UNIT-1

Q.1 Explain the Basic philosophy and ideals of India Constitutions.?

=> The philosophy and ideals of the Indian Constitution are reflected in the Preamble to the Constitution
of India. Our Constitution may be said to be an expansion and explanation of the Preamble. Supreme
Court Chief Justice, Justice Subba Rao opined, Preamble contains, in a nutshell, its ideals and its
aspirations. To understand the philosophy and ideals of the Indian Constitution, we must know the
Preamble in the first place. Let us define and analyze the Preamble to the Indian Constitution.

The Preamble

The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines the word Preamble as an introduction to a book or
a written document. The Constitution of India starts with a Preamble. It is the most precious part of the
Constitution. It is the soul of the Constitution. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution says:

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN,
SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation.

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26 November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND
GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

From the Preamble we can understand the philosophy and ideals of the Indian Constitution. The
philosophy and ideals of the Indian Constitution are discussed as follows:

1.Popular Sovereignty: The Preamble begins with the words We the people of India and ends with the
words adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution. It indicates that ultimate sovereignty lies
with the people of India who collectively constitute the supreme source of authority in the country. The
Constitution is regarded as the supreme law of the state, but the supreme power of the state is vested upon
the people of India.

2.India as a Sovereign state: The Preamble declares India as a sovereign state. It is free from any
external control. No foreign power can interfere in the internal affairs of India. India can determine her
foreign affairs according to her free will.
3.India as a Socialist state: The word Socialist has been added in the Preamble by the 42nd
Amendment in 1976. It means all people to be provided equal opportunity to achieve elimination of
inequality in income and social standards of living.

4. India as a Secular state: The Word Secular has been included by 42nd amendment in 1976. No
particular religion to be favored by state. State cannot discriminate based on religion. All people have
freedom of faith, practice and worship any religion. Thus, secularism is one of the ideals of the Indian
Constitution.

5.India as a Democratic state: The prime philosophy and ideal of the Indian Constitution is to make
India a democratic state. India is regarded as the largest democratic state in the World. According to
Abraham Lincoln, Democracy is by the people, for the people and of the people. The Constitution of
India has established a parliamentary democracy in India marked by universal adult franchise, periodic
election to choose the government, majority rule, rule of law, decentralization of power, rule of law,
independence of the judiciary, etc.

6.India as a Republic: The Preamble declares India to be a republic. What it means is that the Head of
the State in India, that is the President of India, is an elected head. He is not a hereditary ruler. The
President of India who is the Chief Executive and nominal head of our country is indirectly elected by the
people.

7.To ensure Justice: Justice implies that the Government will try to promote the welfare of all the
sections of the people. The Preamble embraces three types of Justice- social, economic and political.

(a) To ensure Social Justice the Constitution has made special arrangements for the weaker sections
of the society, abolished untouchability, provided free education up to a certain standard, etc.
(b) With a view to providing political justice, the Constitution has introduced the principle of
universal adult franchise and has given an equal right to all adult citizens to be elected or
appointed to public services.
(c) Economic justice implies that the Constitution seeks to ensure economic security for the common
people and to do ways with unequal distribution of income and wealth.

8.To ensure Liberty: The other important philosophy and ideal of the Indian Constitution is to ensure
liberty to its citizens for the all round development of their personality. Accordingly, the Preamble
provides for liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. The Constitution of India provides a
number of Fundamental Rights to the citizens and also protects theses rights.
9.To ensure Equality:Equality is necessary for the development of a society. Hence, the term equality
has been inserted in the Preamble to our Constitution. Equality has been guaranteed by the Rule of Law.
To establish equality, our Constitution has provided for the Right to Equality as a Fundamental Right.
The Indian Constitution ensures equality before the eyes of law to all persons, citizens and non- citizens.
The Constitution also prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or
any of them.

10.To promote Fraternity among the people: The term fraternity has been incorporated in the Preamble
as a means of assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation. The term
dignity of the individual means that the personality of the individual should be recognized, because, the
recognition of the personality and the dignity of the individual is an essential condition to promote
fraternity among the people.

To promote fraternity and a feeling of brotherhood among the people, certain attempts have been made
for the removal of social distinctions and inequalities based on caste, class, creed, language, religion,
region, etc. Without unity among its citizens, a state could not be successful. The framers of the Indian
Constitution were fully aware of the diversities prevailing in the country.

