 8.2 Cylinder subjected to internal pressure.
CASE II A cylinder subjected to external pressure: In this case, Pa = 0 and Pb = P. Equations (8.5)
and (8.6) reduce to
Pb 2 1 a 2
sq = –
b a
2 2 r 2 (8.11)
Pb 2 1 a 2
sr = –
b2 a 2
r 2 (8.12)
These equations show that sr and sq are always a compressive stress. The variations of these
stresses across the thickness are shown in Fig. 8.3.
At r = a,
2 Pb 2
sq = – , sr = 0
b2 a2
At r = b,
P
sq = – (b2 + a2) (Compressive)
b a
2 2
P
sr = – (b2 – a 2) (Compressive)
b a2
2
= –P
= Applied pressure
P
a
b
sr
sq
Fig. 8.3 Cylinder subjected to external pressure.
EXAMPLE 8.1
A thick cylinder with internal radius 10 cm and external radius 16 cm is subjected to an internal fluid
pressure of 70 MPa. Draw the variation of hoop and radial stress in the cylinder wall. Also determine
the maximum shear stress in the cylinder wall.
Solution: Given a = 10 cm, b = 16 cm, Pa = 70 MPa

Pa a 2 1 b 2
Now, Hoop stress sq =
b2 a2
r 2
1 (160) "#
70(100) 2 2
=
(160) (100) !
2
r #$
2 2
25600 "#
= 44.87 1
! r $ 2
Hoop stresses in thick cylinder are tabulated as follow:

r (mm ) 100 120 140 160
T R (MPa ) 159.73 124.63 103.47 89.74
1 b
Pa a 2 2
Radial stress sr =
b a
2 r
2 2
70(100) 1 (160)
2 2 "#
=
(160) (100) !
2
r 2 2
#$
25600 "#
= 44.87 1
! r $ 2
Radial stresses in thick cylinder are tabulated as follows:

r (mm ) 100 120 140 160
T r (MPa ) 69.99 34.89 13.73 0
TR T r
\ Maximum shear stress t max =
2
159.73 69.99
= = 114.86 MPa
2
200
150
sq
100
sq , sr(MPa)
50
100 120 140 r (mm)

0
160
20
sr
40
60
80
Fig. 8.4 Stress distribution across the cylinder wall.

EXAMPLE 8.2
The cylinder of a hydraulic press has an internal diameter of 30 cm and is designed to withstand a
pressure of 10 MPa, without the material being stressed over 20 MPa. Determine the thickness and
stress from inner to outer radius of cylinder. Sketch a diagram showing the variation of radial and
hoop stress across the thickness of the wall of the cylinder.
Solution: Given sq = 20 MPa, a = 15 cm, Pa = 10 MPa (As maximum stress is given by sq)
As we know,
Pa a 2 1 b 2
Hoop stress sq =
b2 a2
r 2
The hoop stress is maximum at inner radius, therefore,
1 b
10 (150)2 2
20 = 2
b (150) 150

2 2
(150) b
2 2
2 150

or [b2 – (150)2] = 1 2
or b2 – (150)2 = 11250 + 0.5b2

or 0.5b2 = 33750
or b = 259.8 mm
Then Wall thickness t = b – a = 259.8 – 150 = 109.8 mm
Pa a 2 1 b 2
Now, Hoop stress sq =
b2 a 2
r 2
10(150) 2 1 67500

=
(259.8) (150)
2 2 r 2
67500 "#
sq = 5 1
or
! r $ 2
67500 "#
Radial stress s = 5 1
and r
! r $ 2
Hoop and radial stresses in cylinder are tabulated as follows:
r (mm ) 150 170 190 210 230 259.8

T R (MPa ) 20 16.67 14.34 12.65 1138
. 10
T r (MPa ) 10 6.67 4.34 2.65 138
. 0
20
sq, sr(MPa) 15 sq
10
5
r (mm)
0
150 170 190 210 230 250
–5 sr
–10
EXAMPLE 8.3
Calculate the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal diameter 160 mm to
withstand an internal pressure of 25 MPa, if maximum permissible tensile stress is 125 MPa.
Solution: Given Internal radius r = 80 mm, Internal pressure Pa = 25 MPa, Hoop stress sq = 125 MPa.
Lame’s equations are:
B
sq = A + (i)
r2
B
sr = A – (ii)
r2
At r = 80, sr = –25 MPa and sq = 125 MPa,
B
–25 = A – (iii)
(80)2
B
125 = +A (iv)
80 2
From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we have
A = 50, B = 480 ´ 103
At x = b, sr = 0
\ 0 = A – B/b2
480 10 3
= 50 –
b2
or b = 97.98 mm = 98 mm
Now, Thickness of metal = b – a
= 98 – 80 = 18 mm
8.3 APPLICATION OF THEORIES OF FAILURE

The maximum permissible stress in a thick cylinder closed at ends and subjected to internal pressure
are:
Pa a 2 a b
2 2
s1 = sq =
b2 a 2
a 2
at inner surface.
Pa (a 2 b 2 )
=
b2 a2
Pa (c 2 1) b
= \c=
c 12 a
Pa a 2
s2 = sL = (from equation (8.7))
b2 a2
Pa
=
c2 1
s3 = sr = – Pa at the inner surface
For a cylinder with open ends, s2 = 0.
Maximum principal stress theory: According to this theory,

s1 = syt as s1 > s2 > s3
Pa (c 1)
2
= syt
c2 1
By simplification, we get
T yt Pa
c =
T yt Pa
T yt Pa
1
"#
t=a
! T yt Pa #$ (8.13)
where t is the thickness of the wall of the cylinder which is given by

t=b–a
Equation (8.13) is known as Lame’s formula.
Maximum principal strain theory: According to this theory,

s1 – v (s2 + s3) = syt
Pa (c 2 1) P P =s
c 1
2
v c 1
2
a
a yt
c 1 v 2 c =
2 2 T yt
c 1 c 1
2 2 Pa
c 2 (1 v) (1 2 v) T yt
=
(c 1)
2 Pa
T yt Pa (1 2 v)
or c=
T yt Pa (1 v)
T yt Pa (1 2 v)
1
"#
t=a
! T yt Pa (1 v) #$ (8.14)
Equation (8.14) is known as the Clavirino’s formula. For a cylinder with open ends, we get
T yt Pa (1 v)
1
"#
#$
t=a (Birnie’s equation) (8.15)
! T yt Pa (1 v)
Maximum shear stress theory: According to this theory,

s1 – s3 = syt
Pa (c 2 1)
+ Pa = syt
c2 1
(2 Pa c 2 )
= syt
c2 1
T yt
c=
T yt 2 Pa
T yt
1
"#
t=a
! T yt 2 Pa #$ (8.16)
Maximum distortion energy theory: According to this theory,

(s1 – s2)2 (s2 – s3)2 + (s3 – s1)2 = 2syt2
c 2
1 1 1 1 c 1 "#
2 2
2
2
2
1
c 1 c 1 # = 2syt2
! c
P a2
1 c 1
$
2 2 2
2
6 c 2 Pa
or = 2syt2
(c 2 1) 2
3Pa2 c4 = syt2 (c2 – 1)2
T yt
c =
T yt 3 Pa
T yt "#
1
t=a
! T yt 3Pa #$ (8.17)
EXAMPLE 8.4
A thick cylindrical pipe of inner radius 100 mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 70 MPa.
If tensile yield stress for the pipe material is 120 MPa. Calculate the wall thickness of the pipe using
maximum principal stress theory.
Solution: Given Inner radius r1 = 100 mm, Internal pressure Pa = 70 MPa and Yield stress
syt = 120 MPa
T yt Pa
1
"#
Then t = r1
! T yt Pa #$
120 70
1
"#
! #$
= 100
120 70
Ë 190 Û
= 100 Ì 1Ü = 94.93 mm
ÍÌ
50 ÜÝ
8.4 COMPOUND CYLINDRICAL SHELL

In a compound cylindrical shell, as shown in Fig. 8.6, the outer cylinder (having inside diameter
smaller than the outside diameter of the inner cylinder) is shrunk fit over the inner cylinder by
heating and cooling, respectively. On cooling, the contact pressure is developed at the junction of
the two cylinders, which induces compressive tangential stress in the material of the inner cylinder
and tangential stress in the material of the outer cylinder. Hence inner cylinder subjected to external
pressure whereas outer cylinder subjected to internal pressure. This principle is commonly used in
the design of gun tube.
P
Outer
cylinder Inner
cylinder
P
r3 r2
P r1 P
r1 P P
r3
r2
r2 P
P
(a) Compound cylinder (b) Inner cylinder (c) Outer cylinder
Fig. 8.6 Stress in compound cylinder.
Now, consider a compound thick cylindrical shell made up of two tubes as shown in Fig. 8.6(a). Here
r1 = Inner radius of inner cylinder
r2 = Outer radius of inner cylinder
r3 = Outer radius of outer cylinder
P = Radial pressure at the junction of the two cylinders
For inner tube,
B1
Px = – A1
x2
At x = r1, Px = 0 and x = r2, Px = P.
B1
\ 0 = – A1 (8.18)
r12
B1
and P= – A1 (8.19)
r22
For outer tube,
B2
Px = – A2
x2
and
B2
Hoop stress (sq)x = + A2
x2
At x = r2, Px = P and at x = r3, Px = 0.
B2
\ P = – A2 (8.20)
r22
B2
and 0 = – A3 (8.21)
r32
The values of A1, B1, A2 and B2 may be found out from these four equations, if the radial
pressure P at the junction of the two shells is known. The hoop stress sq may also be obtained with
the help of relative expressions.
Now, when the fluid under pressure P is admitted inside the compound shell, it will be resisted
jointly by both the shells. The hoop stresses may be calculated by the Lame’s formulae as usual. The
resultant stresses will be the algebraic sum of the initial stresses and those due to fluid pressure.
EXAMPLE 8.5
A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a tube of 160 mm internal diameter and 20 mm thick
over another tube of 160 mm external diameter and 20 mm thick. The radial pressure at the common
surface, after shrinking is 80 kg-f/cm2. Find the final stress setup across the section when the
compound cylinder is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 600 kg-f/cm2.
Solution: Inner diameter of outer cylinder = 160 mm

Thickness = 20 mm = 2 cm
Outer diameter of outer cylinder = 16 cm + 2 cm + 2 cm = 20 cm
Outer diameter of inner cylinder = 16 cm
Inner diameter of inner cylinder = 16 – 2 – 2 = 12 cm
Thus,
Outer radius of outer cylinder r3 = 10 cm
Inner radius of outer cylinder r2 = 8 cm = outer radius of inner cylinder
Inner radius of inner cylinder r1 = 6 cm
First of all, let us apply all the Lame’s equations for the inner and outer cylinder before fluid
pressure is admitted. For inner tube,
B1
Px = – A1
x2
At x = r1, Px = 0,
B1
0 = – A1 (i)
36
Similarly, at x = r2, Px = 80 kgf/cm2,
B1
80 = – A1 (ii)
64
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we find that
A1 = – 183, B1 = – 6583
Now, using the Lame’s equation,
B1
(sq)r1 = + A1
r12
6583
=– 2
– 183 = – 366 kg/cm2 (iii)
6
6583
and (sq)r2 = – – 183
(8)2
= – 286 kg/cm2 (iv)
For outer tube,
B2
Px = – A2
x2
At x = r2, Px = 80 kg/cm2,
B2
80 = – A2 (v)
64
and at x = r3, Px = 0,
B2
0= – A2 (vi)
100
Solving Eqs. (v) and (vi),

A2 = 142, B2 = 14220
B2
Now, Hoop stress (sq)r2 = + A2
r22
14220
= + 142 = 364 kg/cm2 (vii)
64
14220
(sq)r3 = + 142
100
= 284 kg/cm2 (viii)
Now, let us apply Lame’s equation for the inner cylinder only after the fluid under pressure of
600 kg/cm2 admitted, i.e.,
B3
Px = – A3
x2
B3
or 600 = – A3 (ix)
(6 ) 2
B3
and 0= – A3 (x)
(10) 2
Solving Eqs. (ix) and (x),
A3 = 337.5, B3 = 33750
B3
Now, Hoop stress (sq)r1 = + A3
r12
33750
= + 337.5 = 1275 kg/cm2
62
33750
(sq)r2 = + 337.5 = 865 kg/cm2
82
33750
and (sq)r3 = + 337.5
10 2
= 675 kg/cm2
Resultant hoop stresses across compound cylinder are tabulated as follow:
Hoop stress (kg-f /cm 2 ) x =6 cm x =8 cm x =8 cm x =10 cm

Initial 366 286 364 284
Due to fluid pressure 1275 865 865 675
Resultant +909 +579 +1229 +959
Pb
sq sq sr + dsr
Pa
r + dr
r
Pb Pa Pa Pb
a b
Pa
sq sr + dsr sq
Pb
(a) (b) Detail view of elemental ring
Fig. 8.7 Thick spherical shell under pressure.
8.5 THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS

Consider a thick spherical shell of internal radius a and external radius b subjected to internal and
external uniformly distributed pressure of intensities Pa and Pb, respectively as shown in Fig. 8.7(a).
Let
sr = Radial stress at any radius r
sq = Hoop stress at any radius r
a = Internal radius of thick spherical shell
b = External radius of thick cylinder spherical shell
r = Internal radius of annular ring spherical shell
r + dr = External radius of annular ring
Pa = Pressure at internal radius of thick spherical shell
Pb = Pressure at external radius of thick spherical shell
Consider an annular ring of the shell between radii r and r + dr as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). Let the
radial stresses are sr and sr + dsr at internal and external radius of annular ring r and r + dr,
respectively.
The bursting force on elemental ring acting in radial direction is:
= p(r + dr)2 (sr + dsr) – srp r 2
Resisting force = sq(2prdr)
Equating the resisting force and bursting force, we have
p(r + dr)2 (sr + dsr) – sr p r2 = sq(2 prdr)
Neglecting small quantities, we get
rdT r
sq = sr + (8.22)
2 dr
Differentiating with respect to r, we get

dT R dT r r d 2T r 1 dT r
= + 2
+
dr dr 2 dr 2 dr
3 dT r r d 2T r
= + (8.23)
2 dr 2 dr 2
Due to internal pressure, let the radius increases from r to (r + u), then
2 Q (r u ) 2Q r u
Hoop strain eq = = (8.24)
2Q r r
1
Also eq = [sq – v(sr + sq)] (8.25)
E
u 1
= [sq – v(sr + sq)]
r E
r
or u = [sq – v(sr + sq)] (8.26)
E
Differentiating with respect to r, we get
du
r dT R
dT r dT R "# + 1 [s – v(s + s )]
dr
=
E dr !
v
dr

dr $ E q r q
r dT dT "
dr #$
R 1
(1 v) v [(1 – v)s – vs ]
E!
r
= + q r (8.27)
dr E
u du dr u
Radial strain er =
dr =
du
(8.28)
dr dr
1
Also er = [sr – v(sq + sq)]
E
1
= [sr – 2v(sq)] (8.29)
E
1 du
[sr – 2v(sq)] = (8.30)
E dr
1
[sr – 2v(sq)] =
r
(1 v )
dT R dT 1 "#
v r (1 v)T R vT r
E E ! dr dr E $
dT R
Substituting the values of sq and from Eqs. (8.22) and (8.23), we get
dr
1 T
2v T r
rdr "# = r (1 v) %K& 3 dT r d T (K) v dT "# 2
$ E ! 'K 2 dr 2 dr K* dr #$
r r r
E ! r
2 dr 2
1 % dT () vT "#
+
E!
11 v6 &T r
' 2dr * #$ r
r
r
Simplifying, we get
d 2T r 4 dT r
2
+ =0
dr r r
dT r
Let =z
dr
dc
r + 4z = 0
dr
dz dr
or = –4
z r
Integrating both sides, we get
logez = –4loger + logec1
where logec1 is a constant of integration.
c "# c1
!r $
1
logez = loge 4
or z =
4
dT r c dr
= 1 or sr = c1
dr 4 r4
Integrating both sides, we get
c1
+ c2 sr = – (8.31)
3r 3
where c2 is another constant of integration. Also we know that
rdT r
sq = sr +
2 dr

=
c1 "#
c2
rdT r c r c1
! 3r 3
$ 2 dr
= – 13 + c2 +
3r 2 r4
c1 c1
=– + c2 +
3r 3 2r 3
c1
sq = + c2 (8.32)
6r 3
Putting c1 = 6B and c2 = A, we get

B
sq = +A (8.33)
r3
2B
sr = – +A (8.34)
r3
Equations (8.33) and (8.34) are the governing equations for thick shell. Boundary conditions are:
At r = a, sr = –Pa and at r = b, sr = –Pb, then
2B
–Pa = – +A (8.35)
a3
2B
–Pb = – +A (8.36)
b3
Solving Eqs. (8.35) and (8.36), we get
Pa a 3 Pb b 3 a 3b 3 ( Pa Pb )
A= and B=
(b 3 a 3 ) 2 (b 3 a 3 )
Putting the value of A and B in Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34),
Pa a 3 Pb b 3 a 3b 3 Pa Pb
sq =
b a 3 3
+
2r 3 b a
3 3
(8.37)
Pa a 3 Pb b 3 a3b 3 P P
sr =
b a 3 3
–
r 3 b a
a
3
b
3
(8.38)
Special cases
CASE I A spherical shell subjected to internal pressure: In this case, Pb = 0 and Pa = P. Then
Eqs. (8.37) and (8.38) become
Pa 3 1 b 3
sq =
b3 a3
2r 3
Pa 3 1 b 3
sr =
b3 a 3
r 3
CASE II A spherical shell subjected to external pressure: In this case, Pa = 0 and Pb = P. Then
Eqs. (8.31) and (8.38) become
1 a
Pb 3 3
sq = – 2r
b a 3 3 3
Pb a 3 3
sr =–
b a
1
3
r 3 3
EXAMPLE 8.6
A thick spherical shell of 40 mm inside diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 20 MPa.
Determine the necessary thickness of the shell, if permissible, stress of the shell material is 40 MPa.
Solution: Given Inner diameter = 40 mm, Internal pressure = 20 MPa, Permissible stress sq = 40 MPa
Using Lame equation,
2B
Px = –A
r3
At r = 20 mm, Px = 20 MPa,
2B 2B
\ 20 = –A= –A
20 3 8000
2B
or A= – 20 (i)
8000
B
Now, sq = +A (Hoop stress is maximum at inner radius.)
r3
B
or 40 = +A
20 3
B
or A = 40 – (ii)
8000
Equating Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
2B B
– 20 = 40 –
8000 8000
3B
or = 60
8000
or B = 160000 and A = 20
Again using Lame equation,
2B
Px = –A
r3
At r = b, Px = 0,
2 160000
\ 0= – 20
b3
320000
or b= 3 = 25.2 mm, therefore, thickness of shell is:
20
t = 25.2 – 20
or t = 5.2 mm
EXAMPLE 8.7
A thick spherical shell 30 mm internal diameter and 5 mm thick is subjected to an internal pressure
of 15 MPa. Determine the variation of radial and hoop stress in the shell. Take E = 200 GPa, v = 0.3.
Solution: Given, a = 15 mm, b = 15 + 5 = 20 mm, P = 15 MPa, t = 5 mm

Using Lame equation,
2B
Px = –A
r3
At r = 15 mm, Px = 15 MPa, therefore,
2B
15 = –A
(15)3
2B
or A= – 15 (i)
3375
At r = 20 mm, Px = 0 MPa, therefore,
2B
0 = –A
(20) 3
2B
or A= (ii)
(20) 3
Equating Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
2B 2B
– 15 =
3375 (20) 3
Solving B = 43783.8,
A = 10.95
B
Then Hoop stress sq = +A
r3
43783.8
= + 10.95
r3
2B
and sr = –A
r3
2 43783.8
= – 10.95
r3
Hoop and radial stresses in thick spherical shell are tabulated as follow:
r (mm) 15 16 17 18 19 20
T R (MPa) 23.93 21.63 19.86 18.45 17.33 16.42
T r (MPa ) 14.99 10.42 6.87 4.06 182
. 0
EXERCISES
8.1 Prove that the permissible stress induced in the thick cylinder is maximum at inner radius,
if the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure.
8.2 A pipe of 400 mm internal diameter and 100 mm thickness contains fluid at a pressure of
8 N/mm2. Find the maximum and minimum hoop stress across the section. Also sketch the
radial pressure distribution and hoop stress distribution across the section.
[Ans. 208 MPa, 12.8 MPa]
8.3 Find the thickness of metal necessary for cylindrical shell of internal diameter of 80 mm to
withstand an internal pressure of 25 N/mm2 and maximum permissible hoop stress is
125 N/mm2. [Ans. t = 9 mm]
8.4 A thick cylindrical shell of 160 mm internal diameter is 45 mm thick. The shell is subjected
to an internal pressure of 52.5 N/mm2. Find the maximum and minimum intensities of hoop
stress across the section. [Ans. 127.5 N/mm2, 75 N/mm2]
8.5 A thick spherical shell of 400 mm internal diameter is subjected to an internal fluid pressure
of 1.5 N/mm2. If the permissible tensile stress in the shell material is 3 N/mm2, find the
necessary thickness of the shell. [Ans. 52 mm]
8.6 A steel cylinder of 200 mm external diameter is to be shrunk to another steel cylinder of
100 mm internal diameter. After shrinking the diameter at the junction is 150 mm and radial
pressure at the junction is 12.5 N/mm2. Find the original difference in radii at the junction.
Take E = 2 ´ 105 N/mm2 [Ans. 0.02025 mm]
8.7 A thick spherical shell of 160 mm internal diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of
40 N/mm2. Find the thickness of the shell, if the permissible tensile stress is 80 N/mm2.
[Ans. 21 mm]
8.8 A spherical shell of 120 mm internal diameter has to withstand an internal pressure of
30 MPa. If the permissible tensile stress is 80 MPa, calculate the thickness of the shell.
[Ans. t = 11.5 mm]
Chapter 9: Unsymmetrical Bending and Shear Centre 263
9 Unsymmetrical Bending and

Shear Centre
9.1 INTRODUCTION
If the load line on a beam does not coincide with one of the principal axes of the section, the bending
takes place in a plane different from a principal plane. This type of bending is known as
unsymmetrical bending. In the case of unsymmetrical bending, the direction of neutral axis is not
M T
perpendicular to the plane of loading. While using the well known bending equation = , it is
I y
assumed that the neutral axis of the cross-section of the beam is perpendicular to plane of loading.
Following are the two reasons of unsymmetrical bending:
1. The section is symmetrical, e.g. rectangular, circular, I-section but the load is inclined to both
of the principal axes.
2. The section itself may be unsymmetrical, e.g. an angle section or channel section.
9.2 DEFINITIONS
Centroid: The centroid or centre of area is defined as the point where the whole area is assumed
to be concentrated. Let x and y be the distances of the centroid of area from the given axes Y and
X, respectively and x1, x2, …, and y1, y2, …, be the distances of the centroid of the areas A1, A2, …,
from the given axes Y and X then
A1 x1 A2 x2
x =
A1 A2
A1 y1 A2 y2
y =
A1 A2
Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia, also called second moment area, about any axis is
I
the product of elemental area and square of the distance of the centroid from the axis.
Ix = y2 dA
263
or
Iy =
I = Ak2
I x2dA
where k is radius of gyration.
Parallel axis theorem: The moment of inertia of an area about any axis passing through O is
equal to moment of inertia about a centroidal axis passing through the centroid O plus the area of
figure multiplied by the square of the distance between the axes as shown in Fig. 9.1.
Ix = Ix + A( y )2
Iy = I y + A( x ) 2
Y Y
O X
O X
Fig. 9.1 Coordinate representation to determine moment of inertia.
Product of inertia: The product of inertia of an area with respect to any two rectangular axes
may be defined as the sum of products obtained by multiplying each element of the area by the
I
product of the two coordinates of the element with respect to two rectangular axes, i.e.,
Ixy = xy dA
where dA is an element of the given area and x, y are the coordinates of the element with respect
to the two rectangular axes.
9.3 STRESSES DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

