Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Steven M. Parish
(originally written in 1981,
with various updates since then...)
CONTENTS:
Introduction
Style and organization: quick review of essentials
Citation format of anthropology papers
Plagiarism: the big "P"
Bibliographic format: the reference list
Library research
Encyclopedias
Indexes and bibliographies
Additional reference works
General
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
Indexes and abstracts
Handbooks
Bibliographies
Yearbooks and review literature
Atlases
Directories
Introduction
Imagine that it is now six weeks into the semester. You are taking a
heavy course load: genetics, organic chemistry, math, and this
anthropology class for which you are supposed to write a fifteen page
term paper.
You have not even started the paper -- somehow you have not managed to
find the time for it. Other things always seemed more important or
more fun. But you can't put it off any longer. You have to start right
now. You have to get it done as quickly and efficiently as possible --
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and obviously you don't want to suffer any more than is necessary.
Also, you don't want to take any chances with your GPA, so you want to
write a good paper. But the whole project seems confusing, dreary, and
a little overwhelming.
It doesn't have to be that bad. That is what this Guide is all about -
- making the writing of anthropology term papers easier.
There are ways to save time and effort. There are procedures and
strategies that enable you to negotiate the necessary -but often
tedious- process of finding the material you need in the library
quickly and effectively. After finding the material you need, it is
important to know the best way of organizing it in your paper.
Learning these techniques and skills frees you to concentrate on the
quality of the paper--or maybe on the beach.
You may already have taken a writing course. The skills learned there
will be useful in writing papers for anthropology. The ability to
organize ideas effectively and express them clearly is an important
survival skill in the university environment. Mastering this skill
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Kolb, Harold H.
1980 A Writer's Guide: The Essential Points. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Strunk, William, and E.B. White
1979 The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan.
Turabian, Kate
1976 Student's Guide for Writing College Papers. 3rd ed. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
You should use only the data needed to answer your questions.
Otherwise your paper will lack coherence and unity, and you will have
done more work than you needed to. And, worst of all, you may not get
your paper in on time. The professor may then never get a chance to
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read it, because he has flown off to some delectable Pacific island,
and you may be stuck with an Incomplete.
Magical and Logical Rule Number 2: After you have selected a problem
and become acquainted with some of the literature on it, make a well
thought out and fairly detailed outline.
As you reading progresses, ask yourself what ideas and information are
necessary for understanding your problem, and in what order they have
to be presented, in order to have a logical and coherent presentation.
Start out with a crude outline. Then revise and elaborate it as
needed.
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The body of the paper carries out your strategy or plan for analyzing
and interpreting your material. This part of the paper goes into
details: it lays out all the necessary information and ideas in a
logical order (that is, in the sequence in which the reader needs to
know them in order to understand you). The body is organized in terms
of answers to questions, cause and effect, comparison and contrast; it
supports generalizations with data, or derives generalizations from
data.
The conclusion wraps things up. It reminds the reader of the nature
and significance of the problem you set out at the beginning, and sums
up the meaning and implications of your analysis. It tells the reader
what has actually been discovered and what it means. The conclusion
concisely restates your intentions and plans, and tells the reader
succinctly what happened when you carried out that plan. In other
words, it summarizes and synthesizes the progression of your
understanding from the opening statement of your problem through the
detailed development of the problem in the body of the paper.
Magical and Essential Rule Number 4: Write with your readers in mind.
Be clear and explicit so that they can follow your argument. Be
concise and yet complete.
You are writing something that will be read and evaluated by someone.
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Keep in mind that all your readers can know of your thoughts is what
you put down on paper. Telepathy is rare even among anthropologists.
So be explicit. Don't refer or allude to ideas or information not
contained in your argument, unless you can reasonable expect the
readers to be familiar with that material. Make sure that the readers
have all the information they need in order to follow you from point A
to point B in your discussion. If your roommate doesn't understand how
you argued your way from point A to point B, your TA or professor
probably won't either.
And choose your words with care. You don't want to obscure your
reasoning by putting it into the wrong words. A brilliant logical
argument can be lost for want of precise words4.