The Preamble to the Indian Constitution has a great significance. It is important to mention here that, in
the Biruberi Case (AIR1960 SC 845) the Supreme Court held that the Preamble is not a part of the
Constitution. But the famous Keshavananda Bharti vs. - State of Kerala (AIR 1973 SC 1461) has held
that the Preamble is a part of the Constitution. It was also held in this case that, the Preamble could be
amended by the Parliament under Article 368 but the Basic Structure of the Constitution could not be
changed. Thus, the Preamble can be amended but our Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in a way
that it damages or destroys the objectives specified in the Preamble.
Q. 2 Nature of Indian State

= The nature of the Indian state is a nature of controversy. The constitution of India establishes a
democratic state with a modern institutional framework on the one hand while the critics on the other
hand say that the Indian state is centralized in nature, bureaucratic in form and capitalist in context. The
CIP (communist party of India) has viewed the state as the bourgeoisies is in collusion with big business
and supported by foreign finance. The CPM also accepts this view of the Indian state but does not accept
the collaboration thesis.

The main characteristics of the Indian states are following which highlights the nature of the state itself.

1. Liberal-democratic state: The model of a liberal democratic state signifies a political system
in which democracy or the rule of the people prevails to make the regime legitimate in the
real sense of the term. The machinery of government is run by the chosen representatives of the
people who are accountable to then for their policies and actions.

Freedom of speech, discussion and expression of views, universal adult franchise and free and fair
periodic elections etc, all entail a continuous test of the legitimacy of this government. The liberal
democratic state is based on the assumptions that the government is not an end in itself but a means
for the realization of the greatest good of the greatest number; the authority of the government is not
absolute but limited by the laws; there is more than one political party; the competition for power is
open, not secretive; periodic elections based on a wide franchise, the mass media is not monopolized
by government.

All this brings is to the point that India is one which stands for the preservation of the entire
paraphernalia of a liberal democratic state.

2. Indian state is a totalitarian form : We have also analyzed the relationship between the state
and society. Though India has a federal system, it may be in relation to economic development
or social change. It consists of a Dominant political Centre Though India is a welfare state, it
is often characterized by interventionist nature. Thus in one hand, it gives freedom and in the
other hand it takes away.

3. The Marxist view of Indian State : The Marxist view sees the Indian state as a bourgeois state
where the benefits are only with the big industrialists and rich farmers. Though this nature
does not completely dominates the state it exercises a powerful influence over the Indian state.
Even someone says that India has no autonomy of its own. It is completely subservient to the
elite class. The leaders in India are mostly from the elites group and they make elitist state.
4. Form of Gandhis State

1) Sovereign state: Gandhi would like the state to be absolutely free from foreign rule, domination or
interference.

2) Federal state: Gandhi was against the concentration an centralization of political power, because is
regarded power as corrupting force. Therefore, he wanted federal and Panchayats.

3) Secular state: The state should be free from religious matters.

4) Democratic state: Gandhis state means Government by the participation of the people. He agreed with
Abraham Lincoln that a truly democratic government is a Government of the people by the people, for the
people. However, Gandhis state is not an end in itself, but only means the realization of a stateless
society.

<Conclusion>

From the above analysis we see that the nature of Indian state has become a matter of controversy in
contemporary discussions. However the agreed point is that the nature of Indian state has changed over
this time. The impact of social rule is visible in India. Recently, faith n democratic, institution,
redistributions, justice and secularism seem to be eroded n Indian state. However, the state continues to
solve conflicting interest and development problem.

Thus todays India stands as a political and economic paradox of a rich poor nation with a weak
strong state.
 UNIT-II

Q.1 Federalism in India.

=>Federalism in India. Article 1 of the constitution declares that India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of
States. Governments have been classified into Unitary and Federal based on distribution of power
between national and regional governments. In a federal set up there is a two tier of Government with
well assigned powers and functions. In this system the central government and the governments of the
region act within a well-defined sphere, co-ordinate and at the same time act independently.

The federal polity, in other words, provides a constitutional device for bringing unity in diversity and for
the achievement of common national goals. Hence, India was made a Federal system of government.

Feature of Federalism in India.

=Features of Indian constitution that makes it federal are listed in the following points:

Written Constitution: The most important feature of a federation is that it should have a written
constitution, so that both the Union Government as well as the State can refer to that whenever conflict
arises. The Constitution of India is a written and most elaborate Constitution of the world.

Supremacy of Constitution: The constitution is the supreme because both the union and the states are
given powers by the Constitution as to be independent in their spheres of governance. Both make laws
conforming to the provisions of constitution otherwise they can be declared invalid by the supreme court
through its power of judicial review.