Figure 9.2 shows the cross-section of a beam under the action of bending moment M acting in plane
YY.
XX, YY = Coordinate axes passing through O
UU, VV = Principal axes inclined at an angle q to XX and YY axes, respectively
O = Centroid of the section
The moment M in the plane YY can be resolved into its components in the plane UU and VV
as follows:
Moment in the plane UU MU = M sin q
Moment in the plane VV MV = M cos q
Fig. 9.2 Cross-section of beam with coordinate representations.
The resultant bending stress at the point C(u, v) is given by

MU u M v
sb = + V
IVV IUU
M sin R u M cos R v
= 
IVV IUU
Ë u sin R v cos R Û
or sb = M Ì Ü (9.1)
Í IVV IUU Ý
MU u M v
It is more preferable to assign positive sign to term or V , if it produces tension at a
IVV IUU
point and negative sign if it produces compression.
On any point on the neutral axis, resultant bending stress will be zero.
sb = 0
 u sin R v cos R 
M   =0
 IVV IUU 
 u sin R v cos R 
or    =0
 IVV IUU 
Ë IUU sin R Û
or v = –Ì Ü u
Í IVV cos R Ý
I 
= –  UU tan R  u
 VV
I 
This is an equation of a straight line passing through the centroid O of the section and inclined
at an angle a with UU.
Ë IUU Û
tan a=–Ì tan R Ü (9.2)
Í I VV Ý
9.4 DEFLECTION OF BEAM DUE TO UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

To determine the deflection of beam due to unsymmetrical bending, the load W may be resolved into
components parallel to the principal planes, and deflection caused by these components of the load
calculated from the usual equation for deflections of symmetrically loaded beams. The actual
deflection of beam is the vector sum of the deflections found from the component of load. The load
W can be resolved into the following two components as shown in Fig. 9.3
Fig. 9.3 Components of load and deflection along principal axes.
Let dv = The component W cos q will cause deflection along the line OV
du = The component W sin q will cause deflection along the line OU
Ë K (W sin R ) l 3 Û
Then du = Ì Ü (9.3)
ÍÌ
E Ivv ÝÜ
Ë K (W cos R ) l 3 Û
and dv = Ì Ü (9.4)
ÌÍ E Iuu ÜÝ
where l = Length of the beam

K = Constant depending on the end conditions of the beam
The resultant deflection is

d= (E u )2  (E v )2
2 2
K l3 È W sin R Ø È W cos R Ø
d= É Ù É (9.5)
E Ê I vv Ú Ê Iuu ÙÚ
The inclination g of the direction of d, with the line OV is given by

Eu
tan g =
Ev
I uu
= tan q (9.6)
I vv
EXAMPLE 9.1
A cantilever, of I-section 2 m long is subjected to a load of 250 N at the free end as shown in Fig. 9.4.
Determine the resulting bending stress at corners A and B, on the fixed section of the cantilever.
Y1 Y, V
M
A MV B
2.5 mm
20°
X1
45 mm 50 mm
MU
X, U O X, U
X1
2 mm
C D
30 mm 1
Y, V Y
Fig. 9.4
Solution: Given: Length of the cantilever l = 2 m, Load W = 250 N

Since I-section is symmetrical about XX and YY axes, therefore, XX and YY are the principal axes
UU and VV.
30 50 3 28 453
Moment of inertia IUU = IXX =
12 12
2.5 30 3 45 2 3
and IVV = IYY = 2 ´
12 12
= 1.128 ´ 10–8 m4
Components of W are:
WU = Wu sin q
= 250 sin 20
= 85.50 N
and WV = Wv cos 20
= 250 cos 20
= 234.92 N
Bending moments are given by
MU = WU l
= (250 sin 20) ´ 2 = 171 N-m
and MV = WV l
= (250 cos 20) ´ 2 = 469.84 N-m
MU will cause a tensile stresses at points A and C and compressive stresses at points B and D.
MV will cause a tensile stresses at points A and B and compressive stresses at points C and D. For
point A,
MU = +171 N-m, MV = +469.84 N-m, uA = 15 mm and vA = 25 mm.
M sin R uA M cosR v A
\ sA = 
Ivv IUU
MU uA MV v A
or sA = 
Ivv IUU
sA =  (171)(15  10 ) ( 469.84) (25  10 3 ) 

3
or 8
 
 1.128  10 9.99  10 8 
= (+227.39 + 117.57) ´ 10–6 = 344.96 ´ 10–6 N/m2
= +344.96 MPa
For point B, MV = + 469.84 N-m, MU = –171 N-m, UB = 15 mm and VB = 25 mm.
MU uB MV vB
\ sB =
I vv IUU
 171(15  10  3 ) (  469.84) (25  10  3) 

or sB =  8
 
 1.128  10 9.99  10  8 
= (–227.39 + 117.57) ´ 10–6 = –109.82 ´ 10–6 N/m2
= –109.82 MPa
EXAMPLE 9.2
A beam of rectangular section, 80 mm wide and 120 mm deep (see Fig. 9.5) is subjected to a bending
moment of 10 kN-m. The trace of the plane of loading is inclined at 45o to the YY axis of the section.
Locate the neutral axis of the section, and calculate the maximum bending stress induced in section.
(UPTU 2002–03)
Y, V
C A
MV
M
45°
120 mm
MU
X, U X, U
D
B 80 mm
Y, V
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.5
Solution: The components of M along UU and VV are shown in Fig. 9.5. MU will cause tensile
stresses at points A and D and compressive stresses at points C and B whereas MV causes a tensile
stresses at points C and A and compressive stresses at points B and D.
Let the plane of loading be inclined at q with YY axis and the neutral axis be inclined at a with
XX axis.
Principal moment of inertia is given as:
80 1203
IUU = Ix = = 11.52 ´ 106 mm4
12
120 803
IVV = Iy = = 5.12 ´ 106 mm4
12
IUU
tan a=– tan q
IVV
11.52 10 ´ tan 45° = – 2.25

5.12 10
6
= – 6
or a= –66°
This gives the location of the neutral axis NA.
Maximum stress will occur at the point which is farthest from the principal axis.
MU u MV v
Thus, sA = 
IVV IUU
( 10  106 sin 45°)  40 (+10  106 cos 45°)  60

= +
5.12  106 11.52  106
= +55.24 + 52.08 = +107.32 MPa (Tensile)
MU u MV v
and sB = 
IV IU
 10  10 6 sin 45 10  106 cos 45

= (40) + (60)
5.12  10 6 11.52  10 6
= –55.24 – 52.08 = –107.32 MPa (Compressive)
EXAMPLE 9.3
A beam of T-section (flange: 100 ´ 20 mm, Web 150 ´ 10 mm) is 3 m in length and is simply
supported at the ends. It carries a load of 5 kN inclined at 20o to the vertical and passing through
the centroid of the section. If E = 210 GPa, calculate:
(i) Maximum tensile stress
(ii) Maximum compressive stress
(iii) Deflection due to the load
(iv) Position of the neutral axis
Solution: Given Length of beam l = 3 m, Load W = 5 kN

Centroid of T-section is given by
A1y1 A2 y2 A3 y3
y =
A1 A2 A3
100 20 10 150 10 (20 75)
=
100 20 150 10
= 46.4 mm
Since the section is symmetrical about the vertical axis, therefore, the principal axes pass
through centroid G and are along UU and VV axes as shown in Fig. 9.6.
Ixx = IUU
100 20 3
100 20 (46.4 10) 2
"# 10 150 3
10 150 (123.6 75) 2
"#
! 12 $ ! 12 $
=
= 9.07 ´ 10–6 m4
Iyy = IVV
20 100 3

150 10 3 "# = 1.679 ´ 10
–6
m4
! 12 $
=
12
Fig. 9.6
Components of W are:
WU = 5 ´ 103 sin 20°
= 1.71 kN
WV = 5 ´ 103 cos 20°
= 4.69 kN
Bending moments:
WU l
MU =
4
1.71 3
= = 1.283 kN-m
4
W l
MV = V
4
4.69 3
= = 3.52 kN-m
4
MU will cause compressive stress at B and D and maximum tensile stress at A and C; whereas
MV will cause maximum compressive stress at A and B and maximum tensile stress at C and D.
Maximum tensile stress:
M u M v
sC = I
U c
 V c
VV IUU
 1.283  103  5  10  3 3.52  103  123.6  10  3 

=   
 1.679  10  6 9.07  10  6 
= 3.82 ´ 106 + 47.96 ´ 106
= 51.78 ´ 106 N/m2 = 51.78 MPa
Maximum compressive stress at B:

MU u B MV v B
sB =
Ivv Iuu
 1.283  10 3  50  10  3 3.52  10 3  46.4  10  3 

=    10–6
 1.679  10  6 9.07  10  6 
= (–38.21 – 18.007) ´ 106
= –56.22 ´ 106 N/m2
= –56.22 MPa (Compressive)
Deflection due to load:
KW l 3 sin 2 R cos2 R
d= 2
 2
E IVV IUU
where K = 1/48 for a beam with simply supported ends for point load.
 1  5  10 (3) sin 2 20 cos2 20

3 3
d=   
 48  210  109 (1.67  10  6 ) (9.07  10  6 )2
= 1.024 ´ 10–3 m = 1.024 mm
Position of neural axis:
IUU
tan a=– tan q
Ivv
9.07 10 6
=– ´ tan 20° = – 1.966
1.679 10 6
or a » – 63°
EXAMPLE 9.4
A rectangular beam as shown in Fig. 9.7 is 80 mm wide and 120 mm deep. It is used as simply
supported beam on a span of 8 m. Two loads of 4 kN each are applied to the beam, each load being
2 m from a support. The plane of the loads makes an angle 30° with the vertical plane of symmetry.
Find the direction of neutral axis and bending stress at the point A.
Solution: Principal moment of inertia:

80 (120) "#3
! 12 $
IUU =
= 11.52 ´ 106 mm4
120 (80) "# 3
! 12 $
and IVV =
= 5.12 ´ 106 mm4

Y, V W
A
A
B
30°
120 mm
X, U X, U
a
4 kN 4 kN
C 2m 2m
80 mm D
8m
Y, V N
Fig. 9.7
IUU
\ tan a=– tan q
IVV
11.52 106
=– ´ tan 30°
. 10 6
512
= –78.83°
MU and MV both produce compressive stress at point A,
MU = (4 ´ 103 sin 30°) ´ 2
= 4 ´ 103 N-m
MV = (4 ´ 103 cos 30°) ´ 2
= 6.93 ´ 103 N-m
MU uA MV v A
\ sA = 
IVV IUU
4 10 6 (40) 6.93 10 6 (60)

=
. 10 6
512 11.52 10 6
= –31.25 – 36.09 = – 67.34 MPa
EXAMPLE 9.5
A cantilever beam of I-section is used to support the loads inclined to the V-axis as shown in
Fig. 9.8. Calculate the stresses at the corners A, B, C and D. Also locate the neutral axis.
Solution: Bending moments:
MU = – (10 ´ 103) sin 30° ´ 1.5 + 5 cos 45° ´ 103 ´ 2.5
= –1.337 kN-m
MV = (10 ´ 103) cos 30° ´ 1.5 + (5 ´ 103) cos 45° ´ 2.5
= 21.83 kN-m
Fig. 9.8
Principal moments of inertia:

15 20 3 13 16 3
IUU = Ixx =
12 12
= 5562.67 cm4
2 2 153 16 2 3
Ivv = Iyy =
12 12
= 1135.67 cm4
For point A, MU and MV both produce tensile stresses at point A.
MU = +1.337 kN-m MV = +21.83 kN-m uA = 7.5 cm vA = 10 cm
MU uA MV v A
\ sA = 
Ivv IUU
+1.337  10 6 (75) + 21.83  10 6 (100)
= 
1135.67  10 4 5562.67  10 4
= +8.83 + 39.24 = +48.07 MPa (Tensile)
For point B, MU and MV both produce compressive and tensile stresses at point B.
MU = –1.337 kN-m MV = +21.83 kN-m uB = 7.5 cm vB = 10 cm
MU uB MV v B
\ sB = 
Ivv IUU
1.337  10 6 (75)  21.83  10 6 (100)

= 
1135.67  10 4 5562.67  10 4
= +30.41 MPa (Tensile)
For point C, MU and MV both produce tensile and compressive stresses, respectively at point C.
MU = +1.337 kN-m,
MV = –21.83 kN-m
MU uC MV vC
\ sC = 
Ivv IUU
 1.337  10 6 (75) 21.83  10 6 (100)
= 
1135.67  10 4 5562.67  10 4
= +8.83 – 39.24 = –30.41 MPa (Compressive)
For point D, MU and MV both produce compressive stresses at point D.
MU = –1.337 kN-m MV = –21.83 kN-m uD = 7.5 cm vD = 10 cm
MU uD MV v D
\ sD = 
Ivv IUU
 1.337  10 6 (75)  21.83  10 6 (100)

= 
1135.67  10 4 5562.67  10 4
= –8.83 – 39.24 = – 48.07 MPa (Compressive)
I
Thus, tan a= – uu tan q
Iv
5562.67 MU
= –
1135.67 MV
5562.67 1.3375
= –
1135.67 21.83
or a= –16.7°
9.5 SHEAR CENTRE

The shear centre for any transverse section of the beam is the point of intersection of the bending
axis and the plane of the transverse section. In case of beam having two axes of symmetry, the shear
centre coincides with the centroid. Shear centre is also known as centre of twist. When the load
passes through the shear centre, there will be only bending in the cross-section and no twisting. In
case of beam having two axes of symmetry, the shear centre coincides with the centroid. In case of
sections having one axis of symmetry, the shear centre does not coincide with the centroid but lies
on the axis of symmetry.
9.5.1 Shear Centre for Channel Section

Figure 9.9 shows a channel section (flanges: b ´ t1; web h ´ t2) with XX as the horizontal symmetric
axis.
Let S = Applied shear force vertical downwards
S1 = Shear force in the top flange (there will be equal and opposite shear force in the bottom
flange as shown).
Fig. 9.9 Location of shear centre in channel section.
Now, shear stress t in the flange at a distance x from the right hand edge (of the top flange),
S Ay
t =
I xx t
h
Now, A y = (t1 x)
2
St1 x h S xh
\ t = ¹ = (a)
I xx t1 2 2 Ixx
Shear force in elementary area = t dA, But dA = t1dx
Hence, total shear force in top flange
I
b
S1 = t dA
0
I
b
= t t1 dx
0
From Eq. (a), we have
I I
b b
Sx h Sht1
S1 = t1 dx = x dx
2 Ixx 2 Ixx
0 0
Sht1 b 2
or S1 =
I xx 4
Let e be the distance of the shear centre SC from the web along the symmetric axis XX. Taking
moments about the centre O of the web, we get
h h
Se = S1 + S1
2 2
Se = S1 h
Sht1 b 2 St h 2 b 2
= h= 1
Ixx 4 4 Ixx
b 2 h 2 t1
\ e= (9.7)
4 I xx
b t 3
h 2 "# t h 3
bt13 bt1 h2 t2 h3
bt1
2 #$ 12
1 2
! 12
Now, Ixx = 2 =
6 2 12
bt1 h2 t2 h 3 bt 3
= (neglecting the term 1 , being negligible in comparison to other terms)
2 12 6
h2
or Ixx = (t2 h + 6bt1)
12
Substituting the value of Ixx in Eq. (9.7), we get
b 2 h 2 t1 12 3b 2 t1
e = 2 =
4 h (t2 h 6 bt1) ( t2 h 6 bt1)
Let bt1 = Af (area of the flange)
and ht2 = Aw (area of the web)
3bA f 3b
Then e= =
Aw 6 A f A
6 w
Af
3b
i.e. e= (9.8)
A
6 w
Af
EXAMPLE 9.6
A channel section has flanges 10 cm ´ 1 cm and web 16 cm ´ 1 cm. Determine the shear centre
of the channel.
Solution: Here b = 10 – 0.5 = 9.5 cm, t1 = 1 cm and t2 = 1 cm, h = 16 + 1 = 17 cm

Web area Aw = ht2 = 17 ´ 1 = 17 cm2
Flange area Af = bt1 = 9.5 ´ 1 = 9.5 cm2
We know that
3b
e=
A
6 w
Af
3 9.5
= 17 = 3.66 cm
6
9.5
10 cm
1 cm
S
16 cm
e
1 cm
1 cm
10 cm
Fig. 9.10
9.5.2 Shear Centre of Unequal I-section

Figure 9.11 shows an unequal I-section which is symmetrical about XX axis.
S Ay
Shear stress t =
It

I = Ixx = 2 ( b1 b2 )
t13
(b1 b2 )
h2
t2
"#
h3
! $
where
12 4 12
I
b1
Shear force S1 = t dA
0
h
As dA = t1 dx, A y = t1 x
2
Fig. 9.11 Location of shear centre in unequal leg I section.

I
b1
\ S1 = t dA
0
Sxt1 h
= ´ t1 dx
I xx t1 2
I
b1
S
= ´ h t1 x dx
2 I xx
0
b1
Sht1 x 2 Sht1b12
= =
2 I xx 2 0
4 I xx
Similarly, the shear force S2 in the other part of the flange is:
Sht1 b22
S2 =
4 I xx
Taking moments of the shear forces about the centre of the web O, we get
S2 h = S1 h + Se (S3 = S for equilibrium)
where e is the distance of shear centre from the centre of the web.
or (S2 – S1) h = Se
Sh 2 t1 2
(b 2 – b12) = Se
4 I xx
t1 h 2 ( b22 b12)
\ e = (9.9)
4 I xx
EXAMPLE 9.7
Determine the position of the shear centre of the section of a beam shown in Fig. 9.12.
10 cm 8 cm
4 cm
S
40 cm
e
2 cm
4 cm
10 cm 8 cm
Fig. 9.12
Solution: Here t1 = 4 cm, b1 = 8 cm, b2 = 10 cm, h = 40 – 4 = 36 cm
18 40 3 16 363
Thus, Ixx =
12 12
= 96000 – 62208
= 33792 cm4
We know
t1 h 2 (b22 b12)
e =
4 Ixx
4 36 2 (10 2 82 )
\ e = = 1.38 cm
4 33792
EXERCISES
9.1 If the maximum bending stress allowed in the cross-section of the beam shown in Fig. 9.13
is 15 MPa, determine the value of P. [Ans. P = 5.63 kN]
10 cm
15 cm
60 cm
P
Fig. 9.13
9.2 A simply supported beam of T-section, 2.5 m long carries a central compressive load
inclined at 30° to Y-axis as shown in Fig. 9.14. If the maximum compressive and tensile
stress in bending are not to exceed 75 MPa and 35 MPa, respectively, find the maximum
load the beam can carry. [Ans. 5819.46 N]
10 cm
A 30° P 2 cm
y
15 cm
2 cm
Fig 9.14
9.3 An I-beam section is loaded as shown in Fig. 9.15. Determine the stress at A also locate
the position of the neutral axis.
[Ans. 385.4 MPa, 83° 23¢ clockwise from x-axis]
30°
10 cm
1 cm
1m 1m 2m
1.5 cm
4 cm
Fig. 9.15
9.4 A beam of angle section 150 ´ 100 ´ 10 mm is simply supported over a span of 1.6 m with
150 mm leg vertical. A uniformly distributed vertical load of 10 kN/m is applied throughout
the span. Determine the maximum bending stress and deflection at the centre.
[Ans. 68.3 MPa, 1.55 mm]
9.5 Locate the shear centre of the section shown in Fig. 9.16.
[Ans. 5.1 cm]
9.6 Locate the shear centre for the unbalanced I-section shown in Fig. 9.17.
[Ans. e = 0.91 cm]
120 mm
20 mm 8 cm 6 cm
4 cm
40 cm
160 mm
10 mm 2 cm
4 cm
20 mm 8 cm 6 cm
120 mm
Fig. 9.16 Fig. 9.17

10 Columns and Struts
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to axial compressive load.
If the member of the structure is vertical and both of its ends are fixed rigidly while subjected to axial
compressive load, the member is known as column, for example, a vertical pillar between the roof
and floor. If the member of the structure is not vertical and one or both of its ends are hinged or
pin joined, the bar is known as strut. Examples of struts are connecting rods or piston rods.
10.2 DEFINITIONS
Column: A bar or vertical member, subjected to an axial compressive load is called column.
Strut: A bar or member of structure in any position other than vertical, subjected to a compressive
load is called strut.
Equivalent or effective length: The distance between adjacent points of inflexion is called
equivalent or effective length. The effective length depends on end conditions of the column.
Slenderness ratio: The ratio of the actual length of a column to the least radius of gyration of the
column is known as slenderness ratio.
Safe load: Load under which column will not buckle, known as safe load.
Buckling load: The minimum axial compressive load at which column tends to have lateral
displacement or tend to buckle is called the buckling or crippling load.
10.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN

Column can be divided into three types based on their slenderness ratio:
Short column: Column for which slenderness ratio is less than 32 is called short column. When
short column of uniform cross-sectional area subjected to axial compressive load, the stress induced
282
Chapter 10: Columns and Struts 283
in the column corresponding to crushing or direct compressive stress. Short column are designed
based on crushing stress, as buckling stresses are very small as compared to crushing stress.
l
< 32
k
Medium column: Column for which slenderness ratio is in-between 32 to 120 is called medium
column. Medium columns are designed based on crushing as well as buckling stress.
l
32 £ £ 120
k
Long column: Column for which slenderness ratio is more than 120 is called long column. Long
column are designed based on buckling stress, as crushing or direct compressive stresses are very
small as compared to buckling stress.
l
> 120
k
10.4 ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE EULER’S COLUMN THEORY

The following assumptions are made in the Euler’s column theory:
1. The column is initially perfectly straight and the load is applied axially.
2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law.
4. The length of the column is very large as compared to its lateral dimensions.
5. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.
6. The column fails by buckling alone.
7. The self-weight of the column is neglected.
10.5 EXPRESSIONS FOR CRIPPLING LOAD OF DIFFERENT CASES

10.5.1 Both the Ends are Hinged or Pinned
Figure 10.1 shows a column of length l of uniform cross-section hinged at both the ends. Let P be
the crippling load at which the column has just buckled. Consider section XX at a distance x from
bottom support. Let y be the deflection at the section.
Bending moment M at the section is given by
d2y
M = EI = –Py
d x2
d2y
or EI + Py = 0
d x2
d 2 y Py
or =0
d x 2 EI
The solution of above differential equation is:
+ C sin x
y = C1 cos x P
EI 2
P
EI (10.1)
where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration.