Your outline will help you make the logical connections in your paper
explicit. You may even want to use some subtitles in your paper (one
or two per page) which serve up the points made on that page. These
subtitles will correspond to your outline--or at least they will if
you stick to it. Using subtitles can alert you when you start to stray
from your plan. Subtitles also have the advantage of reminding the
weary reader (who has just read 137 term papers before starting yours
and has 79 yet to go) where he has got to in your argument. (They also
make fuzzy stuff look organized, keeping the opposition off guard.)
However, if you allude extensively to material not included in your
paper, or ideas not explained in your paper, or do not choose your
words with some care, then even subtitles won't save you.
You want to be clear, explicit and complete, but you don't want to
bore your reader (or not very much anyway--not more than is
necessary). So don't belabor the obvious. Put things in your paper
because they're important in terms of your argument, not because you
feel you should explain everything--twice. Be as concise as you can,
while still being clear, explicit and complete.
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"look before you leap" but "he who hesitates is lost"! And yet these
points are not as contradictory as they may seem. It's a question of
balance, which, in writing term papers, as in learning to ride a
bicycle (and practically everything else), is only learned through
practice--by doing it until you don't fall down. Too much explanation
and qualification of your argument can distract the reader from the
essential points you are trying to make. Too little explanation and
elaboration makes a paper vague; the reader doesn't have enough
information to judge the essential points of your argument, or see how
they are connected--or even, sometimes, see what they are.
Magical and Reasonable Rule Number 5: The paper should reflect the
theme of the course.
You should be sensitive to the point of view the professor is trying
to present and to the scope of the course. A good paper should reflect
the theme of the course in some way, even if you do not agree with the
professor's approach.5 Consult your TA or professor before you invest
a lot of time and energy investigating a topic that might not be
appropriate.
For example, when you are writing for a class that focuses on some
aspect of cultural symbolism, and you find yourself discussing
astrology, King Tut, and holistic hang gliding, then you're stretching
the boundaries of the course. You will probably find that you are
stretching the boundaries of your GPA too.
More realistically, if your professor has been talking for weeks about
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You need to rewrite the foggy and fuzzy sections. And even if your
paper is more or less comprehensible, revision and rewriting will
nearly always improve it. Basically, a sense of when and what to
revise, what to throw out, and what to rewrite is developed through
the practice of writing and through receiving feedback on your papers.
Now you can type or print your final draft. And then you should
proofread it. You don't want to leave any little but distracting
errors or typos uncorrected. (A typo can change the comment "Kroeber's
theory is not considered adequate" into "Kroeber's theory is now
considered adequate." But any type can eb distracting.)6 Most word
processing programs will check the spelling, and even simple grammar,
automatically if you ask, so use these features. However, always read
the paper yourself before you print the final copy--the Kroeber typo
cited above is neither misspelled nor grammatically incorrect, but it
is a mistake that will be noted.
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Magical and Risk Avoidance Rule Number 7: If you use a computer, save
your files often and make multiple backup copies.
Nothing is so debilitating as following the first six rules and then
losing the whole work to a cyber-space demon. Saying you lost your
work to the computer, or that it will not print out, now runs well
ahead of dogs eating homework in the excuse category. It may be true,
but it is very difficult to prove and, if the TA or professor is on a
tight schedule to turn in final grades, you may not get the benefit of
the doubt. Save your files regularly, especially after making
extensive revisions, and when you are finished be sure to copy your
files onto a separate disk that can be stored in a drawer and moved to
another machine if disaster strikes.
Magical and Unwritten Rule Number 8: Make a rule to fit in this space.
Sound like a lot of work? You're right. But in grade points per hour
the magical rules are the best term paper bargain going.
I think this format is easier to use than other formats. Once you
familiar with it, I think you'll agree
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Now, if I'm your inscrutable TA and I'm interested in finding out more
about something I read in your paper (because it is just so bizarre or
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wonderful that I have to know more about it), then I turn from your
citation to your reference list at the end of your paper. This list of
all the works cited in your paper provides information needed to
locate sources in the bookstore or library. The citations and the
reference list make it possible for the reader to track down material
that may be useful. As your TA, I can find interesting stuff simply by
tracing your citation back to your source. In that source are more
citations, leading me back to your source's sources (squared as it
were). These in turn have citations and reference lists leading to
their sources (sources cubed?). Your paper becomes a link in a
citation chain when you cite from publications connected in this way.
