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New aether sink model for gravity

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 PHYSICS ESSAYS 26, 2 (2013)

New aether sink model for gravity

Bayarsaikhan Choisurena) and Itgel Bayarsaikhanb)
Postal Office-51, P.O. Box-464, Ulaanbaatar 13343, Mongolia
(Received 7 July 2011; accepted 20 February 2013; published online 23 April 2013)

Abstract: This paper assumes that a perfect fluid aether flows into all material objects in the
universe. A model for elementary fermions is developed by modifying the conventional conception
of the perfect fluid aether. Consequently, a new aether sink model for gravity is proposed. The
conventional concept of mass is extended within the framework of the proposed models. For a
system that consists of two bodies of incomparable mass, the qualitative structure of a 2D-phase
portrait of a spatial fluid (i.e., the perfect fluid aether) flow is predicted. In this flow, hyperbolic
equilibrium points may coincide with the Lagrangian points. This paper suggests that a difference
in the dynamic pressures of geodesic spatial fluid flows may generate inertial force, gravitational
force, and centrifugal force and also the conventional equations for these forces are theoretically
derived. The proposed models provide plausible explanations for gravitational anomalies such
as the Pioneer anomaly and the correlation between earthquake activity and planetary positions,
C 2013 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-26.2.196]
etc. V

Resume: Cet article admet come hypothese quun ether fluide parfait coule dans tous les corps
materiels de lunivers. Un modele pour les fermions elementaires est developpe en modifiant le
concept conventionnel dun ether fluide parfait. Consequemment, lon propose un Nouveau
Modele de Puits dEther pour la gravite. Le concept conventionnel de la masse est etendu dans le
cadre des modeles proposes. Pour un systeme consistant de deux corps de masse incomparable,
lon predit la structure qualitative de portrait de fluide spatial a deux dimensions de phase (cest-a-
dire, lether fluide parfait). Dans ce flux, les points dequilibre hyperbolique peuvent concider avec
les points Lagrangiens. Cet article suggere quune difference entre les pressions dynamiques des
flux spatiales geodesiques peut generer une force inertielle, une force gravitationnelle, et une force
centrifuge, et les equations conventionnelles pour ces forces sont theoriquement derivees. Les
modeles proposes donnent des explications plausibles pour les anomalies gravitationnelles, telles
que lanomalie du Pioneer, et la correlation entre lactivite de tremblement de terre et position des
planetes, et ctera.
Key words: Aether; Cosmological Constant Problem; Quantum Foam; Hyperbolic Equilibrium Point; Null Homotopic Het-
eroclinic Orbit; Lagrangian Points; Allais Gravity Anomaly; Hill Sphere; Eulerian and Lagrangian Perspectives for Descrip-
tion of Fluid Motion; Quantized Vortex Ring.

I. INTRODUCTION aether is destroyed or absorbed proportionally to the masses

within the bodies, a stream arises and carries all the
Fludd cites the third century view of Plotinus on the
surrounding bodies in the direction of the central mass. Rie-
aether as penetrative and nonmaterial.1 Medieval scholastic
mann speculated that the absorbed aether is transferred into
philosophers granted the aether changes of density, where
another world or dimension.4
the constituents of the planets were considered to be denser
Quantum mechanics can be used to describe space-time
than the medium which filled the rest of the universe.2
as being bitty at extremely small scales, consisting of
In a 1675 letter to Henry Oldenburg, and later to Robert
fluctuating and generating particle pairs that appear and
Boyle, Newton wrote that gravity was the result of a
disappear incredibly quickly. Instead of being smooth, the
condensation causing a flow of aether with a corresponding
vacuum is described as resembling a quantum foam, which
thinning of the ether density associated with the increased
was devised by John Wheeler in 1955. Wheeler claimed that
velocity of flow. He also asserted that such a process was
the fabric of the universe is founded on this foam.5
consistent with all his other work and Keplers Laws of
In modern times, aether theorists have proposed a similar
Motion.3
hypothesis in which the aether has nonzero levels of energy,
Similar to Newton, in 1853, Bernhard Riemann assumed
pressure, and density and supports the existence of all things
that the gravitational aether is an incompressible fluid and
in the material universe and flows into every material object;
that normal matter represents sinks in this aether. So, if the
the aether has been called the fabric of space, the underlying
spatial substratum, the spatial fluid, etc.615
a)
ch.bayarsaikhan@yahoo.com In addition, Allen Rothwarf wrote that the aether is not
b)
superitgel@yahoo.com only a useful concept, but that it is a real substance with an