Rigid Constitution: The procedure of amending the Constitution in a federal system is normally rigid.
Indian Constitution provides that provisions regarding the federal attributes can be amended by a special
majority,.i.e. such an amendment has to be passed by majority of total members of each house of the
Parliament as well as, by two-thirds majority of the members present and voting there. Also, in addition
to this process, such amendments must be approved by at least 50% of the states. After this procedure the
amendment is signed by the President.

Division of Powers : In our Constitution, there is a clear division of powers so that none violates its limits
and tries to encroach upon the functions of the other and functions within own sphere of responsibilities.
There are three lists enumerated in the Seventh Schedule of constitution, the Union list, the State list
and the Concurrent List.

(a)The Union List consists of 100 subjects of national importance such as Defence, Railways, Post and
Telegraph, etc.

(b)The State List consists of 61 subjects of local interest such as Public Health, Police etc.

(c) The Concurrent List has 52 subjects important to both the Union and the State. such as Electricity,
Trade Union, Economic and Social Planning, etc.
 Nature of Indian federation

In spite of the fact that, the Indian Constitution establishes a federal structure, it is indeed very different
then a true federation. The framers of the Constitution have modified the true nature of Indian federation
by incorporating certain unitary features in it. These are :

(a)The Centre appoints the Governors of the States who enjoys extensive powers in special
circumstances. Governor is the agent of the Centre in the States. In the past he Governor has acted more
as Centres representative than as the head of the State. This enables the Union government to exercise
control over the State administration.

(b)Unequal representation in upper house: The equality of units in a federation is best guaranteed by
their equal representation in the Upper House of the federal legislature (Parliament). However, this does
not happens in case of Indian States. They have unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha.

(c) Appointment of important organization heads: All important appointments such as the Chief
Election Commissioner, the Comptroller and Auditor General are made by the Union Government.

(d)All India Services: In order to ensure uniformity of the administrative system and to maintain
minimum common administrative standards without impairing the federal system, All India Services such
as IAS and IPS have been created which are kept under the control of the Union.

(e)Unified Judiciary: Contrary to the federal principle which has a dual system of Courts, India has
unified Judiciary with the Supreme Court at the apex.

Hence it can be concluded that the Constitution of India establishes a strong Centre by showering all-
important subjects to the Centre as per the Union List. The State Governments have limited powers while
largely being dependent on the Centre. Especially, the States are dependent on the Centre financially. The
States have to work in close co-operation with the Centre.
Q.2. Centre-State Relation in India.Explain

=The Indian constitution declares India as federal. That means it is a union of states where power is
divided between centre and states as per the procedure mentioned in the constitution. In this two tier
system, the central government have the final say in all the matters and in this way India is federal but
unitary. The different relations between centre and state are as follows:

1. LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS
2. ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS
3. FINANCIAL RELATIONS

A).Legislative Centre-State Relations: Articles 245 to 255 in the Indian constitution deal with the
legislative aspect of Centre-states relation. Legislation means the power of making a law which is
enforceable. Both the central and state governments in India have the power to make laws. But, the
matters on which they can make law is differ. While the centre can make laws applicable to the nation as
a whole, the states have the power to make laws applicable in their own territory that too in some matters
only. Some matters need both the centre and state legislations. They are as given:

(1)Union list has 100 subjects on which it has exclusive authority to make laws. These include Foreign
affairs, Defence, Armed forces, Communications, Posts and telegraphs, inter-state trade and commerce
and so on.

(2) The state list consists of 61 subjects which include Public order in the state, police, administration of
justice, prisons, Local Governments, agriculture and so on.

(3) The Concurrent list has 52 subjects which include Criminal and Civil procedure, marriage and
divorce, economic and special planning, trade unions, labour welfare electricity, newspapers, books and
printing presses, population control and so on.
B) Administrative Centre-State Relations:

Articles 256 to 263, The Indian Constitution deal with the administrative aspect of centre-state relations in
India. Regarding Administration, State governments are like sub-ordinates to the Centre. Central
government gives directions to the State governments in the course of administrative action.

Even some matters like railways, central excise, income tax, post and telegraph and so on are directly
administered by the central government. Hence, in administrative matters also Centre has the final say.

C) Financial Centre-State Relations:

Articles 268 to 293 in the Indian constitution deal with the financial aspect of centre-state relations in
India. It mainly deals with the imposition and collection of taxes.