(TAs have funny ideas about how to spend their time.)
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What happens if two authors have the same last names? In that case,
you use the initials of their first names, or their full names if they
have the same first names, so that it is clear in your text which
author you mean. So, if you cite both Karl Marx and Groucho Marx, you
would use the initials of the first names in the citations, even
though the years of publication are different.
If two sources have the same first and last names, then you may have
to use middle initials, if available. The general rule is always to
try to give enough information so that the reader will know exactly
what individual or publication in the reference list you are referring
to.
If there are two authors for a publication you wish to cite, you cite
them this way:
If there are more than two authors, then you can probably get away
with using the name of the senior author--the one whose name appears
first in an article, or under whose name a book is cataloged--followed
by "et al." which means "and others."
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citation with three or more names interferes with the ease of reading
the text, and I do not believe many instructors would object to this
use of et al. in term papers. In your reference list, you must use the
names of all the authors. Unless you are undemocratic.)
becomes
____________
1. see Collins 1967:67; Crenshaw 1934:98; Morton 1978:81-89 &
1979:97.
Using the reference footnote makes this easier to read without losing
the sense of the text. The idea is to avoid doing anything to distract
the reader's attention from what you have to say.
______________
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Occasionally, you will run across a work that has neither a personal
nor corporate author. In that case you can use a few identifying words
from the title of the source, which are placed in the author position
in the entry in the reference list.
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You must document, by giving a citation, each and every case where you
use someone else's ideas or information, except where it is reasonable
to assume that the information or ideas are "common knowledge" in the
field in which you are writing.
Quotations
Other people's exact words must be placed within quotation marks, or
set off from the text by indentation and single spacing. A citation
must be placed near the beginning or at the end of the quotation, so
that it is clear who is being quoted. You could acknowledge a
quotation from Clifford Geertz as follows:
Note that no citation is needed at the end of the quote. Finally you
might choose to incorporate Geertz's works into your text in the
following manner:
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(1957:533).
Note: when you put somebody's words inside quotation marks, be sure to
quote exactly--spelling, grammatical errors--everything must be just
as it is in the original.
Paraphrase or Summary
Even when you put other people's ideas or information into your own
words, you must cite the source of the idea and date.
comprising all of the ways children reflect upon, think about, and
sort out the content of culture, in order to develop for themselves
a cognitive map of adult culture (Williams 1972:224).
I don't want to quote him, though, because I know using too many
quotations is a cheap trick. It's my paper, after all, so I paraphrase
him as follows:
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Common Knowledge
How do you know if something is common knowledge?
There are fuzzy areas, of course. Generally, though, you can rely on
common sense. You don't have to document the fact that the Plains
Indians hunted buffalo on horseback in the nineteenth century. But if
you describe the life of the Sioux before they got horses or moved
onto the Great Plains, or describe a fight the Pawnee had with the
Sioux while on a buffalo hunt in 1858, then you need to provide a
citation referring the reader to the source of your information.
Common knowledge means common in the field in which you are writing.
(That anthropologists are mostly geniuses is common knowledge--among
anthropologists. Others may disagree--but they don't know the field.)
Most anthropologists know what clans, lineages, cross cousin marriage,
and classificatory kinship are, but only specialists can be expected
to know the difference between Aluridja and Kariera type kinship
systems, and so if you write a paper on how a particular group of
Australian Aborigines combine features of both, a reference citation
is called for, such as:
(Elkin 1954:49-79)
A pretty good rule of thumb is that if you knew it before you started
your research, you probably don't need to provide a citation, unless
you read about it recently. But if you learned it in the course of
your research you'd better cite it.8 When in doubt, go ahead and cite.
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show that you are quoting by indenting and using single spacing. Here
is an example of a longer quotation in a sample text:
But you could quote Sapir in your text, if you wanted to. For example,
you could do something like this:
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One attempt to handle this mass of material has been the foundation
of secondary journals, whose function it is to summarize and
abstract the papers published in the primary journals. The first of
these appeared as long ago as 1714 in Germany. By the time there
were enough of them to form a representative sample, they also
started to multiply, at the same exponential rate as the primary
journals, doubling in numbers every fifteen years, and reaching a
total of 1,900 by the mid 1960's. By this time there had been
developed a tertiary level of periodical publications, giving
information about the abstracting journals (Waddington 1977:32-
33).