0836-1398/2013/26(2)/196/16/$25.00 196 C 2013 Physics Essays Publication

V
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
origin that coincides with the birth of our universe and whose
properties determine the speed of light, other physical con-
stants, and the missing insight lacking in present theories. He
also pointed out that conventional physics asserts that almost
all particles and antiparticles annihilated themselves, giving
rise to radiation. Allen Rothwarfs picture differs from the
conventional one in that particles and antiparticles do not an-
nihilate one another. Instead, they form a bound state that is
actually at a lower energy than if they had annihilated.16
In this paper, the aether is considered to be an extraordi-
nary perfect fluid with an extremely low mass density, such
that the aether is insensible.
With regard to all the hypotheses discussed above, we
presume that the entire free space in the universe is homoge-
neously filled with the perfect fluid aether, while allowing
for the emergence from the aether of pairs of elementary
particles and their antiparticles, as well as pairs of virtual
particles and their antiparticles and other potential
properties.
Likewise, we assume that the perfect fluid aether flows
perpetually into all material objects, while moving on the
huge scale of the whole universe.
Consequently, this paper considers that all elementary
particles and virtual particles act as steady sinks of the
aether. Therefore, all bodies are exposed to dynamic and
static pressures that are attributed to incompressible and non-
dissipative aether flows inward toward the bodies.
Furthermore, we envision the perfect fluid aether such
that it originally exists as an invisible perfect fluid, with an
inherent nature that may be visualized as a binary mixture of
equal amounts of positively charged and negatively charged
fluids, which are equally interpenetrated.
Indeed, our key modification of the aether is as a steady
equilibrated state for coincidence of the positive aether and
negative aether, which originally and inherently coexist in
equal proportions to form the modified aether. Let us then
define a characteristic property to distinguish the positive
aether from its negative aether in terms of repulsive or
attractive effects between them in a manner of a contact
reaction that essentially results in a strong tendency to keep
the innate mixture equal.
Both the positive aether and the negative aether would
be envisioned as appearing individually only when the posi-
tive aether or the negative aether slightly exceeded in the
separated aether flow in close proximity to charged particles
at small scales, during which the aether could be considered
to be a positive aether or a negative aether.
The modified aether simply consists of the positive
aether and the negative aether, such that the original
equilibrium state can be considered to be a first phase of the
modified aether. (Henceforth, we will call the modified
aether a spatial fluid.) By virtue of this modification, the
aether becomes a great source of energy sustaining the
existence of all things in the universe. Consequently,
the electrostatic interaction and the concept of electric
charge will emerge from this hypothetical physical scenario
in our proposed model.
On the bases of the hypotheses mentioned above, we
presume that for motions relative to the spatial fluid, even
197
though the insensible spatial fluid behaves as a perfect fluid,
it has a critical flow speed equal to the speed of light in vac-
uum. This means that the relative flow between sheared spa-
tial fluids at a velocity faster than the light velocity in
vacuum may occur by virtue of the motion being primitively
beyond the phenomenon in the Special Theory of Relativity.
Thus, during any sheared flow (or particle motion relative to
the adjacent spatial fluid) at superluminal velocity, the adja-
cent spatial fluids cannot behave as perfect fluids.
Therefore, the spatial fluid is described here as incom-
pressible and inviscid, unless the relative velocity between
its sheared flows exceeds the critical flow velocity, beyond
which viscosities are generated in the adjacent spatial fluids.
Thus, if the relative speed between the sheared flows of the
spatial fluid exceeds the critical flow speed, a viscosity and
moreover a secondary viscosity will arise in the sheared spa-
tial fluids.
We predict that light photons necessarily propagate in
vacuum at a light velocity that is the maximum velocity for
frictionless motion through the spatial fluid, while maintain-
ing the light velocity that is the final velocity after photons
have been produced in space and time at the Planck scale.
The predictions given above lead us to presume that dur-
ing the birth of our universe, all elementary particles were
made of spatial fluid, simultaneously producing quantized
vortex rings and bubbles by very fast superluminal spatial
fluid motions that occurred once over a very short time in
extremely small regions. In other words, a violent topologi-
cal distortion of space-time at the Planck scale, which
became locally quantized, occurred once throughout the
entire free space of the universe, generating quantized vortex
rings and bubbles, all of which would be considered to be
types of elementary particles.
In addition, the creation/annihilation of a pair of virtual
particles and the weak interaction may be attributed to super-
luminal motions relative to the spatial fluid, which occur
locally in limited regions of subatomic particle sizes within
atoms and subatomic particles. Moreover, energy dissipation
may occur in the superluminal motion of any particle in a
spatial fluid, due to the generation of viscous drag in the ad-
jacent spatial fluid, while producing extremely tiny vortex
rings and bubbles or an adiabatically compressed spatial
fluid, all of which have become qualitatively different from
the inviscid spatial fluid flowing towards all material objects
in free space. Thus, we may envision the vacuum space as a
lattice of extremely tiny quantized vortex rings of spatial
fluid, through which virtual photons and the spatial fluid
move. However, the lattice of vortex rings around the
subatomic particles is presumed to be much denser than the
lattice of the vacuum.
Extending the concept of a pair of virtual particles that
give rise to radiation,16 we presume that the creation of a
pair of virtual particles generally occurs such that when a
virtual photon becomes trapped in the core of a random
vortex ring, the virtual photon is transformed into a pair of a
virtual particle and a virtual antiparticle over an infinitesi-
mally short time within the core of the vortex ring. The anni-
hilation of the virtual particles occurs shortly thereafter
when the virtual particle and its antiparticle pull toward each
198
other while moving at a velocity slightly faster than the
velocity of light within the core: the pair will have been
immediately transformed once more into a virtual photon,
while producing a tiny piece of adiabatically compressed
spatial fluid within the core, which can be considered to be
the second phase of the spatial fluid. This resembles the
hypotheses of the Mexican physicist Miguel Alcubierre, who
has proposed a method of stretching space in a wave that
would in theory cause the fabric of space ahead of a space-
craft to contract and the space behind the spacecraft to
expand,17 similar to a piston compressor. Notice that our
prediction for the creation/annihilation of a virtual particle
pair might be made more plausible by considering that the
negative energy of the attractions between the paired virtual
particles per unit space may cancel the large constant zero-
point energy density in the vacuum.18 Thus, the cosmologi-
cal constant problem might be solved in this way.
In a similar way, the second and third phases of the spa-
tial fluid are formed as extremely small by-products in every
atom and nucleus, respectively. Thus, the phase transition of
the spatial fluid into the second phase may occur consistently
and perpetually within atoms and consequently be likewise
continuously transformed into the third phase within the
nucleons of atoms, due to the superluminal motions of
virtual particles and virtual quarks over a distance smaller
than the nucleon size. Thus, the second phase of the spatial
fluid is formed perpetually within atoms due to annihilations
of virtual particle pairs around electrons, while flowing
inward towards the atomic nuclei. Thereafter, the second
phase transforms into the third phase within nucleons (e.g.,
hadrons) such that the dense spatial fluid (i.e., the second
phase) is compressed continuously once more due to the
annihilations of pairs of virtual quarks within nucleons.
Thus, the two-stage compression process consists of two
steps such as adiabatic compression of the spatial fluid
by the annihilation of virtual particles around electrons,
followed by a continuous compression of the compressed
spatial fluid through annihilation by virtual quarks within
nucleons.
We presume that atomic nuclei and nucleons are perpet-
ually exposed to dynamic pressures from the inflow of the
dense spatial fluid in the second phase within atoms. This
means that the dynamic pressures of the dense spatial fluid
flow into atomic nuclei and nucleons may generate the strong
nuclear force (which is somewhat reminiscent of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Bag Model19). Notice
that even though elementary particles are considered to be
steady sinks of the spatial fluid in our proposed model, the
two-stage compression may contribute to the sucking of the
spatial fluid into material objects. Therefore, the rates of
the spatial fluid flows may vary with changes in the velocity
of the material object relative to the ambient spatial fluid.
The two-stage spatial fluid compression results in not only
the strong nuclear force but also the relativistic increase in
the mass of material objects.
In addition, the repulsive and attractive contact effects
for the positive aether and its negative aether, which occur
such that a slight excess in the separating spatial fluid flows
inward toward the charged particles, may create a discrete
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
space-time structure at microscales with a spatially nonuni-
form density. This spatially nonuniform density may be nor-
malized by the uniform density of the spatial fluid in the first
phase, as described by a spatial probability density function.
In upcoming papers, we will discuss the weak interac-
tion, the nuclear interaction, the electromagnetic interaction,
and also Special and General Relativity Theory while deriv-
ing the equation for the relativistic mass, etc., within the
framework of our proposed model, which is called the aether
sink model for gravity (AS model).
On basis of these introductory remarks, we predict that
the gravitational force, the inertial force, or the centrifugal
force may arise from a difference in dynamic pressures
of the spatial fluid flowing into material objects (i.e., the
difference in the ambient static pressure around a material
object).
In addition to the new concept of a uniform density of
the spatial fluid itself, an extended concept of mass will con-
sequently emerge in Section III. The uniform density can
substantially represent a state of the spatial fluid and thus can
serve as a fundamental physical constant for a homogeneous
spatial fluid in the first phase throughout all free space in the
entire universe.
II. HETEROGENEOUS BUBBLE SINK MODEL FOR
ELEMENTARY FERMIONS
Assuming that the modified aether (i.e., the spatial fluid)
can exist, as well as the quantum foam that is theorized to be
created by virtual particles of very high energy,5,16 we
hypothesize that elementary fermion particles and their
antiparticles may be created from the spatial fluid in various
forms of spindle-shaped heterogeneous bubble sinks (HBSs)
from very fast superluminal motion of the spatial fluid.
Accordingly, we ontologically presume that during the pri-
mary creation of elementary fermions, an extremely abrupt
change in the velocity of the relative motion of the sheared
flows of spatial fluid occurred, which greatly exceeded the
critical flow velocity. This resulted in tearing of the spatial
fluid, which was adiabatically compressed at the Planck
scale, thus generating a viscosity and a secondary viscosity.
Consequently, pairs of heterogeneous bubbles and steady
vortex rings were created from the spatial fluid. In other
words, topological defects were created from the phase tran-
sition of the spatial fluid. Thus, we suggest a HBS model for
electrons and positrons, which can describe elementary
fermions.
In this section, we briefly introduce our proposed HBS
model for elementary fermion particles and the condition for
the equilibrium state. As illustrated in Fig. 1(a), the HBS
model for electrons (or positrons) is described as follows:
The spatial fluid in the first phase has been adiabatically
compressed into the optimal shape of a tiny heterogeneous
spindle within which a core-hole is created. Here, the
density of the highly compressed spatial fluid is many
orders of magnitude greater than the uniform density of the
spatial fluid in the first phase.
A highly rarefied spatial fluid with an unbalanced ratio of
the positive aether to the negative aether is contained in
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013) 199

FIG. 1. (Color online) (a) A cross-section of a spindle-shaped HBS surrounded by stratified spherical and spheroidal layers of positive aether. The bold
conical springs show the narrow string flow at the critical flow speed c. The curves from the string flows on the N and S poles illustrate the negative aether
being sucked into the core-hole. The bold curves from the string flows show the positive aether being separated outwards at the N and S poles. The pressure
gradients directed toward the center are denoted by the bold capital letter F. The outward pressure (i.e., the turgor pressure) from the center, which is
attributed to repulsive effects in the positive aether within the core-hole, is denoted by the bold capital letter P. The letter P denotes pressures (i.e., the
osmotic pressures) that are subjected to a contact attractive effect between the positive aether and its anti-aether on the N and S poles. The infinitesimally
narrow string flows arise due to the contact attractive effect (e.g., the tensile strength) during the separation of the positive aether and its anti-aether at
the N and S poles. (b) A HBS that spins at a circumferential velocity V ~s is moving rectilinearly at a translational velocity ~
v relative to a faraway unmoving
spatial fluid.