These are categorized as follows:

Taxes levied by the centre but collected and used by the states: The stamp duties, Excise duties,
medicinal and toilet preparations come under this.
Taxes levied and collected by the centre but given to the states: The property tax, taxes on goods
carried by railways, Sea, airways and so on come under this.
Taxes levied and collected by the centre but distributed between centre and states: Income tax
other than corporate tax and such other residual taxes come under this.

In addition to this, Centre also gives many grants and loans to the states from time to time.

Conclusion:

When we observe the centre-state relations in India, the power position given to the central government is
clearly known. Hence, Indian political system is federal but unitary.
 UNIT-III

Q.1 Explain Power and function of president of India.

=>The constitutional position, powers and functions of the President of the Indian Union are laid down in
Part V of the Indian Constitution. He is the supreme executive of the Indian Union. He exercises his
power either directly or through officers under him. He is also the supreme command of the defense
forces. The powers of the President may be classified under the following heads: executive, legislative,
financial, judicial and special powers.

The powers of The president can be divided into the following :

Executive powers:

The Constitution vests the President of India as the executive head of the government

The President appoints the Prime Minister the person most likely to command the support of the
majority in the Lok Sabha.
The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios
to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Legislative powers:

The president summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them.
He or she can dissolve the Lok Sabha
The President uses these powers according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by
the Prime Minister.
AIL bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the
President.
President can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as Laws passed by
Parliament when both Houses of the Parliament are not in session and if government feels the
need for immediate action
Financial powers:

All money bills originate in Parliament, but only if the President recommends it.
He or she causes the Annual Budget and supplementary Budget before Parliament
No money bill can be introduced in Parliament without his or her assent.
The President appoints a finance commission every five years.

Judicial powers:

The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of
the Chief Justice.
The President dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass
resolutions to that effect by two thirds majority of the members present.
He/she has the right to grant pardon.
He /She can suspend, remit or commute the death sentence of any person.
He/she enjoys the judicial immunity: No criminal proceedings can be initiated against him/her
during his term in office.
He /She is not answerable for the exercise of his/her duties.

Emergency power: The constitution of India empowers the President to proclaim three kinds of
Emergencies

State Emergency: It is declared when there is failure of constitutional machinery in the state
( Article 356)
National Emergency: It can be declared at the time of war, armed rebellion or external aggression
( Article 352 )
Financial Emergency: It can be declared if the Indian President gets the belief that the financial
stability of the country is threatened.(Article 360)
Q.2 Elaborate the Power and function of prime minister of India.

=The Prime Minister of India is the head of the executive branch of the Government of India. His position
is distinct from that of the President of India, who is the head of the State. As India follows a
parliamentary system of government modelled after the Westminster system, most of the executive
powers are exercised by the Prime Minister. He acts as an advisor to the President and is the leader of the
Council of Ministers.

Powers/Authorities of Prime Minister

The various powers and authorities enjoyed by the Prime Minister are as follows:

Head of the Government: The Prime Minister of India is the head of the Government. Though the
President is the head of the State, most of the executive decisions are taken by the Prime Minister. All the
important decision-making bodies in India, like the Union Cabinet and the Planning Commission, run
under his supervision.

Formation of the Cabinet: The prime minister prepares the list of Council of minister and send it to the
president. And he also can reshuffle the council of minister whenever he likes. He also can ask any
minister to resign if he is not satisfied with his working.
Leader of the Cabinet: The Prime Minister summons and presides over meetings of the cabinet and
determines what business shall be transacted in these meetings.

Leader of the Council of Ministers: As far as the Prime Ministers relation to the Council of Ministers is
concerned, his position is that of First among Equals. In the case of death or resignation of the Prime
Minister, the entire Council of Ministers has to resign. The ministers directly report to the Prime Minister.
He can also remove a minister by asking for his resignation or having him dismissed by the President. If
any difference of opinion arises between the Prime Minister and any other minister, the opinion of the
Prime Minister prevails.

Leader of the Parliament: The Prime Minister is the Leader of the House to which he belongs. He can
also take part in debates in the House of which he is not a member. He can also advise the President to
dissolve the Lok-Sabha.

Link between President and Council of Ministers: The Prime Minister is the leader of the Council of
Ministers and serves as the channel of communication between the President and the Council of
Ministers. It is his duty to communicate to the President all the decisions taken by the Council of
Ministers and to provide information regarding administration of the Union or proposals for the
legislature as called for by the President.

Representative of the Country:

In international affairs, he is the spokesperson of the country. The Prime Minister plays a major role in
directing Indias foreign policy.