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For example, you don't have to cite page numbers every time you state
or imply that Frederik Barth, in his book Political Leadership among
Swat Pathans, is interested in political leadership and authority,
because that is the grand theme of the book. It runs all through it.
Therefore, you don't have to cite specific pages when you say
something non-specific about Barth's book.
Once you have clearly established that you are discussing Barth's 1959
study of the Swat Pathans, you can drop the (1959) --as long as the
reader knows you are referring to Barth's general theme or
conceptuali- zation. But as soon as you go on to discuss Barth's
specific formulations, then you have to provide the reader with page
numbers.
Note that since the quotation and paraphrase come from the same page,
one citation is adequate to identity both. Compare the paraphrase with
the original:
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In theory, if you are not indebted to someone for an idea or date, you
do not have to cite him or her, even if you come across their
statement of that concept or information. However, in practice, it is
usually better to go ahead and cite such a source, if the material is
pertinent. If nothing else, you strengthen your argument by indicating
that reputable scholars have made the same point. Besides, citing a
source entitles you to list it in your bibliography and shows the
professor how hard you worked. You don't want the professor to think
you have done a slap dash job of research because you have failed to
use a significant source. Also, you don't want to risk an unfair
suspicion of plagiarism--more on that in the next section.
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Read this section and the section on the use of citations with care,
so that you never unintentionally fail to document the source of
material you use in your papers. It is not all that hard to avoid
plagiarism once you know what is involved. I'll advise you on how to
avoid unintentional plagiarism. The main thing is to know how to
document any use of sources correctly.
And here is the same passage plagiarized almost word for word in
student paper. (The paper is hypothetical. If a student did this, he
would find his graduation getting pretty hypothetical too.)
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you won't be able to use it, until you go back to the library and get
the information you need to document your use of it.10
The reference list follows the text of the paper. It can be headed at
the top of the page "References Cited" or "Works Cited."
The entries in the list are organized alphabetically by the last names
of the authors. Here is what an entry for a book looks like:
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Books.
The above examples give the general form for entering sources in a
reference list. You should use the same layout and punctuation. Start
typing from the regular margin.
The above form will work for most entries. But there are a variety of
little details and special problems that you will encounter from time
to time. Let's consider these one by one.
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If more than one work was published in the same year, list them
alphabetically and use lower case letters to distinguish them, as in
the in-text citation (1963a, 1963b).
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5. Editor or compiler.
Use "ed." or "comp."
7. Journal Articles.
If the periodical has continuous pagination, you omit the issue
numbers.
Nowadays, most scholarly journals do not start off each issue with new
pagination; rather, pagination is continuous throughout a volume, so
providing an issue number would be superfluous. However, some
periodicals start each issue with page one, in which case you must
give the issue number in your entry. Whenever you are not sure whether
pagination is continuous, provide the issue number, in parentheses,
after the volume number.
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8. Translator.
If you read Helen Sebba's translation of a book by Roger Bastide, the
complete entry would be as follows:
9. Corporate Author.
Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 1978 Cognition as a Residual
Category in Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 7:51-69.
You probably should cite this in the text by both dates, at least on
its first use, so the reader will be aware of the historical context
of the source. Your page citation should be to the edition you used.
A Sample Bibliography
Works Cited
Blom, Frans and Oliver LaFarge 1926 Tribes and Temples. New Orleans:
Tulane University Press.
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LIBRARY RESEARCH
Return to contents
The library can be a mystifying place. Well, okay--the library is a
mystifying place. It's bad enough when you know how to use it. Not
knowing how to use it is time consuming and frustrating.
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work, when you find it. Using a reference work, such as the Social
Sciences Citation Index, is not simple. But with practice it becomes
automatic. Librarians are not uniquely gifted superstars; they have
simply taken the time to learn how the library works. If you take a
little time, you can become "fluent" at using the library too (not as
good as the librarians, but pretty good).11 This Guide will get you
started, and will, we hope, be something you can refer to as needed,
whenever you do research in the University Library, for anthropology
or allied disciplines.
