CHAPTER 5

Building and Site Concept

5.1 Structural System

The term structural system or structural frame in structural engineering refers to

load-resisting sub-system of a structure. The structural system transfers loads through

interconnected structural components or members.

Commonly used structures can be classified into five major categories,

depending on the type of primary stress that may arise in the members of the structures

under major design loads. However any two or more of the basic structural types

described in the following may be combined in a single structure, such as a building or a

bridge in order to meet the structures functional requirements.

Tensile structures: Members of tensile structures are subjects to pure

tension under the action of external loads. Because the tensile stress is uniformly

distributed over the cross-sectional area of members, the material of such a structure is

utilized in the most efficient manner.

Compressive structures: Compression structures develop mainly

compressive stresses under the action of axial loads. Because compressive structures

are susceptible to buckling or instability, the possibility of such a failure should be

considered in their designs if necessary, adequate bracing must be provided to avoid

such failures.

Trusses: Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their

ends by hinged connections to form a stable configuration. Because of their light weight

and high strength, are among the most commonly used type of structure.

Shear structures: These are structures such as reinforced concrete or

wooden shear walls, which are used in multi-storey buildings to reduce lateral

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movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop

mainly in-plane shear with relatively small bending stresses under the action of external

loads.

Bending structures: Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses

under the action of external loads. The shear stresses associated with the changes in

bending moments may also be significant should be considered in their designs.

The structural materials to be used in Mixed-Used high-rise building are the

combination of (reinforced or pre-stressed) concrete, structural steel and composite

systems. Structural material systems for high-rise buildings will be chosen by carefully

considering architectural, economical and site factors. The economic drivers vary by

geography as the relative costs of material, labour, time and space vary from one

location to another. Other factors to consider in choosing the structural material for the

Mixed-Used High Rise include: local market preference or availability; project size or

height; building form (regular vs complex); design considerations (fire performance,

dynamic performance, adaptability, and the like); site location/access and speed of

construction.

5.2 Electrical System

In terms of natural resources electricity is an expensive form of energy. Since the

efficiency of heat-to-electricity conversion, on a commercial scale, rarely exceeds 40%.

Electricity constitutes a form of energy itself which occurs naturally only in unusable

forms such as lightning and other static discharges or in the natural galvanic cells, which

cause corrosion. The primary problem in the utilization of electric energy is that, unlike

fuels or even heat, it cannot be stored and therefore must be generated and utilized at

the same instant.

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Alternative Energy

Alternative energy refers to energy not derived from traditional fossil fuel sources

(coal, natural gas, petroleum) through conventional processes. Renewable energy is a

subset of alternative energy; according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

(NREL), "Renewable energy resourcessuch as wind and solar energy-are constantly

replenished and will never run out."

In conjunction with regulatory requirements for renewable energy, costs of fossil

fuels remain rather high and costs of some renewable and alternative energy

technologies are coming down. The practical use of these systems varies with the

specific technology, application, location, cost of energy, and other factors.

Solar Energy

Solar energy systems in buildings include systems that capture heat (such as

solar water heating systems and passive heating), and systems that convert solar

energy into electricity. The latter is done primarily through photovoltaic (PV) systems.

The heart of PV technology is in the semi-conductors (mostly silicon-based) used

in the PV modules themselves. The modules convert sunlight to direct current (DC)

energy; the DC energy is typically then converted to alternating current (AC) energy via

inverters. From the inverters, energy is typically fed into a building's electric system or

exported to the utility grid.

Simple schematic showing the main components of a PV system and how it is

typically incorporated into a buildingin this case a home.

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APPLICATION

While many alternative energy technologies are beco

+ming more viable and affordable, renewable energy is still often much more

expensive than energy efficiency; it is usually much less expensive to save energy than

to generate renewable energy. The most cost-effective route to meet the EPAct (or

other) renewable energy goals will likely include both increasing the numerator

(renewable energy) as well as decreasing the denominator (total energy) in the

renewable energy fraction equation:

Renewable Energy
____________________ 7.5%
Total Energy

Site considerations are also important during planning. In addition to the obvious

(e.g. PV systems should not be shaded, wind turbines should have access to consistent

winds), designers should consider aesthetic and noise impacts of the technologies.

Finally, in planning for alternative energy systems, consider ongoing operation

and maintenance requirements. In addition to the costs, make sure the facility or staff

has the resources needed to keep the systems operating at peak performance.

5.3 Plumbing System

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 For plumbing purposes, the term multi-storey is applied to buildings that

are too tall to be supplied throughout by the normal pressure in the public water mains.

These buildings have particular needs in the design of their sanitary drainage and

venting systems. Water main supply pressures of 812 metres (25 40 feet) can supply

a typical two-storey building, but higher buildings may need pressure booster systems.

Basic Principle Governing the National Plumbing Code

All premises intended for human use or habitation shall be provided with a

supply of pure and wholesome water, neither connected to unsafe water supply nor

subject to backflow or backsiphonage.

Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied with water in

sufficient volume and pressure adequate to function satisfactorily and without undue

noise.

Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water

consistent with proper performance and cleaning.

Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed as to

prevent dangers from explosion through overheating.

Every building abutting on a street, alley or easement with a public sewer shall

connect its plumbing fixtures to the sewer system.

Each family dwelling unit shall have at least one water closet, one kitchen type

sink, a lavatory and a bathtub or shower to meet the basic requirements of sanitation

and personal hygiene.

Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth nonabsorbent material, free from

concealed fouling surfaces and shall be located in ventilated enclosures.

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 The drainage system shall be designed, constructed and maintained to

safeguard against fouling, deposit of solids, clogging and with adequate cleanouts so

arranged that the pipes may be readily cleaned.

All piping shall be of durable NAMPAPapproved materials, free from defective

workmanship, designed and constructed by Registered Master Plumbers to ensure

satisfactory service.

Each fixture directly connected to the drainage system shall be equipped with a

watersealed trap

The drainage pipes piping system shall be designed to provide adequate

circulation of air free from siphonage, aspiration or forcing of trap seals under ordinary

use.

Vent terminals shall extend to the outer air and installed to prevent clogging and

the return of foul air to the building.

Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to effectively disclose all

leaks and defects in the workmanship.

Substance which will clog the pipes, produce explosive mixtures, destroy the

pipes or their joints or interfere unduly with the sewagedisposal process shall not be

allowed to enter the building drainage system.

Proper protection shall be provided to prevent contamination of food, water,

sterile goods and similar materials by backflow of sewage. When necessary, the fixture,

device or appliance shall be connected indirectly with the building drainage system.

No water closet shall be located in a room or compartment which is not properly

lighted and ventilated.

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 If there is no sewer system in the area, suitable provision shall be made for the

disposal of building sewage by some accepted method of sewage treatment and

disposal, such as a septic tank.

Where a plumbing drainage system may be subject to backflow of sewage,

suitable provision shall be made to prevent its overflow in the building.

Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable condition by Registered

Master Plumbers.

All plumbing fixture s shall be installed properly spaced, to be accessible for

their intended use.

Plumbing shall be installed with due regard to the preservation of the strength of

structural members and the prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces through

fixture usage.

Sewage or other waste from plumbing systems, which may be deleterious to

surface or subsurface waters shall not be discharged into the ground or into any

waterway, unless first rendered innocuous through subjection to some acceptable form

of treatment.

WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION

Water Treatment describes those processes used to make water more

acceptable for a desired enduse.

Water Purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials,

and biological contaminants from contaminated water.

Five Primary Steps of Water Filtration Process:

The water treatment process can be described in five primary steps:

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 1. Disinfection

Chlorine is added to the water for disinfection.