At x = 0, y = 0,
From Eq. (10.1) C1 = 0
At x = l, y = 0,

From Eq. (10.1) 0 = C2 sin l P
EI
or C2 = 0
=0
or sin l P
EI
As C1 = 0, and if C2 = 0, then from Eq. (10.1) we will get y = 0. Fig. 10.1 Column with both
This means the bending will be zero, i.e., column will not bend, which ends hinged.
is not true.
\ C2 ¹ 0
= 0 = sin 0, sin p, sin 2p, sin 3p , ...,

Now, sin l P
EI
l P
\ EI
= 0, p, 2p, 3p ,...,
Consider the least practical value:
l =p
P
EI
Q 2 EI
\ P= (10.2)
l2
10.5.2 One End is Fixed and Other is Free

Consider a column of length l where lower end is fixed and upper
being free. Let due to crippling load P the column just buckle.
Let deflection at the top end is ‘a’. Consider a section XX at a
distance x from the lower end.
The bending moment at the section XX is:
d2y
EI = P(a – y)
dx 2
Fig. 10.2 Column with one end
where y is the deflection at distance x. fixed other free.
d2y
Now, EI + Py = Pa
dx 2
d 2 y Py Pa
or 2
=
dx EI EI
The solution of above differential equation is:
+ C sin x +a
y = C1 cos x P
EI
2
P
EI (10.3)
At x = 0, y = 0,
\ 0 = C1 + a
or C1 = –a
dy
At x = 0, = 0,
dx
The slope of the section is:

dy
dx
= C1
P
EI
sin x P
EI
C2
P
EI
cos x P
EI
P
\ 0 = 0 + C2
EI
It is clear that either
P
C2 = 0 or l =0
EI
P
But for the crippling load P the value of l ¹ 0.
EI
\ C2 = 0
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (10.3), we get
+a
\ y = –a cos x P
EI
At x = l, y = a,

\ a = –a cos l P
EI +a
=0
or cos l P
EI
P Q 3Q 5Q
or l = , ,
EI 2 2 2
P Q
l =
EI 2
or P=
Q 2 EI (10.4)
4l 2
10.5.3 Both Ends are Fixed P M
Consider the column AB of length l fixed at both the ends. Let P be A

the crippling load and M be the fixed end moment at A and B.
Bending moment at section XX = M – Py
EId 2 y
\ = M – Py
dx 2 X y X
2
l
d y
or EI + Py = M
dx 2
x
d2y P M
or 2
+ y=
dx EI EI
The solution of above differential equation is: B
+ C sin x +M M

y = C1 cos x
P
EI 2 P
EI P P
Fig. 10.3 Column with both
Slope at the section will be ends fixed.
+C
dy
dx
= –C1
P
EI
sin x P
EI 2
P
EI
cos x P
EI
At B, x = 0, y = 0
M
\ 0 = C1 +
P
M
or C1 = –
P
dy P
At B, x = 0, = 0 = C2
dx EI
\ C2 = 0

At A, x = l, y = 0= –
M
P
cos l P
EI +
M
P
= 0
or
M
P
1 cos l

P
EI
P =1
cos l
or
EI
P
or l = 0, 2p, 4p, 6p
EI
P
l = 2p
EI
4Q 2 EI
\ P= (10.5)
l2
10.5.4 One End is Fixed, Other is Hinged

Consider a column AB of length l fixed at lower end and pinned
at upper end. Let P be the crippling load. M is the fixed end
moment at support. In order to balance the fixed moment M there
will be the horizontal reaction at A.
Bending moment at the section XX is:
d2y
EI = –Py + H(l – x)
dx 2
d2y
or EI + Py = H(l – x)
dx 2
d2y P H
or + y = (l – x)
dx 2 EI EI
Fig. 10.4 Column with one end
The solution of the differential equation is:
fixed other hinged.
+ C sin x + H (l – x)
y = C1 cos x P
EI 2 P
EI P (10.6)
The slope at the section is:

+ cos x –H
dy
dx
= –C1
P
EI
sin x P
EI P
EI P
At x = 0, y = 0
H
\ 0 = C1 + l
P
H
or C1 = – l
P
dy P H
At x = 0, = 0 = C2
dx EI P
H EI
or C2 =
P P
At x = l, y = 0,
+ H sin l
or 0=–
H
P
l cos l
P
EI P HI
P P
EI
Simplifying, we get

tan l P
EI =l
P
EI
The solution to this equation is:
P
l = 4.5 radians
EI
l2 P
or = (4.5)2 = 20.25
EI
20.25 EI
or P=
l2
Approximately, 20.25 = 2p 2
2Q 2 EI
or P= (10.7)
l2
10.6 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF A COLUMN

The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent
column of the same material and cross-section with hinged ends, and having the value of the
crippling load equal to that of the given column.
Let L = Effective length of a column
l = Actual length of the column
P = Crippling load for the columnm
The crippling load for any type of end condition is given by
Q 2 EI
P= (10.8)
L2
The crippling load P in terms of actual length and effective length, and also the relation between
effective length and actual length are given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 End condition and relation between effective length and actual length of Column
S.No. End conditions of column Crippling load in terms of Relation between

effective length
and actual length
Actual length Effective length
Q 2EI Q 2EI
1. Both end hinged 2
L =l
l L2
Q 2EI Q 2EI
2. One end is fixed and other is free 2
L = 2l
4l L2
4Q 2EI Q 2EI l
3. Both ends fixed L=
l2 L2 2
2Q 2EI Q 2EI l
4 One end fixed and other is hinged 2 2
L=
l L 2
10.7 SLENDERNESS RATIO

The ratio of the actual length of a column to the least radius of gyration of the column is known as
slenderness ratio. Mathematically, slenderness ratio is given by
Actual length
Slenderness ratio =
Least radius of gyration
l
= (10.9)
k
The strength of column depends upon the slenderness ratio and end condition. If the slenderness
ratio is increased, the compressive strength of a column decreases as the tendency of buckle is
increased.
10.8 CRIPPLING STRESS IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND

RADIUS OF GYRATION
The moment of inertia I can be expressed in terms of radius of gyration k as:
I = Ak2
where A is area of cross-section.
Column will tend to bend in direction of least moment of inertia. So column should be designed
using the least value of moment of inertia, then k is the least radius of gyration of the column section.
Now, crippling load P in terms of effective length is given by
Q 2 EI
P=
L2
Q 2 E Ak 2
=
L2
Q 2E A Q 2E A
L
= = 2
L2
k2 k
Crippling load P
Crippling stress = =
Area A
Q 2E A
L
= (Substituting the value of P)
A
2
k
Q2E
L
= 2
(10.10)
k
10.9 LIMITATION OF EULER’S FORMULA

Q2E
L
Crippling stress = 2
k
l

If the slenderness ratio i. e.
k is small, the crippling stress will be high. But for the column
material, the crippling stress cannot be greater than the crushing stress. Hence when the slenderness
ratio is less than a certain limit, Euler’s formula gives a value of crippling stress greater than the
crushing stress. In the limiting case, we can find the value of l/k for which the crippling stress is
equal to the crushing stress.
For a mild stress column with both ends hinged,
Crushing stress = 330 N/mm2
Young’s modulus E = 2.1 ´ 105 N/mm2
In the limiting case, equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress, we get
Crippling stress = Crushing stress
Q 2E
l
or 2
= 330
k
Q 2 2.1 105
l
or 2
= 330
k
l 2
Q 2 2.1 105
\
k =
330
= 6282
l
or = 6282 = 79.26, say, 80
k
Hence if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 for mild steel column with both ends hinged then
Euler’s formula will not be valid.
EXAMPLE 10.1
Find the safe load on the column. Both ends are hinged. Length of column = 6 m, Ixx = 8600 cm4,
Iyy = 454 cm4, Area = 56 cm2, Factor of safety = 3.0, E = 2 ´ 104 kN/cm2.
Solution: Given Iyy < Ixx

So the column tends to bend in yy direction.
I = Iyy = 454 cm4

L = l = 6 m = 600 cm (Both ends are hinged.)
A = 56 cm2
E = 2 ´ 104 kN/cm2 = 2 ´ 104 ´ 1000 N/cm2
= 2 ´ 107 N/cm2
Q 2 EI
Euler’s crippling load P =
L2
Q 2  2  10 7  454
=
600 2
= 248933.35 N = 249.93 kN
Given factor of safety = 3.0
249.93
Safe load =
3
= 82.98 kN
EXAMPLE 10.2
A strut 3 m long is 60 mm in diameter. One end of the strut is hinged while other is fixed. Find the
safe compressive load for the member using Euler’s formula. Assume the factor of safety = 3.0 and
E = 2 ´ 105 N/mm2.
Q 2 EI
Solution: Euler’s crippling load =
L2
Since one end fixed, other is hinged,
l
\ Effective length L =
2
3000
= = 2121.32 mm
2
Q d4
Moment of inertia I =
64
Q (60) 4
= = 636.17 ´ 103 mm4
64
Q 2 2 105 636.17 10 3
\ P=
(2121.32 )2
= 279056.58 N
279056.58
Safe compressive load =
3
= 93018.86 N = 93.018 kN
EXAMPLE 10.3
A bar of length 6 m when used as a simply supported beam and subjected to uniformly distributed
load of 50 kN/m over the whole span deflects 15 mm at the centre. Determine the safe compressive
load when it is used as a column with the following end conditions:
(i) Both ends fixed
(ii) One end fixed and other hinged
Take the factor of safety = 2.5
Solution: For simply supported beam carrying udl,

5 wl 4
Deflection y =
384 EI
15 5 50 6 4
= ´
1000 384 EI
5 50 6 4 1000
\ EI =
15 384
= 56250 kN-m2
(i) Both ends fixed
l 6
Effective length L = = =3m
2 2
Q 2E I
\ Euler’s crippling load P =
L2
Q 2 56250
= = 61685 kN
32
61685
\ Safe comp. load = = 24674 kN
2.5
(ii) One end fixed and other hinged
l 6
Effective length L = = = 4.2426 m
2 2
Q 2 EI
Euler’s crippling load P =
L2
Q 2 56250
= = 30880.94 kN
(4.24) 2
30880.94
\ Safe load = = 12352.37 kN
2.5
EXAMPLE 10.4
A hollow alloy tube 5 m long with external and internal diameters 40 mm and 25 mm, respectively
was found to extend 6.4 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling load for the tube when
used as a column with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load for the tube, taking a factor of
safety = 4. (AMIE 1989)
Solution: Given L = 5 m = 5000 mm, D = 40 mm, d = 25 mm, y = 6.4 mm, W = 60 kN = 60000 N,

Safety factor = 4
Q
Then Cross-sectional area A = (D 2 – d 2)
4
Q
= (402 – 252) = 765.76 mm4
4
Q
and Moment of inertia I = (D4 – d 4)
64
Q
(40 4 – 254) = 106488.94 mm4
=
64
The value of Young’s modulus is obtained as:
PL
d=
AE
PL
or E=
AE
60000 5000
=
765.76 6.4
= 6.121 ´ 104 N/mm2
Effective length L = 5000 mm
Let P is buckling load. Using Euler’s equation, we get
Q 2 EI
P=
L2
Q 2  6.121  10 4  106488.94
= = 2.573 kN
5000 2
Buckling load
And Safe load =
Factor of safety
2.573
= = 0.6432 kN
4
EXAMPLE 10.5
A solid round bar 5 m long and 5 cm in diameter was found to extend 5 mm under a tensile load
of 55 kN. This bar is used as a strut with both ends hinged. Determine the buckling load for the bar
and also the safe load taking factor of safety as 3.
Solution: Given L = 5 m = 5000 mm, d = 5 cm = 50 mm, d = 5 mm, W = 55 kN and FS = 3.

Q
\ Area of bar A = ´ 502
4
= 1963.49 mm2
Q
and Moment of inertia I = d4
64
Q
= (50)4 = 306796.16 mm4
64
The value of Young’s modulus is obtained as:
PL
d=
AE
PL
or E=
AE
55000 5000
= = 2.801 ´ 104 MPa
1963.49 5
Since the strut is hinged at its both ends, therefore,
Effective length L = l = 5000 mm
Using Euler’s equation, we get
Q 2 EI
P=
L2
Q 2 2.801 10 4 306796.16
=
(5000)2
= 3392.52 N
Buckling load
and Safe load =
Factor of safety
3392.52
= = 1130.84 N
3
EXAMPLE 10.6
Determine Euler’s crippling load for I-section 40 cm ´ 20 cm ´ 1 cm and 6 m long which is used
as a strut with length coefficient of 0.5. Take Young’s modulus as 200 GPa.
Solution: Given
Dimensions of I-section = 40 cm ´ 20 cm ´ 1 cm
Length L = 6 m = 6000 mm
Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa = 200 ´ 103 N/mm2

Moment of inertia of the section about XX axis,
1 1
IXX = bd 3 – b1d 31
12 12
1 1
= ´ 20 ´ 403 – ´ 19 ´ 383
12 12
= 19786 cm4
Similarly, the moment of inertia of the section about YY,
1 1
IYY = ´ 38 ´ 13 + 2 ´ ´ 1 ´ 203
12 12
= 3.166 + 1333.33 = 1336.5 cm4
Least value of the moment of inertia is about YY axis. Fig. 10.5 Unequal I section.
\ I = 1336.5 cm4 = 1336.5 ´ 104 mm4

l 6000
Effective length L = = = 3000 mm
2 2
Using Euler’s equation, we get
Q 2 EI
P=
L2
Q 2 200 10 3 1336.5 10 4
= = 2931272.51 N = 2931.3 kN
(3000)2
EXAMPLE 10.7
Determine the crippling load for a T-section of dimensions 10 cm
10 cm ´ 10 cm ´ 2 cm and of length 6 m when it is used as strut
with both of its end hinged. Take Young’s modulus E = 2.0 ´
105 N/mm2.
X X
Solution: Given:
Dimension of T-section = 10 cm ´ 10 cm ´ 2 cm
10 cm
Length l = 6 m = 6000 mm
Young’s modulus E = 2.0 ´ 105 N/mm2 y
Here Y axis is the axis of symmetry. Therefore, X axis to

be located.
a1 y1 a2 y2
y =
a1 a2 2 cm
20 9 16 4 180 64 Fig. 10.6 T section.

= = = 6.777 cm
20 16 36
Moment of inertia of the section about the axis XX,
 10  23   2  83 
IXX =   20  2.2232  +   16  2.7772 
 
 12   12 
= (6.667 + 98.834) + (85.333 + 123.387) = 314.221 cm4
Moment of inertia of the section about the axis YY,
2 10 3 8 2 3
IYY = = 166.67 + 5.33
12 12
= 172 cm4
Least value of moment of inertia is about YY axis,
I = 172 cm4 = 172 ´ 104 mm4
Effective length L = l = 6000 mm
Using equation, we get
Q 2 EI
P=
L2
Q 2 2.0 10 5 172 10 4
= = 94309.55 N
6000 2
10.10 RANKINE’S FORMULA

As per the limitation of Euler’s formula it is learnt that Euler’s formula gives better result for long
column. Rankine established an empirical formula based on results of experiments performed which
is applicable to all columns whether they are short or long.
Let P be the actual crippling load. Rankine stated an empirical formula as:
1 1 1
=
P PC PE
where PC = Crushing load
= sC ´ A
PE = Crippling load by Euler’s formula
Q 2 EI
=
L2
For a given material, the crushing stress sC is a constant. Hence PC will also be constant.
So, the value of P will be depending upon the value of PE, and PE depends on effective length
L of the column.
1
(i) If the column is short, i.e., L is small, the value of PE will be large. Hence will be small
PE
1 1
enough and is negligible as compared to . Neglecting , we have
PC PE
1 1
=
P PC
\ P = PC
Hence crippling load by Rankine’s formula for a short column is approximately equal to
crushing load means short columns fail due to crushing.
1
(ii) If the column is long, i.e., L is large means PE will be small, and will be large as
PE
1 1
compared to hence the value of may be neglected.
PC PC
1 1
\ =
P PE
or P = PE
Hence the crippling load by Rankine’s formula for long column is approximately crippling load
Euler’s formula.
Thus the Rankine’s formula (For all lengths of columns ranging from short to long columns) is
given as:
1 1 1 P PC
= = E
P PC PE PC PE
PC PE
or P=
PE PC
PC
=
P
1 C
PE
TC A Q 2 EI
= [As PC = sC A and PE = ]
TC A L2
1
 Q 2E I 
 2 
 L 
But I = Ak2
TC A TC A
\ P= =
T AL 2
T  L 2
1  2C 1  2C  
(Q EAk )
2
Q Ek
TC A
or P= 2
(10.11)
L
1  a 
k
Here a is Rankine’s constant, and is expresed as:
a=
TC
Q 2E
The values of sC and a for different materials are shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Rankines constant and compressive strength of some material
Material sC, N/mm2 a

1
Wrought iron 250
9000
1
Cast iron 550
1600
1
Mild steel 320
7500
1
Strong timber 50
750
EXAMPLE 10.8
Using Rankine’s formula, find the allowable load on a steel stanchion for the following data:
(i) One end fixed and other end is hinged
(ii) Length of column is 8 m
1
(iii) Rankine’s constant a =
7500
(iv) Yield stress sC = 2500 N/mm2
(vi) E = 2 ´ 106 N/mm2
(vii) Ixx = 15000 cm4, Iyy = 25000 cm4
(viii) Area A = 100 cm2
TC A
Solution: Allowable load P = 2
L
1  a 
k
Since one end fixed, other hinged,
l
\ Effective length L =
2
8000
= = 5656.85 mm
2
I
and k=
A
15000
= (I = Imin = Ixx)
100
= 12.25 cm = 122.5 mm
2500 100 100

Now, P= 2
1 5656.85
1
7500

122.5
= 19465470 N = 19465.470 kN
Assume factor of safety = 3.0.
19465.47
\ Allowable load = = 6488.49 kN
3.0
EXAMPLE 10.9
A hollow circular column of length 5 m is having an outer diameter of 15 cm, and an internal
diameter of 10 cm. The column is hinged at the ends. Calculate the safe axial load which the column
can carry, assuming the safe stress as 100 N/cm2 in compression for the material. Use Rankine’s
formula and constant = 1/7500.
Q
Solution: Area of column = (D2 – d2)
4
Q
or A = (152 – 102)
4
= 98.17 cm2
Q
Moment of Inertia I = (D4 – d 4)
64
Q
= (154 – 104) = 1994.175 cm4
64
Effective Length L = l = 5 m (both ends are hinged)
Safe stress sC = 100 N/cm2
1
Rankine constant a =
7500
TC A
Safe load P =
1  a ( L/ k ) 2
I
Radius of gyration k =
A
1994.175
= = 4.51 cm
98.17
100  98.17
Then P = 2
1  500 
1 
7500  4.51 
= 3720.25 N
The safe load column can carry 3.721 kN.
EXAMPLE 10.10
Compare the safe load obtained in Example 10.9 using the same data with the Euler’s crippling load
and state whether Euler’s formula is applicable for this case.
Q 2EI
Solution: Safe load P =
l2
1
From Rankine’s constant a = , the section is of mild steel.
7500
E = 210 GPa
Q 2  210  103  19.94  10 6
P= = 1653.119  103 N
(5  103 )2
= 1653.119 kN
Eulers crippling load 1653.119
= = 444.27
Rankine’s safe load 3.721
EXAMPLE 10.11
A column of effective length 5 m has a sectional area of 4500 mm2. If the least radius of gyration
is 60 mm, what is the safe load the column can carry? Using Rankine’s formula.
TC A
Solution: Rankine’s critical load P = 2
L
1  a 
k
80 4500

P= 2
1 5000
1
1500

60
= 63947.368 N
63947.368
Safe load =
2.5
= 25578.947 N
EXAMPLE 10.12
A T-section used as a strut of 4 m length is hinged at both ends. The flange is 150 mm wide and
20 mm thick, and the web is 100 mm deep and 20 mm thick. Determine the safe load the column
1
can carry. Take sC = 320 MPa, Rankine’s constant = , Factor of safety = 3.0.
7500
Fig. 10.7 T section.
TC A
Solution: P= 2
L
1  a 
k
Area of T-section = 150 ´ 20 + 100 ´ 20 = 5000 mm2
Here Y axis is the axis of symmetry. Therefore, X axis to be located.
150 20 10 100 20 70
y = = 34 mm
5000
150 20 3 20 100 3
\ Ixx = + 150 ´ 20 ´ (34 – 10)2 + + 100 ´ 20 ´ (86 – 50)2
12 12
= 100000 + 1728000 + 1666666.7 + 2592000 = 6.08 ´ 106 mm4
20 150 3 100 20 3
and Iyy = +
12 12
= 5.625 ´ 106 + 66.66 ´ 103 = 5.69 ´ 106 mm4
Now, Iyy < Ixx
The column tends to buckle at YY axis,
I yy
\ k=
A
5.69 10 6
= = 33.74 mm
5000
Effective length L = l = 4 m = 4000 mm
320  5000
\ P= 2
1  4000 
1 
7500  33.74 
= 1.575 ´ 106 N
Rankine’s critical load = 1.575 ´ 106 N

1.575 10 6
\ Safe load = = 5.25 ´ 105 N
3
10.11 ECCENTRIC LOADING

Let P = Eccentric load
ex = Eccentricity in x direction
ey = Eccentricity in y direction
k = Radius of gyration
A = Area of column
(a) Without buckling: When there is no buckling of the column,

Resultant stress = Direct stress ± Bending stress
sr = sd ± sb (10.12)
P
where Direct stress sd = (Compressive)
A
If the load is at an eccentricity ey then
My P ey y
Bending stress sb = =
I Ak 2
Putting the value of sd and sb in Eq. (10.12), we get
sr =
P
1
ey y
A k2 (10.13)
where y is the distance of the fibre of the column from the natural axis.
Consider a rectangular column of width l and thickness h, we get
(sr)max =
P 6e
1 y

A h
P 6e
\ Tensile stress =
A
1
h
y
(10.14)
For zero tensile stress,

6e y
–1 + =0
h
h 1 h
or ey =
6
=
2 3 (10.15)
Thus, if the value of eccentricity ey on either side of X-axis does not exceed h/6, there will be
no tensile stress in the column. Similarly, by considering eccentricity ex about Y-axis, we can show
that the eccentricity should not exceed l/6. Thus, for a rectangular section to avoid tension in the
column, the load must lie within the middle third of the cross-section of the structure. This is known
as the middle third rule. The permissible region has been shown in Fig. 10.8.
h/6
h
h/6
l/6 l/6
Fig. 10.8 Middle third rule.
Consider a column ABCD subjected to a load P having eccentricity about both the axis as shown
in Fig. 10.9.
D Y C
ex
ey
X X
h
A Y
B
l
Fig. 10.9 Column having eccentricity about both the axes.
Resultant stress = Direct stress ± Bending stress about XX axis ± Bending stress about YY axis
sr =
P