the core-hole within the tiny heterogeneous bubble. As a
result, a strong outward pressure pushes against the interior
wall of the bubble (i.e., a type of turgor pressure), which
is attributed to the strong contact repulsive effects in the
positive aether (or the negative aether in case of the
antibubble) in the core-hole. On other hand, the static pres-
sure in the core-hole is extremely small compared with
the static pressure in the ambient spatial fluid around the
bubble. Consequently, pressure gradients are produced,
which are directed toward the center of the bubble from all
directions due to the static pressure differences inside and
outside the bubble. An equilibrium is eventually estab-
lished between the normal outward forces that act on the
entire interior bubble surface and the normal inward forces
that act on entire exterior bubble surface.
The heterogeneous bubble spins uniformly at a high speed
about its own axis, traversing through its north and south
poles endlessly because there is no friction in the ambient
spatial fluid. The heterogeneous bubble can therefore exist
forever in the steady equilibrium state that is maintained
by the inwardly directed pressure gradient forces and the
outwardly directed repulsive forces.
A tiny pore that is infinitesimally smaller than the bubble
created on each pole is shown in Fig. 1(a).
The ambient spatial fluid is sucked into the bubble equally
through the two tiny pores. The contact attractive effect
(i.e., a tensile strength) between the positive aether and its
negative aether in the spatial fluid being sucked produces
equal pressures, similar to an osmotic pressure, on the N
and S poles, respectively. As a consequence of being
pinched by the equal osmotic pressures, the heterogene-
ous bubble deforms into a spindle shape. Meanwhile, as
the negative pressure (e.g., the sucking efficiency) in the
core-hole attains enough tensile strength to pull the posi-
tive (or negative) aether from the ambient spatial fluid, the
amount of negative (or positive) aether is slightly exceeded
in each flow being separated out at the N and S poles.
As a result, the negative (or positive) aether spreads out,
producing steady spherical and spheroid stratifications that
surround the bubble due to the adhesive contact with the
ambient spatial fluid. Thus, the ambient stratified spatial
fluid turns out to be a stable system consisting of spherical
and spheroidal layers of spatial fluid, which are conse-
quently nonuniform in density.
Figures 1(a) and 1(b) show that an extremely narrow string
flow of the spatial fluid also arises at each pole in the form
of a conical spring that can be compressed or extended due
to the tensile strength, which generates a pressure similar
200
to the osmotic pressure on the N and S poles. The speed
of the spatial fluid flowing into the form of an extremely
narrow string must consequently become constant,
approaching the critical flow speed. In addition, when the
bubble sink and its antibubble sink form a neutral system,
the flow in the extremely narrow string can transform into
an extremely small potential flow (e.g., a radial flow)
due to the positive aether and negative aether, which are
separated outward from the ambient spatial fluid, mutually
flowing towards the bubble and the antibubble,
respectively.
Thus, we predict that the electrostatic force may be gen-
erated from the difference between the osmotic pressures
exerted on the pinched N and S poles. In addition, the
Coulomb inverse square law at the microscale may involve
the spin-orientations relative to the straight-line distance
between the electrically interacting fermions at the Planck
length scale.
When the HBS moves rectilinearly at a high velocity
through the spatial fluid, one of its poles has to face forward
(or incline) in the direction of the translational motion, so
that the resultant velocity of the spinning and translational
motions does not exceed the critical flow velocity because
the excess motion will produce friction in the ambient spatial
fluid. The spinning axis of the HBS moving at a high veloc-
ity has only two possible orientations relative to the direction
of the translational motion due to the friction with the ambi-
ent spatial fluid. Thus, the spin of any fermion particle may
be characterized by half-integers to satisfy the hypothetical
physical condition that the resultant relative speed cannot
exceed the speed of light in vacuum to prevent friction in the
ambient spatial fluid. In other words, the translational veloc-
ity of any fermion in motion, relative to the ambient spatial
fluid, cannot approach the critical flow velocity because of
the spinning motion.
For boson particles, the system might consist of an
even number of fermions so that the vector sum of the
antiparallel tangential equatorial circumferential velocities
of the spinning motions over all the fermionic constituents
is zero. For a single photon, the system might consist of
an elementary fermion and its antifermion orbiting about
the barycenter of the system. The circumferential speed of
the spinning motion of each constituent fermion is equal
to the speed of the orbital motion about the barycenter so
that there is no spinning motion relative to the ambient
spatial fluid at the outermost surface of the system. For
photons, there is no circumferential velocity of the spin-
ning motion of the photon itself to add to the translational
velocity relative to the adjacent spatial fluid. Therefore, a
photon can move freely at the velocity of light in vacuum
through the spatial fluid. Considering that a single photon
is a composite particle composed of an elementary particle
and its antiparticle, which have parallel angular momen-
tums that have equal magnitudes of h=2, projection of the
photon spin on direction of the photon propagation is
equal to h or h.
Furthermore, we presume that the extremely narrow
string flow in the form of a conical spring can be regarded as
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
a magnetic field line. During the translational motion of the
bubble sink, the conical spring form of the narrow string
flow is compressed in front of and extended behind the parti-
cle. In other words, when the charged particle moves faster,
the magnetic field lines (i.e., the conical string flow) pack
more densely in front of the particle, as shown in Fig. 1(b).
This means that the faster the charged particle moves, the
larger the magnetic field is around the particle.
As any magnetic field lines are narrow string flows at the
critical flow speed, a charged particle moving through the
magnetic field lines will be exposed to a force similar to the
Magnus force from Classical Mechanics.20 Thus, the Lorentz
force may arise in a similar way as the Magnus force.
The Pauli exclusion principle and the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle may be governed by the critical flow
condition that the resultant motion of the bubble sink, rela-
tive to the ambient spatial fluid cannot exceed the critical
flow speed c.
For a higher unbalanced ratio of the positive aether and
the negative aether in the core-hole, the bubble sink (or the
antibubble sink) could correspond to charged elementary
fermions.
For a lower unbalanced ratio, the bubble sink (or anti-
bubble sink) may correspond to neutral elementary fermions,
such as neutrinos and antineutrinos.
Finally, if the absolute value of the unbalanced ratio is
equal to one, the HBS cannot exist because there is no
turgor pressure inside it.
When a bubble sink and its antibubble sink form a single
neutral system, their extremely narrow string flows are
transformed into an infinitesimally small radial flow because
the separated positive aether and negative aether flow to-
gether towards the bubble and the antibubble, respectively.
Therefore, the magnetic field lines vanish for an electrically
neutral system.
The accretion rate of spatial fluid in the core-hole of the
HBS is infinitely small compared with the great emptiness
of the core-hole, so that it takes an infinite time to fill up
with spatial fluid. However, the bubble sink may be consid-
ered to be a steady sink.
Even though the accretion rate of the spatial fluid in the
core-hole is negligible, it may eventually cause the expan-
sion of the universe due to the entropic contribution to the
large scale structure of space-time. After an infinite time,
when the core-holes within the elementary fermions are
completely filled with spatial fluid, the equilibrium state of
the bubble sinks (i.e., the elementary fermions) is unbal-
anced. Consequently, the Big Rip occurs and the elementary
particles, filled with spatial fluid, explode while generating
superluminal motions in the spatial fluid. New bubble sinks
are created immediately. In this way, the Big Bang is accom-
panied by the creation of new elementary particles in the
Planck time at small-scales.
Electromagnetic waves, including gamma rays, etc.,
may be created from the propagation of energetic virtual
photons emitted from the annihilations of the evanescent
virtual particle pairs that surround every charged particle,
which are perturbed by the translational motion of the
charged particles relative to the ambient spatial fluid.
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
III. MASS
Our proposed HBS model describes individual elemen-
tary particles and virtual particles as steady sinks for the spa-
tial fluid; however, if one assumes a two-stage spatial fluid
compression by the annihilation of virtual particle pairs, as
discussed in the introduction, every material object can be a
sink with a net inflow rate that depends on its motion relative
to the ambient spatial fluid.
Considering that the number of virtual particle pairs and
vortex rings per unit volume of free space is many times less
than the corresponding number for every material object, we
assume that the compression of the spatial fluid within the
cores of the random vortex rings in the free space outside
material objects is always negligible compared with the
two-stage compression within the material object itself.
Therefore, we may consider the spatial fluid flowing through
the lattice of quantized rings in the free space outside any
material object to be incompressible and irrotational, unless
the object is in superluminal motion relative to the ambient
spatial fluid.
We assume that every material system, from nucleons to
stars and galaxies, acts as a sink for the spatial fluid; if one
ideally imagines a single body in free space where there are
no other bodies, the body may be maintained in an equilib-
rium position due to equal pressures being exerted upon it
from all directions.
Thus, in an ideal case, the body is at rest for an observer
in a reference frame fixed to a faraway spatial fluid that is at
rest relative to the body. The spatial fluid at rest can thus be
treated as absolute space. In other respects, one could
conceive that the position of the body at absolute rest is
uncertain with respect to the absolute rest frame, while the
velocity of the body relative to the absolute rest frame is def-
initely equal to zero.
Moreover, barring absolute space (i.e., the faraway
unmoving spatial fluid), one may ideally imagine both the
rest body and the spatial fluid flowing inward toward the
body as forming a single closed dynamical system bounded
by an outermost spherical surface of infinite radius R1 ,
through which the spatial fluid flow velocity V ~R1 is zero,
as shown in Fig. 2. This ideal scenario may be identified as
the closed universe of Einstein.
Meanwhile, the outermost spherical surface could
correspond to the initial position of the spatial fluid flowing
toward the center of a body, for when the body was once pri-
marily created at an initial time.
From the Lagrangian perspective for fluid flow, the out-
ermost spherical surface can be modeled as a spherical
Lagrangian material surface that has moved inward toward
the absolute rest body while following the spatial fluid that
initially flowed toward the body. In this ideal physical sce-
nario, the outermost spatial fluid starts to flow inward toward
the mass center of the rest body from its initial position at
the initial time at which the body was once primarily created.
(Henceforth, the Lagrangian time will be denoted by tL .)
Even though we assume, within the Lagrangian
perspective, that the spatial fluid sinks into the whole body,
purely for the convenience of mathematical calculation, the
201
FIG. 2. (Color online) A body at absolute rest in free space. The dashed
blue circle illustrates the outermost equipotential surface. The light blue
background is the faraway unmoving spatial fluid. The orange dashed circle
corresponds to a current equipotential surface S. The red square dot circle
corresponds to the horizon surface Sc . The flow field is spherically symmet-
ric in free space and the spatial fluid is incompressible and inviscid in the
exterior region of the rest body.
accelerated velocity of the inward flow can be treated
abstractly as if the flow subsequently attained the critical
flow velocity c close to the center of mass of the body in an
infinite time. Thus, within this abstract description, another
spherical equipotential surface, through which the flow speed
equals the critical flow speed c, can be formulated: this
abstract equipotential surface is called a closed horizon sur-
face Sc of radius Rc , as shown in Figs. 2 and 3(a). The center
of mass is referred to as a singular or equilibrium point
because the resultant flow velocity at the center of mass can
be considered to be null.
Next, we consider the average amount of Lagrangian
time TU for atoms, subatomic particles, and celestial bodies,
etc., for which a parcel of spatial fluid has traveled to the
horizon surface Sc (or the center of mass) together with the
Lagrangian material surface from the initial position where
the parcel was at rest at the initial time. By applying the
abstract scenario discussed above for every single rest body,
the average amount of Lagrangian time TU may also repre-
sent the age of the universe.
Only for this abstract scenario, if the spatial fluid flow is
assumed to be incompressible and inviscid exterior to the
horizon surface Sc , where the flow velocities are less than
the critical flow velocity, all the spatial fluid flowing towards
the body sinks into the region bounded by the closed horizon
surface Sc . Notice that the spatial fluid is indeed being com-
pressed and is sinking within the entire body.
For the body at absolute rest in free space, we define an
average mass density function qm r over an arbitrary vol-
ume X bounded by the current concentric spherical surface
S, which can be taken as a Gaussian surface coincident with
the equipotential surface. In this case, the nonvanishing mass
202 Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)