2. Coagulation and flocculation

Alum is added in proportion to the river turbidity to form floc particles created

from the suspended materials in the water.

3. Sedimentation

The water travels through Sedimentation Basins where the heavier material

settles. Coagulation and flocculation remove turbidity as well as metals, including

arsenic.

4. Filtration

Following sedimentation, the water travels through an extensive filtration process

that removes sediment and other suspended materials.

5. Corrosion control

At the end of the treatment process, pH is adjusted with caustic soda (NaOH) to

reduce corrosion in plumbing systems.

Bank Filtration

Bank filtration is the infiltration of surface water, mostly from a river system into a

groundwater system induced by water abstraction close to the surface water (e.g. a river

bank). This water abstraction is commonly done by operating wells. As the water flows

through the soil, it is filtered and its quality hence is improved. In the context of

developing or newly-industrialised countries, bank filtration may contribute to a more

sustainable water cycle by recharging stressed groundwater bodies with filtered surface

water.

Well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving,

boring or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is

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drawn by an electric submersible pump, a trash pump, a vertical turbine pump, a hand

pump or a mechanical pump.

DRINKING-WATER SUPPLY PIPES

In tropical areas it is desirable that the incoming water should be kept cool, and a

depth of 0.5 metres (20 inches) may be suitable. Where the ground is under cultivation,

a depth of 0.8 metres (30 inches) should provide adequate protection. Distance

requirements from other services such as electric, telecommunications and gas pipes

should be specified. Under no circumstances should a service pipe be permitted to pass

through a sewer, access chamber or inspection chamber.

WATER STORAGE VESSELS

This section deals with requirements for the storage of water supplied from the

water main or other drinking-water sources. In the design of these systems, it is

important to ensure that the required air gap is established between the drinking water

supply inlet and the overflow spill level of the fixture.

HOT WATER AND OTHER DUAL SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Dual drinking-water supply systems are those in which two different grades of

water are available in separate piping systems. An example is the provision of a tap at a

sink supplying water directly from the incoming water service while all other fixtures are

fed from a storage tank.

Hot water systems

Correct installation of non-return devices will prevent hot water from entering the

cold water system in the event of an interruption of pressure. Buildings such as

hospitals, hotels, multiple dwellings and schools require large quantities of water to be

heated, stored and distributed.

Other Dual Supply Systems

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 Multiple dwellings and multi-storey buildings may have fire protection systems

such as sprinkler variety systems or high-pressure mains and hydrants. Industrial and

commercial establishments may have one or more systems of piping.

Combined tanks storing potable water alongside water for other purposes should

have a double partition wall installed internally to separate the two supplies. The space

between the partition walls should be arranged to ensure that any leakage cannot enter

the other compartment of the tank.

The fixture unit concept is a method of calculating drinking-water supply and

drainage piping requirements within large buildings where economies may be made in

construction costs. Theoretically all pipes should be of such a size as to be capable of

serving the fixtures to which they are connected when all other fixtures in the building

are being operated at the same time.

Fixture Unit Values for Some Common Plumbing Fixtures

Fixture Fixture units

Bath or shower 2
Bidet 2
Clothes washer (automatic) 3
Drinking fountain 3
Kitchen sink 1.5
Urinal or water closet (with flush tank) 3
Urinal or water closet (with flush valve) 6
Washbasin 1

Peak Water Demand of Plumbing Fixtures

No. of fixture litres US gallons UK gallons

Units per second per minute per minute
5 0.23 3.65 3.04
10 0.34 4.49 4.49
20 0.54 7.14 7.14
50 1.13 14.93 14.93
100 1.67 22.07 22.07

Maximum Loads for Horizontal Fixture Branches and Building Drains or Sewers

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 Diameter Fixture branch Building drain or sewer

Min. slope Slope 0.5% Slope 1% Slope 2% Slope 4%

2% (1 in 50) (1 in 200) (1 in 100) (1 in 50) (1 in 25)
mm inches f/u* F/u* f/u* f/u* f/u*
32 1.25 1 - - - -
40 1.5 3 - - - -
50 2 6 - - - 26
65 2.5 12 - - - 31
80 3 32 - 36 42 50
100 4 160 - 180 216 250
150 6 620 - 700 840 1000
200 8 1400 1400 1600 1920 2300

5.4 Sanitary System

In the drainage system for a multi-storey building, the drains from the plumbing

fixtures are connected to vertical drain stacks that convey the waste and sewage to

below the lowest floor of the building. The fixture drain traps must be vented to prevent

their water trap seal from being siphoned by negative pressure or blown out by positive

pressure in the drain piping. The fixture vent pipes must extend through the roof to

outdoors. They can be run individually or be combined into one or more vents through

the roof. Where buildings are over 10 storeys high, the drainage stacks require relief

vent connections at specified intervals from the top, and connected to a vent stack that

terminates above the roof.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A PROPERLY DESIGNED DRAINAGE SYSTEM

1. The piping must be air tight, gas tight and water tight.

2. Each plumbing fixture, except those with integral traps, shall be separately

trapped by an approved type water seal trap. This is to prevent odorladen and germ

laden to rise out of the drainage system and contaminate the surrounding air in the

room.

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 3. Each plumbing fixture trap shall be provided with vent pipes. This is to protect

the drainage system against siphonage and back pressure and to assure air circulation

throughout the drainage system.

4. A cleanout, easily accessible, shall be provided for inspection or cleaning of

the pipe run.

The location of the cleanout shall be:

At the upper end of every horizontal waste or soil pipe.

At every change of horizontal direction of not more than 22.5 degrees

Within 1.5 m (5) inside the property line before the house sewer connection

At every 15m (50) to a horizontal run of a soil or waste pipe.

5. All horizontal piping shall be run in practical alignment and at a uniform grade

of not less than 2% or 2 cm per meter toward the point of disposal.

6. All horizontal piping shall be supported and anchored at intervals not to exceed

3 meters.

7. Vertical piping shall be secured at sufficiently close intervals to keep the pipe

in alignment. Stacks shall be properly supported at their bases.

GRADES OF HORIZONTAL PIPING

All horizontal piping shall be run in practical alignment and at a uniform grade of

not less than two (2%) percent or 20mm rise per meter length, and shall be supported or

anchored at intervals not exceeding 3.0m (10feet). All stacks shall be properly supported

at their bases and all pipes shall be rigidly secured. Two inches (2) rise per every one

hundred (100) length. A soil branch having a pitch of more than 2% has the tendency of

waste separation. The water flow faster and heavy suspended materials are left and

deposited at the bottom of the pipe.

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CHANGES IN DIRECTION

All changes in direction shall be made by the appropriate fortyfive degree (45)

wyes, half wyes, long sweep quarter bends, except that single sanitary tees may be

used on vertical stacks, and short quarter bends may be used in soil and waste lines

where the change in direction of flow is from the horizontal to the vertical. Tees and

crosses may be used in vent pipes.

PROHIBITED FITTINGS

No double hub, double T branch shall be used on horizontal soil or waste line.

The drilling and tapping of house drains, soil waste or vent pipes and the use of saddle

hubs and bends are prohibited.CLEANOUTS REQUIRED

At the upper terminal of every horizontal sewer or waste line

At each run of piping more than 15 meters (50 feet) in total developed length at

every 15 m (50 ft) of total developed length or a fraction thereof

Additional cleanout shall be provided on a horizontal line with an aggregate

offset angle exceeding 135

Inside the building near the connection between the building drain and the

building sewer or installed outside the building at the lower end of the building drain and

extended to grade.