M "# M x "#

Resultant stress
A I
y
! $ XX !I $ YY
sr =
P Pe x
x
Pe "
y#
y
or
!A I yy I #$
xx
(10.16)
Resultant stress at A,
(sr)A =
P
6e
1 x
6e y "#
A !
l h $
(sr)B =
P 6e
1 x
6e y "#
! $
Similarly,
A l h
P 6e 6e "
(sr)C =
A!
1
l
x

h $
#
y
P 6e 6e "
(sr)D =
A!
1
l
x

h $
#
y
For no tensile stress, sr = 0

6ex 6ey
\ =1
l h
e x ey 1
or =
l h 6
l h
This equation represents a straight line, which makes intercepts and on X and Y axes,
6 6
respectively. This rhombus is called core of the column section.
(b) Considering buckling: Using Rankine’s formula,

TC A
L
P=
1 a
2
k
Taking eccentricity into account, we get
TC A
P=
%K1 a L (K %K1 e x e y (K
K'& k )K &K k k )K
2
x y
*' 2
y
2
x*
where x and y are the distances of the fibre from the neutral axis.
10.12 JOHNSON’S FORMULA FOR COLUMNS

Professor Johnson after a series of experiments and observations proposed the following two
formulae for columns:
1. Straight line formula
2. Parabolic formula
10.12.1 Johnson’s Straight Line Formula for Columns

This formula was first proposed by Johnson which states
  L 
P = A T C  n   
  k 
where P = Safe load on the column

A = Area of the column cross-section
sC = Allowable stress in the column material
n = A constant, whose value depends upon the column material
For mild streel n = 0.57
For structural steel n = 2
For cast iron n = 0.6
L
= Slenderness ratio
k
Hence the stress at critical load for structural streel is
P L
= 367.5  2   ; N/mm 2
A k
10.12.2 Johnson’s Parabolic Formula for Columns

Professor Johnson, after proposing the straight line formula, found that the results obtained by this
formula are very approximate. He then proposed another formula, which states
 L 
2
P = A T C  r   
  k  
where P = Safe load on the column
A = Area of the column cross-section
sC = Allowable stress in the column material
r = A constant, whose value depends upon the column material
L
= Slenderness ratio with equivalent column length
k
EXERCISES
10.1 Prove that the Euler’s formula is valid for long column.
10.2 Derive an expression for Euler’s crippling load if both the ends are fixed.
10.3 Find the Euler’s crippling load for a hollow cylindrical steel column of 38 mm external
diameter and 35 mm thick. The length of column is 23 mm and hinged at its both ends. Take
E = 200 GPa. [Ans. 17.25 kN]
10.4 Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column one end rigidly fixed and
other pin joined 150 mm outer and 100 mm inner diameter, 10 m long. Use Euler’s formula
with a factor of safely of 5 and take E = 95 GN/m2. [Ans. 75 kN]
10.5 Find the Euler’s crushing load for a hollow cast-iron column 15 cm external diameter and
2 cm thick, if it is 6 m long and hinged at both the ends. Take E = 80 GPa. Compare this
load with the crushing load as given by the Rankine’s formula, using Rankine’s constant
1/1600. For what length of strut of this cross-section does the Euler’s formula ceases to
apply. (Engineering Services) [Ans. 387.4 kN, 393.9 kN, 176.1 cm]
10.6 Determine the ratio of the strengths of a solid steel column to that of a hollow column of
the same material and having the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the
hollow column is ½ of its external diameter. Both the columns are of the same length and
are pinned at their both ends. [Ans. 5/3]
10.7 A cast iron hollow column, having 8 cm external diameter and 6 cm internal diameter, is
used as a column of 2 m length. Using Rankine’s formula, determine the crippling load,
when both the ends are fixed. Take sC = 600 MN/m2. [Ans. 660 kN]
10.8 Find the Euler’s crushing load for a hollow cylindrical cast iron column 15 cm external
diameter and 2 cm thick, if it is 6 m long and hinged at both ends, E = 80 GN/m2. Compare
this load with the crushing load given by Rankine’s formula using sC = 567 MN/m2 and a
1
= for what length of column would these two formulae give the same crushing load.
1600
[Ans. 387.8 kN, 406.4 kN, 4.82 m]
10.9 A hollow cast iron column with fixed ends supports an axial load of 1000 kN. If the column is
5 m long and has an external diameter of 250 mm, find thickness of the metal required. Use
1
Rankine’s formula taking a constant of and assume a working stress of 80 MN/m2.
1600
[Ans. 29.4 mm]
10.10 Piston rod of steam engine 80 cm long is subjected to a maximum load of 60 kN. Determine
the diameter of rod using Rankine’s formula with permissible compressive stress of 100 MPa.
1
Take constant in Rankine’s formula as for hinged ends. The rod may be partially fixed
7500
with length coefficient of 0.6. [Ans. 33.23 mm]
10.11 Find the inside diameter of a cast iron column of 200 mm outside diameter which is 5 m long
and has to support a safe axial load of 600 kN, one end being rigidly fixed. Use a factor of
1
safety of 5 in conjunction with Rankine’s formula, a = and sC = 567 MN/m2.
1600
[Ans. 179 mm]
10.12 A steel stanchion is built of two rolled steel joists of I- section 30 cm ´ 15 cm ´ 1.25 cm united
by plates 2 cm thick and 40 cm wide fastened to flanges. The edges of the plates are flush with
the outside edges of the joints. Using Rankine’s formula for a strut, find the safe load for this
1
stanchion if it is 8 m long, sC = 330 MN/m2 and a = , FS = 4. [Ans. 1406 kN]
7500
10.13 A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long, both ends being fixed. Design the column to
carry an axial load of 250 kN. Use Rankine’s formula and adopt a factor of safety (FS) of 5.
The internal diameter may be taken as 0.8 times the external diameter. Take sC = 350 MN/m2
1
and a = . [Ans. D = 136.8 mm, d = 109 mm]
1600
10.14 A built-up beam is shown in Fig. 10.10. It is simply supported at ends. Find its length, given
that when it is subjected to a load of 40 kN/m length, it deflects by 1 cm. Find out the safe load
if this beam is used in a column with ends fixed. Use Euler’s formula. Take factor of safety 3
and E = 2 ´ 105 MPa.
[Ans. 1397.8 cm, 3.037 MN]
30 cm
5cm
100 cm 2 cm
X X
5cm
30 cm
Fig. 10.10 I section.

11 Spring
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Springs are elastic members which distort under load and regain their original shape when load is
removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters, motorcycles, rickshaws,
governors, etc. According to their uses, the springs perform the following functions:
1. To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
2. To store energy as in clock springs.
3. To apply forces to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
4. To measure forces as in spring balances.
5. To change the vibrations characteristic of a member as in flexible mounting of motors.
The springs are usually made of either high carbon steel (0.7 to 1.0%) or medium carbon alloy
steels. Phosphor bronze, brass, 18/8 stainless steel and monel and other metal alloys are used for
corrosion resistance springs.
11.2 DEFINITIONS
Helical springs: A helical spring is a piece of wire coiled in the form of helix. If the slope of the
helix of coil is so small then the bending effects can be neglected, and the spring is called close-
coiled spring. In such a spring only torsional shear stress are introduced. On the other hand, if the
slope of helix of coil is quite appreciable then both the bending as well as torsional shear stress are
introduced in the spring, and a spring of this type is called an open-coiled spring.
For all practical purposes, if helix angle is less than 15°, the spring is treated as close coiled
helical spring, otherwise it is treated as open coiled helical spring.
Helix angle It is the angle which the axis of spring wire makes with a horizontal line
:
perpendicular to the axis of the spring.
Spring index: It is the ratio of the mean coil diameter to the diameter of the spring wire. It is
denoted by C.
\ C = D/d
308
Chapter 11: Spring 309
Stiffness: It is defined as load per unit deflection, and is denoted by K.

Torsional rigidity: Torsional rigidity or torsional stiffness is defined as torque per unit angular twist.
11.3 TYPES OF SPRINGS

Various types of springs are employed for different purposes; some of them are as follows:
1. Helical springs
(i) Close-coiled helical springs
(ii) Open-coiled helical springs
(iii) Tension helical springs
(iv) Compression helical springs
2. Leaf springs
3. Torsion springs
4. Circular springs
5. Belleville springs
6. Flat springs
11.4 HELICAL SPRING

11.4.1 Closely-coiled Helical Springs
Consider a closely-coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load neglecting curvature and direct
shear effects as shown in Fig. 11.1(a).
Let d = Diameter of spring wire

D = Mean diameter of the spring
n = Number of turns on coils
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material
W = Axial load on spring
Fig. 11.1(a) Closely-coiled helical spring under Fig. 11.1(b) Section of helical spring with
axial load. axial force w, producing torque T.
t = Shear stress induced in the wire due to twisting

q = Angle of twist in the spring wire
d = Deflection of the spring as a result of axial load
Torque on the spring acting about the axis of the spring [Fig. 11.1(b)]
WD
T = (11.1a)
2
We know that the twisting moment is:
Q
T = t1 d 3 (11.1b)
16
Equating Eqs. (11.1a) and (11.2b), we get
8WD
t1 = (11.2)
Qd3
The force W will also induce direct shear stress in the wire. The magnitude can be obtained
assuming uniform distribution of stress over the cross section as follows. The direct shear stress is
given as
4W
t2 = (11.3a)
Qd2
The distribution of the shear stresses over the cross section is shown in Fig. 11.1(c).
Figure 11.1(c) shows that the maximum shear stress develops at the inner side of the coil and the
magnitude is obtained as
tmax = t1 + t2
8W 4W
= +
Qd 3
Q d2
8WD  d 
3  
= 1+ (11.4)
Qd  2D 
Now if a shear factor ks is defined as
d
ks = 1 +
2D
 0.5 
= 1 + (11.5)
 C 
The maximum shear stress can be expressed as
8WD
tmax = Ks (11.6)
Q d3
Now, Length of wire l = Length of one coil ´ No. of coils
= 2p R ´ n where R is the mean coil radius
Fig. 11.1(c) Shear stress distribution.
We also know,
T GJ
=
R l
Tl
or q=
GJ
where J = Polar moment of Inertia
= Ixx + Iyy
Qd4
or J= (For circular section)
32
WD (2QRn)
or q=
2 (11.7)
( Q d 4)
G
32
Then Deflection of the springÿ d = Rq

32WDRn = 32WDR n 2
=R
Gd Gd 4 4
8WD3n
= (11.8)
Gd 4
W
and Stiffness of the spring K =
E
Gd 4
= (11.9)
8 D3n
Wahls correction factor: A.M. Wahl has presented an approximate analysis based upon the
theory of the bending of curved beams to determine the stresses in spring wire by taking into account
the effect of curvature and direct shear. Equation (11.6) is modified to include these effects by
introducing a factor called Wahl’s correction factor.
8WD
fs = Kw (11.10)
Q d3
4C 1 0.615
where Wahl’s correction factor Kw =
4C 4 C
D
and, Spring index C =
d
11.4.2 Open-coiled Helical Springs

In an open-coiled helical spring, the spring wire is coiled in
such a way, that there is a large gap between the two
consecutive turns. As a result of this the spring can take P d
compressive load also. An open-coiled helical spring, like a
closed-coil helical spring, may be subjected to axial loading a
or axial twist. In this chapter, we shall discuss only open-
coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load as shown in
Fig. 11.2.
Let d = Diameter of the spring wire W
R = Mean radius of the spring coil D
P = Pitch of the spring coils
n = No. of turns on coils Fig. 11.2 Open-coiled helical spring
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring materials under axial load.
W = Axial load on the spring
t = Maximum shear stress induced in the spring wire due to loading
sb = Bending stress induced in the spring wire
d = Axial deflection of the spring as a result of axial load
a = Angle of helix
A little consideration will show that the load W will cause a moment WR. This moment may be
resolved into the following two components:
T = WR cos a (It causes twisting of coils)
M = WR sin a (It causes bending of coils)
Let d = Angle of twist as a result of twisting moment
f = Angle of bend as a result of bending moment
Length of the spring wire is:
l = 2p nR sec a (11.11a)
and twisting moment is given by
WR cos a = Q ts d 3 (11.11b)
16
' M = T
d
WR sin B
My
sb 2
I y
b
Now, Bending stress = =
I Qd 4
64
32 WR sin B
= (11.11c)
Qd3
Tl WR cos B l ' T = GR
and q=
JG
=
JG J l
Angle of bend due to bending moment is given as:
Ml WR sin B l
f= =
EI EI
For equilibrium of the spring,
External work done = Strain energy stored
1 1 1
\ Wd = Tq + Mf
2 2 2
or Wd = Tq + Mf
WR cos B l WR sin B l
= WR cos a ´ + WR sin a´
JG EI
d = WR2l
cos B sin B "#
2 2
! JG EI $
or (11.12a)
Q Q
Now, substituting the values of l = 2p nR sec a, J = (d)4 and I = (d)4 in Eq. (11.12a),
32 64
we get
"#
cos 2 B sin 2 B
d = WR2 ´ 2p nR sec a
Q
Q ##
! 32 d 4G E
64
d4
$

64 WR3n sec B cos 2 B 2 sin 2 B

"#
! $
= (11.12b)
d4 G E
If we substitute a = 0 in Eq. (11.12b), it gives the deflection of a closed-coiled spring, i.e.,
64 WR3n
d=
Gd 4
8WD3 n
=
Gd 4
11.5 STRAIN ENERGY IN THE SPRING

We know that the springs are used for storing energy which is equal to work done on it by some
external load. Let
W = Load applied on the spring
d = Deflection in the spring due to load W
Energy stored in spring is:
1
U = Wd (11.13)
2
Maximum shear stress induced in the spring wire,
8WD
tmax = Kw ´
Q d3
Q d 3U max
or W = (11.14)
8K w D
Deflection of the spring is given by
8WD3n 8  Q d 3U max D3 n
d= = 
Gd 4 8Kw D Gd 4
QU max D 2 n
= (11.15)
K w dG
Substituting the values of W and d in Eq. (11.13), we have
1 Q d 3U max QU max D2 n
U =  
2 8K w D K w dG
U max
2
Q d
(pDn)
4
2
=
4 K w2 G
2
U max
= V (11.16)
4 K w2 G
where V = Volume of spring wire

= Length of spring wire ´ cross-sectional area of spring wire
Q d
= (pDn)
4
2
11.6 SPRINGS UNDER IMPACT LOAD

Let a weight W falls onto a spring from a height h measured from the uncompressed state of spring.
Let W1 be the equivalent static load and d be the compression of the spring under load W1.
Work done by falling weight = W (h + d ) (11.17)
1
Work done in the spring by W1 = W1d (11.18)
2
Equating Eqs. (11.17) and (11.18), we get
1
W (h + d ) = W1 d
2
8W1D3n
where d= (11.19)
Gd 4
11.7 SPRINGS IN SERIES

When two springs of different stiffness are joined end to end to carry a common load W, they are
said to be connected in series. Figure 11.3 shows spring connected in series.
Let
k = Equivalent or combined stiffness of system
k1, k2 = Stiffness of springs for 1 and 2, respectively
d 1, d 2 = Extension of springs for 1 and 2, respectively k1 1
d = Extension of system
Now, Total deflection d = d1 + d 2 W
W W W
= 2
k k1 k2 k2
1 1 1
=
k k1 k2 W
k1 k2 Fig. 11.3 Springs connected

or k = (11.20) in series.
k1 k2
11.8 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

When two springs are joined in such a way that they have common deflection then they are said to
be connected in parallel. Figure 11.4 shows spring connected in parallel.
Total load W = W1 + W2
Deflection d =ÿd 1 = d 2
\ k d = k1d1 + k2d 2
\ k = k1 + k2 (11.21) k1
1 k2 2
where k = Equivalent or combined stiffness of system
k1, k2 = Stiffness of springs 1 and 2, respectively
d = Deflection of the system W1 W2
W
Fig. 11.4 Springs connected in parallel.
EXAMPLE 11.1
A closely coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 500 N. Its mean coil diameter is 10 times than
that of the wire diameter. Calculate mean and coil diameter if the maximum shear stress in the
material of the spring is 80 MPa.
Solution: Given
tmax = 80 MPa, W = 500 N, D = 10d
D
Then Spring index C =
d
= 10
Wahl’s stress factor is:
4C 1 0.615
Kw = = 1.14
4C 4 C
Maximum shear stress is:
8WD
tmax = Kw
Qd 3
8 500 10d "#
80 = 1.14
! Qd $ 3
or d = 13.46 mm
Mean diameter is:
D = 10 ´ 13.46 = 134.6 mm
EXAMPLE 11.2
A closed-coiled helical spring of 10 cm mean diameter is made up of 1 cm diameter rod and has
20 turns. The spring carries an axial load of 200 N. Determine the shearing stress. Taking the value
of modulus of rigidity = 8.4 ´ 104 N/mm2, determine the deflection when carrying this load. Also
calculate the stiffness of the spring and the frequency of free vibration for a mass hanging from it.
Solution: Given D = 10 cm, d = 1 cm, n = 20, W = 200 N, G = 8.4 ´ 104 N/mm2

D
d
10
= = 10
1
Wahl’s stress factor is:
4C 1 0.615
Kw =
4C 4 C
4 10 1 0.615
=
4 10 4 10
39 0.615
= = 1.14
36 10
Maximum shear stress is given as:
8WD
tmax = Kw
Qd 3
8 200 100 "# = 58.06 MPa

! Q (10) $
= 1.14 3
Deflection of spring is given by
8WD3n
d =
Gd 4
8 200 (100)3 20
= = 38.09 mm
8.4 10 4 (10)4
Stiffness of spring is obtained as:
W
K=
E
200
= = 5.25 N/mm
38.09
Frequency of free vibration is expressed as:
1 g
f=
2Q E
1 9.81
= = 2.55 cycles/s
2Q 38.09 10 3
EXAMPLE 11.3
Find the maximum shear stress and deflection induced in the helical spring for the following
specifications, if it has to absorb 1000 N-m of energy.
Mean diameter of spring = 100 mm

Diameter of steel wire = 20 mm
No. of coils = 20
Modulus of rigidity = 80 GPa
Solution: Given U = 1000 N-m, D = 100 mm, d = 20 mm, n = 20, G = 80 GPa

D
d
100
= =5
20
4C  1 0.615
Wahl’s stress factor Kw = 
4C  4 C
4 5 1 0.615
= = 1.31
454 5
Volume of spring wire is:
%&Q (20) ()
V = (p Dn)
'4 *
2
%Q (
= (p ´ 100 ´ 20) & (20) )
'4 *
2
= 1973920.88 mm3
Energy absorbed in the spring is given by
2
U max
U = V
4 K w2 G
2
U max (1973920.88)
1000 ´ 103 =
4  (1.31)2  80  103
tmax = 460.84 MPa
Deflection in the spring is given as:
QU max D2 n
d =
K w dG
Q (460.84)(100)2 20
=
(1.31)(20)(80 10 3)
= 138.15 mm
EXAMPLE 11.4
A closed-coiled helical spring has mean coil diameter 60 mm. It is made up of 6 mm diameter wire
and has 16 turns. If its maximum shear stress is not to exceed 110 MPa, determine
(i) Maximum value of axial load
(ii) Deflection
(iii) Spring constant

(iv) Energy stored under maximum load
Take G = 82 GPa.
Solution: Given D = 60 mm, d = 6 mm, n = 16, tmax = 110 MPa

Q
(i) WR = tmaxd3
16
Q
or W ´ 30 = ´ 110 ´ 63
16
or W = 155.5 N
8WD3n
(ii) d=
Gd 4
8 155.5 603 16
=
82 103 6 4
= 40.46 mm
W 155.5
(iii) K = =
E 40.46
= 3.84 N/mm
1 1
(iv) U = Wd = ´ 155.5 ´ 40.46
2 2
= 3146 N-mm or 3.146 N-m
= 3.146 J
EXAMPLE 11.5
A railway wagon weighing 60 kN and moving with a speed of 30 km/hr is to be stopped by 4 buffer
springs in which the maximum compression allowed is 30 cm. Calculate the number of turns in each
spring in which diameter of wire is 5 cm and mean diameter 20 cm, G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Kinetic Energy of the wagon is given by

1
= mv2
2
1 60 10 3
30 1000 2
=
2 9.81

60 60
= 212.368 kN-m
212.368
Energy to be absorbed by each spring = = 53.092 kN-m
4
Energy absorbed = Work done on the spring
1
53.092 ´ 103 = Wd
2
2 53.092 10 3
or W = = 353.95 kN
0.3
8WD3n
Deflection d =
Gd 4
8  353.95  103  (20  10  2 )3  n

or 0.3 =
80  109  (5  10  2 )4
Solving we get
n = 6.62 7 turns
EXAMPLE 11.6
A stiff bar of negligible weight transmits a load P to a P
combination of 3 springs as shown in Fig. 11.5. The three x
springs are made of the same material with equal rod diameters.
They are of the same length before loading. The number of
coils in the three springs are 10,12 and 15, respectively, while
the mean radii of the coils are in the proportion 1:1.2:1.4,
respectively. Find the distance x such that the stiff bar remains
horizontal after applying the load.
Solution: If the stiff bar is to remain horizontal then the

compression of the three springs will be equal.
L L
\ d1 = d 2 = d 3 = d
Fig. 11.5
Also G1 = G2 = G3 = G
d1 = d2 = d3 = d
n1 = 10, n2 = 12, n3 = 15
D1 : D2 : D3 = 1 : 1.2 : 1.4
Let P1, P2 and P3 be the loads on the springs. Then
8 P1 D13 n1 80 P1 D13
d1 = =
Gd 4 Gd 4
8P2 D23 n2 96 P2 D23

d2 = =
Gd 4 Gd 4
8P3 D33 n3 120 P3 D33

d3 = =
Gd 4 Gd 4
Gd 4E C
\ P1 = =
80 D13 10 D13
Gd 4E C
P2 = 3 =
96 D2 12 D23
Gd 4E C
P3 = 3 =
120 D3 15 D33
Gd 4E
where C =
8
Taking moments about P, we get
P1 ´ x = P2 (L – x) + P3 (2L – x)
xC ( L x ) C ( 2 L x )C
or =
10 D13 12 D23 15 D33
D2 D
As = 1.2, 3 = 1.4
D1 D1
x Lx 2L x
\ = 3
10 12 (1.2) 15 (1.4)3
x Lx 2L x
or =
10 20.736 41160.
or 20.736 ´ 41.16 ´ x = 10 ´ 41.16(L – x) + 10 ´ 20.736(2L – x)
or 853.49x = 411.6(L – x) + 207.36 (2L – x)
or (853.49 + 411.6 + 207.36)x = (411.6 + 414.72)L
or 1472.45x = 826.32L
or x = 0.561L
EXAMPLE 11.7
Two close-coiled helical springs wound from the same wire, but with different core radii having
equal number of coils, are compressed between rigid plates at their ends. Calculate the maximum
shear stress induced in each spring if the wire diameter is 10 mm and the load applied between the
rigid plates is 500 N. The core radii of the springs are 100 mm and 75 mm, respectively.
Solution: Given n1 = n2, d = 10 mm, W = 500 N