the center-of-mass frame, V ~~

rtL is the Lagrangian flow
velocity through the current equipotential surface S, Rc is the
radius of the spherical horizon surface Sc , and qU is the uni-
form density of the spatial fluid, which is defined here in
terms of an average mass density over the vast volume of the
closed dynamical system,

m0
qU  lim qm r lim qm TU :
r!R1 tL !TU XrtL

Identifying the average amount of Lagrangian time TU

with the age of the universe in the proposed AS model leads
to a new interpretation of mass.
The mass of any material object is defined here as the
amount of spatial fluid that has been accumulating within the
object from the time the atoms and subatomic particles, etc.,
were first created. Notice that because the mass involves the
FIG. 3. (Color online) (a) A material object at absolute rest. The smaller rate of spatial fluid flow, cessation of the accumulation of
dashed circle corresponds to a spherical horizon surface Sc . The larger dashed spatial fluid results in the eventual vanishing of the gravita-
circle corresponds to a spherical equipotential surface S. The radius of the tional and inertial manifestations of mass.
spherical horizon surface is denoted by Rc . (b) A material object in rectilinear From Eq. (1), the mass of any material object can be rep-
motion at a velocity ~ v. The smaller dashed ovoid corresponds to the ovoid ho-
rizon surface S0c . The larger dashed ovoid corresponds to the ovoid equipoten- resented in the form of a Gaussian surface integral as
tial surface S0 , with a longer polar radius R0c and an equatorial radius Rc . (c) A follows:
material object in circular motion at an orbital speed vorb . The smaller dashed
kidney corresponds to the kidney-shaped ovoid horizon surface S00c , with a po-  
lar radius R00c and an equatorial radius Rc . The larger dashed kidney corre- m qU TU ~~
V r  d~
s qU TU Q; (2)
sponds to the kidney-shaped ovoid equipotential surface S00 . S

where Q is a net volumetric flow rate, and S is an arbitrary

density function qm r is defined as qm r m0 =X, where
m0 is the mass of the rest body.
Based on the AS model, the rest mass of the body for
the closed dynamical system can be evaluated by spatially
integrating the average mass density function qm r over a
volume XR1 in the center-of-mass frame. The rest body
produces a spatial fluid flow field that is spherically symmet-
ric with respect to the center of mass. The volume integral
is converted into the product of an integral over a current
equipotential surface S and a definite integral over the
Lagrangian time interval 0; TU , which is exactly the same
as the integration of the average mass density function over a
volume XR1 . The calculation does not then require diffi-
cult surface integration as the constant net volumetric flow
rate can be taken outside the integral. The rest mass is thus
expressed by
R1
m0 qm r dX qm rd~
s  d~
r with the translational motion direction, as shown in
XR1 0 S
T U   The energy of an absolute rest body in free space is
 ~~
qm rtL V rtL  d~
s dtL
0 S
closed surface enclosing the material object. Therefore,
the mass of any material object involves a net rate of
spatial fluid flow into the material object. The relativistic
increase in mass of an accelerating material object may be
attributed to the slight increase in the spatial fluid sink-
strength of the object, which may be associated with the
slight increase in the energy from the annihilation/creation
of all types of virtual particles surrounding the constituents,
such as atoms and subatomic particles, due to the accelerated
translational motion of the object relative to the adjacent
spatial fluid.
Consequently, for a material object in rectilinear motion
at a constant velocity ~ v relative to absolute space, we
presume that the spatial fluid flow field generated by the
material object becomes axially symmetric relative to the
translational motion direction, so that the shapes of the equi-
potential surfaces in the flow field are similar to an ovoid
shape (i.e., egg-shaped) with a polar radius R0 that coincides
Fig. 3(b).
obtained from Eq. (2) as follows:

TU
      2    
 ~~
V r  d~
s qm r tL dtL ~ qU TU
E R V
~R~ V ~R~  dS~ ; (3)
S 0 S

4pqU TU r2 V r 4pqU TU R2c c; (1) where S is the

 surface
 area of the spherical equipotential sur-
face, and V~R ~ is the flow velocity through the spherical
where the radial vector element along a streamline is written equipotential surface. After taking the constant flow speed
as d~ ~~
r dtL V rtL , ~
rtL is Lagrangian position vector in V R outside the surface integral, Eq. (3) can be written as
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013) 203

 
3
E0 R qU TU V R dS ~ qU TU
P ~~
V r V r  d S~
~~
S R S

c2 R4c m0
V R 2 m 0 ; (4) and
R3 R

  
where V R cR2c =R2
is derived from Eq. (1); by integrating ~ qU TU
L R ~~
~orb  V r V r  dS~ ;
~~
in spherical coordinates fixed at the center of mass, the rest S

mass can be expressed as m0 4pqU TU V RR2 .