Septic Tank

A watertight covered receptacle designed and constructed to receive the

discharge of sewage from a building sewer, separate solids from the liquid, digest

organic matter and store digested solids through a period of detention, and allow the

clarified liquids to discharge for final disposal.

Sludge

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 Solid organic matter that are denser than water and settle at the bottom of the

septic tank.

Scum

Lighter organic material that rise to the surface of the water

Effluent

Liquid content of sewage

Size of Septic Tan

Technical Data in Determining Volume of Tank

1. Min. Width: 0.90m

2. Min Length: 1.50m

3. Min Depth: 1.20m

4. For Residential: allocate 0.14 to 0.17 cum of liquid per person

5. For School and industrial establishment: Volume should not be less than

0.057cum nor more than 0.086 cum per person.

Storm Drain

This is the portion of the plumbing system which conveys rain or storm water to a

suitable terminal. This is usually discharged into a street gutter conveyed by a public

drain system and carried to some natural drainage terminal such as lakes or rivers.

Size of Storm Drain

The following factors should be considered when determining the size of the 1.

Gauging the rainfall, constant, short duration or heavy shower storm drain:

2. The varying roof area and its slope including the distance of water travel

before it reaches the conductors or downspouts of the roof

3. Water drain is faster on higher pitched roofs hence, requires a larger drainage

pipe than that of a flat roof

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 4. The height of the building contributes to the high velocity of water in the

vertical conductor and accelerate the flow of water entering the storm drain.

5. Short offsets and indiscriminate use of fittings affect the flow of water.

Vacuum drainage systems

In a vacuum drainage system, the differential pressure between the atmosphere

and the vacuum becomes the driving force that propels the wastewater towards the

vacuum station. In Table below provides a summary of the advantages and

disadvantages of vacuum drainage systems. In Table 32.0 provides information on

specific installation and operation requirements. Vacuum drainage systems should be

considered when one or more of the following conditions exist:

water shortage;

limited sewerage capacity;

where separation of black water and grey water is desired;

where drainage by gravity becomes impractical;

in penal installations where isolation and control of the appliances is

necessary to prevent concealment of weapons and drugs;

unstable soil or flat terrain;

where a high water table exists;

in hospitals, hotels, office buildings or other areas where congested

usage occurs, and flexibility in pipe routing is required to drain appliances;

restricted construction conditions;

building refurbishment.

DRAINPIPES

Such drains should be of adequate size, and laid at a constant gradient that will

permit their contents to discharge at a self-cleansing velocity. Drains carrying human

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wastes need to have a diameter of at least 100 millimetres (4 inches) for a single

dwelling and at least 150 millimetres (6 inches) if more than one property is served.

Table below shows the gradients at which these velocities are reached in pipes

of various diameters and the approximate quantities that will be carried at such

velocities.

STORM WATER DRAINAGE

There are three principal ways to dispose of rainwater from roofs, courtyards and

paved areas: storm water sewers, soak aways and collection in storage tanks. Storm

water sewers, which may in some cases consist of open channels, are more common in

urban or densely built-up areas, and they normally serve to take the drainage from

highways as well as from buildings.

In many cases, the ditches or channels are laid alongside the road just outside

the boundary of the property and are the responsibility of the highway authority, which

may have its own connection requirements that should be incorporated into the plumbing

code of practice.

WASTEWATEUSE

The use of wastewater for a variety of purposes is gaining increased popularity

as a means of preserving scarce freshwater resources. Wastewater and greywater use

is increasingly considered a method combining water and nutrient recycling, increased

household food security and improved nutrition for poor households.

Use of greywater

Economic and environmental pressures, and the conservation ethic, have led to

widespread and growing applications for recycling of wastewater, including irrigation of

food and non-food crops, green spaces, recovering arid land, fire systems, industrial

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cooling or industrial processing, sanitation and even as indirect and possibly direct

sources of drinking-water. Greywater includes used water from bathtubs, showers,

bathroom wash basins, and water from clothes washing machines and laundry tubs. It

shall not include wastewater from kitchen sinks or dishwashers (IAPMO 2000).

Use of wastewater

Greywater does not include the wastewater from toilets, urinals or bidets. The

discharges from these fixtures are classified as wastewater (sometimes referred to as

black water), because they contain high levels of pathogenic organisms and solids. Such

discharges should undergo specialized treatment prior to any secondary use.

From a public health point of view, the crucial aspects to take into account

include the protection of the water source to prevent contamination, and provision of

access to water on individual properties, thus eliminating the need for carrying

household supplies and storing them within the home. In many cases the earlier stages

may be bypassed, such as when a complete new public drinking-water supply is

installed in a community that previously had no protected water source.

5.5 Mechanical System

Modern public and commercial buildings generally use mechanical ventilation

systems to introduce outdoor air during the occupied mode. Thermal comfort is

commonly maintained by mechanically distributing conditioned (heated or cooled) air

throughout the building.

IMPORTANCE OF HEAT CONSERVATION

Thermal transmission is one of considerable importance because every square

foot of material carries a permanent upkeep cost for fuel over the years. The index for

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comparison is the u-coefficient of transmission. The method of establishing this value for

selected walls in developed in the following sections in the following figures, u-coefficient

is defined here as the number of British thermal units per hour that pass through 1 sq. ft.

of wall, floor or roof under actual conditions at the building when the difference between

the inside and outside air temperature is 1 F under a steady rate of heat flow.

It should be pointed out that while glass is quick to lose heat under critical

conditions, including the absence of sunshine, it is most receptive, when correctly

oriented, to the passage of solar energy into the building during sunny hours.

REFLECTIVE INSULATING GLASS

It is a double glazed unit said to have the highest energy saving potential of their

extensive inventory. It consists of two panels of clear glass separated by a dry air space.

A gold-toned, metallic-reflective coating is applied to the inner surface of the outdoor

glass panel. On a typical summer day, the assembly is said to reduce the peak solar

heat gain by 86% compared with the conventional 1/8 inch clear glass.

SOLAR ENERGY AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

Solar Energy is being tapped in many strange and wondrous ways. However,

there are two ways of heating or cooling a building utilizing the solar heat.

1. The PASSIVE" Solar design is so called because it employs no sophisticated

collectors and no expensive technology to harness the sun's energy.

2. The "ACTIVE" SYSTEMS require expensive and energy consuming equipment

to operate Electric water heaters and air conditioners. In short they are technologically

designed solar buildings. The awesome energy of the sun's radiation is harnessed,

absorbed, transferred and stored for building heating and cooling. Using this system, the

temperatures inside a house will stay at 68 to 70F during even the coldest days.

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"PASSIVE" Solar Design

This is used for an energy-conscious" building. It is low-energy consuming

building which uses solar power for air conditioning and other methods which use little or

no energy at all, and at usually low cost.

"ACTIVE" Solar Design

In addition to the thousands of ways in which the sun's energy has been used by

both nature and man throughout time-to grow food, to see by, to get a sun tan, to dry

clothes-it has also been deliberately harnessed to perform a number of other 'chores'.

Solar energy is used to heat and cool buildings, to heat water and swimming

pools; to power refrigerators"; and to operate engines, pumps and sewage treatment

plants.

Glass, therefore, acts as a heat trap, a phenomenon which has been recognized

for some time in the construction of greenhouses, which can get quite warm or sunny

days, even in the middle of winter; solar collectors for home heating, usually called Flat

plate collectors".

The Building as Storehouse

HEAT COLLECTION

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 Natural thermo siphoning of air through solar collectors without an auxiliary

source of power such as fan or pump.