Allocation of Portfolios: He allocates portfolios among the ministers and distributes work among various
ministries and offices. The Prime Minister coordinates work among various ministries and departments
through the Cabinet Secretariat.
Q.3 Explain the major powers and functions of parliament.

=The Parliament of India is a bi-cameral legislature. It consists of two houses- Rajyasabha & Lok Sabha
and President of India. Parliament makes law with the help of its both the chambers. Laws passed by the
parliament and approved by the president are enforced in the whole country.

Its powers and functions can be classified in to following heads: Legislative powers Executive powers
Financial powers Constituent powers Judicial powers Electoral powers Other powers

1) Legislative Powers- All the subjects in our constitution are divided among state, union and
concurrent lists. In concurrent list Parliamentary law is over riding than state legislative law.
Constitution also have powers to make law with respect to state legislature in following
circumstances:
When Rajya Sabha passes a resolution to that effect,
When national emergency is under operation
When two or more states request parliament to do so
When necessary to give effect to international agreements, treaties and conventions
When Presidents rule is in operation.

2) Executive Powers- According to parliamentary form of government executive is responsible to the

parliament for its acts and policies. Hence parliament exercises control by various measures like
committees, question hour, zero hour etc. ministers are collectively responsible to the Parliament.

3) Financial Powers- It includes enactment of budget, scrutinizing the performance of government with
respect of financial spending through financial committees (post budgetary control)

4) Constituent Powers- Example - To amend the constitution, to pass any laws required

5) Judicial Powers- Includes Impeachment of President for violation of constitution

Removal of judges of Supreme Court and High court

Removal of Vice- President
Punish members for breach of privileges like sitting in the house when the member knows he is
not an eligible member, serving as member before taking oath etc. .

6) Electoral Powers- It has its participation in the election of President and Vice-President. The members
of Lok Sabha elects speaker and deputy speaker from among its members. Similarly members of Rajya
Sabha elects deputy chairman.
Q3. Explain Composition powers and functions of Supreme court.

= The Supreme Court of India comprises the Chief Justice of India and not more than 30 other Judges
appointed by the President of India. However, the President must appoint judges in consultation with the
Supreme Court and appointments are generally made on the basis of seniority and not political preference.
Supreme Court Judges retire upon attaining the age of 65 years. Originally there was a provision in the
Constitution that there will be Chief Justice and seven other judges. This number (7) was raised to 10 in
1956, 13 in 1960, 17 in 1977 and 25 in 1985 (Article 124).

Power and function of the Supreme court of India are as the following

= (i) Original Jurisdiction : The original jurisdiction extends to those cases which the Supreme Court
has the authority to hear and decide in the first instance.

(a) Between citizens of the country;

(b) Between citizens and government;

(c) Between two or more state governments; and

(d) Between governments at the union and state level.

(ii) Appellate Jurisdiction: It is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases. It can hear
appeals against the decisions of the High Courts.

(iii) Advisory Jurisdiction: As the highest court in the country, the Supreme Court gives legal advice to
the President of India on any legal or constitutional matter referred to it. However, the advice is not
binding on the Supreme Court.

(iv)Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court acts as the guardian and final interpreter of the
Constitution. If the government passes any law or issues any order which is in violation of the
Constitution, the Supreme Court has the power to declare the law or order unconstitutional.

(v) Guardian of Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court also acts as a guardian of the fundamental
rights of the citizens. When a fundamental right of any citizen is violated by the government or any
individual he can seek the protection of the Supreme Court.
 UNIT-IV

Q.1 What are the main determinants of voting behavior in India?

=>In the democratic set up voting is essential process. The democratic system has been working
smoothly, for the past 60 (57) years. Citizens of India enjoy their full freedom and understanding in
voting power. Parties try to capture maximum number of votes to come in power. For this they tend to
develop and determine the voting behaviour of the voters. Issues related to the daily life such as
unemployment, price rise, law & order system and other developmental issues are often influence the vote
of common people. Some of the biggest determinants of the voting behavior in India are :

Race: Sometimes and in some regions, yet race plays a role like in North Eastern states, it will be very
tough to get elected by any south Indian and so is the case with south India also.

Religion: It is as fact that religion plays a important role especially where both the followers Hindus and
Muslims are situated in a constituency. This gave a support to Religion based parties. Though in a secular
state like India, it must not be used.

Casteism : This is the biggest determinants of the voting behaviour for the past five decades in India.
This is the most ancient and widely used factor. Parties give tickets to the candidate of a caste which has
the majority in the constituencies.

Regionalism: After 1990s it is getting more and more importance. Demanding separate region, promoting
region specific interest, claiming representation to end exploitation etc. are the main emerging causes
from regionalism.