If the flow speed V R is equal to an orbital speed vorb where R ~orb is the radius vector located in the body that is
in a circular orbit of radius R about the rest body, the orbiting about a massive body, as shown in Fig. 3(c), and S
flow speed is given by V R  vorb Gm0 =R1=2 such that is a Gaussian surface.
Eq. (4) becomes Furthermore, even though the spatial fluid is envisaged
as a subtle invisible perfect fluid, Bernoullis equation can be
c2 R4c m0 m0 m0 applied to the spatial fluid flow as
E0 R 3
G ;
R R R
qU V 2
pst B;
where G is the gravitational constant; the rest energy is thus 2
obtained as E0 ERc m0 c2 . Therefore, the energy of a
body at absolute rest is the work performed under the gravi- where B is the Bernoulli constant, pst is the static pressure,
tational force to bring a mass equal to the rest mass m0 from and V is the flow speed along a streamline. The static pres-
infinity to the radial distance Rc (i.e., to the horizon sur- sure pst is zero for a flow at the critical flow speed c through
face Sc ). the imaginary horizon surface Sc , whereas the static pressure
If the energy of a single body is in rectilinear motion rel- pst has a maximum magnitude when the flow velocity is
ative to absolute space, the equipotential surface S0 has an zero through the outermost spherical surface at infinity. In
ovoid shape (i.e., egg-shaped) as shown in Fig. 3(b). Using Bernoullis equation, the Bernoulli constant B for the spatial
1=p
the approximate formula S0  4pabp acp bcp =3 fluid flow can be written in terms of the maximum magnitude
for the surface area of a general ellipsoid, the area of the equi- of the static pressure (which is henceforth called the total
potential surface S0 is given by pressure of the spatial fluid),