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"BIOSPHERE"

A Biosphere is an integration of a house, a greenhouse, a solar heater, and a

solar still. This was conceptualized by physicist Day Chahroudi. The space between the

solar col lector and the heat storage wall is large enough to be used for growing food.

The North wall of the greenhouse stores the heat and serves as the south wall of

the House.

By using many additional layers of transparent membrane, each spaced an inch

or so apart, the "wall" is also a good insulator.

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PRINCIPLES OF CENTRAL COOLING

In larger buildings and those with varied and diverse occupancy, it is usually

preferred to centralize the refrigeration plant. The condenser is cooled by water

circulated to an outdoor cooling tower and the evaporator produces chilled water. The

latter is then pumped to wherever it is needed in the building.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN HVAC SYSTEM

The basic components of an HVAC system that delivers conditioned air to

maintain thermal comfort and indoor air quality are:

outdoor air intake

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 mixed-air plenum and outdoor air control

air filter

heating and cooling coils

humidification and/or de-humidification equipment

Air Handling Technology

The main tasks of air handling systems include supplying a sufficient amount of

oxygen, removing carbon dioxide and maintaining a comfortable room climate that is

unobjectionable from the view point of climate-physiology. In rooms having to meet

special requirements, such as laboratories, the supply air has further functions. The air

handling system must also act as a barrier screening the specified protected area,

reduce the concentration of microorganisms, provide temperature and humidity control

and remove odours and contaminants.

Typical HVAC System Diagram

Testing and Balancing

Modern HVAC systems typically use sophisticated, automatic controls to supply

the proper amounts of air for heating, cooling, and ventilation in commercial buildings.

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 Testing and balancing involves the testing, adjusting, and balancing of HVAC

system components so that the entire system provides airflows that are in accordance

with the design specifications. Typical components and system parameters tested

include:

all supply, return, exhaust, and outdoor airflow rates

control settings and operation

air temperatures

fan speeds and power consumption

filter or collector resistance

Return Air Systems

In many modern buildings, the above ceiling space is utilized for the inducted

passage of return air. This type of system approach often reduces initial HVAC system

costs, but requires that the designer, maintenance personnel, and contractors obey strict

guidelines related to life and safety codes (e.g., building codes) that must be followed for

materials and devices that are located in the plenum.

Ventilation Recommendations

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Stairwell Pressurization

Most building codes will require that the fire stairwells in a tall commercial

building be pressurized to keep them smoke-free in the event of a fire in the building.

The smoke-free atmosphere is required for three reasons:

(1) the stairs will be an area of refuge to be used by the building occupants who

are directed to leave a fire floor or floor in proximity to the fire floor;

(2) the stairs are an essential element in the escape route for the controlled

evacuation of people from the building; and

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 (3) the stairs will be used by the fire fighters as they attempt to control and

extinguish the fire.

Stairwell pressurization system

COOLING TOWER

a. A cooling tower will be located on the roof and will consist of multiple cells,

sized

for the installed refrigeration tonnage of the packaged direct expansion (DX) equipment

plus an allowance of 2 W/usable ft2n (22 W/usable m2) of additional capacity for

supplementary loads on the office floors.

b. The cooling tower condenser water system will be provided with a bypass

sand bed filtration system.

c. Cooling tower cells will be of the packaged, induced draft, cross-flow type with

variable-speed motors. Tower cells will have stainless steel basins and sumps with hot

dipped galvanized frames and non-combustible fill. Each cooling tower cell will be

winterized.

d. The spare capacity for supplemental cooling needs will be distributed by

means of the main secondary condenser water risers, which extend from the cooling

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towers located on the penthouse mechanical equipment room down to the floor-by-floor

fan rooms. Valved outlets will be provided in each floor fan room for future extensions.

e. Condenser water will be distributed to the floors by central primary and

secondary condenser water pumps and plate-and-frame heat exchangers located in the

penthouse mechanical equipment room. The pumps will be double-suction centrifugal

type sized for the full rated capacity of the cooling towers they serve.

f. A completely automatic system of condenser water treatment will be provided

for the building condenser water/cooling tower, complete with automatic feed pumps for

corrosion inhibitors, dispersants, biocides, etc.

LIFE SAFETY SYSTEM AND SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEM

a. Dedicated smoke exhaust fans and risers (complete with fire/smoke dampers

at each floor take-off) will be utilized for smoke control by means of pressurization and

exhaust, all as controlled from the smoke damper and fan switch panel located within the

central fire command center.

b. The outside air supply systems will be capable of providing 100% of their

capacity for floor pressurization and will be capable of being controlled from the central

fire command center in a similar manner to the smoke exhaust fans described above.

c. Stair Pressurization System

1) The two interior stair towers above grade will be designed to resist

smoke infiltration. Each of the interior stair towers will be provided with a

dedicated pressurization system that will draw supply air directly from

atmosphere. Air will be distributed vertically from each fan system to stair

discharge points located on approximately every other floor. Pressure relief ducts

consisting of adjustable barometric backdraft dampers and fire dampers will be

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 located approximately every other floor between the stair tower and the adjacent

floor space. Each fan system will be controllable from the fire command center.

2) The supply air quantities to each interior stair tower will be such as to

achieve 0.10 in. of water (25 Pa).

ELEVATOR MACHINE ROOMS

a. Elevator machine rooms will be air conditioned utilizing packaged condenser

water cooled units.

b. All elevator hoistways will be provided with dedicated hoistway smoke venting

ducted directly from the hoistways to atmosphere. The smoke vents will be provided with

fire/smoke dampers activated by smoke detectors located at the top of their respective

hoistways. Each dedicated smoke vent riser will be encased in a two hour fire rated

enclosure in its entirety from the hoistway to the terminus at an outside air louver.

VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION

The vertical transportation system will always include elevators and may include

escalators. The escalators, when included, will meet the limited and special needs that

may develop in a building, to allow the efficient transferring of people from an entrance

level to a main lobby that exists on the floor above the entrance level.

Sky Lobby Concept

In the sky lobby concept, high-speed, high-capacity shuttle cars transport

passengers from the entrance level to a sky lobby located at the point where the

passengers transfer to a second bank of elevators that serve the local floors above the

sky lobby.

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Service Elevator

All buildings greater than 300,000 to 350,000 ft2 (28,000 to 32,500 m2) should

include a dedicated service elevator. The sizing of the platform for a service elevator

should, due to the nature of its particular usage, differ from the platform size of a

passenger elevator.

HVAC INVOLVEMENT WITH THE VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

The HVAC designer has limited involvement with the vertical transportation

system. The involvement will be to provide adequate cooling to the elevator machine

room and to vent the elevator shaft so that it will conform to the codes that are in effect

regarding the elevator system.

Elevator Machine Room Cooling

The elevator machine room in a building has cooling loads that consist not only

of the electric motor that drives the hoisting mechanism for the elevators, but also of

extensive heat-generating electronic controls for the elevators.

One of the requirements of many codes is the inclusion of a vent opening at the

top of each elevator shaft that is 3.5 percent of the plan area of the hoistway or 3 ft2

(0.27 m2 ) per elevator, whichever is greater

Elevator lobby pressurization

The lobbies of elevators can be pressurized to keep smoke from entering. These

lobbies are sometimes areas of refuge and must be kept clear of smoke.

Hoistway shaft pressurization

Any hoistway, for example a dumbwaiter, provides a path for smoke to travel

throughout a building. Elevators are typically the largest shaft in a building and provide a

path for smoke travel.

