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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3
History of Cement 4
Types of cement 7
Raw materials 13
Gypsum 30
References 37
Cement Industry
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can
bind other materials together. Cement is a very important material used in the
construction industry. Cement has replaced all other binding materials, for example,
clay and lime. Cement is the strongest binding material.
Cement has been used as a binder of materiel for millenia. No one knows for
sure who first came up with the idea to use a cement substance to bind materials
together to make concrete, bricks, and other building materials. The process can be
traced back to Ancient Macedonia, but was more widely popularized during the Roman
Empire. Early forms of cement used things like lime and pozzolana, a type of volcanic
ash. The Romans were able to produce massive structures like the Pantheon and the
Roman aqueducts using this formula.
independent of the water content of the mixture so allows for the material to harden
even underwater. This makes
It a very versatile construction material. Most all cements used today are hydraulic
cements. Non-hydraulic cement uses materials that do not harden when exposed to
water. While this type is much cheaper than hydraulic cement, the problems of long
drying times, combined with the inability to use it in wet environments makes it a poor
choice in most applications.
Concrete and cement are not synonymous terms. Concrete is artificial stone
made from a carefully controlled mixture of cement, water, and fine and coarse
aggregate (usually sand and coarse rock).
History of Cement
3,000 BC The Egyptians used gypsum mortars and lime mortars to build the
pyramids.
800 BC Greeks and Cretans used lime mortars, which later became the base
of the famous Roman Mortar.
300 AD - 476 AD The Romans used lime and cementing pozzolan from Pozzuoli, Italy,
to build the Apian Way, the Roman baths, the Coliseum, and the
Pantheon in Rome. They used animal milk and blood as additives
when preparing the mixture of two parts of pozzolan and one part of
lime. These structures still exist nowadays.
1779 Bry Higgins promoted a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) to be
used in exterior plasters.
1793 John Smeaton found that calcining limestone-containing clay formed
a lime that gets hardened under the water (hydraulic lime).
1796 Joseph Parker patented in England a natural hydraulic cement
produced by the calcination of coarse limestone nodules containing
clay which was called Parker Cement or Roman Cement.
1812 - 1813 The Frenchman Louis J. Vicat prepared an artificial hydraulic lime by
the calcination of a mixture of limestone and clay.
1822 James Frost prepared a hydraulic lime similar to that prepared by
Vicat and called it British Cement.
1824 Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England, invented
the Portland cement by the calcination of a mixture of chalk and clay
finely divided. The senterized product was milled and denominated
Portland cement, for its similarity in high quality for construction to
that found in the stones quarried on the isle of Portland, England. His
Portland cement was called 'proto-Portland cement'
1853 William Aspdin made what could be called 'meso-Portland cement' (a
mix of Portland cement and hydraulic lime).
1854 Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of 'meso-
Portland cement' (middle stage of development) and claimed to be
the real father of Portland cement.
1858 The next development with the manufacture of Portland cement
was the introduction of the rotary kiln patented by German Friedrich
Hoffmann called a Hoffmann kiln for brick making
1860 The Hoffman "endless" kiln which gave "perfect control over
combustion" was tested and showed the process produced a better
grade of cement.
1875 The first Portland cement was produced by Coplay Cement Company
under the direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay, Pennsylvania.
1878 The Association of German Cement Manufacturers issued a standard
on Portland cement.
20th century American made Portland cement had displaced most of the imported
Portland cement.
Portland cements are composed of four basic chemical compounds, shown with
their names, chemical formulas, and abbreviations:
Tricalcium silicate hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and
early strength. In general, the early strength of Portland cement concretes will be higher
with increased percentage of C3S. Dicalcium silicate hardens slowly, and its effect on
strength increases occurs at ages beyond one week. Tricalcium aluminate contributes to
strength development in the first few days because it is the first compound to hydrate.
It is, however, the least desirable component because of its high heat generation and its
reactiveness with soils and water containing moderate-to-high sulfate concentrations.
Cements made with low C3A contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths, and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
assists in the manufacture of Portland cement by allowing lower clinkering temperature.
C4AFe contributes very little to the strength of concrete even though it hydrates very
rapidly.
1. Fineness
One factor which affects
the hydration of cement,
regardless of its chemical
composition, is its fineness. The
finer a cement is ground, the
higher the heat of hydration and
resulting accelerated strength gain.
2. Soundness
Soundness is the ability of a cement to maintain a stable volume
after setting. An unsound cement will exhibit cracking, disruption, and
eventual disintegration of the material mass. This delayed-destruction
expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime or magnesium.
3. Setting Time
A cement used in concrete must not set too fast, for then it would
be unworkable, that is, it would stiffen and become hard before it could
be placed or finished. When it sets too slowly, valuable construction time
is lost. Most Portland cements exhibit initial set in about 3 hours and final
set in about 7 hours. If gypsum were not added during final grinding of
normal Portland cement, the set would be very rapid.
4. Compressive Strength
The ability of a cement to develop compressive strength in a
concrete is an important property. Compressive strength is the ability of
the cement to resist squeezing (compressive) load without fracture.
Types of Cement
1. Portland Cements
addition will not exceed 1.0%. it is the main raw material in the production of
concrete.