1=p
0 R2p 2Rp R0p q U c2
dS  4p 4pRR0 : (5) B Ptot ;
S0 3 2

The mass of the moving body can then be expressed by where Ptot is the total pressure of the spatial fluid. Roughly
m 4pqU TU V RRR0 . If the polar radius R0 is taken to be speaking, when the magnitude of the pressure gradient
equal to the Lorentz factor c times the equatorial radius R, becomes equal to the total pressure Ptot , without regard to
the mass is given by units, the flow speed simultaneously reaches the critical flow
speed c.
m0 Consequently, we assume that the critical flow condition
m cm0 p : may occur in a flow field of the spatial fluid corresponding to
1  v2 =c2
a hyperbolic equilibrium point and a nullcline, at which the
resultant flow velocity is zero. For pressure gradients toward
The energy of the moving body is thus obtained from the hyperbolic equilibrium point or pressure gradients nor-
Eqs. (3)(5) as mal to the nullcline, the magnitude of the pressure gradient
attains a maximum. Thus, a nullcline may arise between two
  m 0 c2 disjoined sheared flows (e.g., heteroclinic orbits) which have
E E R0c p : velocities that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
1  v2 =c2
direction.
Therefore, flow speeds at recurrent points (i.e., accumu-
For a body in an orbital motion, the equipotential surface lation points) in limit sets of either the hyperbolic equilib-
is kidney-shaped as shown in Fig. 3(c). The motion of a rium point or the nullcline uniformly approach the critical
body at absolute rest, in rectilinear or orbital motion, can be flow speed c, due to the pressure gradients toward the critical
characterized by the shape of the equipotential surface in the points attaining the maximum magnitude. An island of
spatial fluid flow field generated by the body. In other words, spatial fluid, a relatively unmoving spatial fluid in a region
the velocity field of the spatial fluid flow into the body in rec- bounded by hysteresis loops or homoclinic orbits, may form
tilinear motion becomes axially symmetric due to an increase in a flow field of the spatial fluid. In the following sections,
in the spatial fluid sink-strength of the body. Therefore, the we apply the hypothetical critical condition for the spatial
linear and angular momentum for a single body in free space fluid flow, discussed above, to describe the topological struc-
may be calculated as follows: ture of a spatial fluid flow pattern.
204
FIG. 4. (Color online) (a) Streamline pattern of the resultant spatial fluid
flow and its bifurcation for two equal sinks in free space. The dashed circles
illustrate equipotential surfaces through which the flow speed is V r. The
barycenter of the system of the two equal bodies (i.e., the equal point sinks)
is located in the center, where a hyperbolic equilibrium point L is produced.
The diamond indicates the unit ball. The dot block arrows indicate the
pressure gradients, dp=d R,~ toward the equilibrium point L. The pressure
gradient forces equally push the point sinks toward the equilibrium point L.
(b) Approaching certain distances from the equilibrium point L, the addi-
tional equilibrium points L1 and L2 (i.e., other bifurcations occur) appear to
the left and right sides of the equilibrium point L. Immediately after the
other induced bifurcations, the point sinks are exposed to sudden dynamic
pressures from outflows from the equilibrium points L1 and L2 , so that the
point sinks are pushed back from the equilibrium point L. The dot block
arrows indicate the dynamic pressures from outflows from the equilibrium
points L1 and L2 . The weighted black short lines indicate the induced
nullclines.
IV. INERTIAL FORCE AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
Because all material objects are treated as sinks for the
spatial fluid and are exposed to dynamic pressures attributed
to the spatial fluid flows into the objects, we predict that
either an inertial force or gravitational force is generated by
a difference in the dynamic (or static) pressures of the spatial
fluid flows.
Let us now visualize two bodies with the same mass
(and density), such that two stationary sinks with the same
net flow rate are at a certain distance between the bodies in
free space. The topological structure of the resultant flow
into the two point sinks can easily be sketched, as in
Fig. 4(a). A global bifurcation occurs in the resultant flow
field that is produced by the system of the two equal bodies.
Thus, a hyperbolic equilibrium point L arises at the barycen-
ter of the system because the spatial fluid is in a geodesic
Anosov-type flow. Figure 4(a) shows the bifurcation of the
streamlines at the barycenter that produce an open unit ball
in the two dimensional space lp for values of p 1, which
does not contain the spatial fluid. Therefore, pressure gra-
dients toward the barycenter are generated and attain the
maximum magnitude. Consequently, the flow speed passing
by the unit ball reaches the critical flow speed c, as
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
mentioned in Section III, producing conical outflows along
unstable manifolds of the equilibrium point L inward toward
the equal sinks.
If one treats the two equal bodies in the gravitational
field as two equal point sinks, the pressure gradients toward
the equilibrium point L force the sinks in equal and opposite
directions toward the barycenter. This means that the two
equal bodies gravitate toward one another (which is some-
what reminiscent of the Casimir-Polder force between two
electrically neutral objects).
However, when the point sinks are held close together,
two additional equal equilibrium points L1 and L2 may be
generated due to the closest approach between the inflow
and the outflow for the equilibrium point L, while producing
nullclines as shown in Fig. 4(b). Consequently, the outflows
from the induced equilibrium points L1 and L2 may produce
outward dynamic pressures that are suddenly exerted on
the point sinks. After the point sinks are removed from the
equilibrium point L by the sudden repulsive force, the equi-
librium points L1 and L2 may vanish, such that the point
sinks gravitate toward one another again, and so on. Further-
more, when two extremely strong equal point sinks closely
approach the induced equilibrium points L1 and L2 due to
the strong pressure gradient forces, the sinks may be pushed
outward in opposite directions at close to the light speed
under the dynamic pressure of the outflows, which have a
speed near the critical flow speed c, while exceeding the
pressure gradient forces toward the equilibrium points L1,
L2, and L.
Thus, in terms of the hypothetical physical situation
just mentioned, we predict that an antigravitational force
may likewise arise between two equal super-dense bodies
that are denser than an extremely dense neutron star core
when the bodies are in close proximity to one another. This
antigravity prediction may be manifested in relativistic jets
(or polar jets) in an environment around an active galactic
nucleus (AGN), where the relativistic plasma is collimated
into jets that escape along the pole of a super-massive
black hole.21
Let us now discuss the topological structure of the
spatial fluid flow into a system of two sinks having incompa-
rable net flow rates in free space. In other words, one
considers a system of two incomparable bodies, such as a
spacecraft and the earth or the sun, which orbit about the
barycenter of the system in free space such that the two sinks
with incomparable net flow rates are in instantaneous station-
ary positions.
We predict that the global bifurcation (i.e., equilibrium
points) for the resultant flow field generated by the system
takes the shape of a horseshoe orbit about the sun, where the
positions of the Lagrangian points are usually denoted by the
bold letters L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5. Therefore, the equilib-
rium points are referred to as the Lagrangian points L1, L2,
L3, L4, and L5.
Figure 5 shows a qualitative sketch of the topological
structure of the resultant flow field for the Lagrangian points
in a horseshoe orbit about the sun, using the critical flow
conditions for the spatial fluid given in Section III for the
system of two incomparable bodies. All the equilibrium
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
FIG. 5. (Color online) Topological structure of the resultant flow field gen-
erated by two bodies with incomparable masses. The first bold curves indi-
cate the null homotopic heteroclinic orbits through which the spatial fluid is
directly delivered into the mass center L. The second bold curves indicate
the null homotopic heteroclinic orbits through which the spatial fluid is
delivered to the equilibrium point L1 . The bold curves indicate the null
homotopic heteroclinic orbits through which the spatial fluid is delivered
to the equilibrium point L2 . The fourth bold curves and bold lines indicate
the nullclines. The bold arrows represent the usual spatial fluid flow inward
toward the massive body. The curved arrows represent distributions of
the directly delivered spatial fluid within the massive body, which results
in an anisotropic sink within the massive body. A small body is located
in a sphere bounded by null homotopic heteroclinic orbits, known as
nullclines, which pass by the equilibrium points L1 and L2 . The sphere is
referred to as the Hill sphere. The regions within the Hill sphere correspond
to islands of spatial fluid. All the heteroclinic orbits can be visualized as
separatrices.
points in the horseshoe-shaped flow pattern are connected by
(null homotopic) heteroclinic orbits (i.e., streamlines).
A nullcline also arises between two disjoint adjacent
heteroclinic orbits along which the spatial fluid flows in
opposite directions, such that the resultant flow velocity is
zero at the nullcline. Consequently, pressure gradients at the
maximum magnitude are produced in opposite directions
normal to the nullcline. At the critical flow condition given
in Section III, the flow speeds along the heteroclinic orbits
uniformly reach the critical flow speed c, so that all the
heteroclinic orbits are null homotopic.
Figure 5 shows a secondary body situated in a sphere
bounded by the null homotopic heteroclinic orbits with null-
clines that pass by the equilibrium points L1 and L2. This
sphere is called the Hill sphere.21,22
Figure 5 shows that all the spatial fluid outside the Hill
sphere, which is supposed to sink into the secondary body,
initially flows inward along the stable manifold of the equi-
librium point L2.
The spatial fluid is then immediately and continuously
delivered to the equilibrium points L1 and L2 through the
null homotopic heteroclinic orbits, after which the spatial
fluid flows toward the secondary body as usual within the
Hill sphere. Some spatial fluid also sinks into the primary
205
body (i.e., the massive body) through another null homotopic
heteroclinic orbit, by being directly delivered to the barycen-
ter within the primary body at a net rate equal to half of the
net flow rate of the secondary body.
Within the Lagrangian perspective, a spatial fluid parcel
passing by the equilibrium point L2 at the instantaneous
Lagrangian time tL spends the same time interval DtL to
travel to the equilibrium point L4 or to the point L5 from the
equilibrium point L2. Thus, the parcel of spatial fluid at the
equilibrium point L2 (i.e., the Lagrangian point L2) travels
along the null homotopic heteroclinic orbit connecting the
equilibrium points L2, L4 (or L5), and L2 again, taking a
time interval of 2DtL to return to the equilibrium point L2.
However, as Fig. 5 shows, if the spatial fluid parcel travels
along a different null homotopic heteroclinic orbit connect-
ing the equilibrium points L2, L4 (or L5), L3, L, and L1, the
parcel takes a time interval of 10DtL to reach the equilibrium
point L1 from the equilibrium point L2. Therefore, for the
two specified parcels passing the equilibrium point L2 at the
same instantaneous time tL , one spatial fluid parcel arrives at
the equilibrium point L1 later than the spatial fluid parcel
that returns to the point L2. Therefore, a time delay of 8DtL
occurs between the two specified parcels that arrive at the
unstable manifolds of the equilibrium points L2 and L1
within the Hill sphere, as shown in Fig. 5.
Thus, conical inflow initially occurs along the stable
manifold of the equilibrium point L2 outside the Hill sphere
and then occurs within the Hill sphere after the time interval
2DtL , such that the same conical outflow occurs along the
unstable manifold of the equilibrium point L2. Conical
inflow also occurs within the Hill sphere after the time inter-
val 10DtL , such that the same conical outflow occurs along
the unstable manifold of the equilibrium point L1. Therefore,
either the conical inflow or the conical outflows from the
equilibrium points L2 and L1 can be generally described by
~ rR,
V~ ~ where R ~ is a position vector from the barycenter,
and ~r is a vector from the equilibrium point L2 or L1.
A mechanism for the primary formation of the topologi-
cal structure of the resultant flow field can be easily visual-
ized as the sudden creation of a point sink only in the bulk
flow toward the massive body in free space. Within the visu-
alization above, the equilibrium points L2, L4, L5, L3, L, and
L1 did not occur simultaneously. Thus, the equilibrium point
L2 appeared first, followed by the simultaneous appearance
of the equilibrium points L4 and L5. The equilibrium points
L3, L, and L1 then appeared in the sequence given. The
horseshoe-shaped flow structure primarily formed once over
the time interval 10DtL since the time that the secondary
body was suddenly created there.
Following the appearance of the first equilibrium point
L2, the secondary body moved through a distance 32L1 to-
ward the massive body over the time interval 8DtL , under
the action of the dynamic pressure of the outflow from the
equilibrium point L2 and the bulk flow toward the massive
body until the last bifurcation point L1 appeared, during
which time the first equilibrium point L2 was also simultane-
ously following the moving secondary body. Notice that the
distances from the center of mass of the secondary body to
the Lagrangian points L2 and L1 are denoted by the unbolded
206
letters L1 and L2 , respectively. L1 and L2 are Lagrangian dis-
tances. In other words, using the Lagrangian distance L1 as
the Hill sphere radius, since the occurrence of the first bifur-
cation (i.e., the equilibrium point L2), the spatial fluid having
eight times the volume of the Hill sphere sunk into the sec-
ondary body during the formation of the horseshoe-shaped
flow. This means that just after the secondary body was
suddenly created, it was transferred toward the primary
body over a distance 32L1 at a main rate such that
within the Hill sphere.
VrR 2L1 =DtL , without producing any other bifurca- In general, a large or small secondary body is displaced by a
tions in addition to the six equilibrium points mentioned
within the Hill sphere over the time interval
above until the horseshoe shape of the resultant flow
because the body started to move until the first single
was completely formed. The main flow speeds from the point
L2, the flow toward the secondary body, and the flow toward
the massive body are set equal to one another because the
and the displacement DR
may be
flow speeds are equal where the equilibrium points are
 4L1 =c, DR
 vL tDt
,
generated.
If a secondary body moves relative to the primary body
under the influence of a nongravitational force, the instanta-
neous main velocity of the conical inflow along the stable
manifold of the equilibrium point L2 may vary with either
the position or time of the secondary body. The instantane-
ous
 velocity
 may therefore be generally written as
~~
V ~ t , where ~
r R; r is a radial vector from the equilibrium
, one Hill sphere volume of spatial fluid has sunk
point L2 or L1, R ~ is position vector of the secondary body
relative to the primary body, and t is the time in the Eulerian
description of fluid motion. The velocities of the outflows
along the unstable manifolds of the equilibrium points L2
 4L1 =c.
and L1 within the Hill sphere are basically
 characterized by
the instantaneous velocity V ~~ ~ t of the conical inflow
r R;
along the stable manifold of the equilibrium point L2 outside
the Hill sphere. For either acceleration or deceleration under
a nongravitational force, the difference in velocities that
occur through the outflows from the equilibrium points L2
and L1 is attributed to the time delay between the flows
through the different null homotopic heteroclinic orbits,
which essentially occurs at the secondary body within the
Hill sphere.
In general, we assume that the horseshoe-shaped
topological feature of the resultant flow field is the same for
either a body in a stationary position or a body in a motion,
relative to the massive body. The secondary body that either
moves or is being held in a stationary position, relative to the
primary body, experiences a force due to the difference in
the outflow velocities from the points L2 and L1 within the
Hill sphere.
Consequently, we also assume that the difference in the
outflow velocities within the Hill sphere may always take
place. The difference in the outflow velocities,
   which can
be generally written as DV ~ V ~~ ~ t V
rR; ~~ ~  32L
r R ~1 ;
t 8DtL , is always evaluated at the secondary body in the
bulk flow that is generated by the primary body.
When the Lagrangian distances L1 and L2 are less than
the sizes of small bodies, such as spacecraft, etc., the second-
ary body consists of N equal substances, each of which is
enclosed by the same Hill sphere. Therefore, the volume of
the secondary body is taken to be X NXH , where X is
volume of the secondary body, XH is volume of the Hill
sphere, and N is the number of the equal Hill spheres within
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
the secondary body; however, for larger bodies, such as
planets, stars, etc., N is equal to one because the respective
Lagrangian distances L1 and L2 are greater than the sizes of
the bodies.
When a small body, such as spacecraft, etc., moves at a
higher velocity ~ vt relative to the massive body under the
action of a nongravitational force, a small change may occur
in the Lagrangian distances L1 and L2 , such that a single
substance is displaced a distance DR
distance DR
Dt
parcel of spatial fluid primarily arrives at the secondary body
from the Lagrangian point L1.
The time interval Dt
approximately calculated as Dt
where vL t is the scalar projection of the relative velocity
vt onto the Lagrangian distance L1 . The Lagrangian distan-
~
ces L1 and L2 are considered to be significantly shorter than
the size of the secondary body, so that the average outflow
speed over twice the Lagrangian distance L1 is almost half
the speed of the light. In other words, for a substance that
has been displaced within the Hill sphere during the time
interval Dt
into the substance. For small bodies such as space craft, etc.,
assuming that the main flow speed within the Hill sphere is
approximately half the speed of the light gives the time inter-
val as Dt
Assuming that both the inertial force and gravitational
force are generated by the difference in the dynamic pres-
sures of the spatial fluid flow exerted upon the secondary
body, Newtons equations for the inverse-square law and the
inertial force can be derived by applying the equation attrib-
uted to Lord Rayleigh for the drag force experienced by a
body moving through a fully enclosing fluid, which is given
by
   
