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When we use above as a preposition, it means higher than. Its meaning is close to that of the preposition over. In the following
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or came up over her head )
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or got over the clouds )
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things referred to. Over or on top of have a more general
meaning, and can be used when one thing touches or covers another:
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet.
Warning:
When we talk about temperatures in relation to zeroor (the) average, we use abovenot over:
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally use above orover:
Across
We use across as a preposition (prep) and an adverb (adv). Across means on the other side of something, or from one side to the
other of something which has sides or limits such as a city, road or river:
[PREP]Across the room, she could see some old friends. She got up and went to join them.
My neighbour came [ADV]across to see me this morning to complain about our cat.
We also use across when something touches or stretches from one side to another:
The Ponte Vecchio is a beautiful old bridge across the river Arno in Florence.
She divided the page by drawing a red line across it. Then she cut it in two.
Especially in American English, across from is used to refer to people or objects being opposite or on the other side:
We use across to emphasise that something is happening at the same time in many places, e.g. within an organisation, a city or a
country:
Shes opened coffee shops acrossthe city and theyre very successful.
Across the country, people are coming out to vote for a new president.
The size of a television screen is measured from the higher corner of one side to the lower corner of the ot her side, that is, from one
The building is 157 metres long, 92 metres across and the faade is 68 metres wide.
Over
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position than something else, sometimes involving
From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same asacross:
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop the shop is on the other side of the road)
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldnt remember his name. (or I was going over to say meaning to the
Movement
When we talk about movement from one side to another but in something, such as long grass or a forest, we use throughinstead
of across:
I love walking through the forest.(through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
When my dog runs through long grass, its difficult to find him. (throughstresses that the dog is in the grass)
Time
When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers often use through where British English speakers
The office is open Monday throughFriday, 9 am5 pm. (preferred British form: from Monday to Friday)
Warning:
We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a number is specified (of days, weeks, etc.):
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.
When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we usethrough not across:
When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another, we use across not on:
We dont use through when were talking about periods of time from start to finish and we mention a specific number of days,
weeks, etc:
We havent seen each other muchover the last four years.
Not: We havent seen each other much through the last four years.
Advice or advise?
de English Grammar Today
Advice /dvs/ is a noun and means a suggestion about what someone should do. It is uncountable:
If we want to use advice in a countable way, then we use the phrase a piece of advice:
Affect or effect?
de English Grammar Today
All or every?
de English Grammar Today
We use both all and every to refer to the total number of something. All refers to a complete group. Every refers to each member of
a complete group:
Compare
passengers.)
We can use all, but not every, on its own without a noun. We useeveryone/everybody/everything instead:
See also:
Every
All and every + nouns
The meaning of all and every is very similar but we use them in different ways. We use all with plural and uncountable nouns
We can use all and all of before determiners, but we dont use everybefore determiners:
We can use all and all of before articles (the, a/an), demonstratives (this, that) and possessives (our, his) but we cant
It has got all (of) the books that have ever been published.
Not: It has got every the book or It has got the every book
Shes gone to all (of) their concerts this year. She hasnt missed one.
See also:
All of
All without of
We use all day, all week, all month to mean one entire day/week/month:
We dont use every on its own without a noun; we use everyone, everybodyor everything instead:
All or whole?
de English Grammar Today
We use them before nouns and with other determiners to refer to a total number or complete set of things in a group.
Compare
All the cast had food
all +
poisoning. They were
determiner +
forced to cancel the
noun
show.
She complains all of the time. or She complains the whole of the time.
I spent a whole day looking for that book and eventually found it in a little old bookshop on the edge of town.
We use the whole or the whole of to refer to complete single things and events that are countable and defined:
The whole performance was disappointing from start to finish. (orThe whole of the performance was disappointing )
When we can split up a thing into parts, we can use either whole or all with the same meaning:
You dont have to pay the whole (of the) bill at once.
We use all the and not the whole with uncountable nouns:
We usually use all the and all of the with plural nouns:
Its funny when all the actors come in dressed up in their costumes.
She opens all the cupboard doorsand doesnt close them after her.
Compare
Whole familiesnormally
entire
shared one room in the
families
nineteenth century.
Allow, permit and let are verbs that all have a similar meaning: give permission or make it possible for somebody to do or have
something.
Permit is more formal than allow. Allow is more formal than let:
The University has established a Museums Committee to permit more formal discussion of common problems amongst its museums.
The plan for Heathrow will allowairport operator BAA to build a third, shorter runway.
He has not decided yet whether his leg injury will permit him to play this weekend.
[child to parent]
We often use the passive with permit andallow. Permit is often used for official public notices:
Warning:
Almost or nearly?
de English Grammar Today
We use almost and nearly to refer to the progress of things, especially if we are measuring and counting things. In these
We also use almost and nearly with extreme adjectives such as perfect,impossible or frozen:
The chicken is still nearly frozen. I thought youd taken it out of the freezer.
We use almost (but not nearly) to soften statements:
We use almost before any and before negative words such as no, none, never,nobody, nothing. We dont use nearly in this way:
Using this special software, you can find the history of almost anybuilding.
Theyve almost no confidence that they can use the new phone properly.
Alone or lonely?
Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When we use alone as an adjective, it never comes
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective)
Its impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb)
Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a result. We may choose to be alone but
She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.
Lonesome
If theyre away from home, they getlonesome. (If theyre away from home, they get lonely).
Along or alongside?
de English Grammar Today
Along
As a preposition, along means in a line next to something long and thin, e.g. a road, a path:
They said theyd bring the bikesalong and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)
I find it difficult to cope with this illnessalongside all my other problems.(together with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning along the side of or next to something:
Already or yet?
We use already to refer to something which has happened or may have happened before the moment of speaking. Already can
sometimes suggest surprise on the part of the speaker, that something is unexpected:
We use yet most commonly in questions and negatives, to talk about things which are expected but which have not happened:
Is it seven oclock yet? (The speaker thinks that probably its almost seven oclock.)
A:
B:
Already refers to things which have happened or which people think may have happened. Yet refers to things which have not
I still meet my friends from my schooldays now and then. (I continue to meet my friends)
Compare
A:
year to do.
A:
Is your sister at
I expect that she will go
universityyet?
to university. Is she
B:
there now?
No. Shes only 17. Shell go
next year.
A:
Is your sisteralready at
Im surprised if your
university? Shes only 17!
sister is at university. I
B:
did not expect it to
Yes. She started this year.
happen until later.
Shes so clever they let her
Negatives with yet mean that something has not happened up to now:
Negatives with still suggest that the situation should have changed, but it has not:
I still havent found my passport. I know its here somewhere. (Ive been looking for it for a long time. I should have found it by now)
Warning:
We usually put yet after the main verb, whereas we usually put stillafter the subject.
Compare
I havent I stillhavent
finishedyet. finished.
If youve already registered, the price is 50 pounds. If you havent alreadyregistered, its 75 pounds for late registration.
Also
Also is commonly used in writing, but is less common in speaking. Also occupies different positions in a sentence.
We use also in front position to emphasise what follows or to add a new point or topic:
OK, Ill phone you next week and we can discuss it then. Also, we need to decide who will be going to Singapore.
We use also in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary
verb, or after be as a main verb. In this position, the meaning of alsousually connects back to the whole clause that comes before:
She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.
Ive been working in the garden this week, and Ive also been reading a lot.
In end position, also normally connects two phrases. We use as well and tooinstead of also, in end position, especially in speech:
She contacted him in the office but he didnt answer the phone. His mobile phone was silent also. (or His mobile phone was
As well
Spoken English:
As well is much more common in speaking than in writing, and is more common in speaking thanalso.
A:
B:
Yes.
A:
See also:
As well (as)
Too
She looks really tired and she must be really hungry too.
Too can occur immediately after the subject, if it refers directly to the subject. It does not normally occur after a modal or auxiliary
We, too, have been very pleased to receive the prize on her behalf.
Too is especially common in responses to fixed expressions such as giving good wishes, and in responses consisting of a single
object pronoun:
A:
B:
Thanks. You enjoy your eveningtoo. (preferred to You enjoy your evening as well. or You alsoenjoy your evening.)