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 In order to protect elevator (or other the hoistway) shafts, the shaft can be

pressurized with fresh air. The pressure prevents smoke from entering the shaft itself

and from traveling to other areas via the hoist way. Due to the large volumes of air and

consequently very large fans required, a more common alternate is to provide lobbies

with smoke barriers. Use of elevators that are in protected hoistway shafts is a

developing area of study as of this writing. In single elevator car shafts, fans above and

below the car may be necessary if the free space between the car and the shaft walls is

insufficient for air movement when needed.

Elevator Recall System

Any detailed analysis of life safety for the occupants of a high-rise building

indicates that the proper control of the elevator system in the event of a prospective fire

catastrophe is to return the cabs to the lowest floor that they serve in the case of mid-

rise or high-rise elevator banks or to the lobby level in the case of the low-rise bank.

5.6 Fire Protection System

REPUBLIC ACT 9514. AN ACT ESTABLISHING A COMPREHENSIVE FIRE

CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, REPEALING PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1185 AND

FOR OTHER PURPOSES. This Act shall be known as the "Fire Code of the Philippines

of 2008".

From the perspective of life safety systems, this definition recognizes that the

usual characteristics of such buildings are: (1) they are beyond the reach of fire

department aerial equipment; (2) they pose a potential for significant stack effect; and (3)

they require unreasonable evacuation time.

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Detection System

A key element in the detection system is a system of smoke detectors. They are

not required in all areas of a commercial office building but rather will be installed in

locations that will provide specific functions for the building. These functions can include

the altered control and/or shutdown of specific fans and the recall of elevators.

Fire Standpipe and Sprinkler Systems

There are separate purposes behind the installation of fire standpipe systems

and sprinkler systems. The standpipe system is provided to allow the fire department to

fight a fire by bringing a flow of water through a hose connection provided at each floor

in the standpipe in an effort to extinguish the fire. It requires a constant flow of water for

as long as the fire fighter has a need for the flow. On the other hand, a sprinkler system

provides the best means of protection from small fires, as this system automatically

functions by putting water on a fire and, as a minimum, holding the fire in check until the

trained fire fighter arrives and uses the fire standpipe system to extinguish the fire.

Smoke Management Systems

The control of mechanical ventilation systems in a tall commercial building is

needed to remove smoke from the area within which a fire has developed and to

maintain smoke-free areas that will allow the occupants to exit the building without being

subjected to the smoke generated by the fire.

FIRE SUPPRESSION

Once a fire has been detected, a suppression system to extinguish the fire is

required to minimize damage and avoid evacuation. A variety of fire fighting equipment

can be installed in different locations in the hospital to combat specific types of fires, with

special consideration to the patients occupying each area and the medical equipment

housed in those areas.

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FIRE EXTINGUISHER

A portable fire extinguisher can save lives and property by putting out a small fire

or containing it until the fire department arrives; but portable extinguishers have

limitations. Because fire grows and spreads so rapidly, the number one priority for

residents is to get out safely.

WATER SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

These systems have a water droplet diameter greater than 1 mm, and the

cumulative surface area coverage for 1 liter of water is approximately 3 square meters.

Typically, in fire sprinkler systems, the full network of pipes is constantly charged with

water. The sprinkler head is a heat-sensitive valve that releases water once the

temperature exceeds a fixed temperature, generally 30oC above the ambient

temperature. Each sprinkler head operates independently and will activate only once

sufficient heat reaches the valve.

MIST SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

Mist sprinkler systems function similarly to traditional water sprinkler systems.

Their water droplet diameter is less than 1 mm, and their cumulative surface area

coverage for 1 liter of water is approximately 60 square meters. Once the system is

activated, a pump drives water through a special nozzle to form a dense water mist or

fog. This mist suppresses and extinguishes the fire through the removal of heat and

displacement of oxygen from the fire zone. Some of the key advantages of well-

maintained sprinkler systems are: They allow for a more open-plan layout in a facilityin

other words, longer distances between fire compartmentswhile still meeting fire safety

requirements. They allow greater flexibility in the design and future adaptability of the

space in the facility. Structures with sprinklers can reduce fire rating requirements for

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structural elements by as much as 30 minutes, depending on building code

specifications and a countrys regulations.

WATER HOSE REELS

Fire hoses are connected to the main water supply or an independent water

storage system. Fire hoses are typically 18 m to 36 m (59 to 118 feet) in length and have

an internal diameter of 13 to 19 mm (0.5 to 0.7 inches). The size of the hose reel used is

dependent on the size of the medical facility, as there needs to be sufficient length to

overlap adjacent hoses.

5.7 Security System

Other than establishing a protected perimeter, these protective measures are

generally achieved through principles of structural dynamics, nonlinear material

response, and ductile detailing. Operational security and life safety measures should be

considered together with the physical security measures to develop a comprehensive

building security design.

Effective implementation of the physical security measures will require the

involvement of blast engineers and security consultants at the onset of the programming

phase. Early and ongoing coordination between the blast engineer, the structural

engineer, and the entire design team is critical to providing an optimal design that is both

open and inviting to the public and compliant with the security requirements.

MANAGING THE RISKS

For some establishments, simple good practice coupled with vigilance and well

exercised contingency arrangements may be all that is needed.

The following diagram illustrates a typical risk management cycle:

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DESIGN BASIS THREAT TACTICS

Depending on the building type, acceptable levels of risk, and decisions made

based on recommendations from a comprehensive threat assessment, vulnerability

assessment, and risk analysis, appropriate countermeasures should be implemented to

protect people, assets, and mission.

Some types of attack and threats to consider include:

Unauthorized entry/trespass (forced and covert)

Insider threats

Explosive threats: Stationary and moving vehicle-delivered, mail bombs, package

bombs

Ballistic threats: Small arms, high-powered rifles, drive-by shootings, etc.

Weapons of mass destruction (chemical, biological, and radiological)

Disruptive threats (hoaxes, false reports, malicious attempts to disrupt

operations)

Cyber and information security threats

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 Supervisory Control and Acquisition Data (SCADA) system threats (relevant as

they relate to HVAC, mechanical/electrical systems control and other utility

systems that are required to operate many functions within building)

Unauthorized Entry (Forced and Covert)

Protecting the facility and assets from unauthorized persons is an important part of

any security system. Some items to consider include:

Compound or facility access control:

Control perimeter: Fences, bollards, anti-ram barriers

Traffic control, remote controlled gates, anti-ram hydraulic drop arms,

hydraulic barriers, parking control systems

Forced-Entry-Ballistic Resistant (FE-BR) doors, windows, walls and roofs

Barrier protection for man-passable openings (greater than 96 square inches)

such as air vents, utility openings and culverts

Mechanical locking systems

Elimination of hiding places

Multiple layer protection processes

Perimeter intrusion detection systems:

Clear zone

Video and CCTV surveillance technology

Alarms

Detection devices (motion, acoustic, infrared)

Personnel identification systems:

Access control, fingerprints, biometrics, ID cards

Credential management

Tailgating policies

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 Primary and secondary credential systems

Protection of information and data:

Acoustic shielding

Shielding of electronic security devices from hostile electronic environments

Computer screen shields

Secure access to equipment, networks, and hardware, e.g. satellites and

telephone systems

Insider Threats

One of the most serious threats may come from persons who have authorized

access to a facility. These may include disgruntled employees or persons who have

gained access through normal means (e.g., contractors, support personnel, etc). To

mitigate this threat some items to consider include:

Implement personnel reliability programs and background checks

Limit and control access to sensitive areas of the facility

Compartmentalization within the building/campus

Two-man rule for access to restricted areas

Video and CCTV surveillance technology

Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR)

Commonly referred to as WMD, these threats generally have a low probability of

occurrence but the consequences of an attack may be severe. These threats may be

delivered by hand, mail, or as a result of accidental release of toxic industrial agents.