R1 = 100 mm
R2 = 75 mm
Let W1 = Load shared by outer spring
W2 = Load shared by inner spring
64W1 R13 n1
Then d1 =
Gd 4
64W1 (100)3 n1 6400 W1 n1
= = (i)
G(10)4 G
64W2 R23 n2
Similarly d2 =
Gd 4
64 W2 ( 75)3 n2 2700 W2 n2
= 4 = (ii)
G (10) G
Since the springs are held between two rigid plates, deflections in both the springs must be
equal.
Equating Eqs. (i) and (ii) gives
27W2
W1 = (iii)
64
Also W1 + W2 = 500 (iv)
By Eqs. (iii) and (iv),
W2 = 351.6 N
W1 = 148.4 N
From relation of torque for outer spring,
Q U1d 3
W1 R1 =
16
Q
or 148.4 ´ 100 = ´ t1 ´ (10)3
16
or t1 = 75.6 N/mm2
351.6 75 16
Similarly, t2 =
Q (10)3
= 134.3 MPa
EXAMPLE 11.8
A helical spring B is placed inside the coils of a second helical spring A having the same number
of coils and free axial length and of same material. The two springs are compressed by an axial load
of 200 N which is shared between them. The mean coil diameters of A and B are 80 mm and
60 mm and the wire diameters are 12 mm and 6 mm, respectively. Calculate the load taken and
maximum stress in each spring.
Solution: Springs are connected in parallel,

PA + PB = P (i)
dA = d B
where PA = Load shared by spring A
PB = Load shared by spring B
dA = Deflection of spring A
dB = Deflection of spring B
8 PA DA3 nA 8 PB DB3 nB
Then =
GA d A4 GB d B4
PA DA3 PB DB3 ' G A = GB "#

or
d A4
=
d B4 ! n A = nB $
PA D d
=
3 4
D d
B A
or
PB A B
60 12
3 4
=
80 6
= 0.423 ´ 16 = 6.77
or PA = 6.77PB
Substitute this value of PA in Eq. (i), we get
6.77 PB + PB = 200
or PB = 25.74 N
and PA = 174.26 N
8 PA DA
Now, (t)A =
Q d A3
8  (174.26) (80)
= = 20.54 MPa
Q (12)3
8 PB DB
and (t)B =
Q d B3
8 (25.74 )(60 )
= = 18.21 MPa
Q (6 )3
EXAMPLE 11.9
A composite spring has two close-coiled springs connected in series, one spring has 10 coils of a mean
diameter of 20 mm and wire diameter 3 mm. Find the wire diameter of other spring, if it has 15 coils of
mean diameter 35 mm. The stiffness of the composite spring is 2 kN/m. Take G = 80 GPa.
Solution: Springs are connected in series,
1 1 1
=
k k1 k2
W Gd14
or k1 = =
E1 8 D13 n1
80 103 (3) 4
= = 10.13 N/mm
8 (20)3 10
Gd 24
and k2 =
8 D23 n2
80 10 3 d24
= = 0.0155 d24 N/mm
8 (35) 15
3
1 1 1
Now, =
k k1 k2
1000 1 1
or 3 =
2 10 10.13 0.0155 d 24
64.52
or 0.5 – 0.0987 =
d 24
or d24 = 160.78
Thus, Wire diameter d = 3.56 mm
EXAMPLE 11.10
An open-coiled helical spring consists of 10 coils, each of mean diameter 5 cm, the wire forming
the coils being 6 mm diameter, and making a constant angle of 30o with planes perpendicular to the
axis of the spring. What load will cause the spring to elongate 1.25 cm and what will be the bending
and shearing stresses due to this load? Calculate the value of axial twist which would cause a bending
stress of 50 MPa in the coils, E = 210 GPa and G = 84 GPa.
Solution: Given n = 10, R = 2.5 cm, d = 0.6 cm, a = 30°, d = 1.25 cm

Under axial load,
d=

64 WR 3n sec B cos 2 B 2 sin 2 B

"#
d4 !
G E $
64  W  (2.5)3  10  sec 30  cos2 30 2  sin 2 30 
or 12.5 =   
(6) 4  84  10 210  103 
3
Solving we get
W= 124.05 N
= 0.10076 ´ 10–3 W
or W= 124.05 N
Now, Torque T = WR cos a
= 124.05 ´ 2.5 ´ 10–2 ´ 0.866 = 2.6857 N-m
16 T
Shear stress t =
Qd 3
16 2.6857
= = 63.325 MPa
Q (0.6)3 10 6
Bending moment M = WR sin a
= 124.05 ´ 2.5 ´ 10–2 ´ 0.5 = 1.5506 N-m
32 M
Bending stress sb =
Q d3
32 1.5506
= = 73.122 MPa
Q (0.6)3 10 6
Let Mo is axial torque.
Bending moment M = Mo cos a
32 Mo cos B
Bending stress sb =
Qd 3
32 Mo 0.866
or 50 ´ 106 =
Q (0.6)3 10 6
50 Q (0.6)3
Mo = = 1.224 N-m
32 0.866
EXAMPLE 11.11
In an open-coiled helical spring having 10 coils, the stresses due to bending and twisting are
98 MPa and 105 MPa, respectively, when the spring is axially loaded. Assuming the mean diameter
of the coils to be 8 times the diameter of wire, find the maximum permissible load and the diameter
of wire for a maximum extension of 2 cm, E = 210 GPa and G = 82 GPa.
Solution: Given n = 10, s b = 98 MPa, t = 105 MPa, D = 8d, R = 4d, d = 2 cm
Under axial load,
d=

64 WR 3n sec B cos 2 B 2 sin 2 B

"#
d4 !
G E $
Also T = WR cos a
16 T 16 WR cos B
Then t= =
Qd 3
Qd 3
16 W 4 d cos B
or 105 ´ 106 =
Qd 3
64 W cos B
or 105 ´ 106 = (i)
Qd 2
and M = WR sin a
32 M 32 WR sin B
Now, sb = =
Qd 3
Qd 3
32 W 4 d sin B
or 98 ´ 106 =
Qd 3
128W sin B
or 98 ´ 106 = (ii)
Qd 2
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we get
98
= 2 tan a
105
98
or tan a = = 0.466
210
or a= 25.017o
Substituting the value of a in Eq. (i), we get
64W cos 25.017 64 0.9062 W
105 ´ 106 = =
Q d2 Qd 2
or W = 5.6878 ´ 106 ´ d 2
Extension is given by
64 5.6878 10 6 d 2 ( 4 d ) 3 10

( 0.9062 ) 2 2 ( 0.4229) 2

"#
! $
0.02 =
d 4 0.9062 82 10 9 210 10 9
or 0.02 = 25.708d [0.100146 + 0.017033]
or 0.02 = 3.0124 d
or d = 6.64 ´ 10–3 m = 6.64 mm
\ W = 5.6878 (6.64)2 = 250.8 N
11.9 LEAF SPRINGS OR CARRIAGE SPRINGS

The carriage springs are widely used in railway wagon coaches and road vehicles these days. These
are used to absorb shocks which give an unpleasant feeling to the passengers. The energy absorbed
by a laminated spring, during a shock, is released immediately without doing any useful work. A
laminated spring, in its simplest form, consists of a number of parallel strips of a metal having
different lengths but same width and placed one over the other in laminations as shown in Fig. 11.6.
All the plates are initially bent to the same radius and are free to slide one over the other. When the
spring is loaded to the designed load, all the plates become flat and the central deflection disappears.
The purpose of this type of arrangement of plates is to make the spring of uniform strength
throughout. This is achieved by tapering the ends of the laminations. The semi-elliptical type spring
rests in the axis of the vehicle and its top plate is pinned at the ends to the chassis of the vehicle.
W/2 W/2
l
W
Fig. 11.6 Leaf spring.
Laminated springs are of two types:

(i) Semi-elliptical (i.e., simply supported at its ends subjected to central load)
(ii) Quarter-elliptical (i.e., cantilever types)
11.9.1 Semi-elliptical Spring

Consider a carriage spring pinned at its both ends, and carrying an upward load at its centre as shown
in Fig. 11.6. Let
l = Span of the spring
t = Thickness of plates
b = Width of the plates

n = Number of plates
W = Load acting on the spring
M = Maximum bending moment developed in the plates
d = Original deflection of the top spring
R = Radius of curvature of the spring
A little consideration will show that the load will be acting on the spring on the lowermost plate,
and it will be shared equally on the two ends of the top plate as shown in Fig. 11.6. We know that
the bending moment at the centre of the span due to this load,
Wl
M = (11.22)
4
And moment resisted by one plate,
Tb I ' M = T
I y
¹ b
=
y
bt 3
Tb
12 = T b ¹ bt
2
' I = bt and y t
3
=
t 6 12 2
2
Total moment resisted by n plates,
nT b bt 2
M = (11.23)
6
Since the maximum bending moment due to load is equal to total resisting moment, therefore,
equating Eqs. (11.22) and (11.23),
Wl nT b bt 2
=
4 6
3W l
or sb = (11.24)
2 nbt 2
From the geometry of the spring figure, we know that the central deflection,
l2
d= (11.25)
8R
We also know that in the case of a bending beam,
Tb E
=
y R
Ey Et ' y = t
or R=
Tb
=
2T b 2
Substituting this value of R in Eq. (11.25),
l2 T l2
d= Et
= b (11.26)
8 4 Et
2T b
Now, substituting the value of s b from Eq. (11.24) in Eq. (11.26),

3W l l2 3Wl 3
d= = (11.27)
2 nbt 2 4 Et 8 Enbt 3
EXAMPLE 11.12
A leaf spring has 12 plates each 50 mm wide and 5 mm thick, the longest plate being 600 mm long. The
greatest bending stress in not to exceed 180 N/mm2 and the central deflection is 15 mm. Estimate the
magnitude of the greatest central load that can be applied to the spring E = 206 kN/mm2.
Solution:
3Wl 3 8E Enbt 3
(i) d= , W =
8 Enbt 3 3l 3
8 15 206 10 3 12 50 53
or W=
3 (600)3
= 2860 N
2T nbt 2
(ii) s b = 3 Wl2 , W = b
2 nbt 3l
2 180 12 50 52
W= = 3000 N
3 600
\ Allowable load = 2860 N
EXAMPLE 11.13
A laminated steel spring, simply supported at the ends and centrally loaded with a span of 75 cm
is required to carry a proof load as 7.5 kN, and the central deflection is not to exceed 50 mm. The
bending stress must not be greater than 400 N/mm2. Plates are available in multiple of 1 mm
thickness and in multiples of 3 mm of width.
Determine suitable values for thickness, width and number of plates and the radius to which
the plates should be formed. Assume the width to be twelve times the thickness. Take E = 2 ´
105 N/mm2.
3Wl 3
Solution: d=
8 Enbt 3
3Wl 3
nbt 3 = (i)
8 EE
3 Wl 3 Wl
Also sb = or nbt 2 = (ii)
2 nbt 2 2 Tb
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we have
3Wl 3 2T b l 2T b
t= =
8 EE 3Wl 4 EE
750 750 400

t= = 5.63 mm
4 2 10 5 50
Let it be 6 mm.
\ b = 12 ´ t = 12 ´ 6 = 72 mm
Hence from Eq. (ii),
3Wl
n =
2T b bt 2
3 7500 750
= = 8.14
2 400 72 6 2
Number of plates = 9 (say)
The modified s b will be
3 Wl
sb =
2 nbt 2
3 7500 750
=
2 9 72 6 2
= 361.7 N/mm2
Tb E
\ =
y R
E
or R= ´y
Tb
Et
or R=
2T b
2 105 3
= = 1660 mm
361.7
EXAMPLE 11.14
A leaf spring is to be made of seven steel plates 65 mm wide and 6.5 mm thick. Calculate the length
of the spring so that it may carry a central load of 2.75 kN, the stress being limited to 160 N/mm2.
Also calculate the deflection at the centre of the spring. Take E = 210 kN/mm2.
Solution: Given n = 7, b = 65 mm, t = 6.5 mm, W = 2.75 kN = 2.75 ´ 103 N, s b = 160 N/mm2,
E = 210 kN/mm2 = 210 ´ 103 N/mm2
Let l is the length of the spring. Using the relation:
3Wl
sb =
2 nbt 2
3 2.75 10 3 l
or 160 = = 0.215l
2 7 65 6.52
160
\ l= = 744.2 mm
0.215
Letÿ d is the deflection at the centre of the spring. Now, using the relation:
T b l2
d =
4 Et
160 (744.2) 2
= = 16.23 mm
4 210 10 3 6.5
EXAMPLE 11.15
A leaf spring 75 cm long is required to carry a central point load of 800 kg. If the central deflection
is not to exceed 20 mm, and the bending stress is not greater than 2000 kg/cm2, determine the
thickness, width and number of plates. Also compute the radius, to which the plates should be
curved. Assume width of the plate equal to 12 times its thickness and E equal to 2.0 ´ 106 kg/cm2.
Solution: Given l = 75 cm, W = 800 kg, d = 20 mm = 2 cm, s b = 2000 kg/cm2, b = 12t (where
t is the thickness), E = 2.0 ´ 106 kg/cm2.
Using the relation:
d=
T b l2
4 Et
2000 752 1.4

2 = =
4 2.0 10 6 t t
\ t = 0.7 cm = 7 mm
We know that the width of the plates,
b = 12 ´ 0.7 = 8.4 cm = 84 mm
Let n is the number of plates. Now, using the relation:
s b = 3W l2
2 nbt
3 800 75 21866
2000 = =
2 n 8.4 0.7 2
n
21866
or n = = 10.9, say, 11
2000
11.9.2 Quarter-elliptical Leaf Spring

The quarter-elliptical type leaf springs are rarely used except as certain parts in some machines. Like
a carriage spring quarter, elliptical type leaf spring consists of a number of parallel strips of a metal
having different lengths but same width and placed one over the other in laminations as shown in
Fig. 11.7. All the plates are initially bent to the same radius and are free to slide one over the other.
Now, consider a quarter elliptical type leaf spring subjected to a load at its free end as shown
in Fig. 11.7.
Let W
l = Length of the spring l

t = Thickness of the plates
b = Width of the plates d
n = Number of plates
W = Load acting at the free end of the spring
d = Original deflection of the spring
We know that the bending moment at the fixed end of
the leaf, Fig. 11.7 Quarter-elliptical leaf spring.
M = Wl (11.28)
And moment resisted by one plate is:
TbI
=
y
T b bt 3 T b bt 2 ' I = bt and y = t
12 2
3
=
12 t =
6
2
Total moment resisted by n plates,
nT b bt 2
M= (11.29)
6
Since the maximum bending moment due to load is equal to the total resisting moment,
therefore, equating Eqs. (11.28) and (11.29),
nT b bt 2
Wl =
6
6 Wl
or sb = (11.30)
nbt 2
From the geometry of the spring, we know that
d (2R – d ) = l . l = l2
l2
\ d= (Neglecting d 2) (11.31)
2R
We know that the case of a bending cantilever,
Tb E
=
y R
E¹y Et ' y = t
or R=
Tb
=
2T b 2
Substituting this value of R in Eq. (11.31),
l2 T b l2
d= = (11.32)
Et Et
2
2T b
Now, substituting the value of s b from Eq. (11.30) in Eq. (11.32),
6Wl l 2 6Wl 3
d= = (11.33)
nbt 2 Et Enbt 3
EXAMPLE 11.16
A quarter-elliptic leaf spring 80 cm long is subjected to a point load of 1 tonne. If the bending stress
and deflection are not to exceed 3.2 t/cm2 and 8 cm, respectively, find the suitable size and number
of plates required taking the width as 8 times the thickness. Take E as 2000 t/cm2.
Solution: Given l = 80 cm, W = 1 tonne, s b = 3.2 t/cm2, d = 8 cm, E = 2000 t/cm2,

b = 8t (where t is the thickness.)
Let n is number of plates in the spring. Using the relation:
s b = 6Wl2 (with usual notations)

nbt
6 1 80 480
or 3.2 = = (i)
nbt 2 nbt 2
Now, using the relation:
6 Wl 3
d= (with usual notations)
Enbt 3
6 1 803 1536
or 8 = 3 = (ii)
2000 nbt nbt 3
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
1536
8 3 3.2
= nbt =
3.2 480 t
nbt 2
3.2 3.2
\ t= = 1.28, say, 1.3 cm
8
We know that the width of the plates,
b = 8 ´ 1.3 = 10.4 cm
Substituting the values of t and b in Eq. (i), we get the required number of plates as:
480 27.31
3.2 = =
n 10.4 1.32 n
27.31
\ n= = 8.5, say, 9
3.2
EXERCISES
11.1 A carriage spring 80 cm long is made of 12 plates of 4 cm width. Determine the thickness of
the plates, if the bending stress is not to exceed 2000 kg/cm2, and the spring is to carry a load of
600 kg at its centre. Also determine the central deflection. Take E = 2.0 ´ 106 kg/cm2.
[Ans. 9 mm, 1.65 cm]
11.2 A carriage spring is built up of 9 plates each 75 mm wide and 6.5 mm thick. Find the length
of the spring, so that it may carry a central load of 400 kg, the stress being limited to
1.6 t/cm2. Also find the deflection at the centre of the spring. [Ans. 76.05 cm, 1.78 cm]
11.3 Derive from first principles, making usual assumptions, the formula for the maximum
bending stress and for the central deflection of a leaf spring consisting of n leaves and
subjected to a central load.
11.4 Derive an equation for the deflection of an open-coiled helical spring.
11.5 A closely-coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 1 kN. Its mean coiled diameter is to be
10 times that of wire diameter. Calculate these diameters if the maximum shear stress in the
material of the spring are to be 90 N/mm2. [Ans. 16.82 cm and 1.68 cm]
11.6 A closely-coiled helical spring of round steel wire 8 mm in diameter having 10 complete
turns with a mean diameter of 10 cm is subjected to an axial load of 250 N. Determine:
(i) the deflection of the spring, (ii) maximum shear stress in the wire and (iii) stiffness of
the spring. Take G = 8 ´ 104 N/mm2.
[Ans. (i) 6.1 cm, (ii) 124.34 N/mm2, (iii) 4.1 N/mm2]
11.7 A closed-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 70 kN/m and to exert a force of
2.25 kN. If the mean diameter of coils is to be 90 mm, and the shear stress is 230 MPa. Find
the required number of coils and diameter of the steel rod from which the spring should be
made. Take E = 80 GPa. [Ans. n = 6, d = 13.08 mm]
11.8 A closed-coiled helical spring has to absorb 50 N-m of energy when compressed 50 mm. The
coil diameter is 8 times the wire diameter. If there are 10 coils, estimate the diameter of the
coil and the wire, and the maximum shear stress. Take G = 85 GPa.
[Ans. d = 19.3 mm, D = 154.4 mm, tmax = 109 MPa]
11.9 A leaf spring has 12 plates each 50 mm wide and 5 mm thick, the longest plate being
600 mm long. The greatest bending stress is not to exceed 180 N/mm2 and the central
deflection is 15 mm. Estimate the magnitude of greatest central load that can be applied to
the spring. Take E = 200 GPa.
11.10 A close-coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter steel bar has 8 coils of 150 mm mean
diameter. Calculate the elongation, torsional stress and strain energy/unit volume when the
spring is subjected to an axial load of 130 N. Take G = 80 GPa. If instead of axial load, an
axial torque of 9 Nm is applied, find the axial twist, bending stress and strain energy per unit
volume. Take E = 200 GPa.
12 Rotating Discs and Cylinders
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Stresses are set up in circular discs or cylinders on account of rotation about their axis of symmetry.
The analysis of the stresses set up in a rotating cylinder or circular disc can be made on the basis
of certain simplified assumptions, e.g. density of material is uniform throughout.
12.2 ROTATING DISC

Let a thin circular disc be rotating at an angular speed w rad/sec about its central axis, normal to the
plane of rotation. It is assumed that the thickness t of the disc is uniform and very small as compared
to the radius.
Consider an element ABCD of the disc as shown in Fig. 12.1. Let
sr = Radial stress on face CD at a radius r
sr + dsr = Radial stress on face AB at a radius (r + dr)
sq = Circumferential stress on face AD
sq = Circumferential stress on face BC
Dq = Angle subtended by the element at the center.
t sr + dsr
w dr A A
D B
C sq tdrdq/2 dq/2
dq r sq B
q D
O
C dq
/2
sr
r
sq sq tdrdq/2
dq
q
r + dr
(a) Thin circular rotating disc of uniform thickness (b) Element of the disc
Fig. 12.1 Rotating disc.