A:
B:
[customer in a post office, buying books of first and second class stamps]
Give me a book of ten first and a book of ten second as well then please. (preferred to and a book of ten second also then please.)
Linking negatives
We use either not also, as well or too to connect two negative ideas:
A:
Thats not in paperback yet. Itsnot been in any book clubseither, has it?
B:
No.
Not: Its not been in any book clubs also/as well/too, has it?
We dont use as well at the beginning of a clause. As well usually comes at the end of a clause:
Alternate(ly),alternative(ly)
de English Grammar Today
Alternate(ly)
The adjective alternate and the adverbalternately mean first one thing, then another thing and then the first thing again. When
we refer to time, we can also use the phrase every other day, every other week, etc.
The trouble is you can only park in the hospital on alternate days. (or in the hospital every other day.)
Every
Alternative(ly)
Alternative(ly) means something that is different and unusual and offers a possible choice:
We cant use that room for meetings. Theyll have to find us an alternativeroom.
Although orthough?
de English Grammar Today
Although and though both mean in spite of something. They are subordinating conjunctions. This means that the clause which
they introduce is a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete:
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the finalalthough [subordinate clause]we lost the match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy, [main clause]we put on our jackets and went for a walk.
Spoken English:
Though is more common thanalthough in general and it is much more common thanalthough in speaking. For emphasis, we often
Warning:
When the though/althoughclause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the end of the clause. When the main
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
See also:
Even if
Although and though with -ing clauses
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into mathematics.
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.
In formal speaking or writing, we can usealthough, though and even though to introduce a clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didnt show any emotion when she invited him to go for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean but it is also true that :
Karen is coming to stay next weekalthough Im not sure what day she is coming.
Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although oreven though) with a meaning similar to however ornevertheless. In
A:
B:
I dont mind, though. I have lots of work to do. Ill just bring my laptop with me.
A:
Its expensive.
B:
A:
As though
As though has a meaning very similar toas if. As if is much more common than as though:
Altogether
In 1997 the sales tax was lowered to 4%, then in 2001 it was abolishedaltogether.
The book was 13.50 and the magazine was 5.25, so it was 18.75altogether.
All together
Put your clothes all together in one pile and Ill wash them for you.
Waiter:
Customer:
Yes. Can you do a table for five?
We use amount of with uncountable nouns. Number of is used with countable nouns:
The amount of time it took to finish the job was very frustrating.
Quantity is more formal than amount ornumber. A quantity of or quantities ofcan be followed by a countable noun or an
uncountable noun. They are most commonly used with an adjective such ashuge, big, large, small:
The soldiers discovered a largequantity of weapons hidden under the floor of a disused building.(countable)
You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the sand.(uncountable)
Aid workers have delivered hugequantities of food to the refugee camps. (uncountable)
We use any more as a determiner to describe an indefinite quantity of something. Any more is similar to some more. Some more is
more common in affirmative statements; any more is more common in questions, in clauses with ifand in sentences with negative
There are hardly any more people here than last month.
See also:
Any
Some
Any more is also an adverb and has the meaning of no longer or in the past but not now. In this meaning, we use it in end
position:
We dont go to Cornwall on holidayany more. (We used to go in the past but not now.)
Especially in American English, any more, as an adverb, can be written as one word, anymore:
Anyone, anybody and anything are indefinite pronouns. We use anyone,anybody and anything to refer to both an open, unlimited
set of things or people and specific things or people. We use them with a singular verb:
If anyone would like further information about the dogs, theyshould call Canine Rescue on 0502 75257. (The same
as If anyone would like further information about the dogs, he or she should call Canine Rescue on 0502 75257.)
We stayed in Sevilla for the rest of our holidays. No one wanted to come back, but we had to.
See also:
Any
Anyone and anybody have no difference in meaning. Anybody is a little less formal than anyone. Anyone is used more in writing
than anybody:
[talking about the New Zealand rugby team, the All Blacks]
It is hard to find anyone who thinks that the All Blacks will face a stronger team.
Apart from and except for are multi-word prepositions. Apart from can mean either including or excluding:
Apart from Germany, they also visited Italy and Austria. (including Germany, in addition to Germany)
Except for Jim, who is unwell, they are all ready to leave for America tomorrow.
Arise means happen or occur. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The three forms of arise are arise, arose,arisen. It is
Rise means go up. The three forms ofrise are rise, rose, risen:
Around or round?
de English Grammar Today
Around and round are prepositions or adverbs. We use around and round when we refer to movements in circles or from one place
to another. Around and roundcan both be used. Around is more common in American English. Round is a little more common in
speaking:
We spent a very pleasant day walkinground the town. (movement from one place to another)
Now they are retired, they are planning a trip around the world.
Can you pass these application formsaround to all the people present?
Around and round also mean in different places and here and there:
A:
Wheres Jill?
B:
A:
B:
Arouse or rouse?
de English Grammar Today
Rouse and arouse are both used in formal contexts. Arouse means make someone have a particular feeling:
The goal roused the supporters and they began to really get behind the team. (get behind means support)
As or like?
de English Grammar Today
As and like are prepositions or conjunctions. The prepositions as andlike have different meanings. As + noun means in the role
Compare
Asyour father,
The speaker is the
Ill help you as
listeners father.
much as I can.
Like the other students, he finds it a bit difficult to get to lectures early in the morning.
The conjunctions as and like have the same meaning when used in comparisons. Like is a little more informal.
As, because and since are conjunctions.As, because and since all introduce subordinate clauses. They connect the result of
result reason
letter?
Because
Because is more common than as andsince, both in writing and speaking. When we use because, we are focusing on the reason:
We often put the because-clause at the beginning of a sentence, especially when we want to give extra focus to the reason. We use
We can use a because-clause on its own without the main clause in speaking or informal writing:
A:
B:
Yes.
A:
Why?
B:
Because my best friend goes there. (I would like to go to school there because my best friend goes there.)
Warning:
In 1998, the government introduced a new import taxbecause people were importing cars from abroad.
Not: a new import tax. Because people were importing cars from abroad.
Cos
We often shorten because to cos /kz/ or/kz/ in informal speaking and writing:
See also:
As and since
We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the reason. As and since are more formal than because.
[result]I hope theyve decided to come as [reason]I wanted to hear about their India trip.
We often use as and since clauses at the beginning of the sentence. We use a comma after the as- or since- clause:
Since everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, theres no need to dress up for work any more.
As everyone already knows each other, theres no need for introductions. Well get straight into the business of the meeting.
We use because, not as or since, in questions where the speaker proposes a reason:
Not: Are you feeling unwell since you ate too much? or as you ate too much?
As, when and while are conjunctions. In some uses as, when and while can mean the same, but they can also have slightly different
We can use as, when and while to mean during the time that, to connect two events happening at the same time:
When the men were out working in the field, I helped with milking the cows, feeding the calves and the pigs.
We can put clauses with as, when andwhile before or after the main clause. When they come before the main clause, we use a
comma:
As she was leaving the court, a crowd of photographers gathered around her. (before the main clause, followed by a comma)
Steven was very unhappy whenthings werent going well for him.
As
We can use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as, we can use a simple or continuous form of the verb.
The continous form emphasises an action that interrupts or occurs during the progress of another action:
As she walked to the door, she thanked them for a lovely dinner.
As they were signing the contract, they noticed that a page was missing.
When
We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the middle of a longer activity or event. In these cases,
we usually use a continuous verb in the main clause to describe the background event:
Depending on the context, when can mean after or at the same time.
Compare
See also:
Conditionals
We often use just with when or as to express things happening at exactly the same time:
The phone always rings just whenIm closing the front door.
She was a brilliant gymnast, but she had a terrible accident in 1999, just as her career was taking off.
While and as
We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the same time. We can use either simple or
We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had chosen and explained his ideas.
See also:
As
While
We can use when and while without a verb, or without a subject + auxiliary verbbe:
Go past the village signpost and you get to a church. When there, take the next turning right. (formal)
He read his book while waiting for the bus. (while he was waiting)
Warning:
We often use been to, instead of gone to, when we refer to completed visits to a place:
Compare
Begin or start?
de English Grammar Today
We can use the verbs begin and start to mean the same thing but begin is more formal than start. Begin is an irregular verb. Its past
Start, but not begin, is used to talk about creating a new business:
She started a new restaurant and its been going really well.