While fully protecting a facility against such threats may not be feasible with few

exceptions, there are several common sense and low cost measures that can improve

resistance and reduce the risks. Some items to consider include:

Protect ventilation pathways into the building

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 Control access to air inlets and water systems

Locate air intake well above ground level

Provide detection and filtration systems for HVAC systems, air intakes

and water systems

Provide for emergency HVAC shutoff and control

Segregate portions of building spaces (i.e., provide separate HVAC for

the lobby, loading docks, and the core of the building)

Consider positive pressurization to keep contaminates outside of the

facility

Provide an emergency notification system to facilitate orderly response and

evacuation

Avoid building locations in depressions where air could stagnate

Provide access control to mechanical rooms

Provide CBR monitoring apparatus

Cyber and Information Security Threats

Businesses rely heavily on the transmission, storage, and access to a wide range

of electronic data and communication systems. Protecting these systems from attack is

critical. Some items to consider include:

Understand and identify the information assets you are trying to protect. These

may include personal information, business information such as proprietary

designs or processes, national security information, or simply the ability of your

organization to communicate via email and other LAN/WAN and wireless

functions.

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 Protect the physical infrastructure that supports information systems. If the

computer system is electronically secure but vulnerable to physical destruction it

may need more protection.

Provide software and hardware devices to detect, monitor, and prevent

unauthorized access to or the destruction of sensitive information.

EVACUATION PLANNING

Evacuation. Evacuation instructions must be clearly communicated to staff and

routes and exits must be well defined. Assembly areas should be a minimum of 100, 200

or 400 metres away depending upon the size of the item.

Protected Spaces. Protected spaces may offer the best protection against blast,

flying glass and other fragments.

5.8 Communication and Electronic System

Industrial Control Systems (ICS) are physical equipment oriented technologies

and systems that deal with the actual running of plants and equipment, include devices

that ensure physical system integrity and meet technical constraints, and are event-

driven and frequently real-time software applications or devices with embedded

software. These types of specialized systems are pervasive throughout the infrastructure

and are required to meet numerous and often conflicting safety, performance, security,

reliability, and operational requirements. ICSs range from building environmental

controls (HVAC, lighting), to systems such as the electrical power grid. With the

increasing interconnectivity of ICS to the internet, the ICS can be an entry point into the

organization's other IT systems.

Within the controls systems industry, ICS systems are often referred to as

Operational Technology (OT) systems.

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Industrial Control Systems and Operational Technology

Within the controls systems industry, Industrial Control Systems (ICS) are often

referred to as Operational Technology (OT). ICS are physical equipment oriented

technologies and systems that deal with the actual running of plants and equipment,

include devices that ensure physical system integrity and meet technical constraints, and

are event-driven and frequently real-time software applications or devices with

embedded software. These types of specialized systems are pervasive throughout the

infrastructure and are required to meet numerous and often conflicting safety,

performance, security, reliability, and operational requirements.

The term ICS is used in its broadest sense which includes:

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (Energy, Water, Wastewater, Pipeline,

Airfield Lighting, Locks, and Dams, etc.)

Distributed Control Systems (Process and Manufacturing, etc.)

Building Control Systems/Building Automation Systems

Utility Management Control Systems

Electronic Security Systems

Fire, Life Safety, Emergency Management Systems

Exterior Lighting and Messaging Systems

Intelligent Transportation Systems

Information systems will affect all design objectives of the complex modern

commercial, institutional, or governmental building:

Accessible for physically challenged user access to telecommunications and

security devices

Cost-Effective for initial construction cost and user life-cycle cost

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 Functional/Operational for integrated control of building operational systems and

building automated systems (BAS)

Productive for user health and comfort, and business/organization needs

Secure/Safe for building security access, surveillance, fire/smoke detection and

alarm systems; and user LAN/WAN network security

SustainableEnhance Indoor Environmental Quality; Optimize O&M Practices

for high performance optimization of building controls and operational systems

The design and implementation of wiring and cabling systems has direct impact

on aesthetics and preserving historic spaces within the building..

5.9 Environmental System

Over the next twenty years, If all buildings are designed and constructed using

traditional inefficient approaches, and are powered by electricity produced by burning

fossil fuels, there is no way to avoid irreparably damaging the planets climate.

However, if we use energy efficient design strategies, incorporate including on-

site power generation from renewable sources, and have access to off-site renewables if

necessary, then the building sector can become the solution to the climate change crisis.

Getting to Zero

Getting to carbon neutral for a new building or major renovation is a two-step

process.

The first step is design; to integrate sustainable and passive design strategies

that are low-cost or no-cost. This can get you 70-80% of the way there. For example,

how you orient the building, shade the glass, incorporate daylighting and passive heating

and cooling strategies, and the materials and systems you specify. These approaches

dramatically reduce the energy the building requires.

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 The second step is to provide fossil-fuel-free energy; ideally from on-site

renewables, or from accessing district or utility-scale renewable energy produced off-

site.

Sustainable Sites

Sustainable sites maintain and/or regenerate soils and vegetation, manage and

filter stormwater, and create advantageous microclimate conditions.

Healthy landscapes provide numerous benefits to humankind that can be

endangered by development. Sustainable site practices minimize development impacts

and restore disturbed landscapes.

Site Considerations:

Water capture, slow, and treat stormwater by reducing impervious surfaces,

creating rain gardens, green roofs, bioswales, and wetlands.

Soils protect and preserve healthy soils by minimizing grading, soil compaction

and native vegetation removal.

Vegetation preserve and restore trees together with climate-adaptive, non-

invasive native vegetation.

Locate and manage vegetation to mitigate potential fire hazards, block winter

winds, and shade walls, walkways, and hard surfaces during warm periods.

Vegetative Cooling

Trees and vegetation shade buildings and surfaces, while water evaporating

through their leaves lowers nearby air temperatures.

Shaded walls and surfaces may be 1125C (2045F) cooler than unshaded

surfaces. Temperatures under a canopy of shade trees may be reduced 15C (29F)

compared to open terrain, and 1117C (2030F) compared to parking lots.

Locate:

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 Trees on the east, west, southeast, and southwest sides of a building (east, west,

northeast, and northwest in southern latitudes).

Ground cover and shrubs around buildings to lower air temperatures and reduce

reflected sunlight.

Trees in courtyards, parking areas, and adjacent to walkways.

Vegetated pergolas and trees with a high canopy provide shade and allow in

beneficial winds. In climates with cold winters, locate trees away from the wall facing the

equator a minimum distance of twice the height of tree.

Water Catchment and Storage

Water catchment systems divert and store rainwater, providing a clean, free water

source that reduces stormwater runoff as well as demand on potable water supplies.

A typical system collects water from a roof piped to a storage tank where it can be

used for both potable (drinkable) and non-potable purposes such as landscaping, toilet

flushing and clothes washing. Each square meter (square foot) of roof area will capture

7.37 liters (0.46 gallons) of rainwater for one centimeter (inch) of rainfall.

Sizing the system:

Storage tank capacity (liters) = water catchment area (m2) x rainfall (cm) x 7.38

Storage tank capacity (gallons) = water catchment area (ft2) x rainfall (inches) x

0.46

Where rainfall = peak monthly average.

The larger the storage tank, the longer water will be available between rain

events. Rainwater intended for potable use must be treated using appropriate filtration

and disinfection methods.