334
Chapter 12: Rotating Discs and Cylinders 335
Considering the equilibrium of the element and resolving the forces along the radial line, we have
dR
rtdqsr + 2sq tdr sin = (sr + dsr) (r + dr)tdq + rtdqdr w 2r2
2
where the last term rw 2r(rdq.dr.t) is centrifugal force arises due to rotation of the disc.
Neglecting the product of the two small quantities, and making
dR dR
sin » ,
2 2
dT r
We get sq = rw 2r 2 + s r + r (12.1a)
dr
d
or, (r T r )  T R + SX 2 r 2 = 0 (12.1b)
dr
12.2.1 Strain Considerations

When the disc starts rotating, due to centrifugal force on each and every element, it will tend to expand.
On account of rotation let r becomes r + u and r + dr becomes r + dr + du then radial strain is:
( dr du) dr du
er = = (12.2)
dr dr
Hoop strain at radius r,
2Q (r u) 2Qr u
eq = = (12.3)
2Q r r
du 1
Now, er = = (s r – nsq) (12.4)
dr E
u 1
and eq = = (sq – nsr) (12.5)
r E
Solving Eqs. (12.4) and (12.5),
sr =
E Ou Odu
(12.6)
1 O2 r dr
 u O du 
E
sq =    (12.7)
1O r 2dr 
Putting Eqs. (12.6) and (12.7) in Eq. (12.1),
d 2u du u
= –r
X 2 (1 – n2) r2
r 2
dr dr r E
or
d 2 u 1 du u
= – r
X 2 (1 – n2) r (12.8)
dr 2 r dr r 2 E
Complementary function of differential Eq. (12.8) is:
d 2 u 1 du u
=0
dr 2 r dr r 2
d 2u d u
or
dr 2 dr r =0
This on integration gives

du u
= 2A (12.9)
dr r
where 2A is a constant of integration.
Equation (12.9) can be rewritten as:
du
r + u = 2Ar
dr
d
or (ur) = 2Ar
dr
On integration, we get
ur = Ar 2 + B
u B
or =A+ 2 (12.10)
r r
where B is another constant. From Eqs. (12.9) and (12.10), we get
du B
=A– 2 (12.11)
dr r
For finding the particular integral of Eq. (12.8), we assume
u = cr 3 (12.12)
where c is a constant.
u
or = cr2
r
By differentiating Eq. (12.12),
du
= 3cr2
dr
d 2u
or = 6cr (12.13)
dr 2
Substituting Eq. (12.12) through Eq. (12.13) in Eq. (12.8), we have
6cr +
1
3cr2 – cr = – r
X 2 (1 – n2) r
r E
SX 2
or c =– (1 – n2)
8E
Thus, the complete solution is:
u B SX 2
=A+ 2 (1 – n2) r2 (12.14)
r r 8E
du B 3SX 2
or =A– 2 (1 – n 2) r2 (12.15)
dr r 8E
Putting Eqs. (12.14) and (12.15) in Eqs. (12.6) and (12.7), we get the radial and hoop stresses as:
sr = E B
(1 O ) A (1 O ) 2 (3 O )
SX
(1 O 2 ) r 2
2 "#
! $
(12.16)
(1 O )
2
r 8E
sq = E (1 O ) A (1 O ) B (1 3O ) SX 2
(1 O ) r #
2 2 "
)! $
(12.17)
(1 O 2 r 2 8E
The values of the constants A and B will depend upon the end conditions.
12.3 HOLLOW DISC (DISC WITH A CENTRAL HOLE)

A hollow disc with inner radius r1 and outer radius r2, we have at r = r1, sr = 0 and at r = r2,
s r = 0.
From Eq. (12.16),
B SX 2
(1 + n) A – (1 – n) = (3 + n) (1 – n2) r 22 (12.18)
r22 8E
B SX 2
and (1 + n) A – (1 – n) = (3 + n) (1 – n2) r12 (12.19)
r12 8E
SX 2
A = (3 + n) (1 – n) (r12 + r 22) (12.20)
8E
SX 2
B = (3 + n) (1 + n)(r 12 r22) (12.21)
8E
Putting these values in Eqs. (12.16) and (12.17), we get
sr =
SX 2
(3 + n) r12 r22
r12 r22
r2
"#
! $
(12.22)
8 r2
3+ O  r 2 r 2 1  3O 2 
sq = SX 2  r22  r12 + 1 2 2  r  (12.23)
8  3+O 
 r 
(i) For maximum value of s r ,
dT r
=0
dr
SX 2
(3 + n)
2r r
2 2
1 2 "#
2r = 0
! r $
or 3
8
or r= r1r2 (12.24)
SX 2
(s r)max = (3 + n) (r2 – r1)2 (12.25)
8
(ii) Maximum value of sq will occur at r = r1,

3 O rw r 1 O r "#
(sq)max =
4 ! 3 O $
2 2 2
2 1 (12.26)
It can be seen from Eq. (12.25) and (12.26) that (sq)max is greater than (sr)max.
12.4 SOLID DISC

In this case, at r = r2 , s r = 0 and at r = 0, u = 0.
By Eq. (12.14), we have
u B SX 2
=A+ 2 (1 – n2)r2
r r 8E
Equation (12.14) with condition at r = 0, u = 0, B must vanish. Hence B = 0.
With the help of first condition (at r = r2, sr = 0), we have from Eq. (12.16) for a solid disc,
SX 2 (K
A=
8E
(3 O )(1 O ) r 22
)K (12.27)
B=0 *
From Eqs. (12.27), (12.16) and (12.17), we have
SX 2
sr = (3 + n)(r22 – r2) (12.28)
8
SX 2
sq = [(3 + n) r22 – (1 + 3n)r2] (12.29)
8
Now, s r will be maximum at centre,
SX 2
\ (s r)max = (3 + n) r22 (12.30)
8
sq will be maximum at r = 0,
SX 2
\ (s q)max = (3 + n) r22 (12.31)
8
12.5 DISC OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

A disc of uniform strength is the one in which the values of radial and circumferential (hoop) stresses
are equal in magnitude at all points in the disc, hence
sq = sr = s = constant
Consider the equilibrium of the element ABCD of the disc shown in Fig. 12.2. Let t be the thickness
of the disc at radius r and t + Dt at radius r + Dr. The outward radial force on face AB.
= s (t + Dt) (r + Dr)Dq
= s (tr + rDt + tDr)Dq
Fig. 12.2 Disc of uniform strength.
Centrifugal force acting on the element ABCD is:

= r (rDq Drt) w2r
Inward radial force acting on face CD = s trDq
Inward radial force due to component of forces,
= s t DrDq
For equilibrium of the element,
Total inward radial force = Total outward radial force
or str Dq + s t Dr Dq = s (tr + rDt + tDr) Dq + r (rDq Drt) w 2r
\ s r Dt Dq + r Dq Drtw2r 2 = 0
or
't = –r
X 2 rDr
t T
or
dt
= –r
X 2 rdr
t T
Integrating, we get
ln t = – r
X 2 r2 + ln A
2T
where A is a constant of integration.
X r
2T
2 2
t
or ln = –r
A
 SX 2 r 2
2T
\ t = Ae
Let t = t0 at r = r1 then
X 2 r12
S
2T
t0 = Ae
X 2 r2
S 1

2T
\ A = t0 e
X2 2 2
S ( r r1 )
or t = t0 e 2T (12.32)
This gives the thickness of disc at any radius.
12.6 ROTATING CYLINDER

Stresses are set up in a circular cylinder on account of rotation about its axis of symmetry. Consider
a circular cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 rotating at speed w (Fig. 12.3). Assume that
plane sections of the cylinder remain plane during rotation.
r
w
r r2
r1
Z
r2 r1 O
Fig. 12.3 Rotating cylinder.
The axial strain along the Z-axis will be independent of the radius r of the cylinder and will be
constant.
1 du
Radial strain er = [sr – n(sq + sZ)] = (12.33)
E dr
1 u
Hoop strain eq = [sq – n(sr + sZ)] = (12.34)
E r
1
Axial strain eZ = [sZ – n(sr + sq)] (12.35)
E
Eu = r[sq – n(sr + sZ)]
Differentiating with respect to r,
du  dT  dT dT Z  
E = sq – n(sr + sZ) + r  R  O  r + 
dr  dr  dr dr  
= sr – n(sq + sZ) (from Eq. (12.33))
 dT
s q) (1 + n) = r  R  O  dT r + dT Z  

(s r – (12.36)
 dr  dr dr  
From Eq. (12.35),

Ee Z = s Z – n(s r + sq) = constant = C1
\ s Z = C1 + n(s r + sq )
Differentiating sZ with respect to r,
dT Z dT dT "# R
! dr dr $
=n r
dr
dT O %& dT O dT dT ()"#
! dr ' dr dr dr *$
R R
(s r – s ) (1 + n) = r
q
r r
dT dT "
dr #$
R
= r (1 O ) O (1 O )
!
2 r
dr
dT O dT "#
(s – s ) = r (1 O ) R
! dr $
r
r q (12.37)
dr
Also considering the equilibrium of an element of the cylinder between angular positions q and
q + dq and radii r and r + dr, we can get as in the case of rotating disc.
dT r
sr – sq = – r
dr
SX 2 r 2
(12.38)
Comparing Eqs. (12.37) and (12.38), we have

dT R dT
O r "# = –r dT SX r "#
r (1 O )
! $ ! dr $
r 2
dr dr
dT R dT dT SX r
(1 – n) –n
dr
r r 2
=–
dr dr
dT dT
(1 – n) r + (1 – n) R = – rw 2r
dr dr

dT r dT R
"#
(1 – n)
dr! dr
= – rw 2 r
$
dT r dT R S
=– w 2r
dr dr (1 O )
S
d
(sr + sq) = –
(1 O)
w 2r
dr
Integrating, we get
S X2 r2
sr + sq = – + C2 (12.39)
(1  O ) 2
where C2 is a constant of integration.
Adding Eqs. (12.38) and (12.39),
2s r = – r
dT r
SX 2 r 2 "#
S X 2r2
! dr $
(1 O ) 2
+ C2
dT r 3 2O + C
or 2s r + r
dr
= – rw 2r 2
2 (1 O ) 2
Multiplying both sides by r,

dT r X 2 r 3 3 2O + rC
2rsr + r2
dr
= –r
2 1O 2
d 2 X 2r3 3 2O + rC
or
dr
(r sr) = – r
2 1O 2
Integrating,
r2sr = – r
X 2 r 4 3 2O r 2 C + C
8 1O 2 2 3
where C3 is constant of integration.

2 2 C
sr = – r X r 3 2O 2 23
C
8 1O 2 r
(12.40)
Substituting the value of sr in Eq. (12.39),
sq = – r X r
2 2
1 2O C
C
8 1O
2 23
2 r
(12.41)
Equations (12.40) and (12.41) are the governing equations for a rotating cylinder.
12.7 SOLID CYLINDER

From Eqs. (12.40) and (12.41), respectively
sr =
C2 C3
+ 2 S
X 2 r 2  3  2O 
 
2 r 8  1O 
C2 C3 X 2 r 2 1 2O
sq =
2
2 S
r 8 1O
Constant C3 must be zero, since the stress remains finite at r = 0.
sr =
C2 1 3 2O
\
2

8 1O
rw2r 2

C2 1  1  2O  2 2
sq =    rw r
2 8 1 O 
For a solid cylinder with a free surface at r = r2
sr = 0
C2
1 3 2O
rw2r 22
\
2
=
8 1O

s r = 1 3 2O rw2[r22 – r2]
\
8 1O (12.42)
and sq =
8 1O
rw !r 13 22OO r "#$
1 3 2O 2 2
2
2
(12.43)
The maximum stresses occur at the centre of the cylinder. At centre, r = 0.

1 3 2O
rw2r 22

\ (sr)max = (sq )max =

8 1O (12.44)
12.8 HOLLOW CYLINDER

From Eq. (12.40),
sr = C2 C3 1 3 2O
rw2r 2
2
2
r 8 1O
sr = 0 at r = r1 and r = r2 ,
C2 C3 1 3 2O
rw2r12

\ 0 =
2
2
r1 8 1O
C2 C3
1
3 2O rw r
8 1O
0 = 2 2 2
2
2 r2
Solving for C2 and C3,
C2 1 3 2O
rw (r + r )

2 2 2
=
2 8 1O 1 2
1 3 2O
C = – rw r r
8 1O
2 2 2
3 1 2
rw r r r r r r
1 3 2O
=
2 2
sr
8 1O
\ 2 2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
(12.45)
1 3 2O  
= rw r  r  r r r   13  22OO  r
2 2
8 1O
sq 2 2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
 (12.46)

sq is maximum at r = r1.

1 3 2O
rw 2 r22
  1  2O  r12 
\ (sq)max =

4 1O 1    2
  3  2O  r 2 
(12.47)
r1 r
If is very small 1 » 0 then
r2 r2

1 3 2O
rw 2 r 22

(sq)max =
4 1O (12.48)
Comparing Eqs. (12.47) and (12.48), we can observe that (sq)max in a cylinder with a small hole
at the centre is twice that of (sq)max in a solid cylinder. For s r to be maximum,
dT r
=0
dr
2r12 r22
or –2r + =0
r3
or r = r1r2 (12.49)

1 3 2O
\ (sr)max =
8 1O
rw 2(r2 – r1)2 (12.50)
EXAMPLE 12.1
A hollow cylinder of 40 cm external diameter and 20 cm internal diameter is rotating at 3000 rpm.
Determine the distribution of radial and hoop stresses in the cylinder. Density of the cylinder material
= 7800 kg/m3, n = 0.3.
Solution: For hollow cylinder,
sr = 1

3 2O r2 r 2

8 1O
rw 2 r12 r22 1 2 2 r 2
r
1 3 0.6 2Q 3000 "#

´ 7800 ´
100 400
=
2
8 1 0.3 !10 20 2
$
r 2 ´ 10–4
2
60 r2
40000 r

= 0.329927 ´ 10 500

–4 2
2
r
(sr)max at r = r1 r2 ,
or r= 10 20 = 14.142 cm
r (cm ) 10 14.142 15 20
T r (MPa ) 0 3.299 3.207 0

sq = 1 3 2O rw 2 r12 r22 1 2 2 1 2O r 2
r2 r2 "#
and
8 1O ! r 3 2O $
500 40000 0.6667r "#
! $
2
= 0.329927 ´ 10–4 2
r
r (cm ) 10 15 20
T R (MPa) 27.493 17.41 10.997
The variation of stresses is shown in Fig. 12.4:

30
sq , sr(MPa)
20 sq
10
sr
r (mm)
10 12 14 16 18 20
Fig. 12.4 Stress distribution.
EXAMPLE 12.2
A turbine rotor, 0.4 m external diameter and 0.2 m internal diameter is revolving at 1200 rpm.
Taking the weight of rotor as 7800 kg/m3 and Poisson’s ratio 0.3, find the maximum hoop and radial
stresses assuming
(i) Rotor to be a thin disc
(ii) Rotor to be a long cylinder
(iii) Rotor to be a solid disc
(iv) Rotor to be a solid cylinder
Solution: (i) For thin disc

2Q N 2Q 1200
w= = = 125.66 rad/s
60 60
SX 2
(sr)max = (3 + n)(r2 – r1)2
8
7800 (125.66)2
= (3.3) (0.1)2 N/m2
8
= 0.5081 MPa
SX 2
(sq )max = [(3 + n)r 22 + (1 – n)r 21]
4
7800 (125.66)2
= [3.3(0.2)2 + 0.7(0.1)2] N/m2
4
= 4.28 MPa
(ii) For long cylinder

SX 2 3 2O
(sr)max =
8 1O (r2 – r1)2

7800 (125.66)2 2.4
=
8 0.7
(0.1)2

= 0.528 MPa
SX 2
(sq)max = [(3 – 2n)r22 + (1 – 2n)r 12]
4 (1 O )
7800 (125.66 )2
= [2.4(0.2)2 + 0.4(0.1)2] N/m2
4 0.7
= 4.39 MPa
(iii) For thin solid disc
SX 2
(sr)max = (sq )max = (3 + n)r 22
8
7800 (125.66)2
= (3.3) (0.2)2 N/m2
8
= 2.03 MPa
(iv) For long solid cylinder

SX 2 3 2O 2
(sr)max = (sq)max =
8 1O r2

7800 (125.66 )2 2.4
=
8 0.7
(0.2)2 N/m2
= 2.111 MPa
EXAMPLE 12.3
A disc of 50 cm diameter and uniform thickness is rotating at 2000 rpm. Determine the maximum
stress induced in the disc. If a hole of 10 cm diameter is drilled at the centre of the disc, determine
the maximum intensities of radial and hoop stresses induced. Take n = 0.28, r = 7800 kg/m3.
Solution: For the solid disc,

3 O rw r
8
(sr)max = (sq)max = 2 2
2
3 0.28 ´ 7800 ´ 2Q 2000 ´ 25 2
8 60 ´ 10–4
2
=
= 8.76 MPa
For the hollow disc,
3 O rw (r – r )
(sr)max =
8 2
2 1
2
3 0.28 ´ 7800 ´ 2 Q 2000 2

=
8 60 (25 – 5)2 ´ 10–4
= 5.61 MPa
3 O rw 1 O r "#
(sq)max =
4 ! 3 O r22
2 2
1
$
2 Q 2000 1 0.28 25 625"# ´ 10
! 3 0.28
 3  0.28  2
 ´ 7800 ´ 60 ´ –4
$
= 
 4 
= 17.69 ´ 106 N/m2 = 17.69 MPa
EXAMPLE 12.4
A solid rotor of a turbine is 0.6 m diameter at the blade ring. It is keyed to a 50 mm diameter shaft.
If the minimum thickness is 9.5 mm, what should be the thickness at the shaft for a uniform stress
of 200 N/mm2 at 10000 rpm? Take density = 7700 kg/m3.
S r 2X 2

Solution: Here t = Ae 2T
At r = 0.3 m,
SX 2 0 .09

2T
t = 9.5 = A e
At r = 0.025 m,
SX 2 0 .0006

2T
t = Ae
SX 2 0. 0894

2T
= 9.5 e
1000 Q
2
0 .0894
7700
30 2 200 10 6
= 9.5 e
= 9.5e1.89 = 63 mm
EXAMPLE 12.5
A turbine rotor is 15 cm diameter below the blade ring and 2 cm thick. The turbine is running at
36000 rpm. The allowable stress is 150 MPa. What is the thickness of the rotor at a radius of 5 cm
and at the centre? Assume uniform strength r = 7800 kg/m3.
SX 2 2 2

2T

r2  r1 
Solution: Here t = t0 e
At r = 5,
2 Q 36000
2
7800
( 25 56.25) 10 4
2 150 10 6 60
t = 2e
= 2e1.15474 = 2 ´ 3.1732 = 6.3464 cm
At r = 0,
2 Q 36000
2
7800
( 56.25 ) 10 4
2 150 10 6 60
t = 2e
= 2e2.07854 = 2 ´ 7.9928 = 15.985 cm
EXAMPLE 12.6
A grinding wheel is 300 mm diameter with the bore at the centre of 25 mm diameter. If the thickness
of the wheel at the outer radius is 25 mm, what should be the thickness at the bore diameter for a
uniform allowable stress of 10 MPa at 2800 rpm? Take density of the wheel material as 2700 kg/m3.
Solution: Given s = 107 N/m2, r = 2700 kg/m3, r1 = 0.15 m, r2 = 0.0125, t1 = 0.025 m.

2Q
Then w= ´ 2800 = 293.215 rad/s
60
SX 2 r12

Now, t1 = A e 2T
2700 ( 293.215) 2 ( 0 .15 )2

2 10 7
or 0.025 = A e
or A = 0.025e0.26115 m
= 32.46 mm
SX 2 r22

2T
and t2 = A e
2700 ( 293.215)2 ( 0 .0125 )2
2 10 7
= 32.46 e
= 32.46 e–0.0018135 = 32.40 mm
EXERCISES
12.1 For a rotating disc with a central hole, show that the maximum value of radial stress is found
at a distance r1 r2 from the centre of disc where r1 and r2 are the inner and outer radii of
the disc, respectively.
12.2 Starting from the basic principles, derive an expression for the thickness of a solid rotor of
uniform strength.
SX 2 2 2
3 r2 r1 8
[Ans. t = t0 e 2T ]
12.3 Prove that the maximum circumferential stress in a rotating disc with a central pin hole is
twice the value for a solid disc of the same dimension.
12.4 The rotor of a steam turbine is a solid disc of uniform strength and is 20 cm diameter at the
blade ring and 2.5 cm thick at the centre. It is running at a constant speed of
30000 rpm. Calculate the thickness of the rotor at a radius of 5 cm. The material density is
7470 kg/m3, and the maximum allowable stress in the rotor is 145 MPa.
[Ans. 16.83 cm]
12.5 A thick uniform disc of 25 cm diameter with a central hole of 5 cm diameter runs at
10000 rpm. Calculate the maximum principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress in
the disc. n = 0.3 and r = 7470 kg/m3. [Ans. 33.79, 106.49, 36.35 MPa]
12.6 A thin solid disc of 75 cm diameter is to rotate at 3000 rpm. The material density is
7600 kg/m3 and Poisson’s ratio is 0.28. Plot the variation of radial and hoop stresses in the
disc. [Ans. 43.25 to zero MPa, 43.25 to 18.98 MPa]
12.7 A long hollow cylinder is of 20 cm external diameter and is 5 cm thick. It is revolving at

a constant speed of 2400 rpm. Calculate the maximum radial and hoop stresses induced in
the cylinder, r = 7600 kg/m3, n = 0.30. [Ans. 0.514 MPa, 4.286 MPa]
12.8 A solid cylinder of 25 cm diameter is rotating at 1500 rpm. Determine the maximum hoop
stress induced in the cylinder if its material density is 7800 kg/m3, Poisson’s ratio is 0.28.
Also draw the variations of radial and hoop stresses in the cylinder.
[Ans. 1.274 to zero MPa, 1.274 to 0.459 MPa]
12.9 Determine the greatest values of radial and hoop stress for a rotating disc in which the outer
and inner radii are 0.3 m and 0.15 m. The angular speed is 150 rad/s. Take Poisson’s ratio
as 0.304 and density 7700 kg/m3. [Ans. 1.6 MPa, 13.6 MPa]
13 Finite Element Method and

Its Application Using
ANSYS Software
13.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a brief discussion of finite element approach as followed in the analysis packages,
e.g., ANSYS. In this chapter, step-by-step instructions are given to model and analyse the different
types of problems using 1D, 2D and 3D elements. The students are advised to solve the problems
given in the book using the analytical approach presented in Chapters 1 to 12 and validate the results
in the same way as stated in this chapter. This chapter discusses the GUI (Graphic User Interface)
steps used for solving a few examples of the preceding chapters by the finite element approach.
The finite element method approximates the numerical techniques used in design analysis to find
the value of the field variable/unknown. This method can be extensively used to obtain solutions to
a large class of engineering problems involving stress analysis, heat transfer, electromagnetism,
vibration, impact, crash, analysis, etc.
13.2 THE STEPS

Finite element method (FEM) consists of six steps as follows:
1. Discretization
2. Selecting the solution approximation
3. Forming element matrices
4. Assembly
5. Finding the unknown
6. Interpretation
Discretization
Discretization is the first step in the finite element method and hence it is an important step. In this
step continuum is divided into finite number of elements. The elements are connected to each other
through a node. The discretization of continuum in element and node is called the mesh generation.
Dividing the continuum into more number of elements is always preferable as more accurate solution
is obtained. More elements of continuum lead to expensive solution in the discretization process.
350
Chapter 13: Finite Element Method and Its Application Using ANSYS Software 351
Selecting the solution approximation

To find out the value of field variables within the element or over the element domain, certain
expressions are assumed. This expression is useful to find out the value of field variables over the
element. Generally, the expression is assumed as polynomial because it is easier to integrate or
differentiate. Assumption of expression is one of the important step in the finite element method.
Forming element matrices

The total analysis of continuum is first carried out by considering only one element out of the total
number of elements. Thus, the single element is analysed for equilibrium.
The equation of equilibrium is generally written in matrix from and therefore element matrix is
formed. The element matrix is stiffness matrix, displacement matrix, force matrix, etc. Element
matrix is formed by using four methods as follows:
(a) Direct method
(b) Variational approach method
(c) Weighted residual approach
(d) Energy method
Generally, the variational approach method and weighted residual approach out of these four
methods are mostly used in mechanical engineering problems. The variational approach is used for
stress analysis problem whereas the weighted residual method is used for thermo fluid problems.
Assembly
The element matrix developed for all elements is assembled together or summed up together to form
a global matrix. Thus, the global matrix is the representation of whole continuum. Algebraic
equations based on global matrix are then solved, before solving equation, it is necessary to apply
the boundary condition.
Finding the unknown

The algebraic equation developed by assembly matrices are solved using Gauss elimination method
to find out the value of field variables or unknowns. Generally, the values of field variables are found
out at the nodal point.
Interpretation
The results obtained by using total analysis are then interpreted by the design analyst in order to
modify the design to yield better design product. This is important and critical stage for taking a
decision for modification of design.
13.3 PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY

This is an important principle used for finite element analysis. It states that the summation of strain
energy and work potential for any elastic body is minimum, if a body is in equilibrium. Work
potential is the potential energy due to external force.
Consider an elastic body subjected to force P. Let u be the deformation of spring due to external
force and K be the stiffness of spring (Fig. 13.1). The spring stiffness is expressed as K = P/u.
P
u
Fig. 13.1(a) Spring with point force.
The strain energy stored in the spring is

U = 1/2 (force in the spring) (displacement)
= 1/2 (Ku) u
= 1/2 Ku2
The potential energy of the external load P is
WP = (load) (displacement from zero potential state)
= – Pu
Let P represent the summation of strain energy and work potential. P is called the total potential
energy.
Total potential energy, P = Total strain energy + Work potential
P = U + WP
= 1/2 Ku2 – Pu
for minimum of Total Potential energy, ¶P/¶u = 0
Ku – P = 0
or Ku = P (13.1)
13.3.1 Potential Energy

The total potential energy P of an elastic body is defined as the sum of total strain energy (U) and
the work potential Fig. 13.1(b).
P = Strain energy + Work potential
(U) (WP)
For linear elastic materials, the strain energy per unit volume in the body is 1/2 s Te. s T is the
transpose of stress matrix s . For an elastic body, the total strain energy is given by
T
1
U = T
F dV
2
V
Fig. 13.1(b) Three-dimensional body.
The work potential WP is given by
WP = 
u
V
T
f dV 
 u T dS   u P
S
T
i
T
i i
where
f = distributed force per unit volume
T = surface traction
P = concentrated force
The total potential energy for the general elastic body is
3= T u  u T dS   u P
1 T
F dV  T
f dV  T T
i i (13.2)
2 i
V V S
The expression for total potential energy for whole body is
3= 1
2
QT KQ  QT F
where Q = Global displacement matrix

K = Global stiffness matrix which is obtained by assembling element stiffness matrix
F = Global force matrix which is obtained by assembling body force, traction and point force
13.4 COMPUTER AIDED STRESS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

The following steps are used to do the analysis using Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) packages:
Preprocessing
(i) Changing jobname
(ii) Defining element type
(iii) Defining material properties

(iv) Defining section or real constant
(v) Creating geometrical model
(vi) Defining mesh attributes
(vii) Creating mesh
(viii) Defining loading and boundary conditions
Solution
(i) Solve
Postprocessing
(i) Plot the deformed shape
(ii) Plot the contour plot of deflection and stresses
(iii) List the reactions
(iv) Exit the ANSYS program
13.5 ELEMENTS TYPE AND SHAPES

There are basically three types of elements used in finite element analysis.
• 1D element
• 2D element
• 3D element
1D element
The 1D element is used for geometries having one dimensions very large as compared to the other
two dimensions (Fig. 13.2). The geometrical model of 1D elements represents 1 out of three required
dimensions and can be modeled by a line (length of the part). When the element is created by
connecting two nodes or meshing the line, only one out of three dimensions is defined. Remaining
two dimensions, i.e., area of cross-section (width and height) must be defined with additional input
data and assigned to respective elements.
Fig. 13.2 1D model for rectangular cross-section.
Different types of 1D element are used in finite element analysis, e.g., rod, beam, pipe, spring,
damper and gap element, etc. (Fig. 13.3). The 1D element is easy to generate and can be used for
specific application such as membrane and bending. It can be used for analysis of long shaft, beam,
tapered beam, etc.
x
Y
I
X
Fig. 13.3 1D model for circular cross-section.
2D elements
The 2D element is used when two of the dimensions are very large as compared to the third dimension
(Fig. 13.4). It can be used for meshing of all sheet metal parts, panels and control surfaces of aircraft
structures, etc. In general, 2D meshing is used for parts having width/thickness ratio > 20.
Fig. 13.4 2D model.
2D meshing is carried out on mid surface of the part. Geometrical model of 2D elements
represent 2 out of 3 required dimensions (Fig. 13.5). The third dimension, i.e., thickness has to be
provided by user during meshing stage. Each element in the mesh can have different thickness and
material properties.
Fig. 13.5 2D model showing mid surface.