Beside or besides?
de English Grammar Today
Beside
He would like to take a photograph of us. Would you come and sit besideme?
There was a small table beside the bed, on which there was a book.
Besides
As a linking adverb, we usually put a comma before and after besides in writing:
I dont think going for a walk is a good idea. Its quite cold, and, besides, its getting late and we dont want to be out in the dark.
Between oramong?
de English Grammar Today
We use between to refer to two things which are clearly separated. We useamong to talk about things which are not clearly
Our holiday house is between the mountains and the sea. (the mountains are on one side and the sea is on the other)
The ancient fountain was hiddenamong the trees. (surrounded by trees)
Between is most often used to introduce a prepositional phrase which contains two singular or plural noun phrases:
There was a cyclist [prepositional phrase]between the car and the lorry.
I didnt see any difference [prepositional phrase]between the real bags and the imitation bags.
We can also use between + pronoun when referring to two people or things:
I gave Yolanda and Lynn some money and told them to share itbetween them.
The most common nouns often followed by between are: connection, difference,distinction, link, relationship:
Theres a strong link between clean drinking water and reduced infant mortality.
The most common verbs often followed by between are: choose, differentiate,distinguish, divide:
Her money was divided between her son and her daughter.
We use among to suggest a sense of being a part of or surrounded by or included in something else. It is typically followed by a
In the phrases among others and among other things, among means as well as:
Her parents, among others, were worried about her travelling alone.
Born or borne?
de English Grammar Today
Born
We use born in the phrase be born to indicate that a child has entered the world:
They say that in China a new baby is born every five minutes.
Warning:
We use was/were born when we talk about when or where someone started their life:
Bear means to tolerate something, usually something that you dislike. It is most commonly used in the expression cant bear. The
The verb bear is sometimes used to describe the act of giving birth. It is most commonly used in the past tense and in rather formal
She bore twelve children in twenty-two years. (or, more commonly, Shehad twelve children )
Bring, take andfetch
de English Grammar Today
Bring
Bring means moving something or someone. The movement is either from where the listener is to where the speaker is, or from
Bring is an irregular verb. Its past tense and -ed form are both brought.
In both of the following examples, the speakers are seeing things from As viewpoint things will move to the place where A is:
A:
B:
Yes.
A:
B:
Yeah. (B will return with the sweater to the place where A is.)
A:
B:
Yes. Do you want me to bring my guitar? (B will carry the guitar to the place where A will be.)
Bring can also mean moving with something or someone from another place to the speakers or listeners location:
A:
B:
Yes. She brought me some flowers and a CD. (Laura is C, another person, in a different place from A or B. She moved with
Take
Take means movement with something or someone from where the speaker or listener is to a different place:
You have to fill in this form and thentake it to the English Department to get it stamped. (the assistant and the student are at the
A:
I can take you to the station tomorrow. What times your train?(Neither A nor B is at the station; it is a different place.)
B:
Bring or take?
Compare
seen from
She visits her father every
the
morning
viewpoint
and shealwaystakes him
of the doer
the days newspaper.
she
seen from
newspaper. receiver
him
Fetch
Fetch means to go to another place to get something or someone and return with the thing or the person. We use it for people and
things that are not here but that we need or are due to be here. We can usually use get instead of fetch:
If youre going to the garage, can youfetch that green bag with the paintbrushes in it? Or Can you get that green bag
Right. Its five oclock. Id better go andfetch my mother from the station.
See also:
Come or go?
We dont use take when something is seen from the receivers viewpoint:
A:
B:
A:
Good. Can you bring some CDs? Were a bit short of music.
Possibility
When we talk about possibility, we usecan, could and may, but they are different in meaning.
Compare
possibility.
This does not express
possibility.
modality is used.
See also:
Could
May
Permission
We use can, could and may to ask for permission. We use can and may, but not could, to give permission. May is less common:
Compare
See also:
Might
Requests
When we make requests, we can use canor could (but not may). Could is more polite than can:
See also:
Requests
Politeness
Could in the present only expresses weak possibility. Can expresses strong possibility:
I can travel in July because my exams will definitely be finished at the beginning of that month. (strong possibility)
I could travel in July because my exams will probably be finished at the beginning of that month. (weak possibility)
We dont normally use could to talk about general truths which refer to the present time. We use can instead:
We use could, not can, to express future possibility. Can expresses that we are certain of something:
Working in London next summercould be a great experience. (The speaker thinks this is possible, in particular circumstances)
Classic orclassical?
de English Grammar Today
Classic: adjective
Classic means high quality. In particular, we use it to mean something that is valued because it has a traditional style:
Classic: noun
We can use a classic and the classics to refer to the greatest and most famous works of literature from the past:
I never read modern novels. I always prefer the classics, such as Dickens and Jane Austen.
Classics without an article means the academic subject which includes the study of Ancient Greek and Latin:
Classical: adjective
We use classical to refer to the culture of the past and to art forms which belong to a long formal tradition:
Shes only eight years old and she has learned to dance both classicaland modern ballet.
Come or go?
de English Grammar Today
We use come to describe movement between the speaker and listener, and movement from another place to the place where the
speaker or listener is. We usually use go to talk about movement from where the speaker or listener is to another place.
When we talk about another person (someone who is neither the speaker nor the listener), we can use either come orgo,
depending on whether the speaker sees things from the receivers viewpoint (come) or the doers viewpoint (go).
[doer]Yolandacame to[receiver]her We
motherfor help. use come when
we see things
from the
receivers
We use go when
we see things
[doer]Melissawent to [receiver]her
from the doers
motherfor help.
viewpoint (in this
case Melissa).
See also:
Go
Come in, go in
Consider orregard?
de English Grammar Today
Consider and regard can both mean believe or realise or understand. When they mean believe or realise or understand, we
Consider
When you consider that she was very scared, her story is even more remarkable.
Consider + object + to be
The ministry of trade considered the company to have the best vision for exports.
Warning:
Regard
We often use regard in the phrase regard as: regard (+ object) + as + noun phrase or adjective phrase:
Typical error
When you consider that he was too young, you have to blame his parents.
Consist
Comprise
We can also use it in the passive voice in the form be comprised of:
The course is comprised of ten lectures and five seminars on the theory of economics and banking.
Comprise, but not compose, can be used with the parts that make up something as the subject:
Compose of is even more formal thanconsist of and comprise. Compose of is only used in the passive voice:
Typical errors
Content orcontents?
de English Grammar Today
Content and contents are nouns.
Content (uncountable)
Content as a singular noun is uncountable. It means the ideas that are contained in a piece of w riting or a film or a speech:
His speech was very flowery, but it lacked content and was quite superficial.
Content can also mean the amount of a particular substance contained in something:
These hamburgers have a high fatcontent; theyre not good for you.
Contents (plural)
The contents of a book is the list of chapters or articles or parts that are in the book, with the number of the page they begin on:
If you look at the contents, youll see theres a chapter on Japanese folk music.
The adjective different means not the same. When we compare two or more items, it is usually followed by from. We also
This tea tastes very different thanthe one I usually drink. (or verydifferent from/to the one I usually drink)
In British English, people often saydifferent than before a clause, but many speakers consider this to be incorrect:
His accent is different now thanbefore he went to Australia. (or different now from before he went to Australia.)
Do or make?
de English Grammar Today
When we use do and make with noun phrases, do focuses on the process of acting or performing something, makeemphasises
I [action]did some work for her last summer; I [outcome]made a pond in her garden.
Down
We use down mostly as a preposition or adverb. It means in or moving to a low or lower position or level:
We can also use down to mean towards the south, generally in the south, or towards the place where a river meets the sea:
When you were living in Spain, did you ever go down to Granada?
We went on a cruise down the Nile for seven days. It was fantastic.
In informal situations, we can use down to talk about a quick trip to a destination which we consider to be less central than where
we are. In this meaning, we can use it with or without to. Without to is less formal:
Milas office is just down the corridor, second door on the left.
A good dictionary will tell you more meanings of down, especially when it is used as part of a phrasal verb.
Downwards, downward
Since the nineteen seventies, our country has really taken some stepsdownward.