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Green Roofs

Green roofs provide water retention, green space, and improved water and air

quality while reducing energy consumption.

Both roof vegetation and soil increase roof insulation, reducing ambient air

temperatures and building energy consumption. Green roofs retain rainfall, alleviate

pressure on sewer systems, protect roofing membranes, reduce noise, and filter

pollutants.

Green roofs categories:

Extensive: 60-200 mm thickness (2-8 inches) green protection layer for roofs

with little load-bearing capacity. Shallow soil suitable for less demanding plants

(low maintenance).

Semi-intensive: 120-250 mm (4-10 inches) green roof with deeper soils,

planted with grasses and shrubs (higher maintenance).

Intensive: 150-1,000 mm (6-39 inches) roof garden with permanent irrigation

and deep soils, suitable for lawns, shrubs, and trees, walkways, and even

playgrounds and pools (highest maintenance).

Form for Daylighting

A building shape with a narrow floor plate maximizes exterior wall area for

incorporating glazing to daylight interior spaces.

When developing a building shape, consider how best to admit daylight into the

building.

Use the 4.5 / 9 meter (15 / 30 foot) rule-of-thumb for developing building shapes and

floor plates with:

A 4.5 meter (15 foot) perimeter zone depth for task daylighting; and

An adjacent 4.5 meter (15 foot) zone with ambient daylighting.

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 Building floor plates can be elongated, curved, or organized into many shapes.

Buildings elongated in the east-west direction expose the longer north and south sides

for controlled daylighting, and high ceilings and windows allow for greater interior

daylight penetration. Buildings with large floor plates can introduce daylight through

atriums and courtyards. Low-rise and one-story structures can be any shape since

interior spaces have access to the roof for daylighting.

Side Daylighting

Exterior wall glazing provides acceptable interior task-daylight levels at a depth of

1.5 to 2 times the height of a glazed opening.

A light shelf added to a glazed opening will reflect daylight deeper into a space,

and can increase the daylighting depth to 2.5 times the height of the glazed opening.

Size the glazing area as a percentage of the floor area to be daylit.

Aperture Area / Daylit Floor Area ratios should be as follows:

10-15% at a minimum, for basic daylighting levels,

15-25% for more adequate daylighting levels.

Make the side walls, back wall and ceiling a light color to evenly distribute

daylight and prevent glare.

Cool Roof

In hot climates, and climates with hot summers, a light colored roof reflects

sunlight, remains cooler, offsets CO2 warming, and reduces the amount of heat

transferred to the interior of a building.

Cool roofs have surfaces that reflect sunlight and emit or discharge heat

efficiently, keeping them cooler on sunny days. The two surface properties that

determine a roofs temperature are solar reflectance and thermal emittance, which range

on a scale from 0 to 1. The larger the two values are, the cooler the roof will be.

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Make the roof surface a light color and chose a roofing material that has a surface:

Solar Reflectance (SR) of > 0.7; and

Thermal Emittance (TE) of > 0.75.

In hot climates, cool roofs can help mitigate urban heat islands, reflect solar radiation

back to space, and keep indoor spaces comfortable.

5.10 Waste Management System

Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of

collecting and treating solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not

belong to garbage or trash. As long as people have been living in settlements and

residential areas, garbage or solid waste has been an issue. Solid waste management

should be embraced by each and every household including the business owners across

the world. Industrialization has brought a lot of good things and bad things as well. One

of the negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste.

According to Britannica, Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and

disposing of solid material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no

longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary

conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and to

outbreaks of vector-borne diseasethat is, diseases spread by rodents and insects.

According to Wikipedia, Waste management is the generation, prevention,

characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid

wastes. There are various types of solid waste including municipal (residential,

institutional, commercial), agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous

wastes, sewage sludge).

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Types of Waste Disposal

There are five major groups of waste management methods, each of them

divided into numerous categories. Those groups include source reduction and reuse,

animal feeding, recycling, composting, fermentation, landfills, incineration and land

application.

Methods of Waste Disposal

Landfill

The Landfill is the most popularly used method of waste disposal used today.

This process of waste disposal focuses attention on burying the waste in the land.

Landfills are found in all areas. There is a process used that eliminates the odors and

dangers of waste before it is placed into the ground. While it is true this is the most

popular form of waste disposal it is certainly far from the only procedure and one that

may also bring with it an assortment of space.

This method is becoming less these days although, thanks to the lack of space

available and the strong presence of methane and other landfill gases, both of which can

cause numerous contamination problems. Many areas are reconsidering the use of

landfills.

Incineration/Combustion

Incineration or combustion is a type disposal method in which municipal solid

wastes are burned at high temperatures so as as to convert them into residue and

gaseous products. The biggest advantage of this type of method is that it can reduce the

volume of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume, decreases the space

they take up and reduce the stress on landfills. This process is also known as thermal

treatment where solid waste materials are converted by Incinerators into heat, gas,

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steam and ash. Incineration is something that is very in countries where landfill space is

no longer available, which includes Japan.

Recovery and Recycling

Resource recovery is the process of taking useful discarded items for a specific

next use. These discarded items are then processed to extract or recover materials and

resources or convert them to energy in the form of useable heat, electricity or fuel.

Recycling is the process of converting waste products into new products to

prevent energy usage and consumption of fresh raw materials. Recycling is the third

component of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy. The idea behind recycling is

to reduce energy usage, reduce volume of landfills, reduce air and water pollution,

reduce greenhouse gas emissions and preserve natural resources for future use.

Plasma gasification

Plasma gasification is another form of waste management. Plasma is a primarily

an electrically charged or a highly ionized gas. Lighting is one type of plasma which

produces temperatures that exceed 12,600 F. With this method of waste disposal, a

vessel uses characteristic plasma torches operating at +10,000 F which is creating a

gasification zone till 3,000 F for the conversion of solid or liquid wastes into a syngas.

During the treatment solid waste by plasma gasification, the wastes molecular

bonds are broken down as result of the intense heat in the vessels and the elemental

components. Thanks to this process, destruction of waste and dangerous materials is

found. This form of waste disposal provides renewable energy and an assortment of

other fantastic benefits.

Composting

Composting is an easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes organic

wastes i.e. remains of plants and garden and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient rich

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food for your plants. Composting, normally used for organic farming, occurs by allowing

organic materials to sit in one place for months until microbes decompose it. Composting

is one of the best method of waste disposal as it can turn unsafe organic products into

safe compost. On the other side, it is slow process and takes lot of space.

Waste to Energy (Recover Energy)

Waste to energy (WtE) process involves converting of non-recyclable waste

items into useable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes. This type of

source of energy is a renewable energy source as non-recyclable waste can be used

over and over again to create energy. It can also help to reduce carbon emissions by

offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources. Waste-to-Energy, also widely

recognized by its acronym WtE is the generation of energy in the form of heat or

electricity from waste.

Avoidance/Waste Minimization

The easiest method of waste management is to reduce creation of waste

materials thereby reducing the amount of waste going to landfills. Waste reduction can

be done through recycling old materials like jar, bags, repairing broken items instead of

buying new one, avoiding use of disposable products like plastic bags, reusing second

hand items, and buying items that uses less designing.

Recycling and composting are a couple of the best methods of waste

management. Composting is so far only possible on a small scale, either by private

individuals or in areas where waste can be mixed with farming soil or used for

landscaping purposes. Recycling is widely used around the world, with plastic, paper

and metal leading the list of the most recyclable items. Most material recycled is reused

for its original purpose.