Mathematically, element thickness is specified half on element’s top and half on bottom side.
Hence, in order to represent the element geometry appropriately, it is necessary to extract mid surface
and mesh on the mid surface.
There are basically two types of 2D elements used in finite element analysis, e.g., tria and quad
(Fig. 13.6). Each node of 2D element has got 6 DOF.
Fig. 13.6 2D elements.
The elements considered so far is linear type of element, i.e. joint between two node is a line.
This element is useful for discretizing the body which is having the straight boundary. The body
having irregular or curved, quadratic or cubic nature elements are used. Numbers of nodes/element
are increased for quadratic or cubic nature of element (Fig. 13.7).
Fig. 13.7 Quadratic elements.
3D elements
3D element is used when all the three dimensions are comparable (Fig. 13.8). Solid elements could
not be twisted or bent and have very high bending/torsional stiffness and hence each node of 3D
element has got 3 DOF (translation). 3D elements are used for analysis of thick body-like parts made
of casting, stamping, brackets, etc.
There are three types of 3D solid elements used in finite element analysis (Fig. 13.9).
(i) Tetrahedron
(ii) Penta or wedge
(iii) Hex or brick
Fig. 13.8 3D model.
Fig. 13.9 3D elements.
Hex or brick elements are preferable as compared to the tetra element. Hex meshing is difficult
to generate for curved body with small radius fillet. Most of the time hex meshing is generated in
combination with penta mesh, whereas tet meshing is quite easy to generate. The majority of
engineering analysis is carried out considering tetra element as it is ease to generate.
13.6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
13.6.1 Natural Coordinate (Intrinsic Coordinate)

Suppose node 1 and 2 of e element are located at x1 and x2 distance from the absolute datum.
Consider a typical finite element e in the local coordinate system (Fig. 13.10). We define a
natural coordinate system, denoted by
2
Y= (x  x1 )  1 (13.3)
x2  x1
Fig. 13.10 Typical element in x- and x-coordinate.
Natural coordinate is used to define the shape function for 1D element and can be defined as
1  Y
N1 (Y ) =
2
1+Y
N 2 (Y ) = (13.4)
2
For 1D element there are two shape functions, i.e., N1 and N2. These shape functions are used
for linear approximation, which helps to find displacement of any point over the element in terms
of nodal displacement. Let q1 and q2 be the displacement of nodes 1 and 2, then displacement of any
point u within the element e can be expressed as (Fig. 13.11)
u = N1q1 + N2q2 (13.5)
Fig. 13.11 Intorpolation of displacement field within an element.
The variation of shape function over the element is shown in Fig. 13.12.
Fig. 13.12 Variation of shape function over the element.
13.6.2 Isoparametric Element

We know the displacement of point over element is expressed as
u = N1q1 + N2q2 (13.6)
It is observed that geometric position of any point can also be expressed in terms of shape
function.
x = N1x1 + N2x2 (13.7)
From Eqs. (13.6) and (13.7), it is clear that displacement as well as geometry of element is
expressed by the same parameter (shape function) of the same order; such elements are called
isoparametric elements.
13.6.3 Element Strain Displacement Matrix

The equation of strain for the element can be given as
du
F =
dx
where du is small displacement of element having length dx.
Using the chain rule of differentiation, we have
du d Y
F = (13.8)
d Y dx
We have from Eq. (13.3)

2(x  x1 )
Y=  1
( x2  x1 )
dY 2
Therefore, = (13.9)
dx x2  x1
We know u = N1q1 + N2q2
1  Y  1 + Y 
=   q1 +   q2
 2   2 
du  q1 + q2
= (13.10)
dY 2
Substituting Eqs. (13.9) and (13.10) in Eq. (13.8), we have
q1 + q2  2 
F =  
2  x2  x1 
1
= (  q1 + q2 )
x2  x1
1
= (  q1 + q 2 ) (13.11)
le
where le is the length of element.
Equation (13.11) can be written in matrix form as
e = Bq (13.12)
1 q1 
where B= [–1 1] and q =  
le q2 
Here B is called the element strain displacement matrix.
The stress over the element can be given as
s = EBq
where E is modulus of elasticity.
13.6.4 Element Stiffness Matrix

Expression for strain energy for element can be given as
 T F dV
1 T
Ue =
2
e
 T F A dx
1 T
or Ue =
2
e
where A is the area of element, and Ue the strain energy.

Substituting s = EBq and e = Bq in expression of strain energy
 (EBq) BqA dx
1 T
Ue =
2
e
 q B E BqA dx
1 T T
=
2
e
 


EAB B dx  q
1 T T
= q
 
2  
e 
 X2 
 

1 T T
= q  AEB B dx  q (13.13)
2  
 X1 
We know
2(x  x1 )
Y=  1
(x 2  x1 )
Therefore,
dY 2
=
dx x2  x1
le
dx = dY (13.14)
2
Substituting Eq. (13.14) in (13.13)
 1 
= q  AEBT B
 dY  q
1 T le
Ue
 
2  2 
 1 
1  l 
= q T  AEBT B e 2 q
2  2 
1 1 1
= qT AE   [  1 1] le q
2 le2 +1
1 AE  1 1 
= qT   q
2 le  1 1 
1
= qT K e q (13.15)
2
where element stiffness matrix
AE  1 1 
Ke =   (13.16)
le  1 1 
It is clear from the expression of Ke that element stiffness matrix depends upon material
parameter (E) and geometrical property (A and le).
13.6.5 Forces
The forces acting on body are classified into three types (Fig. 13.13):
(i) Body force
(ii) Traction force
(iii) Point force
Body force: The body force is the force acting on the body which is uniformly distributed. The
body force is always expressed as force/volume, e.g., weight.
Traction force: The traction force acts all over the surface of the body. The traction force is
expressed as force/area. Frictional force, viscous force and surface force are example of the traction
force. In case of 1D element traction force is expressed as force/length.
Point force: The point force is the external force acting on the body. It is always expressed in
absolute unit of force.
Fig. 13.13 One-dimensional bar loaded by traction, body and point loads.
Elemental body force matrix

The potential energy due to body force is given by
u
le
T
f A dx
where, f is the body force/volume.

Substituting u = N1q1 + N2q2, we have potential energy due to body force
=
 (N q
le
1 1 + N 2 q2 ) fA dx
=
 le
N1q1 fA dx +
 N q fA dx
le
2 2
Writing the equation in matrix form, we get
N
 
f A 1 dx 
 le 
= qT   (13.17)
 
f A

 N2 dx 

 le 
1  Y  le 
We have
le
N1 dx =

le
  dY
2 2
1
1 Y

le
= dY
2 2
1
1
le  1 1 2
=  Y  Y 
2 2 4  1
 N dx = 2
le
1 (13.18)
le
Similarly, we have
 N dx = 2
le
2 (13.19)
le
Substituting Eqs. (13.18) and (13.19) in Eq. (13.17), we have potential energy due to body force.
 le 
 fA 
2
The potential energy due to body force = q T 
 le 
 fA 
 2
= qT f e (13.20)
where elemental body force is
fA le 1
fe =   (13.21)
2 1
Elemental traction force

The potential energy due to traction force is given by
 le
uT T dx
where T is the traction force/length.

Substituting u = N1q1 + N2q2, we have potential energy due to body force
=

le
(N1q1 + N 2 q2 ) T dx
=

le
N1q1 T dx +
 N q T dx
le
2 2
Writing the equation in matrix form

 
 T N1 dx 
 le 
= qT   (13.22)
 


T N 2 dx 

 le 
we have

le
N1 dx = (13.23)
le 2

le
N 2 dx = (13.24)
le 2
Substituting Eqs. (13.23) and (13.24) in Eq. (13.22), we have potential energy due to body force
 le 
T 
= qT  2  = qTT e
 le 
T 
 2
where
Tle 1
Te =   (13.25)
2 1
where, Te is the elemental traction force matrix.
EXAMPLE 13.1
Consider the stepped bar as shown in Fig. 13.14. Each element is the cross section and length A1,
A2, A3, l1, l2 and l3 respectively and body force f per unit volume. Traction forces on each element
are T1, T2 and T3 per unit length. The modulus of elasticity for stepped bar is E. A concentrated load
P is applied at node 2. Explain the complete procedure for finding the stresses and reactions.
Fig. 13.14 Stepped bar.
Solution: Global force matrix can be written by considering the body force, traction force and point
force. These are written for each node 1, 2, 3 and 4.
 fA1l1 Tl 
 + 11 
 2 2 
 fA1l1 fA2 l2 T1l1 T2 l2 
 + + + + P
 2 2 2 2 
F=  
 fA2 l2 fA3 l3 T2 l2 T3 l3 
 + + +
2 2 2 2 
 
 fA3 l3 T3 l3 
 + 
 2 2 
The potential energy of whole body can be written as
3= 1
2
QT KQ  QT F
By applying the minimum potential energy, the matrix equation obtained will be
KQ = F
 K11 K12 K13 K14   Q1   F1 

    
 K 21 K22 K23 K24  Q2   F2 
   =  
 K31 K32 K33 K34  Q3   F3 
    
 K 41 K 42 K 43 K 44  Q4   F4 
The element of global stiffness matrix K known as K11, K12, etc. are already evaluated. Similarly, F1,
F2, F3 and F4 represent the force acting on node 1, 2, 3 and 4. The value of force is already evaluated.
In this problem Node 1 is fixed, therefore the first element of global force matrix, i.e., F1 the
reaction force R1 is to be added. The equation can be solved using the elimination approach. Before
applying the elimination approach it is necessary to apply the boundary condition. The elimination
approach state, element of displacement matrix if boundary condition applies then eliminate the
corresponding row and column from matrix equation for solving the algebraic equation.
In this problem the boundary condition is applied to first element of global displacement matrix.
Therefore, delete the first row and the first column from matrix equation
 K11○ ○ ○
K12
○ ○ ○
K13
○ ○ ○
K14   Q1  F1 + R1 
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○
    
○
 K21 K 22 K23 K24  Q2   F2 

○
   =  
○
 K31 K32 K33 K34  Q3   F3 

○
    
○
 K 41 K 42 K 43 K 44  Q4   F4 
○
○
The matrix equation reduces to
 K 22 K 23 K24  Q2   F2 
    
 K32 K33 K34  Q3  =  F3 
    
 K 42 K 43 K 44  Q4   F4 
The matrix equation leads to three algebraic equations with three unknowns, i.e., Q2, Q3 and Q4,
which can be evaluated to get displacement at the node point. From displacement at nodal point the
strain, stress over the element can be evaluated by the following equations.
Strain
e1 = B1q
1  q1 
F = [  1 1]  
le q2 
Stress
s1 = Ee
Similarly, the strain and stress for element 2 and 3 can be evaluated.
The reaction force at Node 1 can also be find out considering the algebraic equation formed
using the first row of matrix. Thus, we have
K11Q1 + K12Q2 + K13Q3 + K14Q4 = F1 + R1
13.7 APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

USING THE ANSYS SOFTWARE
13.7.1 Application of Finite Element Analysis Using 1D Element
EXAMPLE 13.2
The stepped bar in Fig. 13.15 of 600 mm length, carries point force, P = 300 kN. Using the
elimination approach for handling the boundary conditions, determine the stress and reaction on bar.
Verify the results using the ANSYS software. E = 200 GPa, n = 0.3.
Fig. 13.15 Stepped bar.
Solution: Dividing the complete body into 3 elements and 4 nodes, the element stiffness matrix for
element 1, 2 and 3 is
A1 E  1 1
K1 =  
l1  1 1
250  200  103  1 1

=  
150 1 1
1 2
 1 1 1
= 333.33 ´ 103  
 1 1 2
A2 E  1 1
K2 =  
l2 1 1
2 3
 1 1 2
= 333.33 ´ 103  
 1 1 3
A3 E  1 1
K3 =  
l3  1 1
3 4
 1 1 3
= 266.66 ´ 103  
 1 1 4
Global stiffness matrix

1 2 3 4
 333.34 333.33 0 0  1
 
3 
333.34 333.33  333.34 333.34 0  2
K = 10  
 0 333.34 333.34  266.6 266.6  3
 
 0 0 266.6 266.6  4
 333.34 333.33 0 0
 
3
333.34 666.67 333.34 0 
= 10  
 0 333.34 599.94 266.6 
 
 0 0 266.6 266.6 
Neglect the body force and traction force.

The global force matrix contains only the point force P act at Node 2, while at Nodes 1 and 4
reaction force acts represented by R1 and R4.
 R1 
 3
300  10 
F=  
 0 
 
 R4 
Using the principle of minimum potential energy the matrix equation can be written as
F = KQ
 333.34 333.33   Q1   
○
○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
0 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
0
○ ○ ○ ○ ○
R1 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
     3
○
○
3 
333.34 333.34 0  Q2  300  10 
○
○
333.33 + 333.34
 =  
○
○
10  
333.34 266.6  Q3   
○
○
 0 333.34 + 266.6 0
   
○
○
 
 0 266.6 266.6  Q4   
○
○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
0
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
R4○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○
○
Using the elimination approach, deleting the first and fourth rows and column as the beam is
fixed at node 1 and 4.
The matrix equation reduces to
 666.68 333.34  Q2  300  10 3 

10 3     =  
 333.34 599.9  Q3   0 
The matrix equation leads to two algebraic equations as

103(666.66Q2 – 333.34Q3) = 300 ´ 103 (13.26)
103(–333.3Q2 – 599.9Q3) = 0 (13.27)
Q3 = 0.346 mm
Q4 = 0.623 mm
Strain on element 1
1 Q1 
F1 = B1q = [  1 1]  
le Q2 
1  0 
F1 = [  1 1]   = 0.0041
150 0.623
Stress on element 1
s1 = Ee1 = 200 ´ 109 ´ 0.0041 = 0.82 ´ 109 N/m2
Strain on element 2
1 Q2 
F 2 = B2 q = [  1 1]  
le Q3 
1 0.623 
F2 = [  1 1]   =  0.0018
150 0.396 
Stress on element 2
s2 = Ee2 = 200 ´ 109 ´ (– 0.0018) = – 0.36 ´ 109 N/m2
Strain on element 3
1 Q3 
F 3 = B3 q = [  1 1]  
le Q4 
1 0.396 
F3 = [  1 1]   =  0.0011
150  0 
Stress on element 3
s3 = Ee3 = 200 ´ 109 ´ (– 0.0011) = – 0.22 ´ 109 N/m2
Reaction force at node 1
103(333.34Q1 – 333.34Q2) = R1
R1 = –207.67 ´ 103 N
Reaction force at node 4
103(–266.6Q3 + 266.6Q4) = R4
R4 = –92.32 ´ 103 N
Solution using ANSYS Software
Preprocessing
Step 1: Define the type of element
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Link>2D spar1>OK>
Close.
Step 2: Define the material model
Preprocessor>Material props>Material models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic>EX=
200E3 and PRXY=0.3>OK.
Step 3: Define the real constant
Preprocessor>Real constants>Add/edit/delete>Add>OK>Cross-sectional area>Enter 250>OK.
Preprocessor>Real constants>Add/edit/delete>Add>OK>Cross-sectional area>Enter 400>OK.
Step 4: Build the model
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Node>In active CS>Key point number=1 & X, Y, Z locations
in active CS=0, 0, 0>Apply>Node number=2 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=150,0,0>Apply>
Node number=3 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=300,0,0>Apply>Node number=4 & X, Y, Z
locations in active CS=600,0,0>Apply
Step 5: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes for element 1 and 2
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Element>Element attribute>Element type number=1 link 1,
material number 1, real constant set number 1.
(b) Mesh generation for element 1 and 2

Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Element>Pick node 1&2>Apply>Again pick node 2&3>OK
(c) Mesh attributes for element 3
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Element>Element attribute>Element type number=1 link 1,
material number 1, real constant set number 2.
(d) Mesh generation for element 3
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Element>Pick node 3 & 4>OK.
Step 6: Loading
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Force/moment>On nodes>Pick node 2>
Apply force in Fx direction (300e3 N).
Step 7: Boundary conditions
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Displacement>On nodes>Pick node at
point 1&4>All DOF.
Step 8: Solution
Solution>Solve>Current LS.
Postprocessing
Step 1: Contour plot of displacement
General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>DOF solution>Displacement vector
sum.
Step 2: Contour plot of stress
(a) Define additional elemental data
General postproc>Elemental table>add>Define additional elemental data appears, in the scroll
box on the left click once on by sequence num>highlight LS on the right scroll box>Enter 1 after
LS, in the white box below the right scroll box>OK.
(b) Plot elemental table
General postproc>Elemental table>Plot elem table>OK.
(c) Reaction
General postproc>List results>Highlight all struc forc F>OK.
(d) Model save
File>save as>Stepped_beam.db
(e) Exit ANSYS
Quit from ANSYS toolbar.
Table 13.1 presents the comparison of analysis results.
Table 13.1 Comparison of Analysis Results
Stress/reactions Analytical Approach (FEM) FEM (ANSYS) % difference

Using
Stress at element 1(N/mm2) 820 830.769 1.3
Reaction on node 1(kN) 207.67 207.69 0
Reaction on node 4(kN) 92.32 92.31 0
EXAMPLE 13.3
A cantilever rectangular beam (200 mm ´ 150 mm) of 3 m long carries vertical point load of 4 kN
at free end. Find the deflection of beam at free end. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Beam (2 node 188)>OK>Close.
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic>EX=210E3
& PRXY=0.3 >OK.
Step 3: Define the section of beam
Preprocessor>Sections>Beam>Common sections, sub type pick rectangular section (define ID=1,
Name=Rectangular beam, B=200 & H=150)>Apply to see the sectional property>close.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number=1 & X, Y, Z locations
in active CS=0, 0, 0>Apply>Keypoints number=2 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=3000, 0, 0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Lines>Lines>Straight line>Pick key point 1 & 2 > OK.
y
z x
B A
Fig. 13.16 Model.
Step 5: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Beam 188,
Material Number=1 & Section number=1 rectangular beam), press button OK.
(b) Element size
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Size controls>Global set>Element edge length (Define 25).
(c) Mesh generation
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: picked line>Press button mesh>picked the line from
graphics>OK.
Step 6: Display of meshed model in 3D
Plot control>Style>Size & shape>Display of element, Press button on.
Step 7: Loading
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Force/Moment>On nodes>Pick node at
free end (Point A)>Apply force in FY direction (– 4000 N).
fixed end (Point B)>All DOF.
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: Contour plot
sum.
Step 2: 3D display of results
Put power graph button on ANSYS toolbar menu to see the results in 3D.
Step 3: Model save
File>Save as>Rectangular_beam.db.
Step 4: Exit ANSYS
Table 13.2 shows the comparison of analysis results.
Deflection of beam (mm) % difference

Analytical approach 3.047
0.3
FEM(ANSYS) 3.056
EXAMPLE 13.4
A cantilever I-section beam of 2 m long carries vertical point load of 5 kN (Fig. 13.17). Find the
deflection of beam at free end. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Step 1: Define type of element.
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Add beam (2 node 188)>OK>Close.
Step 2: Define material model
Preprocessor>Material props>Material models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic, define EX=
210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK
Step 3: Define section of beam
Preprocessor>Sections>Beam>Common>Sections, Sub type pick eye section (define ID=1, Name=
Eye section, W1=200 mm, W2=200 mm, W3=420 mm, t1=t2=t3=10 mm)>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number =1 & X, Y, Z locations
in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Keypoints number =2 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=2000, 0, 0 > OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>lines>lines>Straight line>pick key point 1 & 2 > OK.
Fig. 13.17 Sectional details.
Z X
B A
Fig. 13.18 Model.
Step 5: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Beam 188,
Material number=1 & Section number= 1 Eye section), press button OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation
graphics>OK.
Plot control>Style>Size & Shape>Display of element, Press button on.
Step 7: Loading
point A>Apply force in FY direction (–5000 N).
point B>All DOF.
Solution:
Postprocessing
sum.
Step 2: 3D Display of Results
Step 3: Model save
File>save as>beam.db.
Step 4: Exit ANSYS