The statistics for violent crimes have shown a downward trend in the last two years. (The numbers have gone down.)
During or for?
de English Grammar Today
We use during to say when something happens, if it happens in or over a period of time. We use for to talk about the length of time
something lasts.
Compare
winter. winter.
She phoned me during the week to tell me that she was getting married.(referring to a point in the week)
Each or every?
de English Grammar Today
We use each to refer to individual things in a group or a list of two or more things. It is often similar in meaning to every, but we
Compare
Eachstresses
individual
members of a
Each onetakes turns
group.
cooking dinner in
Eachrefers to two
the evenings.
or more people
work.
Everystresses all
the members of
Everyonetakes
the complete
turns cooking
group.
dinner in the
Everyrefers to
evenings.
three or more
people.
We use adverbs such as almost, practically and nearly with every, but not with each:
We can use each of + pronoun or each of+ determiner + noun, but with every we must use every one + pronoun or every one +
determiner + noun:
Not: Every of us
We usually use north, south, east, west, not northern, southern, eastern andwestern, to refer to specific places or to direction of
movement. We can usenorth, south, east and west as adjectives or adverbs and occasionally as nouns:
More and more people are buying second homes on the south coast of Ireland. (adjective)
After Bangkok, we drove north for about six hours without stopping.(adverb)
We normally use capital letters in place names with north, south, east and west:
We commonly use northern, southern, eastern and western (without capital letters) to refer to larger areas or territory. We can
Some names of specific places have capital letters for northern, southern,eastern and western:
San Diego is my favourite place insouthern California. (a part or region of a state but not the name of a state)
Economic oreconomical?
de English Grammar Today
Hybrid cars are very economical.(They do not cost a lot of money to run.)
Solar energy for your home is expensive in the short term but it is more economical in the long term.
Efficient oreffective?
de English Grammar Today
We use efficient to describe something or someone that works in a quick and organised way:
The new online banking system offers a convenient and efficient way to check your account.
We use effective to describe something that gives you the results you want:
Elder and eldest mean the same asolder and oldest. We only use the adjectives elder and eldest before a noun (as attributive
Its Catherines eightieth birthday on Thursday and she is now the eldestmember of the family.
Older and oldest can be used to refer to the age of things more generally:
We can use older and oldest after a linking verb (as predicative adjectives):
End or finish?
de English Grammar Today
We use the verbs end and finish in similar ways, to mean come to a stop:
We use finish to say that we complete something that we are doing. It emphasises that the process stops within a specific period of
If we had the right tools, we couldfinish the job by Friday this week.
We use end to say that stopping something is significant, and has a clear conclusion or shape. Finish wouldnt normally be used in
these examples:
The course of the river ended in a delightful harbour with small sailing boats everywhere.
Many historians agree that the medieval period in Europe ended in the mid-sixteenth century.
Especially orspecially?
de English Grammar Today
Not: Especially I am
This kitchen was specially designed to make it easy for a disabled person to use.
Every
de English Grammar Today
Every is a determiner.
We use every + singular noun to refer individually to all the members of a complete group of something:
When every refers to the subject of the clause, we use a singular verb:
Every student gets a laptop. They have to give it back at the end of the course.
See also:
All or every?
Each or every?
We use every with a singular noun to refer to something that happens regularly:
We use every with a number and a plural noun to refer to regular intervals of time or numbers:
We write two words when every daymeans each day. The adjective everydayis one word. It means normal or usual:
We often use single with every to emphasise each member of a complete group of people or things:
He was the only player who played inevery single match last season.
We use every one, written as two words, to refer back to a noun we have already mentioned:
I received more than a hundred letters from him while I was away and Ive kept every one.
There are 107 two-letter words in the dictionary and John Catto, an Aberdeen lorry driver, knows every one of them.
When Jenkins joined the bank, one of his first acts was to make every one of the banks employees reapply for their jobs.
See also:
Every other
We worked every other Sunday.(One Sunday he worked, the next Sunday he didnt work, the next Sunday he worked, etc.)
He works in Germany every otherweek. (One week he works in Germany, the next week he doesnt, the next week he does, etc.)
We often use except and except for as prepositions to mean not including or excluding. They are followed by a noun or noun
phrase or a wh-clause. Bothexcept and except for are correct after a noun:
Except for Louisa, whos away in Berlin this weekend, well all be at the party.
Except can also be used as a conjunction. We dont use except for in this way:
The brothers are very alike, except (that) Mark is slightly taller than Kevin.
Except and except for are used in similar ways to apart and apart from.
Expect
We use expect to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect in the following main patterns:
+to-infinitive: early.
Expect also means think or suppose. When expect has this meaning, we do not commonly use it in the continuous form:
A:
B:
I expect so.
Not: I am expecting
When we expect that something will not happen or is not true, expect is most commonly used in a negative form:
I dont expect she will pass the exam.(preferred to I expect she wont pass)
Hope
We use hope when we do not know whether something will happen or not but we want it to happen. We use hope in the following
patterns:
We use hope to express good intentions and wishes for the future:
I hope we can see each other soon.
See also:
Wish
Wait
We use wait when we refer to letting time pass because we are expecting that something is going to happen. We usewait in the
greet them.
We dont use wait or wait for to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect:
People usually expect holidays to revive their spirits and renew their souls and they often succeed in achieving that target.
I look forward very much to hearing from you soon, and I wait anxiously for a positive answer.
Experience orexperiment?
de English Grammar Today
We use experience as a verb when something happens to us, or we feel it. It is rather formal:
Warning:
How children behave when they grow up depends on what they experience during early childhood.
Experiment as a verb means try something in order to discover what it is like or to find out more about it:
Scientists have experimented with liquids and gels in which plants can grow artificially.
I wish the government would stopexperimenting with new teaching methods for our kids every couple of years.
Warning:
We dont use experiment when we are talking about feelings or things which happen:
accidentally. It can also mean come down from a higher position. As a verb, it is irregular. Its past form is fell and its -ed form
Fall down is a phrasal verb. We use it when something falls to the ground from its normal position:
The picture keeps falling down. (from the wall to the ground)
Warning:
We use fall, not fall down, when trees drop their leaves during the autumn:
As autumn came and the leaves fell from the trees, she began to feel sad.
We cant use fall down to mean come down from a higher position:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
Far is used in affirmative statements with words such as so, too, enough and as. These expressions can refer to time as well as
distance:
So far, we have sent four letters to the Council about the litter on the street.(time until now)
Six months is too far ahead. The restaurant only takes bookings for up to two months in advance.
Where we live is far enough away from the city. I dont want to move any further away.
With more than seven million people, London is by far the biggest city in England the second city, Birmingham, has just over one
million.
We use the phrase has come a long wayto mean has improved or developed:
Our team has come such a long way. We lost our first game 5-0!
We can use the phrase to be a long way off (+ noun or -ing form) to refer to a long time:
Comparative forms
Farther and further are comparative adverbs or adjectives. They are the irregular comparative forms of far. We use them to talk
After this, I felt a little refreshed but as I came over the hill, my legs rebelled. I could walk no further.
Farther, and, much less commonly,further can be used as adjectives to refer to distance away from the speaker:
I am just a little ship, Aunt Emily said, drifting farther and farther out to sea.
Ben Gunn had told me his boat was hidden near the white rock, and I found that rock farther along the beach.
Now push and stretch that arm just a little further and count to ten.
Superlative forms
Farthest and furthest are superlative adjectives or adverbs. They are the irregular superlative forms of far. We use them to talk
about distance. There is no difference in meaning between them.Furthest is more common than farthest:
The furthest galaxies are about three thousand million light years away.
There are some occasions when we can use further but not farther.
A further door led off to the right, with a tiled passage taking her to the bathroom, and another large square room at the end, which
Shes gone to a college of furthereducation. (a place to study practical subjects from age 17)
The expression further to is often used in formal letters and emails when someone writes as a follow-up to a previous letter or
email:
Further to my email of 22nd January, Im now writing to ask if you have considered our offer and whether you wish to proceed with
the contract
Fast and quick mean moving with great speed. Fast is both an adjective and an adverb. Quick is an adjective and the adverb form
is quickly.
Compare
the meeting.
possible.