2 ~ ~
qm Vpr r R ;t
F Dd A; (6)
2
where F is the drag force from the spatial fluid flow; Dd
is the drag coefficient; qm is the average mass density over
the volume NXH ; A is the reference area defined by an ortho-
graphic projection of the Hill sphere onto a plane perpendic-
   
ular to the direction of the drag force; Vpr ~ ~ ; t is the
r R
scalar projection of the main velocity of the outflow from the
Lagrangian point L2 or L1 onto the unit vector normal to the
area A; ~
r is the radial vector originating from the Lagrangian
point L2 or L1 within the Hill sphere; and R ~ is the instantane-
ous position vector of the secondary body relative to the
primary body. In this paper, for material objects moving
through the spatial fluid, the drag coefficient Dd is set
equal to a constant drag coefficient of 1=8 that was obtained
both experimentally and theoretically by NASA for a string-
supported parabolic head at zero cavitation number.23 For
two bodies of incomparable mass, applying Eq. (6), consid-
ering the bulk flow to be spherically symmetric relative to
the massive body, and using the first order Taylor
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013) 207

approximation produces the conventional equation for the where RM is radius of the massive body, and vlorb is the low
gravitational force as follows: orbital speed near the surface of the massive body.
In terms of the new concept of mass in Section III,
F
G  DF Eqs. (1), (2), (8), and (7) can be used together to produce
qm h i
NDd A V R; t2 V R 32L1  8vL Dt
; t2
2
2 dV

dV
~v t  ^
n R dR V RR2 mM
16Dd qm 2L1 NA V R FG  1
dR c 4pqU TU V RM R2M R2

6 8Dd qm NAvL Dt

dV
V R
2 dV 3=2
dR ~vt  n^R dR R mM ;

 1 (9)
dV vL Dt dV c 4pqU TU R3=2 R2
2m V R6 m V R M
dR 2L1 dR
dV vL dV where 6vL t ~ vt  n^R , n^R is the unit vector in the
2m V R62 m V R; (7) direction of the radial vector R ~ from the barycenter of the
dR c dR
       system, and the mass of the massive body is given by
where m qm NXH , XH  2L1 A, Vpr ~ r R~ ; t  Vpr ~ ~
r R M 4pqU TU V RM R2M , considering that the bulk flow

 V R, and vL Dt =2L1 2vL =c. velocity field close to the surface of the massive body is
For a body moving at the speed vorb in a circular orbit of spherically symmetric with respect to the center of mass of
radius R about a massive body of mass M, the main speed the body. The radial derivative of the flow speed V R in
V R of the outflow from the Lagrangian point L2 or L1 can Eq. (9) is found from Eq. (8) as follows:
be taken to be equal to the orbital speed vorb in order to syn-
chronize the displacement of the equilibrium points, as dV 1 1=2 1
 V RM RM 3=2 : (10)
shown in Fig. 6. If a body is moving in a low orbit around dR 2 R
the massive body, the speed of the spatial fluid inflow
through the surface of the massive body can be taken to be Substituting Eq. (10) into Eq. (9) yields the equation for the
approximately equal to the orbital speed in the low orbit gravitational force,
about the massive body. These considerations can be used

~
vt  n^R 4pqM mM
with the third law of Kepler to derive the following FG 1 2 R2
c 34pqU TU
equations:
mM ~ vt  n^R mM
1=2 1=2 G 2
G 2 ; (11)
V RR V RM RM (8) R c R

and where

vlorb  V RM ; M  4pqU TU vlorb R2M  4pqU TU V RM R2M ;

3M
qM ;
4pR3M

and
4pqM
G :
34pqU TU 2

The gravitational constant of the earth is taken to be

G6:6742151011 m3 kg1 s2 , the mass is Mearth 5:972190
1024 kg, the main density is qearth 5512:9 kg=m3 , the main
radius is Rearth 6:371009  106 m, and the low orbital speed
of the earth is vlorb 7:9125  103 m=s.24,25 The spatial fluid
velocity field close to the surface of the earth is considered to
be nearly spherically symmetric with respect to the center of
the earth. An approximate value of 4pqU TU may be calculated
in two different ways,

1=2
4pqearth kg  s
4pqU TU  1:8600913  107 (12)
3G m3

or

Mearth kg  s
FIG. 6. (Color online) A body undergoes a uniform circular motion with 4pqU TU  1:8595305  107 : (13)
speed vorb about a massive body. vlorb R2earth m3
208 Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)