Language: Language does not play a big role but at national level but it is deciding factor at state level
politics.

=======================x========================

Q.2 Nature and Changing Dynamics party system in India. (important)

=>The nature and dynamics of the party system in India are unique. Indian politics represents the
spectacle of a multiparty system on the surface; but for long periods of modern India's electoral history, it
has been characterized by "one dominant party system" with congress occupying the center stage. Since
1970s Indian party system has become highly competitive both at the center as well as in the states. This
competitiveness has significantly made the political parties to move from the stage of "fluidity" during the
early years to that of a structural consolidation. A notable feature of the electoral outcomes since 1989
has been the fractured mandate leading to the emergence of hung parliament as well as multi-party
coalitions.

The significant features of the political party system in India in current times are: weak and multi-party
opposition; era of coalitions (even present government is a coalition); ideological commitments overlap
with greed for power; increased communal, caste character; increased importance of regional satraps
{though presently, they have been eclipsed by 2014 mandate}, personality cult, lack of internal
democracy in most parties; groupism and opportunism within the parties; electoral alliances; use of extra-
constitutional means to remain in power; opaque funding; populist nature of most parties.
Q.3 Electoral reform in India

=Free and fair elections are essential in a healthy democracy.It is an essential condition for the success of
democracy that people maintain their allegiance towards the democratic institutions based on rule of law.
The more the elections are free and fair, the stronger the allegiance the people will have towards
democratic institutions. Contrary to this, if the elections aren't free and fair, the people will not have faith
in democracy.

Indeed, the battles of ballots have been turned into battles of bullets. On the election days booths are
captured, polling agents attacked and bombs thrown to prevent weaker sections from ever wising their
franchise.

The following electoral reforms have been introduced in out electoral system in the last few
years.

(1) Lowering of voting Age:

The constitution Act. 1988 amends Article 326 by substituting the words '18 years' for '21 years'. This
came into force on 28 March, 1989.

Thus parliament through a constitutional amendment in 1989 reduced the minimum voting age from 21 to
18. For the first time, as many as 35.7 million voters in this age group exercised their right to elect
representatives in the 1989 elections.

(2) Deputation to Election Commission:

Under the Representation of the People Act, 1988, a new section 13cc was inserted which provides that
officers or staff engaged in preparation, revision and correction of electoral rolls for elections shall be
deemed to be on deputation of Election Commission for the period of such employment and such
personnel shall during that period, be subject to control, superintendence and discipline of Election
Commission.

(3) Increase in number of proposers:

Number of electors who are requited to sign as proposers in nomination papers for elections to council of
states and State Legislative Council has been increased to ten percent of the electors of the constituency
or ten such electors whichever is less to prevent frivolous candidates.

(4) Electronic Voting Machine:

The Representation of the people Act, 1951 was amended to facilities use of electronic- voting machines
in elections.
Q.4 Media and Politics in India.

=>Social media are playing an important new role in Indian democracy. A social media campaign by the
Electoral Commission drew record levels of voter registration and turnout in elections held in four Indian
states, including the capital, New Delhi, in November and December.

Of 790 million eligible Indian voters, about 160 million are first-time voters between the ages of 18 and
24 years old. Political parties are also embracing social media to reach voters, including cellphone
messaging. Social media are credited with helping the new Common Man party and its candidate, Arvind
Kejriwal, win a surprise victory in Delhi against the Congress and Bharatiya Janata parties.

the Indian government has used the 2008 Information Technology (Amendment) Act to increase
monitoring and censorship of social media. In 2012, two women were arrested after posting a comment
on Facebook that angered politicians in Mumbai. Journalists have had their Twitter accounts disabled, and
cartoonists whose works poke fun at officials have had their social media accounts closed.

Last year, the government rolled out a Central Monitoring System with vast powers to monitor citizens
communications. Human Rights Watch called the new system chilling in its scope. According to
Freedom House, India had the steepest decline in Internet freedom of any country in the year ending in
April 2013.

Q5. Explain the role and important of caste in India politics.

=Besides voting, the caste is an important factor, influencing the selection of candidates in elections,
appointment of ministers, transfer and posting of public officials etc. the policy of reservation has given
further impetus to the role of caste in politics, particularly in the last few years. The role of caste in the
different aspects of politics is given below:

*Caste has influenced the policy-making of the government, for example the policy of reservation in
favour of certain castes. The programmes, policies and declarations of political parties are made, keeping
in view the caste factor. Even different positions within a political party are distributed in terms of caste
configurations.