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Zero Waste in Business

Zero waste is the term used when referring to the complete elimination of waste

created by businesses and homes. Usually, this means that no waste created by a

business goes to the landfill at all.

A zero waste philosophy strives to make the most efficient use of all materials, and

that the mantra Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is stuck to.

Not only is following a zero waste philosophy potentially cost effective for

businesses, it directly benefits the natural environment and human health.

A zero waste model can also help create jobs, save money and reduce damage to

many communities. Considering this:

Every year across the globe, landfills are estimated to emit between 30 and 70

million tonnes of methane, a hazardous greenhouse gas

Landfills can pollute surface water and groundwater, which are harmful to both

humans and animals

Landfills cost millions to build and operate. This in turn, costs businesses and

homeowners money

It shows business has an ability to demonstrate commitment to the environment

It fulfils a corporate responsibility

Potentially more opportunities due to environmentally conscious customers

choosing a business over other less environmentally friendly ones

Marketing opportunities on social media

The use of a Zero Waste to Landfill logo on any of the marketing materials

Following are a few started ideas that all businesses can use:

Switch to electronic billing

Consider double sided printing

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 Encourage more electronic alternatives to printing (such as eFax and email)

Try using refillable pens and ink cartridges

Reuse and recycle cardboard boxes

Remove the business from any mailings you deem unnecessary

Rechargeable batteries for any peripherals that use them

Switch your standard light bulbs to CFL or LED lights, which last a great deal

longer

If you are able to, try and sell or donate any materials that any individuals or

other businesses can use

Sign up to a compost pickup program

5.11 Landscaping System

Parks

Parks provide social, physical and recreational opportunities, as well as offer

habitat for wildlife and biodiversity.

Locate smaller parks within short walking distances of the residences they serve.

Larger parks serve entire cities, are bounded by public-rights of way and attached to

other public uses such as schools and community centers.

Guidelines for parks:

Small Parks 250 m2 to 4,000 m2 (2,500 sf to one acre) within 400

meters ( mile) of housing;

District Parks 20,000 m2 to 40,000 m2 (5 to 10 acres) within 400 to 800

meters ( mile to mile) of housing;

City/Town Parks 1/8 km2 to 1/5 km2 (30 to 50 acres) within 1 kilometer

to 5 kilometers ( mile to 3 miles) of various districts.

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 Create open space corridors and greenways that include walking, jogging, and

bicycling paths connecting parks and residential areas to places where people work,

shop or socialize.

Bikeways

Urban bikeways facilitate safe efficient travel, promote physical activity, while

reducing energy use, CO2 emissions, and noise pollution.

Well-designed bikeways establish unbroken routes linking residential areas,

neighbourhoods, district and employment centers, and public transit.

Bikeway modes:

Bike Lanes 1.8 meter (6 feet) lane adjacent to curb; 5.5 meter (18 feet) lane

incorporating a bike lane, on-street parking and open-door zone; 4.3 meter (14

feet) shared-use bike/auto lane; 4.9 meters (16 feet) shared-use bike/bus lane.

Cycle Tracks separated 1.8 meter (6 feet) wide track with a 1 meter (3 feet)

wide parking or roadway buffer.

Cycling Boulevards long and continuous designated bicycle route on streets

with light traffic and slow speeds.

Off-Road Routes bicycle route along greenways, rail corridors, and waterfronts

that prohibit vehicle traffic.

Glow-in-the-Dark Bike Lane Gets Charged by the Sun

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 Studies show that adding bike lanes improves public health at a fraction of the

cost of direct health treatments, since the lanes get more people moving, and regular,

light exercise can be linked to lower rates of heart disease.

The proponent will consider a kind of bike lane design - a Glowing bike lane. The

solar-charged lane, which uses materials called phosphors, it is meant not just to be

easy on the eyes but on cyclists joints and noggins, ostensibly raising the level of safety

during night riding.

The material is able to give light for more than 10 hours. This means that the

path overnight emits light energy and re-gathers the next day. Importantly, the effect is

due to aggregate properties used is without additional sources of energy. The proponent

will chose phosphors glowing blue, to be consistent with the [local] landscape.

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Complete Streets

Complete streets allow pedestrians, cyclists, motorists and public transit to move

comfortably and safely.

Streets designed primarily for cars make walking, bicycling, and public

transportation inconvenient, uninviting, and at times potentially dangerous. Complete

streets balance competing needs and support safe travel by all users.

Complete streets include:

Sidewalks 2 to 3 meter (6 to 10 feet) walking path, 1 meter (3 feet) or more

amenity zone (street furniture, trees, bus shelters); building spill-out zone

(varies).

Traffic Lanes 3 to 3.3 meters (10 to 11 feet) for automobiles, 3.3 meters (11

feet) minimum for bus and truck traffic.

On-Street Parking Lane (optional) 2.2 to 2.5 meters (7 to 8 feet), more on bus

route.

Bike Lanes 1.8 meters (6 feet) adjacent to curb; 5.5 meters (18 feet) bike lane

with on-street parking and door zone; 4.3 meters (14 feet) shared-use bike/auto

lane; 4.9 meters (16 feet) shared-use bike/bus lane.

Shared Streets

Shared streets combine cycling, pedestrians, social activities, parking, and local car

traffic to create a shared public space.

Eliminating the traditional segregation of motor vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists can

create a shared and more vibrant streetscape. Conventional devices such as curbs,

signs and signals are replaced with an integrated, people-oriented public space that

encourages distinctiveness, social interaction, walking, cycling, universal accessibility,

and reduced traffic speeds.

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 Shared Streets generally contain similar characteristics:

Curb-free paving surface no street level differences.

Signage minimal road signage and fixtures.

Street gateway a transition element encouraging speed reductions.

Tactile paving delineates use.

Reduced traffic speeds visual street narrowing, street trees, landscaping,

changes in materials and colors.

District Centers

District centers are mixed-use, high-density core areas served by public transit.

Densities in transit-oriented districts are normally greatest in the district center - the 400-

meter ( mile) radius surrounding a transit station.

District center Characteristics (Employees, Housing Units, Floor area ratio):

Core

employees: 500/ha (200/ac)

housing: 125-185/ha (50-75/ac)

FAR: 3.0

Center

employees: 185/ha (75/ac)

housing: 60-100/ha (25-40/ac)

FAR: 1.0 to 2.0

Village

employees: 185/ha (75/ac)

housing: 60-100/ha (25-40/ac)

FAR: 1.0 to 2.0

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 At least 40% of a mixed-use district center has ground floor retail, restaurant,

commercial and/or personal services.

Note: ha = hectare, ac = acre.

The Thirsty Concrete Material

The proponent will use this kind of material in pavements and roads to ease the

flood problems in heavy rains.

The building material company Tarmac has developed a new kind of concrete

that is capable of absorbing up to 4,000 liters (1057 gallons) of water in the first minute.

On average, one square meter of this new road surface, called Topmix Permeable, can

drain 600 liters (159 gallons) in a minute.

In a statement, Tarmac said: The high-tech concrete works by having a

permeable layer on top, which allows water to drain through a matrix of large pebbles

and then down into a loose base of rubble beneath.

The water is then fed into a drainage system thats connected to groundwater

reservoirs. Thus, the water that quickly disappears from the surface is fed right back into

the citys irrigation system.

This breakthrough in permeable concrete is a huge step forward in how we deal

with flooding. According to Tarmac, two-thirds of homes damaged in floods were due to

water running off pavements and inadequate drainage systems. The recent floods in

different part of the country further highlight the need for advancement in water

management and drainage technology.

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