We usually use quick to refer to something happening in a short time, or a shorter than expected time:
Fast refers to things that happen or go at high speed, e.g. a train, a person running:
Note the common expression fast food to refer to food such as hamburgers, which are cooked and served in a very short time in
restaurants:
You shouldnt eat so much fast food. Its not good for you.
Fell or felt?
de English Grammar Today
I felt really sad that they had lost all their money.
We use female and male to refer to the sex of humans and animals:
In some industries such as the clothing industry, only females are employed.
We use feminine and masculine when we refer to the qualities that we consider to be typical of women or men:
He is the masculine form of the third person singular; she is the feminineform.
Finally, at last, lastly and in the end all have a meaning of after a period of time. However, we use them in different ways.
Finally
We use finally to refer to something that happened after a long time and usually after some difficulties. In this meaning, finally most
commonly occurs in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and the main verb, after the modal verb or the fi rst
At last
We use at last when we have been impatient as a result of long delays. Likefinally, at last occurs in the normal mid position for
Lastly
We use lastly to refer to something that comes at the end of a long list:
We need eggs, milk, sugar, bread and, lastly, we mustnt forget yoghurt for Dad.
Ive thanked my parents but lastly I must thank all my friends for their help.
In the end
We use in the end to refer to a conclusion after a long process, after a lot of changes or after a lot of discussion:
We were going to ski in Austria, then the South of France and in the endwe decided to go to Italy.
And then, in the end, after months of discussion they offered to buy our house.
First can be an adjective or an adverb and refers to the person or thing that comes before all others in order, time, amount, quality
or importance:
Whats the name of the first person who walked on the moon? (adjective)
We often use first, especially in writing, to show the order of the points we want to make. When we are making lists, we can
First(ly) I would like to thank you for your kind offer of a job
First(ly) the sodium chloride is dissolved in the water and heated gently. Second(ly) a dye is added to the solution.
At first
At first means at the beginning or in the beginning and we use it when we make contrasts:
At first when I went to England to study English, I was homesick, but in the end I cried when it was time to leave.
He called for help. No one heard himat first, but eventually two young girls came to help him.
Fit or suit?
de English Grammar Today
If something fits you or fits into a place, it is the right size or shape for you or for that place:
These fit perfectly. And I like the colour. I think Ill buy them.
Will this table fit into the space between the bookshelf and the wall?
If something suits someone or something, it is right for that person or thing or situation, or it makes that person or thing look more
attractive.
That sofa suits the room really well the colours match the walls.
Warning:
We dont use fit when we mean that something is right for a person or thing or situation:
We use following without the + noun phrase to mean after, in response to or as a result of:
Following the bad election results of May 8th, the Prime Minister has appointed three new ministers.
Following a general strike in 1933, he fled the country and went to South America.
They only stayed at the hotel one night and left early the followingmorning.
We went out on the boat. The sea was really rough and the following hour was the worst in my short life.
We also use the following without another noun to introduce things or people which we then list:
Im afraid I cant eat any of the following: tomatoes, cucumber, onions and cabbage.
The following have helped me with this book of photographs: David Jones, Gill Farmer, Martin Weekes and Anthony Gray.
For or since?
de English Grammar Today
Compare
Londonfor a day.(future
plans)
Sincerefers to a
Theyve lived in
previous point
Oxfordsince2004.
in time.
Warning:
Forget or leave?
de English Grammar Today
We sometimes use forget when we dont remember to bring something with us:
We use leave with this same meaning, but only if we mention the place where we left something:
Not: forgetting your car keys on your desk. or youre always leaving your car keys.
Full or filled?
de English Grammar Today
Fill is a verb, and means make or become full. The -ed form is filled:
We use the -ed form + with as an adjective especially in metaphorical contexts to refer to strong emotions:
Fun or funny?
de English Grammar Today
Fun
Spoken English:
We did a lot of fun activities in groups and individually to learn, have a fun time, and to get to know each other better.
Funny
[an author is being interviewed about the main character in her book]
A:
B:
Well. I think shes very self-confident and assertive. I think shes genuinely funny.
I think Jerry Springer is so funny. I just laugh so much when I watch his show.
Funny can also mean strange, surprising, unexpected or difficult to explain or understand:
A funny thing happened to me the other day. I was parking my car and a man came and knocked on my window (A
Wasnt it funny the way Don just got up and left without saying goodbye to anyone? (Wasnt it strange )
Typical error
The week I stayed in your country was really fun and I found the city where you live very interesting and beautiful.
Get or go?
Get and go have similar meanings, when talking about travel or motion. When we use get, we emphasise arrival:
The thing is, he missed the bus andgot to school late and missed part of the match.
We use get on and get off not go on andgo off for buses, trains, planes:
Warning:
Get up means leave your bed in the morning; go up means go to a higher place or position:
We left the milk in the sun too long and its gone bad.
However, with some adjectives such asold, sick, tired and ill, we use get:
Grateful orthankful?
We use grateful to talk about how we feel when someone is kind to us or does us a favour:
Love
I would be very grateful if you could send me more information about your company for my school project.
We usually use thankful when we are relieved that something unpleasant or dangerous didnt happen:
A:
B:
Im fine. There was some damage to the car. Im justthankful that no one was injured
Hearing is an event; it is something which happens to us as a natural process. Listening is an action; it is something we
do consciously.
Compare
hearing is an listening is an
event. action.
Suddenly
I heard a noise. I listenedvery
Someone was in carefullyto what she
the garden. said and wrote it all
down.
Did youhear the
thunder last Do youlisten tothe
night? radio in bed?
Sometimes we can use either hear orlisten to, depending on whether we want to emphasise the event or the action:
Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday?(emphasis on the event)
Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on the action)
We dont normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hear withcan:
Warning:
Every morning I listen to my Mozart CD while Im having breakfast. It prepares me mentally for the day.
Listen, I was wondering if you could help me. (discourse marker beginning a new topic or phase of a conversation)
We use high for mountains and for things which are a long way above the ground:
Warning:
Sally is very tall and slim she could get a job as a model!
We use tall to describe things which are high and thin in their shape (e.g. buildings, trees):
The tall trees by the river give welcome shade on hot days.
You know that very tall, white building just where the motorway begins thats where I work.
Historic orhistorical?
Archaeologists found a large number of historical objects when they excavated the field.
House or home?
When we refer to being at someones house, we can leave out the word houseand use at + possessive or at + the
definite article + possessive:
Were going to be at the Jacksonsthis evening. Want to come with us?(at the Jacksons house)
We use home in a more personal and emotional way to refer to where someone lives. The noun home does not usually
refer to the building. We often use homewith the preposition at:
When we talk about the building we live in, we use house not home:
Warning:
We usually dont use an article or other determiner with home unless we are talking about homes in general:
A lot of energy can be saved in the home by making small changes such as turning off lights. (energy can be saved in all
homes)
We use home as an adverb with verbs of movement such as get, go, come, arrive, travel, drive. We dont use to:
Home can be used as a countable noun to refer to the place where people or animals live and are cared for by people
who are not their relatives or owners:
How is ?
We use How is ? to ask about someones general health or about the condition or state of something, or how people
experience something:
A:
B:
How are the walls in the kitchen?(What is the condition/state of the walls?)
B:
A:
B:
What is like?
We use What is like? to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their appearance, their character, their
behaviour):
A:
B:
A:
B:
Warning:
A:
B:
A:
If or when?
de English Grammar Today
We use if to introduce a possible or unreal situation or condition. We usewhen to refer to the time of a future situation
or condition that we are certain of:
Compare
WhenGiles
The speaker is
comes back to
certain that Giles
the office, can
is coming back to
you tell him Ive
the office.
gone home.
To talk about situations and conditions that are repeated or predictable, we can use either if or when + present verb
form:
Typical error
Unfortunately, if you arrive too late, you are not allowed to take the exam because they dont accept late enrolment.
If or whether?
We can use if or whether to report indirect yes-no questions and questions with or. If is more common than whether:
Call the bakeries around town and find out if any of them sell raspberry pies.
I rang Peter from the station and asked if I could drop in to see him before going back or if hed meet me.
The teachers will be asked whetherthey would recommend the book to their classes.
John read a letter that hed written and the board discussed whether it should be mailed.