Using the calculated value in Eq. (13), the gravitational con- where TU is the age of the universe, 4:336  1017 s.26 The
stant G is calculated to be cosmological constant has been measured to be of the order
of 1052 m2 .27
4pqearth m3 For a body experiencing either an acceleration (or a
G 2
6:67824137575815  1011 :
34pqU TU kg  s2 deceleration) or a change in the direction of motion through
a local area under the influence of a nongravitational force
Einsteins field equations can be applied to the closed while maintaining its radial position with respect to the mas-
dynamical system for a body at absolute rest in free space, as sive body, a difference in velocity may occur between the
discussed in Section III. Einsteins field equations are written forward and backward flows relative to the direction of
as the motion due to the time delay between the flows along the
different null homotopic heteroclinic orbits. The rate at
1 8pG
Rl  gl R gl K 4 Tl ; which the velocity of the outflows from the equilibrium point
2 c L2 or L1 varies with time is similar to the rate of change in
where Rl is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar curva- vt over the time interval where 8DtL  8Dt; thus,
velocity ~
ture, gl is the metric tensor, K is the cosmological constant, the conventional equation for the inertial force is derived
G is Newtons gravitational constant, c is the speed of light from Eqs. (6) and (7) as follows:
in vacuum, and Tl is the stress-energy tensor.
qm h i
The long radial streamlines of the spherically symmetric Finert  DF NDd A VR; t 8Dt2 VR; t2
flow are straight within the closed dynamical system. In other 2
words, the rest body exists in a space filled with the spatial @V @V
 8Dd qm NAV R; tDt m ma; (18)
fluid in a spherically symmetric flow with respect to the cen- @t @t
ter of mass of the rest body. Therefore, the space within the
closed dynamical system may be modeled as a Minkowski where the magnitude of the acceleration of the moving body
space with zero Gaussian curvature. Thus, Einsteins field is defined as @V=@t dv=dt a. The Lagrangian distance is
equations reduce to given by 2L1 V RDtL because the body has to be trans-
ferred over a distance 32L1 at a speed 2V R by convection
8pG of the outflow from the Lagrangian point L2 and the bulk
K T00 : (14)
c4 flow over the time interval 8DtL since the primary occurrence
of the first equilibrium point L2, as previously discussed.
Taking into account the vast spherical volume of the closed
The mass of the moving body is defined as m qm NXH ,
dynamical system within the infinite radius R1 , the aver-
where the volume of the Hill sphere is XH  2L1 A.
age rest energy density of the closed dynamical system over
We predict that the second term in Eq. (11) produces the
the vast volume can be obtained as follows:
Pioneer anomaly by taking into account the combined pres-
m 0 c2 sure of solar radiation and interstellar dust, etc.
e0 lim qU c2 ; The same nature may be ascribed to a body moving in
R!R1 4pR3 =3
the stationary spatial fluid (i.e., a body moving under the
where R is the radius of a spherical volume enclosed by a action of a nongravitational force through free space) or a
currently existing equipotential surface. stationary body being held in a moving spatial fluid (i.e., a
The main total energy density of the closed dynamical stationary body in a gravitational field). In this sense, both
system may be expressed as the sum of the average rest the inertial mass and the gravitational mass are exactly the
energy density, e0 , and the total pressure in the spatial fluid, same for any material object.
Ptot , which was given in Section III. Thus, the T00 component Let us now introduce the centrifugal force. A body in a
in Eq. (14) may be given by uniform circular motion of radius R about a massive body
experiences equal dynamic pressures at equal angle intervals
3 16D/=2 to a line tangent to its orbit, which are attributed
T00 e0 Ptot qU c2 : (15)
2 to an increase in the outflows along the unstable manifolds
of the equilibrium points L4 and L5 and are associated with
The gravitation constant of a closed dynamic system for a the motion relative to the ambient spatial fluid, as shown in
single body at absolute rest in free space is given by Fig. 6. If the orbiting body is modeled as if the body began
4pqM 1 to move at a constant velocity ~ vorb in a direction perpendicu-
G lim 2
: (16) lar to the position vector R~ from its initial position, the body
qM !qU 34pqU TU 34pqU TU2
can be considered to have been convected once by the out-
Substituting Eq. (15) and Eq. (16) into Eq. (14), Einsteins flow from the equilibrium point L2 over a distance interval
16DR along its initial radial position R ~. The body has simul-
field equations are reduced to a mere cosmological constant
that is equal to the constant Gaussian curvature, taneously undergone an angular displacement 16D/ with
respect to the initial position vector R~ on the orbital plane in
the time interval 8DtL  8Dt until the dynamic pressure of
1
K 2
5:918069309322378  1053 m2 ; (17) the outflows from the equilibrium points L1, L4 and L5 was
cTU primarily exerted upon the moving body, as shown in Figs. 6
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
and 5. For this hypothetical physical problem, an equation
for the centrifugal force may be derived by using Eq. (6),
q  
Fcent NDd A m VL24 sin2 16D/=2 VL25 sin2 16D/=2
2
1
NAqm VL24 sin2 16D/=2
8
1 R  Rcos16D/
NAqm VL24
8 2R
2
1 V mv2
L4 16qm N 2L1 A orb ; (19)
8 2R R
where R  R cos16D/ 16DR 162L1 , m qm NXH ,
XH 2L1 A, and V 2 R VL24 VL25  v2orb .
V. CORRELATION OF ANISOTROPIC GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD AND EARTHQUAKE ACTIVITY WITH
PLANETARY POSITIONS
Within the framework of the proposed AS model for
gravity, the gravitational field is attributed to the velocity
fields of spatial fluid flows into material objects. Figures 5
and 7 show a system of two or more bodies, such as our solar
system; in this case, the distribution of the directly delivered
spatial fluid within the massive body may result in a slight
anisotropy in the direction of the spatial fluid flow toward
the massive body. We can reasonably conclude that a third
body orbiting about the massive body has to move through
an anisotropic gravitational field near to the position line of
the secondary body from the center of the massive body, as
shown in Fig. 7.
Pieces of substances within the massive body may also
be exposed to the dynamic pressures of the outflows from
the equilibrium point L at the barycenter of the system,
where the outflows may be inclined to a line passing through
the center of the massive body and the center of the second-
ary body, as illustrated in Fig. 5. Consequently, the pieces of
substances may undergo large-scale convective currents
within the massive body.
FIG. 7. (Color online) A second body and third body are orbiting about a
massive body at orbital speeds v2 and v3 , respectively. The weighted lines
illustrate the distributions of the directly delivered spatial fluid. The dashed
arrows represent the reduced spatial fluid flow due to the distributions of the
directly delivered spatial fluid within the massive body.
209
FIG. 8. Variations in vertical gravity measured during the total solar eclipse
on March 9, 1997. The solid curve is the variation averaged over a moving
10-minute window. Two regions exhibiting a gravity anomaly were
observed during the eclipse.
Thus, we predict that the outflow of the spatial fluid
along the unstable manifold of the equilibrium point L at the
barycenter of the earth-moon system causes large-scale
swirling convective currents in the mantle below the litho-
sphere of the earth, which triggers plate tectonics movement.
Thus, the hypothetical physical force produced by the spatial
fluid outflow from the barycenter within the earth results in
earthquakes, volcanic activity, tornadoes, etc. The displace-
ment of the barycenter toward the lithosphere of the earth
could increase the probabilities of occurrence of earthquakes
and other natural disasters, but these disasters may occur
before or after the barycenter reaches its closest position to
the lithosphere, depending on the sizes of the faults and the
amount of slips on the faults in the lithosphere of the earth.
Displacements of the barycenter within the earth arise due to
the inconstant orbit of the moon about the earth and the peri-
gee and apogee positions of the moon. Consequently, the
inconstant orbit of the moon about the earth may be caused
by changes in the volume of the Hill sphere of the earth-
moon system. Hence, the changes in shape and volume of
the Hill sphere depend on the locally anisotropic gravita-
tional field near to the current position line of the other
planet from the sun, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
Another manifestation of the locally anisotropic gravita-
tional field in our solar system may be the Allais gravity anom-
aly on earth. This anomaly can be seen more clearly by
comparison of Fig. 7 with Fig. 8. Gravity variations during a
total solar eclipse have been precisely measured by Qian-Shen
Wang,c Xin-She Yang,d Chuan-Zhen Wu,c Hong-Gang Guo,c
Hong-Chen Liu,c and Chang-Chai Huac,28 and are plotted in
Fig. 8. Two regions were observed to exhibit the reduced
c
Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101,
Peoples Republic of China.
d
Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT,
England.
210
FIG. 9. (Color online) One spacecraft is in a Lissajous orbit about the
Lagrangian point L1 . A second spacecraft is flying through the Lagrangian
point L2 into the Hill sphere to pick up a higher speed.
gravity anomaly during the first and the fourth contacts of the
solar eclipse. Comparing Fig. 7 with Fig. 8, these reductions in
the gravitational field (i.e., the Allais gravity anomaly) on the
surface of the earth are deemed to be associated with the hypo-
thetical spatial fluid distributions from the barycenter, similarly
to the illustrations in Figs. 5 and 7, rather than to the effect of
gravitational shielding by the moon.
Therefore, we predict that gravitational variations on
earth can be measured not only where the total solar eclipse
can be observed but at any other location where the moon can
be seen directly overhead. In contrast, during a solar eclipse,
the lunar shadow on the surface of the earth simply indicates
where the gravitational variations should be measured.
Thus, for the earth-moon system, a reduced gravitational
field may occur before or soon after the system arrives in the
syzygy of the sun, the earth and a Jovian planet, during which
opposition or conjunction with the sun takes place in our solar
system, similarly to the Allias gravity anomaly on earth.
Moreover, the spatial fluid outflows from the individual
barycenters within the sun, each of which pertains to a single
planet in our solar system, may trigger sunspot activities.
Finally, we suggest that if spacecrafts fly directly
through a Lagrangian point L2 or L1 into the Hill sphere
within which the earth-moon system is situated, the space-
crafts may pick up considerable kinetic energy without burn-
ing fuel, as illustrated in Fig. 9.
VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
If the critical flow speed of the spatial fluid is assumed to
be equal to the speed of light in vacuum and the spatial fluid is
Phys. Essays 26, 2 (2013)
sinking into all material objects, the light speed may turn out to
be a physical property of the space itself. In this sense, the light
speed would be invariant in all inertial frames of reference.
The equation for the relativistic mass can be derived
from Eq. (2) using the Reynolds transport theorem; the Lor-
entz contraction formula can also be derived by comparing
the formula for the relativistic mass with Eq. (5).
Two bodies with the same mass, in independent inertial
motion at different velocities relative to a faraway absolute
space, have slightly different velocity fields of spatial fluid
flow into them. However, equal equipotential surfaces of
slightly different shapes exist in the flow fields. In other
words, the differently shaped equipotential surfaces have the
same value of the flow velocity when expressed in terms of
the invariant value of the time derivative vector,
kd~r =dtk2 kd~r 0 =dt0 k2 , where dt and dt0 are Lagrangian time
elements and d~ r and d~ r 0 are the vector elements along
streamlines through the differently shaped equipotential
surfaces. By describing the Lagrangian time and Lagrangian
position vector in each flow field in terms of four coordinates
in 4D space-time, the squared space-time interval can be
derived from the invariant value mentioned above.
If one assumes that the superluminal motion causes the
production of elementary fermions from the spatial fluid, the
weak interaction may involve a superluminal motion of
quarks in a nucleon-sized region. This prediction leads us to
conclude that immediately after being produced, neutrinos
may propagate with initial velocities slightly faster than the
light velocity while decelerating slightly.
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