2. Pozzolans
5. Silicate Cements
7. White Cement
8. Colored Cement
1. ASTM Type I
This type is a general concrete construction cement utilized when the
special properties of the other types are not required. It is used where the
concrete will not be subjected to sulfate attack from soil or water or be exposed
to severe weathering conditions. It is generally not used in large masses because
of heat generated due to hydration. Its uses include pavements and sidewalks,
reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs,
culverts, water pipes, masonry units.
Institute Specifications for Oil Well Cements (API standard 10A) cover
requirements for six classes of cements. Each class is applicable for use at a
certain range of well depths.
b. Waterproof Portland cement
Waterproof Portland cement is manufactured by the addition of a small
amount of calcium, aluminum, or other stearate to the clinker during final
grinding. It is manufactured in either white or gray color and is used to
reduce water penetration through the concrete.
Portland Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some
of them are listed below:
Raw Materials
The main raw materials used in the cement manufacturing process are
limestone, sand, shale, clay, and iron ore.
Calcareous
Argillaceous
Clay
Shale
Siliceous
Sand
Sandstone and Quartz
Ferrous
Other
For its raw materials, cement uses minerals, containing the four essential elements for
its creation: calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron.
1. Volcanic Tuff
2. Limestone
3. Pyrite
4. Silica sand
5. Gypsum
1. HOLCIM PHILIPPINES
Mailing Address: 7th Floor Two World Square McKinley Hill, Fort Bonifacio, Taguig City,
1634 Philippines Telephone No.: + (632) 459 3333
Website: www.holcim.ph
Plant Locations:
Holcim Philippines - La
Union Plant
Quirino, Bacnotan, La
Union (Region I)
Holcim Philippines -
Bulacan Plant
Barangay Matictic, Norzagaray, Bulacan (Region III)
Holcim Philippines - Lugait Plant
Lugait, Misamis Oriental (Region X)
Holcim Philippines - Davao Plant
Bo. Ilang, Davao (Region XI)
Plant Location: APO Cement Plant Compound, Tina-an, Naga City, Cebu (Region VII)
Manufacturing Process
1. Wet Process
The slurry may contain about 40% water. This takes a lot of energy to evaporate and
various developments of the wet process were aimed at reducing the water content
of the raw meal. An example of this is the 'filter press' (imagine a musical accordion
PORTLAND CEMENT AND MISCELLANEOUS CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS 19
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
10-20 metres long and several metres across) - such adaptions were described as
'semi-wet' processes.
The wet process has survived for over a century because many raw materials are
suited to blending as a slurry. Also, for many years, it was technically difficult to get
dry powders to blend adequately.
Quite a few wet process kilns are still in operation, usually now with higher-tech bits
bolted on. However, new cement kilns are of the 'dry process' type.
2. Dry process
Secondly, and less obviously, the process of transferring heat is much more efficient in a
dry process kiln.
An integral part of the process is a heat exchanger called a 'suspension preheater'. This
is a tower with a series of cyclones in which fast-moving hot gases keep the meal
powder suspended in air. All the time, the meal gets hotter and the gas gets cooler until
the meal is at almost the same temperature as the gas.
The basic dry process system consists of the kiln and a suspension preheater. The raw
materials, limestone and shale for example, are ground finely and blended to produce
the raw meal. The raw meal is fed in at the top of the preheater tower and passes
through the series of cyclones in the tower. Hot gas from the kiln and, often, hot air
from the clinker cooler are blown through the cyclones. Heat is transferred efficiently
from the hot gases to the raw meal.
The heating process is efficient because the meal particles have a very high surface area
in relation to their size and because of the large difference in temperature between the
hot gas and the cooler meal. Typically, 30%-40% of the meal is decarbonated before
entering the kiln.
Rotary kilns
CALCINATION
Clinker Formation:
Clinker cooler
COOLING
CEMENT MILLING
Tube Mill
Clinker, together with about 4-5% gypsum(help
regulate the setting time when the cement is
mixed with other materials and becomes
concrete), is finely ground at the tube mill. The
powder product is now called cement.
A. Gypsum Process
1 1
CaSO4 2H2O(c) CaSO2 2H2O(c) +12H2O(g)
A mineral occurs in large deposits throughout the world. It is the second
softest mineral following after talc in Mohrs Hardest Scale. It is hydrated calcium
sulfate, the formula CaSO4.(2H2O).
If heating is at a higher temperature, gypsum loses all its water and
becomes anhydrous sulfate or anhydrite. It is hydraulic and hardens under
water, but is also slightly soluble in water.
Calcining kettle
Hardening of plaster
1 1
CaSO4 2H2O +12H2O CaSO4
2H2O
This equation is the reverse of that
for the dehydration of gypsum.
CALCIUM CARBONATE
CALCIUM SULFIDE.
HALIDE SALTS
CALCIUM ARSENATE
chloride. These soaps are insoluble in water but are soluble in hydrocarbons. Many of
them form jellylike masses, which are constituents of greases. These soaps are used
mainly as waterproofing agents.
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
MAGNESIUM CARBONATES
MAGNESIUM SULFATE
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
MAGNESIUM SILICATES
References