We prefer whether with or when there is more than one alternative in the indirect question:
After the election, we asked whetherthe parties should change their leaders, their policies, or both.
To express an alternative, we can use or not with if and whether. With whether we can use or not immediately
after whetheror in end position. With if we use or not in end position only:
We use whether and not if before a to-infinitive, often when were referring to future plans or decisions:
Some financial decisions, such as planning a pension, need to be taken as early as possible. Others, such aswhether to
move house, can probably only be made much later.
Whether not if
Later I argued with the doctor aboutwhether I had hit my head, since I couldnt remember feeling it.
Not: Later I argued with the doctor about if I had hit my head
The police seemed mainly interested in whether there were any locks on the windows.
Not: The police seemed mainly interested in if there were any locks
Well have plenty of photographs to show you but Im not sure whetherwell be able to learn very much from them.
See also:
If
I dont know whether to buy the blue one or the red one.
Were not interested in whether we get great jobs and that kind of thing, we just want to have a good time.
Not: Were not interested in if we get great jobs and that kind of thing
Ill or sick?
Ill and sick are both adjectives that mean not in good health. We use both ill andsick after a verb such as be, become,
feel, look or seem:
We can use sick before a noun but we dont normally use ill before a noun:
Shes been looking after a sick child this week, so shes not at work.
Note that to be sick means to vomit in British English. In American English it means more generally to be unwell.
Imply or infer?
de English Grammar Today
We imply something by what we say. Weinfer something from what somebody else says. The main difference between
these two words is that a speaker canimply, but a listener can only infer.
When someone implies something, they put the suggestion into the message:
When someone infers something, they take the suggestion out of the message. In order to underline this
difference, inferis used with the preposition from:
Then I think we must infer from what they said that they believe we should reapply for the job.
Typical error
In the way
If something or someone is in the way orin my/his/our way, it is in the space which someone needs for a particular
movement or action:
She cant do her dance because the table is in the way. Can you help me move it?
On the way
We use on the way or on my/his/our way (to) when we talk about the route, direction or path to somewhere:
We could leave early and have breakfast on the way. (during our journey to somewhere)
I was on my way to Peters house when I met him in the street. (I was going to Peters house when I met him)
We can use on the way to (plus a noun or an -ing form of a verb) to mean close to doing or completing something:
Late or lately?
Late is both an adverb and an adjective; it means the opposite of early. Lately is also an adverb; it means
recently.
Late meaning not on time
Well, I couldnt find my classroom, so I got to the classroom a bit late and then I had to sing a song in front
of the other students!
Compare
I got
home.
We use lately for states or for repeated events, mostly with the present perfect:
She says shes been feeling tiredlately. I think shes working too much.
Hes been studying hard lately. Hes got exams at the end of the month.
Warning:
Lay or lie?
de English Grammar Today
The verb lay means to put something down carefully in a flat position. It must have an object. It is a regular
verb, but note the spelling of the past simple and -ed form: laid not layed:
Lie is a verb which means to be in or put yourself into a flat position. It is an irregular verb and it doesnt
take an object. The -ing form is lying and the past simple is lay. The -ed form, lain, is very formal and is
rarely used:
The dog was lying by the gate waiting for me to come home.
Lie can also mean say something which is not true. In this case, it is a regular verb:
Compare
past
laid lay lied
simple
Typical errors
We dont use lay to talk about being in a flat position. Lay must have an object:
Lend or borrow?
de English Grammar Today
Lend means give something to someone for a short time, expecting that you will get it back. The past
simple and the -edform are lent:
I lent Gary 30. (I expect that Gary will return this to me)
Borrow is a regular verb meaning get something from someone, intending to give it back after a short time:
Typical error
When you give something, you lend it; when you get or receive something, youborrow it:
Can I borrow your dictionary?
Less or fewer?
de English Grammar Today
We use the quantifiers less and fewer to talk about quantities, amounts and degree. Less and fewer are
comparative words.
We usually use less with uncountable nouns. We use fewer with plural nouns:
Better cycle routes would mean fewer cars and fewer accidents.
Warning:
You will often hear less used with plural countable nouns in informal spoken situations, but traditionally it is
Weve got less pizzas than we need. Theres ten people and only eight pizzas.(traditionally correct usage:
fewer pizzas)
When we use fewer or less before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or
pronouns (him, them), we need to use of. We use less of with singular nouns andfewer of with plural nouns:
It was funny to begin with, but as time went on, it became less of a joke.
In ten years time, more and more people will be demanding information twenty -four hours a day, from all
parts of the world. Fewer of them will be getting that information from newspapers which arrive hours after
the news has occurred.
Every year in Britain about 5,000 people die on the roads. Fewer are killed at work. (fewer people)
Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
Warning:
See
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form is saw and the -ed form is seen:
See also:
See
Watch as a verb
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period of time, especially
Warning:
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public performances, such as films,
theatre and dramas. However, we watch the television:
We saw a wonderful new film last night. Youll have to go and see it while its in the cinema.
Compare
I watchedPhantom of
I was at
the Opera last night on
home.
DVD.
I was at a
I sawPhantom of the
theatre or
Opera last night.
cinema.
When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see.
Compare
Watchfocuses
on the process
Wewatchedwhales
of seeing: we
jumping out of the
spent time
water.
looking at the
whales.
Seefocuses
more on the
We sawwhales
finished event.
jumping out of the
It doesnt
water.
suggest that we
spent much time
looking at the
whales.
If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
We dont use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
A:
B:
What are you going to see? (Not:What are you going to watch?)
A:
Im not sure. I really want to seethe new Rocky movie but Nancy said shes not interested in that.
Low or short?
de English Grammar Today
We use low for things which are not high, or which are close to the ground or to the bottom of something:
Warning:
Joseph is quite short but his brothers are both really tall.
Traditionally, we use man to refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in contrast with other
animals. However, many people consider this to be sexist, so it is better to use a different expression, such
as human beings:
Human beings first emerged in Africa, some two million years ago.(preferred to Man first emerged )
Mankind can also refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in the sense of social or conscious
beings. Although people generally consider it less sexist than man, it is usually better to use a different
expression, such as human beings (with a plural verb) or humankind(with a singular verb):
Human beings have always dreamt of happiness and of a perfect world. orHumankind has always dreamt
of happiness (preferred to Mankind has always dreamt )
See also:
Sexist language
People
People can refer to all human beings, or to a group of persons in a particular situation. It is a plural noun
People will always need food, so the food industry will never disappear. (all human beings)
Its difficult to sell an old computer.People dont want second-hand ones.(those typical persons interested in
buying computers)
People started coming into the hall at five-thirty, almost an hour before the start of the meeting. (those
We dont use the with man, mankind, humankind or peoplewhen they are used with a general meaning to
People / Human beings will always defend their territory against an attack from outside.
We use maybe and may be to talk about possibility. They are often confused because we use them both
Maybe as an adverb
Maybe /mebi/ is an adverb and it means the same as perhaps. It is written as one word:
Spoken English:
In speaking, we sometimes usemaybe at the end of what we say when we are making a suggestion which
A:
B:
It could be a virus,maybe.
Spoken English:
In speaking, we can use maybeas a response when we agree that something is possible:
A:
B:
A:
Im not sure. Perhaps they feel a bit lonely.
B:
Maybe.
A:
B:
Maybe.
A:
B:
I just cant think about dinner right now. Ive just had breakfast.
May be
In the phrase may be /me bi:/ may is a modal verb and be is a main or auxiliary verb. Here may and be are
two separate words, whereas maybe is one word:
See also:
May
Typical error
We use may as a modal verb in the phrase may be. They are two separate words. We use maybe as an
adverb:
Not: This maybe the last match that he plays for Barcelona.
Maybe or perhaps?
de English Grammar Today
Maybe and perhaps are adverbs that mean the same thing. We use them when we think something is
possible, but we are not certain. We use maybe mostly in front or end position whereas perhaps is used in
A:
B:
A:
B:
As you perhaps remember, I worked as an interpreter for three years in the European Parliament.
Maybe Ill finish work early tomorrow and go shopping with you.