*Caste plays a very important role in elections and voting. Political parties select their candidates on the
basis of caste composition in the constituency. The voting in elections and mobilization of political
support from top to bottom moves on the caste lines.

*The caste factor also influences the formation of the council of ministers and making appointments to
various political positions in the government. Caste also functions, as a pressure group in politics.
Political bargaining is also done on the caste lines. Caste organizations have emerged to organize caste
members for collective bargaining with each other.

*The administration has not escaped the influence of the caste in India. The postings, transfers and
appointments of public officials are influenced by caste considerations. Even the behaviour of public
officials in carrying out administrative duties get influenced by caste considerations.

The political leadership in many political parties emerges and survives in politics on the basis of the
support of certain caste groups.
 UNIT-V

Q.1 Explain the role of regional parties in India.

=> In the early years of Indian independence, the role of regional parties in our democratic political
system was just nominal. After some time, the regional parties in State politics started gaining more
importance. In the present political scenario of the country, the role of the regional parties has become all
the more important.

Most regional political parties have grown in the last three decades as instruments to capture the space in
their respective States and sometimes they play a crucial role in State politics. The regional parties
maintain that the problems of their regions are not being attended to by the Central Government.

Some major regional parties like the Telegu Desam Party, Akali Dal etc. are working on issues like the
lack of educational facilities, good roads, water, electricity and communications in their respective
regions.

In our coalition politics, we have seen that on several occasions, the multi-party system has made the
national political parties dependent on regional parties when no all-India party was in a position to secure
absolute majority in the Lok Sabha. Because of this compulsion, the national political parties are
constrained to conclude electoral alliances with the regional political parties. Most regional parties have
come to stay as important political formations enjoining sizeable electoral support.

Several regional parties become coalition partners of national parties in forming State Governments.
Some regional parties however, remain stable and major political formations in few States. In our
parliamentary coalition political system, the national parties cannot afford to ignore the regional political
parties.
Q 2. Pressure group in India and role.

= Pressure group are interest group which try secure their interest by influencing the formulation and
administration of public policy. Vladimir Orlando Key jr, an American political scientist has defined
Pressure group as private association formed to influence public policy.

In India Political parties and pressure groups together play a big role in the struggle of power. In India
pressure group arose even during the colonial period. All India trade union congress was the first
countrywide pressure group of working class. India is developing country having scarcity of resources
and acute poverty promoting significant role of pressure group. The aim of these pressure group was to
secure economic and political concessions for themselves.

Types of pressure group:

Almond and Powell have divided interest groups into four parts-

1) Institutional pressure group-These groups are formally organized which constitutes

professionally employed persons. They are part of government machinery and raises its protests
with constitutional means. For example Bureaucracy, army, central election committee etc.
2) Anomic pressure group-These are the group that have analogy with individual self-
representation. They may be constitutional or unconstitutional, perpetual infiltration such as riots,
demonstration etc. For example ULFA. Naxalites, Kashmir liberal front etc.
3) Associations pressure group-These are organized specialized groups formed for interest
articulation but to pursue limited goal. For example Trade union, student association, teachers
association etc.
4) Non-Associations pressure group-These are the informal groups include caste group, language
group, syndicate, Ghanaian group etc.

Role of pressure group:

==The capacity of pressure groups id determined by leadership, organizational abilities, mass media,
economic power base and mobilizations technique. Beside this they are using lobbying method, strike,
bandh, demonstration, funding political parties, using party platform etc.

*Role in legislature-Pressure groups tries to introduce their chosen person into legislature. They help
political parties on the eve of election and prepares election manifesto.

*Role in executive-Pressure group tries to fill high executive posts with men of their own choice i.e.
selection of cabinet, distribution of portfolios and P.M selection due to prevalence of collation
government. And henceforth influences policy implementation process.

*Role in Bureaucracy- Bureaucrats are politically neutral and hence pressure group tries to oblige them
by putting good remarks that protect their interests. Bureaucrats have long tenure and so they be in
contact with them to oblige.

*Role in judiciary-appointment of judges in political affairs and here pressure groups plays important
role in that high judicial offices are occupied by them.
Q.3 Judicial review in India.

=Meaning and definition : Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to interpret the
constitution and to declare any such law or order of the legislature and executive void, if it finds them in
conflict the Constitution of India. The power of the Judiciary to review the Act of the Legislature or the
Executive in order to determine its constitutional propriety is known as the Doctrine of Judicial Review

Features of Judicial Review in India:

1. Judicial Review Power is used by both the Supreme Court and High Courts: Both the Supreme
Court and High Courts exercise the power of Judicial Review. But the final power to determine the
constitutional validity of any law is in the hands of the Supreme Court of India.