6.6
FEM(ANSYS) 0.32
EXAMPLE 13.5
A cantilever tapered I-section beam of 2 m long carries vertical point load of 5 kN. The tapered beam
with fixed end and free end sectional details are shown in Fig. 13.19. Find the deflection of beam
at free end. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Add beam (2 node 188)>OK>Close.
Step 2: Define material model
Preprocessor>Material props>Material models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic> EX=
210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
Step 3: Define the starting and end section
Preprocessor>Sections>Beam>Common sections, sub type pick eye section (ID=1, Name=
Starting section, W1=200 mm, W2=200 mm, W3=416 mm, t1=t2=t3=8 mm)>OK.
Preprocessor > Sections > Beam > Common sections sub type pick eye section (ID=2, Name=
End section, W1=100 mm, W2=100 mm, W3=308 mm, t1=t2=t3=4 mm)>OK.
Fig. 13.19 Sectional details for Example 13.5.
Step 4: Define the taper section

Preprocessor>Sections>Taper sections>By XYZ locations>New taper section ID (3), New
section>name (Tapered beam), Beginning section ID (1, Starting section), XYZ locations of
beginning set (0, 0, 0), Ending section ID (2, End section), XYZ locations of ending section (2000,
0, 0)>OK
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number =1 & X,Y,Z
locations in active CS=0,0,0>Apply>Keypoint number =2 & X,Y,Z locations in active CS=2000,
0,0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>lines>Lines>Straight line>Pick key point 1 & 2>OK.
Z X
B A
Fig. 13.20 Model.
Step 6: Meshing
(a) Mesh the attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Picked lines>pick the line from graphics>press button OK>Define
material number (1), Element type number (1 Beam 188) and Element section (3 taper)>OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh the generation

graphics>OK.
Plot control>Style>Size & shape>Display of element, Press button on.
Step 8: Loading
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Force/Moment>On Nodes > Pick node at
point A > Apply Force in FY direction (–5000 N).
point B>All DOF.
Solution:
Post processing
sum.
Step 2: 3D display of results
Put power graph button on ANSYS toolbar menu to see the results in 3D
Step 3: Model save
File>Save as>Tapered beam.db
Step 4: Exit ANSYS
EXAMPLE 13.6
Refer to Example 13.4, find out the displacement of beam for axial compressive/tensile load of 5 kN
Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Link (2D spar)>OK>close.
Preprocessor>Real constant>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>OK>Cross-sectional area>800>Close.
Preprocessor>Material props>Material models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic, define
EX=210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.

in active CS=0, 0, 0 apply>Key point number =2 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=2000,0,0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Lines>Lines>Straight line>Pick key point 1 & 2>OK
Z X
B A
Fig. 13.21 Model.
Step 5: Meshing
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 link,
material number=1 & Real constant set number =1), press button OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation
graphics>OK.
Step 6: Display of meshed model in 3D.
Plot control>Style>Size & shape>Display of element, press button on.
Step 7: Loading
point A>Apply force in FX direction (–5000 N).
point B>All DOF.
Solution:
Postprocessing
General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>DOF solution>Displacement vector sum.
Step 2: 3D display of Results
Step 3: Exit ANSYS
Quit from ANSYS toolbar

0
FEM (ANSYS) 0.059
EXAMPLE 13.7
Refer to example 9.1. Determine the resulting bending stress at corners A and B, on the fixed section
of the cantilever. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Shell)>Elastic 4 node 63>OK>Close.
Preprocessor>Real constant>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Shell thickness at node I TK (1)>2>Close>
Add>Shell thickness at node I TK (1)>2.5>Close.
210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number =1 & X, Y, Z
locations in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Key point number=2 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=2000,0,0
>Apply>Key point number =3 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=2000,47.5,0>Apply>>Key point
number = 4 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=0, 47.5,0>Close.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick1, 2, 3, 4 Keypoints>OK.
locations in active CS=0, 0, 15>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Lines>Straight line>Pick keypoints 1 and 5>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Operate>Extrude>Lines>Area>Along lines>Pick lines (L1 & L3)>
OK>Pick line L5>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Reflect>Areas>Pick area A2 & A3>OK>Pick X-Y Plane>Item to be
reflected>Pick area>Existing areas will be>Copied>OK.
Fig. 13.22 Model.
Step 5: Meshing
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Shell 63,
Material number=1 & Real constant set number =1), press button OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh the generation
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Area>Free>Press button mesh>Picked the area A1
(web of beam) from graphics>OK.
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Area>Free>Press button mesh>Picked the area A2,
A3, A4 &A5 (top & bottom flange) from graphics>OK.
(d) Merge the node
Preprocessor>Numbering ctrls>Merge items>Range of coincidence>0.001>OK.
Plot control>Style>Size & Shape>Display of element, Press button on
Step 7: Loading
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Force/Moment>On nodes>Pick all the
sectional nodes at free end>Apply>Force in FY direction = –235/No. of nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at free end>Apply>Force in FZ direction = 85.5/No. of nodes>OK.
Preprocessor>Loads>Define loads>Apply>Structural>Displacement>On nodes>Pick all sectional
node at fixed end of beam>All DOF.
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: Contour the plot.
General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>Nodal solution>Stress>X component
stress.
Step 2: Query of results

General postproc>Query results>Subgrid solu>Stress X-direction stress SX>Pick the nodes at
fixed end (Point A&B) to see the magnitude of stress>OK.
Exit ANSYS
Analytical approach FEM (ANSYS) % difference
Resultant bending stress (N/mm2) at point A 344.96 351.8 1.9%

2
Resultant bending stress (N/mm ) at point B 109.82 116.7 6.3%
EXAMPLE 13.8
Refer to Example 9.3. Determine the resulting deflection and bending stress at corners B and C. Take
E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Step 1: Define type of element
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Shell)>Elastic 4 node 63>OK>Close.
Step 2: Define real constant
Preprocessor>Real constant>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Shell thickness at node I TK (1)>10>Close>
Add>Shell thickness at node I TK (1)>20>Close.
EX=210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
locations in active CS=0, 0, 0 apply>Key point number =2 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=1500,0,0
>Apply>Key point number =3 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=3000,0,0>Apply>Key point number
=4 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=3000,160,0>Apply>Key point number =5 & X,Y, Z locations
in active CS=1500,160,0>Apply>Key point number = 6 & X,Y, Z locations in active CS=0,160,0>
Close.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick 1, 2, 5 & 6 Keypoints
>Apply>Pick 2, 3, 4 &5 Keypoints>OK.
locations in active CS=0, 160, 50>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Lines>Straight line>Pick keypoints 6 and 7>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Operate>Extrude>Lines>Area>Along lines>Pick the top web line of
both area>OK>Pick line L8>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Reflect>Areas>Pick area A3 & A4>OK>Pick X-Y Plane>Item to be

reflected>Pick area>Existing areas will be>Copied>OK.
Fig. 13.23 Model.
Step 5: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 shell 63,
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Area>Free>Press button mesh>picked the area A1 &
A2 (web of beam) from graphics>OK.
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Area>Free>Press button mesh>Picked the area A3,
A4, A5 &A6 (top flange of beam) from graphics>OK.
(d) Merge Node
Preprocessor>Numbering ctrls> Merge items>Range of coincidence>0.001>OK.
Step 6: Display of Meshed Model in 3D
Step 7: Loading
sectional nodes at the edge of Area A1 & A2>Apply>Force in FY direction = – 4690/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of Area A1 & A2>Apply>Force in FZ direction = –1710/No. of
nodes>OK.
node at simply supported end of beam>Pick UY and Uz>OK.
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: Contour the plot
General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>Nodal solution>Stress>X Component stress.
Step 2: Resultant displacement
sum.
Step 3: Query of results
General postproc>Query results>Subgrid solu>Stress X-direction stress SX>Pick the nodes at
fixed end (Point A&B) to see the magnitude of stress>OK.
Step 4: Exit ANSYS
Analytical FEM (ANSYS) % difference

approach using 2D (shell 63)
Resultant deflection(mm) 1.024 1.1 7%

2
Resultant bending stress (N/mm ) at point B 56.22 60 6.7%
2
Resultant bending stress (N/mm ) at point C 51.78 54.7 5.6%
EXAMPLE 13.9
A cantilever I-section beam of 2 m long carries vertical point load of 4 kN (Fig. 13.24). Find the
deflection of beam at free end considering 1D element for top and bottom flange and web using
2D element. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Shell>Elastic 4 node 63>Apply>Preprocessor>
Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Beam (2 node 188)>OK>Close.
Preprocessor>Real constant>Add/Edit/Delete>Add>Pick type 1 shell 63>OK>Shell thickness at
node I TK(1)>5>Close.
EX=210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
Step 4: Define the section of beam

Preprocessor>Sections>Beam>Common sections, Sub type pick rectangular section (define
ID=1, Name=Rectangular beam, B=200 & H=10)>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number=1 & X, Y, Z
locations in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Key point number=2 & X, Y, Z locations in active
CS=2000,0,0>Apply>Key point number =3 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=2000,390,0>Apply>
Key point number = 4 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=0,390,0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick 1, 2, 3 & 4 >OK.
Fig. 13.25 Model.

Step 6: Meshing
(a) Mesh the attributes for 2D
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation for 2D
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Area>Free>Press button mesh>Picked the area A1
from graphics>OK.
(d) Mesh attributes for 1D
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh attribute>Picked the top web line>OK>Material number 1,
Element type number 2 beam 188, Element section 1 rectangular, Pick orientation keypoints-click
yes>Pick the node number 240 to define the orientation or any node along vertical axis at fixed end
of beam (Refer to Fig. 10.25)>OK.
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh attribute>Bottom web line>OK>Material number 1, Element type
number 2 beam 188, Element section 1 rectangular, Pick orientation keypoints-click yes>Pick the
node number 240 to define the orientation or any node along vertical axis at fixed end of beam
(Refer to Fig. 10.25)>OK.
(e) Mesh the generation for 1D
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: line>Press button mesh>Picked the top web line>OK
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: line>Press button mesh>Picked the bottom web
line>OK.
Step 8: Loading
sectional nodes at the free edge of Area A1, Point B>OK>Force in FY direction = – 4000/No. of
nodes>OK.
node at fixed end of beam, point A>Pick UY and Uz>OK.
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>Nodal solution>Stress>X
Component stress.
Step 2: General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>DOF solution>Displacement
vector sum.
Step 3: Exit ANSYS
EXAMPLE 13.10
Refer to Example 9.3. Determine the resulting deflection and bending stress at corners B and C using
3D brick elements. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor> Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Solid>Brick 8 Node 45>OK>Close.
EX=210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
locations in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Key point number=2 & X, Y, Z locations in active
CS=100,0,0>Apply>Key point number=3 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=100, –20, 0>Apply>Key
point number=4 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=0, –20, 0>Apply>Key point number=5 & X, Y,
Z locations in active CS=45, –20, 0>Apply>Key point number=6 & X, Y, Z locations in active
CS=55, –20, 0>Key point number=7 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=45, –170, 0>Apply>Key
point number=8 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=55, –170, 0>Close.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 7, 5, 4 & 1
keypoints>Apply.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Operate>Extrude>Area>Along normal>Pick the area from graphics>
Press OK>Length of extrusion>1500>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Operate>Extrude>Area>Along normal>Pick the cross-sectional area
from end of beam from graphics>Press OK>Length of extrusion>1500>OK.
Fig. 13.26 Model.
Step 4: Meshing
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Solid 45
& Material number=1), Press button OK.
(b) Element size

(c) Mesh generation
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Mesh: Volume>Hex/Wedge>Sweep>Button sweep>Pick
both the volume from graphics>OK.
(d) Merge node
Preprocessor>Numbering Ctrls>Merge items>Range of coincidence>0.001>OK.
Step 5: Loading
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FY direction = – 4690/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FX direction = –1710/No. of
nodes>OK.
node at simply supported end of beam>Pick UY and UX>OK
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>Nodal solution>Stress>Z
Component stress.
Step 2: Exit ANSYS

approach using 3D (Solid 45)
Resultant bending stress (N/mm2) at point B 56.22 60 6.7%

2
Resultant bending stress (N/mm ) at point C 51.78 56.4 8.9%
EXAMPLE 13.11
Refer to Example 9.4. Determine the resulting bending stress at point A using 3D elements. Take
E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Solid>Brick 8 node 45>OK>Close.
EX=210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Keypoints>In active CS>Key point number=1 & X, Y, Z
locations in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Key point number=2 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=80,0,0>
Apply>Key point number=3 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=80,120,0>Apply>Key point number
=4 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=0,120,0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick 1, 2, 3 & 4 Keypoints
>Apply.
Fig. 13.27 Model.
Step 4: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Solid 45&
Material Number=1), Press button OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation
volume V1, V2 & V3 from graphics>OK.
(d) Merge the node
Step 5: Loading
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FY direction = –3464/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FX direction = – 2000/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V2 & V3>Apply>Force in FY direction = –3464/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V2 & V3>Apply>Force in FX direction = – 2000/No. of
nodes>OK.
node at the end of simply supported beam>All DOF>OK.
Solution:
Post processing
Component stress.
Step 2: Exit ANSYS

EXAMPLE 13.12
Refer to Example 9.5. Determine the resulting deflection and bending stress at point A using 3D
elements. Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Solution:
Preprocessing
Preprocessor>Element type>Add/Edit/Delete>Solid>Brick 8 node 45>OK>Close.

210E3 & PRXY=0.3>OK.
in active CS=0, 0, 0 Apply>Key point number =2 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=150,0,0>Apply>
Key point number=3 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=150, –20,0>Apply>Key point number = 4
& X, Y, Z locations in active CS=85, –20,0>Apply>Key point number=5 & X, Y, Z locations in
active CS=85, –180,0>Apply>Key point number=6 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=150, –180,0>
Apply> Key point number=7 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=150, –200,0>Apply>Key point
number=8 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=0, –200,0>Apply>Key point number=9 & X, Y, Z
locations in active CS=0, –180,0>Apply>Key point number=10 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=65,
–180,0>Apply> Key point number=11 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=65, –20,0>Apply>Key
point number=12 & X, Y, Z locations in active CS=0, –20,0>OK.
Preprocessor>Modeling>Create>Area>Arbitrary>Through KPS>Pick 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11 & 12 keypoints>OK.
Fig. 13.28 Model.
Step 4: Meshing
(a) Mesh attributes
Preprocessor>Meshing>Mesh tool>Element attributes>Set (Element type number = 1 Solid 45&
Material Number=1), press button OK.
(b) Element size
(c) Mesh generation
volume V1 & V2 from graphics>OK.
(d) Merge the node

Step 5: Loading
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FY direction = –8660.3/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V1 & V2>Apply>Force in FX direction = –5000/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the free edge of volume V2>Apply>Force in FY direction = –3535.5/No. of
nodes>OK.
sectional nodes at the edge of volume V2 & V3>Apply>Force in FX direction = 3535.5/No. of
nodes>OK.
node at the fixed end of beam>All DOF>OK.
Solution:
Postprocessing
Step 1: General postproc>Plot results>Contour plot>Nodal solu>DOF solution>Displacement
Vector sum.
component stress.
Step 3: Exit ANSYS

Resultant displacement (mm) 4.5

Resultant bending stress (N/mm2) at point B 30.41 30.06 1%
Resultant bending stress (N/mm2) at point C 30.41 30.06 1%
Resultant bending stress (N/mm2) at point D 48.07 47.3 1.6%
Index
Airy’s stress function, 87–88 Fatigue, 123, 127

ANSYS, 350–354 reduction factor, 127
Finite element method, 350
Bending stress, 4
Body forces, 49 Generalized Hooke’s law, 53
Brittle material, 95 Gerber equation, 128
Buckling, 282 Goodman diagram, 128–129
Castigliano’s theorem, 150 Helical spring, 308

Cauchy stress formula, 59 Hooke’s law, 53
Circumferential or hoop stress, 225 Hoop or circumferential stress, 226, 236
Close-coiled spring, 308
Combined stress, 111
Compatibility, 81 Indeterminate structure, 185
Condition of compatibility, 82
Crippling load, 282
Lame’s
equations, 243
Degree of indeterminacy, 186 theory, 241
Determinate, 81 Load factor, 126
Deviatoric plane, 99 Long column, 283
Double integration method, 159–160 Longitudinal stress, 225–226
Ductile material, 115
Macaulay’s method, 159, 172

Endurance limit, 124 Maximum
Euler’s formula, 290 distortion energy theory, 102
Experimental verification of theory of failure, 111 normal stress, 10
393
394 Index
principal strain criterion, 107 Spring index, 312

principal stress criterion, 106 St. Venant’s equations, 83
shear stress, 10 State of pure shear, 71
shear stress theory, 96 State of stress, 71
Mean Statically indeterminate
and deviator stresses, 70 problems, 185
stress, 123 structures, 185
Medium column, 283 Stiffness, 158, 315
Mohr’s Strain energy density, 105
circle, 15 Strain-displacement relation, 74–75
theory, 108 Stress, 1–2
Mohr–Coulomb criterion, 111 gradient, 51
Moment area method, 159, 179 invariants, 60
on an inclined plane, 7
tensor, 60
Neutral axis, 196, 200 Strut, 282
Normal stress, 2 Surface
finish factor, 125
forces, 125
Octahedral
plane, 68
stress, 68 Tensile and compressive stresses, 3
Open-coiled spring, 308 Theory of failure, 132
Thick shell, 225
Thin shell, 225
PI plane, 99 Torsional rigidity, 309
Plane stress, 6 Tresca criterion, 96
Principal stress, 14 Two-dimensional state of stress, 41
Radial stress, 226

Unsymmetrical bending, 263
Radius of gyration, 289
Rankine’s formula, 296
Variable stress, 124

Safe load, 282 von Mises theory, 102
Second moment area, 263
Shear stress, 5, 8
Short column, 282 Wahl’s correction factor, 312
Size factor, 125 Winkler-Bach theory, 196
Slenderness ratio, 228–283
Soderberg criterion, 132, 136
Solution of stress differential equation, 86 Yield criterion, 96
Second Edition
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
A.K. Srivastava • P.C. Gope
The book, now in the Second Edition, presents the fundamental principles of strength of materials and focuses on
3D analysis of stress and strain, double integration method, Macaulay’s method, moment area method and
method for determining stresses using Winkler–Bach theory. It also covers the analyses of helical springs and leaf
spring, and buckling analysis of columns and struts using Euler’s and Rankine’s theory.
This edition includes four new chapters, namely Simple and Compound Stress, Theory of Failure, Energy Methods
and Finite Element Method and its Applications Using ANSYS Software. The chapter on Analysis of Stress and
Strain has been thoroughly revised.
The text is primarily designed for the undergraduate students of mechanical engineering, production
engineering, and industrial engineering. Besides students, practising engineers would also find the book useful.
KEY FEATURES
◆ A large number of numerical problems
◆ Open-ended or synthesis-type examples wherever required
◆ Chapter-end exercises
THE AUTHORS
A.K. SRIVASTAVA (M.Tech., G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar) is Manager (Design) in
Aircraft Upgrade Research and Design Centre, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (Ministry of Defence), Nasik.
Earlier, he was with RITES Ltd. (under the Ministry of Railways), and Dehradun Institute of Technology, Dehradun.
Mr. Srivastava has also published ten technical research papers in reputed national and international journals.
P.C. GOPE (Ph.D., National Institute of Technology Jamshedpur) is Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the
College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. With over two decades of
teaching experience, he has published/presented 63 research papers in reputed national and international
journals/conferences. A recipient of the Sir Rajendra Nath Mukherjee Memorial Award for his best research
paper by the Institution of Engineers (India) in 2004, Dr. Gope has worked on five industry and CSIR-sponsored
research and investigative projects.
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Strength of Materials

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Second Edition

A.K. Srivastava • P.C. Gope

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, Second Edition

Third Printing (Second Edition) ¼ ¼ ¼ Febraury, 2012

1. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STRESS 1–48

2. ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 49–94

2.12 Principal Directions 57

3. THEORY OF FAILURE 95–139

4. ENERGY METHODS 140–157

4.2.3 Strain Energy due to Torsional Loading 143

5. DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 158–195

6. CURVED BEAM 196–224

7. THIN CYLINDER AND SPHERE 225–240

8. THICK AND COMPOUND CYLINDER 241–262

9. UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING AND SHEAR CENTRE 263–281

10. COLUMNS AND STRUTS 282–307

11. SPRING 308–333

11.4 Helical Spring 309

12. ROTATING DISCS AND CYLINDERS 334–349

13. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD AND ITS APPLICATION USING ANSYS

Fig. 1.1 Forces acting on a body.

Fig. 1.2 Components of forces in the x, y and z directions.

Ô 'F = T Ô 'A (1.4)

Now we can summarize that

1.3 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED STRESS

Fig. 1.3 Tensile stress.

Fig. 1.4 Compressive stresses.

1.3.2 Stress Due to Bending Moment

Thus, the bending stress is

1.3.3 Stress Due to Twisting Moment

Fig. 1.6 Torsion of circular bar.

The derivation of the above equation is based on the following assumptions.

1.4 COMPLEX STRESSES

1.4.1 Plane Stress

Fig. 1.7 Three-dimensional stress system.

This can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8 Two-dimensional stress system (plane stress system).

1.4.2 Stresses on an Inclined Plane

Fig. 1.9 Biaxial loading.

Fig. 1.11 Components of forces on oblique plane.

T nn T xx cos2 R  T yy sin 2 R  U xy sin 2R (iii)

Fig. 1.12 Stresses on inclined planes.

Maximum shear stress

These two values act at the right angle to each other.

Maximum normal stress

tan 2 R s  tan 2 R p =  1 (1.17)

Fig. 1.13 Example 1.1.

Maximum normal stress smax = 8.149 MPa

Fig. 1.14(a) Stress distribution of Example 1.2, (b) State of stress.

(b) Stresses on an oblique plane

Fig. 1.14(c) Stresses on oblique plane of Example 1.2.

From the relation

We can simplify by substituting

Fig. 1.15 Computation of principal stresses.

From Fig. 1.15, we can derive one set of angles as

and for other set of angles, the equations are

Mohrs circle for plane stress

Equation (1.21) can be written as

Fig. 1.16 Sign conventions of shear stress.

The steps involved in drawing Mohr’s circle are explained below:

Fig. 1.17 State of stress for q = 0° and q = 90°.

Fig. 1.18 Mohrs circle.

Fig. 1.19 State of stress of Example 1.3.

(a) Draw Mohr’s circle and determine principal stresses.

T nn T xx cos2 R T yy sin 2 R U xy sin 2R (iii)

tan 2 R s tan 2 R p = 1 (1.17)

Mohrs circle for plane stress

Fig. 1.18 Mohrs circle.

Fig. 1.20 Mohrs circle for Example 1.3.

BD3 bd 3 0.1 0.13 0.08 0.063

2(1 + 0.334) È 795.775 0.8 Ø

2(1 + 0.33) È 795.775 1 Ø

Tdo 1.5 1000 0.07

2(1 + 0.3) È 1500 0.6 Ø

2(1 + O ) È Tl Ø 2(1 + 0.3) È T 0.75 Ø

200 10 9 Q /32 {0.094 0.074}

M B = ( 219.15)2 + ( 24.31)2 = 220.5 N·m

MC = ( 58.31)2 + ( 48.62)2 = 75.92 N·m

4Vy 4Vy 16( P ) 16 P

16 Tdo 16 100 0.05

32 Mdo 32 250 0.05

32 Mdo 32 300 0.05

Fig. 1.41 Mohrs circle values shown as in MPa.