Nearest or next?
de English Grammar Today
Nearest is the superlative form of near. It means the closest in distance or time:
We need to buy some food. Wheres the nearest supermarket? (There may be several supermarkets: which
Next means the first person or thing after the present one or after the one just mentioned:
We had the addresses of three restaurants. The first one we went to was closed. The next one was open
but full. Luckily, the last one had a table free.
A:
We can use not ever instead of never, but never is much more common:
She has never been a friend of ours.(or, less common, She hasnt everbeen a friend of ours.)
Never forget where you came from, your family, your childhood friends.(or, less common, Dont ever forget
where you came from )
A:
B:
I havent really ever thought about it. Im too old now anyway. (or, more common, Ive neverreally thought
about it.)
Warning:
We dont use not ever at the beginning of a statement (in front position):
Never had they seen so many strangers in their village all at the same time.
Nice orsympathetic?
de English Grammar Today
Sympathetic is an adjective used to describe a person who shows that they understand and care about
someones suffering or problems, especially by what they say:
My colleagues were so sympatheticwhen I was ill.
Warning:
We can use no doubt when we think that what we are saying is likely to happen, or when we think it is true.
It is similar to I suppose or I imagine:
A:
B:
A:
No problem.
We can use there is no doubt that when we are very certain about our opinion. We use it in formal
situations:
Hes never won Wimbledon, buttheres no doubt that he is a great tennis player.
Not: Hes never won a Wimbledon title but no doubt hes a great tennis player.
Without doubt is even more formal. We use it when we are absolutely certain about our opinion:
Paul McCartney is without doubtone of the greatest composers of popular music of all time.
No or not?
de English Grammar Today
No and not are the two most common words we use to indicate negation. We use no before a noun phrase:
[parent to child]
Its not often that you stop and think about the way you breathe.
Not surprisingly, it was a tense match but eventually the more experienced Australians won.
A:
B:
No or not any?
There is very little difference in meaning between There is/are no + noun andThere isnt/arent any + noun:
Theres no reason to be afraid of her.(or There isnt any reason to be afraid of her.)
There are no eggs in the fridge. (orThere arent any eggs in the fridge.)
No + noun often makes the negative stronger. In speaking, we often stress no.
Compare
He
He paidnoattention to what
didntpay anyattention to
I was saying.(stronger)
what I was saying.
Ive decided that I Ive decided that I
No or Not a/an?
When a noun has an ungradable meaning (it is either something or it is not) we cannot use no + noun:
When a noun has a gradable meaning,no + noun means the same as not a/an + noun:
Its no secret that we are interested. (= Its not a secret. A secret is gradable. Something can be more of a
Responding to a question
We often use no to respond to a yes-noquestion, or to agree with a negative statement. We dont use not on
A:
B:
A:
B:
A:
When you see Alan, can you give him this letter?
B:
Youve got no chance of getting a ticket now. Theyre all sold out.
We can use nowadays, these days ortoday as adverbs meaning at the present time, in comparison with the
past:
I dont watch TV very muchnowadays. Theres so much rubbish on. Its not like it used to be.
Warning:
These days you never see a young person give up their seat for an older person on the bus. Thats what I
was taught to do when I was a kid.
Pop singers these days dont seem to last more than a couple of months, then you never hear of them
again.
Apartments today are often designed for people with busy lifestyles.
We can use today, but not nowadays orthese days, with the possessive sconstruction before a noun, or
with ofafter a noun. This use is quite formal:
Todays family structures are quite different from those of 100 years ago.
The youth of today have never known what life was like without computers.
Warning:
We dont use nowadays, these days or today as adjectives:
Not: The nowadays cars / The these days cars / The todays cars
Open or opened?
de English Grammar Today
I stopped the car when I realised that the door was open.
Warning:
Opportunity orpossibility?
de English Grammar Today
We use opportunity to talk about a situation in which we can do something that we want to
do. Opportunity is most commonly followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, or of + -ing form:
I had the opportunity to go to university when I was younger but I didnt. Now I wish I had gone.
A:
Ive been waiting for anopportunity to talk to you privately. Are you free now?
B:
We use possibility to talk about something that may happen or be true.Possibility is normally followed by of
+noun phrase or of + -ing form, or by athat-clause:
I had never even thought of thepossibility of working in the USA until I was offered a job there in 1998.
The possibility that there is life on other planets in the universe has always inspired scientists.
Warning:
Opposite as a preposition means in a position facing someone or something but on the other side:
Jake sat opposite Claire in the restaurant. (Jake and Claire are facing each other on different sides of the
table.)
There was a woman in front of me in the bus queue who was crying. (I was standing behind the woman.)
Compare
We We parkedin
hotel. hotel.
Other as a determiner
We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can be obtained by
calling the freephone number.(additional or extra information)
Some music calms people; othermusic has the opposite effect.(different types of music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from Oliver Twist? (additional or extra books)
This ones too big. Do you have it inother sizes? (alternative sizes)
If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner before it:
He got 100% in the final examination.No other student has ever achieved that.
Warning:
Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.
See also:
We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form, others:
We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today.
Ill attach two photos to this email and Ill send others tomorrow.
The other
The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or the opposite of a set of two:
This computer here is new. The othercomputer is about five years old.
A:
B:
Yes.
A:
Well, the gift shop is on theother side of the street, directly opposite. (the opposite side)
The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a group)
Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a set here six plates)
We can use the other as a pronoun, especially to refer back to something which has been mentioned
He had his hat in one hand and a bunch of flowers in the other.
She has two kittens, one is black andthe other is all white.
Another
When we use the indefinite article anbefore other, we write it as one word:another. Another means one
Another as a determiner
We use another with singular nouns:
Youve met Linda, but I have anothersister who you havent met, called Margaret.
I dont like this place. Is there anothercaf around here we could go to?(alternative or different)
Another as a pronoun
These boxes are for books. Theother boxes are for clothes.
When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the plural form, others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global warming; othersdisagree.
Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular countable noun. If the noun is
indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we use another:
Ive posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package?
There is another car park a little further down the same street.
Not: There is an other car park
Other interesting places to visit include the old harbour and the castle.
[a phone call]
A:
Is Billy there?
B:
Whys the cake out? Put it back in the fridge or the chocolate will melt.
We use out of as a preposition to talk about movement from within somewhere or something, usually with a
verb that expresses movement (e.g. go, come). It shows where something is or was going:
He pulled a letter out of his shirt pocket, opened it and handed it to her to read.
When I reached the corner, I jumpedout of my car and ran across the road.
[at a restaurant]
Permit orpermission?
de English Grammar Today
The countable noun permit (pronounced /p:mt/) refers to an official document that allows you to do
I have a parking permit which allows me to park on the street outside my house.
We applied for permission to build a house here but our application was refused.
[notice in a lift]
Three people were interviewed for the job, but only one person had the right qualifications and experience.
Pick means remove small pieces of something from something else, usually with your hands:
Lets go into the garden and picksome flowers for the dinner table.
She earned money during the summer picking fruit on local farms.
Have a look at these photos of the walking trip. Pick the ones you want and give me back the rest.
Im tired of picking up your clothes from the floor! Cant you hang them up properly in the wardrobe?
We can also use pick up to mean go to a place and bring something or someone back:
Let me know what time your flight arrives. I can pick you up at the airport and take you to your hotel.
You will find other meanings of pick andpick up in a good learners dictionary.
Play
Play as a noun means a piece of dramatic writing for the theatre or radio or television:
The students performed a play by Shakespeare and sang some folk songs.
Radio plays are always much better than TV plays you can use your imagination more.
Warning:
We use play as a verb when we talk about individual roles in a dramatic production, but we say that
someone acts in a play(noun):
We use play as a verb to talk about doing sports, music and other leisure activities. We usually dont use an
article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities. We usually use an article when we talk
We usually dont use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities. We usually use an
article when we talk about musical instruments.
See also:
Game
Would you like a game of tennis? (orWould you like to play tennis?)
Politics
Politics means the activities of the government or people who try to influence the way a country is governed.
A lot of young people just dont seem interested in politics these days.
Politics also means the study of the ways in which a country is governed:
He studied Politics at university then got a job with the United Nations in New York.
Political
My friends and I are always havingpolitical discussions late into the night.