2. Judicial Review of both Central and State Laws: Judicial Review can be conducted in respect of all
Central and State laws, the orders and ordinances of the executives and constitutional amendments.

3. A Limitations: Judicial Review cannot be conducted in respect of the laws incorporated in the 9th
Schedule of the Constitution.

4. It covers laws and not political issues: Judicial Review applies only to the questions of law. It cannot
be exercised in respect of political issues.

5. Judicial Review is not automatic: The Supreme Court does not use the power of judicial review of its
own. It can use it only when any law or rule is specifically challenged before it or when during the course
of hearing a case the validity of any law is challenged before it.

6.Judicial Review Decision gets implemented from the date of Judgement:When a law gets rejected
as unconstitutional it ceases to operate from the date of the judgment. All activities performed on the basis
of the law before the date of the judgment declaring it invalid, continue to remain valid.

7. Principle of Procedure established by Law: Judicial Review in India is governed by the principle:
Procedure Established by Law. Under it the court conducts one test, i.e., whether the law has been made
in accordance with the powers granted by the Constitution to the law-making body and follows the
prescribed procedure or not. It gets rejected when it is held to be violative of procedure established by
law.
 Very Short Answer

1.A coalition government is formed when no single party wins a clear majority of 326 seats and parties
form alliances to create a majority. The incumbent prime minister generally has the first opportunity to
form a coalition. If this fails, parties start negotiating with each other to see if they would be able to work
together to form a coalition government.

India's first-ever coalition government was formed at the national level under the Prime Ministership of
Morarji Desai, which was also the first non-Congress national government, which existed from 24 March
1977 to 15 July 1979, headed by the Janata Party.

The first successful coalition government in India which completed the whole 5-year term was the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) led National Democratic Alliance with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as PM from
1999 to 2004.

Then another coalition, Congress led United Progressive Alliance, consisting of 13 separate parties ruled
India for two terms from 2004 to 2014 with Manmohan Singh as PM

Now after the elections in May 2014, N.D.A again came to power as Narendra moodi as the PM.

2. Judicial activism is a legal term that refers to court rulings that are partially or fully based on the
judges political or personal considerations, rather than existing laws. In basic terms, judicial activism
occurs when a judge presiding over a case allows his personal or political views to guide his decision
when rendering judgment on a case.

3.A mixed economic system is an economic system that features characteristics of both capitalism and
socialism. A mixed economic system protects private property and allows a level of economic freedom in
the use of capital, but also allows for governments to interfere in economic activities in order to achieve
social aims. According to neoclassical theory, mixed economies are less efficient than pure free markets,
but proponents of government interventions argue that the base conditions such as equal information and
rational market participants cannot be achieved in practical application.

4.Role of womens in politics: Indian political system gives same powers and roles to the men and
women irrespective of their gender. India had Ms Indira Gandhi as the Prime Minister of the country for
15 years. Many states had and have women Chief Ministers and who hold other position in central
union..etcThey had and have played prominent and decisive role in the politics of modern India.

India has taken a great leap in the role of women in politics since Independence . But there are still many
areas where government and society need to transform and work a lot. The number of women Member of
Parliaments and Member of Legislative Assemblies is still low. The Women Resrvation Bill for 33 %
reservation for Women in Lok Sabha And State Legislative Assemblies saw an outrage by all the main
parties in the Parliament.
5.Sarkaria commission: Sarkaria Commission was set up in June 1983 by the central government of
India. The Sarkaria Commissions charter was to examine the relationship and balance of power between
state and central governments in the country and suggest changes within the framework of Constitution of
India.

The Commission was so named as it was headed by Justice Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired judge of the
Supreme Court of India. The other two members of the committee were Shri B Sivaraman and Dr SR
Sen.

6. A constituent assembly is a body of representatives which is composed for drafting a constitution. In

our times, we have recently seen how Nepals constituent assembly has drafted its constitution recently.
We note that drafting the constitution is the only function of a constituent assembly. Once the constitution
is ready and adopted; the assembly is dissolved. Further, since members of constituent assembly are
representatives (elected or unelected); its a form of representative democracy.

7. Constitutional Emergency : Emergency Provisions are contained in Part Eighteen of

the Constitution of India.

The President of India has the power to impose emergency rule in any or all the Indian states if the
security of part or all of India is threatened by "war or external aggression or armed rebellion".