Politician
A person who is involved in politics (e.g. a member of parliament or a member of the government) is
a politician:
Policy
Policy means a plan of action or a set of rules agreed by a business, a political group or a government,
The economic policy of the government is in ruins because of the global credit crisis.
Price or prize?
Principal or principle?
The principal reason for the failure to take action was poor communication between government
departments.(the most important reason)
We can use principal as a noun to mean the head of a school or college (especially in American English):
The college principal made a speech congratulating all the students who were graduating in that year.
Principle is a noun. It means a rule or theory which explains how something is or works or a moral rule or
guideline:
The scientific principles behind even the most complicated computer are relatively simple.
He seems to have no principles at all, and is only interested in money.(He has no moral rules or
guidelines.)
Quiet or quite?
Warning:
Quiet /kwat/ and quite /kwat/are spelt and pronounced differently, and have different meanings.
Quiet is an adjective meaning making very little noise or having little activity or excitement:
The children are very quiet. I wonder what theyre doing? Shall I go and see?
Its a very quiet, peaceful village and we love living there.
Quite is an adverb which usually means a little or a lot, but not completely:
Ive been quite busy this week. I hope things are not so busy next week.
Raise or rise?
de English Grammar Today
Raise must have an object, as it is a transitive verb. It is a regular verb; its three forms are raise, raised,
raised:
Our favourite restaurant has raised its prices again. Its getting very expensive.
Rise does not take an object, as it is an intransitive verb. It is an irregular verb; its three forms are rise, rose,
risen:
Remember orremind?
de English Grammar Today
Remember
If we remember someone or something, we keep that person or thing in our mind or we bring that person or
Remember to save your work often, just in case your computer crashes.
Remember + the -ing form of a verb means have a memory of something we did or of something that
We can also use remember + object + towhen we ask someone to give regards to or say hello to
someone:
A:
B:
Remind
If a person or thing reminds you ofsomeone or something, they make you think of that person or thing, or
That song always reminds me of the time I fell in love with an Italian girl.
Jason reminded me of my father. They had the same eyes and the same way of talking.
If we remind someone to do something or about something, we make them remember it or help them not to
forget it:
Hes probably forgotten he was supposed to be here at 6. Shall I ring him and remind him?
Right or rightly?
de English Grammar Today
We use both right and rightly as adverbs, but they are used in different ways and with different meanings.
When everything goes right, no one says thank you, but when things go wrong, they start complaining
immediately.
We use rightly to give an opinion or viewpoint on something. It usually comes in the normal mid position for
adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as
a main verb). It means in the opinion of the speaker, in a morally correct way, and is more subjective
thanright:
He rightly took the money he had found straight to the nearest police station. (In the speakers opinion, this
Climate change is rightly seen as the greatest threat to the world at the present time.
Rob or steal?
de English Grammar Today
Rob and steal both mean take something from someone without permission.
Rob focuses on the place or person from which the thing is taken:
The gang robbed three banks over a period of six months, but were finally caught.
A young woman was attacked androbbed as she walked home from work last night.
Warning:
The thieves entered the museum through the roof and stole three paintings worth more than two million
euros.
Our car was stolen from outside our house last week.
Warning:
He stole my wallet.
Say or tell?
de English Grammar Today
Say and tell are irregular verbs. The past simple of say is said, the past simple oftell is told:
Then he told me how he had got the job by lying about his age.
We use say and tell in different ways in reported speech. Say focuses on the words someone said
and tell focuses more on the content or message of what someone said:
She told him they were going on holiday. (The focus is on the information.)
We use say with direct speech. We dont normally use tell in this way:
See also:
Reported speech
Both say and tell take a direct object. The object is most commonly the reported clause (the report of what
someone said).
Tell normally takes an indirect object (one or more people = io) and a direct object (the reported clause =
do):
However, we use tell without an indirect object with words such as the truth, a lie, a joke, a story:
Say does not take an indirect object. Instead, we use a phrase with to:
And then she said to me, Im your cousin. Weve never met before.
We use tell with an indirect object and ato-infinitive to report a command or an instruction. We dont normally
use say in this way:
Spoken English:
But in informal speaking, we sometimes use say + to-infinitive to report a command or an instruction:
Typical errors
We dont use an indirect object withsay:
We dont use tell without an indirect object when we report someones words:
Why dont you come over and have dinner with us sometime? (at an undecided time in the future)
Sound or noise?
de English Grammar Today
Sound and noise are nouns. We can use them both as countable or uncountable nouns. Both refer to
something which you can hear, but when a sound is unwanted or unpleasant, we call it a noise:
The verbs speak and talk both generally mean say words, but there are some small differences in how they
are used.Speak is more formal than talk.
Compare
is important/serious.
informal.
We usually use speak for more formal presentations and lectures, and talk for more informal ones:
Kyle is going to talk us through the benefits of the software and then Liz will talk about the marketing plan.
He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet.
Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean have a conversation:
I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company.
Compare
produce
He always looks down
words.Speakfocuses
when heisspeaking.
only on the person
who is producing
the words.
A:
Is Rita there?
B:
Whos speaking?
A:
I was talking to Richard Moss the other day about the golf club.
Typical errors
They can talk and get to know each other over dinner.
Such or so?
de English Grammar Today
Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of very or to this degree:
It was sohot
Novemberwas such a
we couldnt
cold month.
work.
So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:
See also:
So
Such
Typical errors
We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:
Theyre such snobs! They wont speak to anyone else in the village.
Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them?
We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an:
Towards or toward?
de English Grammar Today
Towards and toward are prepositions. We can use both forms, but towards is much more common
than toward.
The oil pollution is now movingtowards the shore, and could threaten beaches and wild life.
We use toward(s) to mean in relation to someone or something. We dont useagainst or about when we
talk about peoples attitudes, feelings and behaviour in relation to one another:
Toward(s): position
Toward the late afternoon I always get sleepy and cant work so well.
We sat towards the back of the room but we could still hear the speakers very clearly.
Toward(s): purpose
Would you like to make a contributiontowards our new childrens playground? (Would you like to give some
Wait means stay in the same place or not do something until something else happens. We can use it with
or withoutfor:
Put a tea bag into the cup, then add water and wait (for) a minute or two before taking it out.
I phoned the head office but I had towait (for) five minutes before I spoke to anyone.
Warning:
When we use a direct object after wait, we have to use wait for:
Not: Wait us
I waited for the postman every day last week hoping that your present would arrive.
All right, Ill wait to hear from you, Adam, then Ill ring Simon.
Cant wait
When we are very excited about something that is going to happen, we use the phrase cant wait for + noun
phrase or cant wait + to-infinitive:
I cant wait for tonight. Im having a party! (Im really looking forward to tonight.)
Wake and wake up are verbs which mean stop sleeping or end someone elses sleep. They are used in
everyday language.
Compare
I woke(up)
I woke(up) the
suddenly
children.(or Iwokethe
when the
childrenup.) They had
alarm clock
to be in school early.
went off.
Wake up has a similar meaning to wake. It is sometimes used as a stronger form of wake. It can mean stop
She likes to wake up with a cup of coffee. (It makes her feel more awake.)
Not: Wake!
The verbs waken, awaken and awakehave a similar meaning but are used in more literary contexts, often to
refer to emotions or things as well as people:
Cautiously, trying not to waken him, Caroline stepped quietly out of the room.
I awoke next morning to a brilliant pearly light, but when I went to the window, no sea was visible.
Worth orworthwhile?
de English Grammar Today
Worth is only used after verbs such asbe, seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It means having a
A:
B:
To be worth doing something is a common expression. It means that something is useful or important
enough to do:
A:
I havent had a reply to my email to Jane. Is it worth phoning her, do you think? (Would it be useful to
phone her?)
B:
We decided it wasnt worth going all the way to London to buy books we could get on the Internet.
A business class ticket cost 2,000, but it was worth it for such a long flight. It was very comfortable.
We use worthwhile before a noun (as an attributive adjective) or after verbs such as be, seem, look (as a
predicative adjective). It means useful, important or good enough to be a suitable reward for the money or
time spent or the effort made:
Do you think working in a supermarket is a worthwhile career for a highly intelligent person?
We had thought of buying a bigger car, but we didnt think it wasworthwhile, since theres just the two of us.