When you find a source in a reference work you then have to go to the
computer "card catalog" (a now archaic reference to the time when you
actually consulted the paper cards directly) and find its call number,
so that you can locate it in "the stacks." The stacks are all those
shelves of books that really make up a library. The reference area is
a kind of map of the stacks. Using the reference works shelved in the
reference area enables you to find that dingy brown book on the far
end of the bottom shelf on the east side of the sixth floor which is
just what you need for your paper. (It beats starting with the first
book on the first floor and flipping through every book until you find
the one you need.) After you have a call number, you can go find the
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book you want. When you find it--or the place where it would be if it
were on the shelf--take time to look at the books next to it on the
shelf. Since they are in the same call number sequence, they may be
relevant to your topic. This kind of browsing (by call number
sequence) is often an effective way of finding useful sources. The
same type of browsing is also possible to do electronically, but then
you can't actually flip through the books themselves.
Once you lay your hands on one good source, you can use its citations
and reference list to identify additional sources. These sources will
lead you on to their sources, and so on--this is the method of
pursuing a citation chain, which was mentioned earlier, in the section
on the use of citations. (Incidentally, many sources will use old
fashioned reference footnotes instead of in-text citations, and may
omit a reference list on the theory that the information was already
given in footnotes. That is a pain, and we are inclined to think dark
thoughts about their ancestry, but we're not so prejudiced that we'd
pass up a good source on that account.)
Since each source can cite only earlier sources, a citation chain
normally leads from recent to earlier and earlier publications. But it
is also possible to pursue it in the opposite direction, i.e., from
earlier to later citations. This is done by means of a remarkable set
of reference tools called the Social Sciences Citation Index. We'll
get to that.
Return to contents
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Return to contents
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Brazil
see also
Anthropological research--Brazil
"Cur Anthrop" is the abbreviation used in this index for the journal
Current Anthropology. (You can tell because there is a list of
abbreviations used in the front of the index.) The volumes in which
the article appears is 20, on pages 451-454, in June 1979. The article
was written by R. Cordoso de Oliveira.
To get your hands on the article itself, look up the journal name in
the serials record. This is a list of the journals and magazines in
the library, and gives their call numbers. The serials record is found
both in print and on computer at various locations--one is near the
reference desk. The serials list also tells you what volumes the
library has. Volumes that are bound are shelved in the stacks. Unbound
periodicals may be located in the "Current Periodicals" room. Some
unbound periodicals are also shelved in the stacks.
Armed with the call number for the journal and the volume and page
number from the Social Science Index reference that you found, you may
now march confidently into the stacks, walk right to the the shelf,
and pull out the volume you need, flip it open, and voil: the
desired article. (Remember, that if that article is useful, the
sources it lists in its reference bibliography may also be useful.)
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In the index for 1970-74, under the heading "Brazil," you find nothing
interesting. You turn to the anthropology heading. Again nothing seems
useful. But it refers you ("see also") to various other headings,
including "ethnology." Under "ethnology," you strike out. But it says
"see also" kinship. Turning to the kinship heading, you find an
article on kinship in Brazil. This is how it is listed in the index:
Kinship
Levi-Strauss, C. Social Structures of Central and Eastern Brazil.
In Gross, D.R., ed. Peoples and Cultures of Native South America.
p. 263-74.
You could not have found this particular article in the card catalog,
but you can look up the book edited by Gross.
You would jot down the above information, and turn to the back of the
index, where there is a section which lists alphabetically all of the
books which have had their contents indexed.
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Ethnomusicology
Religion
Religion--Mythology
Religion--Possession
Sociology--Acculturation and Culture Change
The Peabody catalog indexes the contents of many books and journals.
For example, on a card headed "Bali Island-Sociology-Authority and
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Notice that this entry does not give you the name of the editor of the
volume in which this work appears; it does give you page numbers.
Both of the above appear in the fourth supplement, which updates the
catalog. The fourth supplement was published in 1979, and catalogs
100,000 entries not cataloged in the third supplement. You should use
both the main catalog and each of the supplements in your search of
the literature. Otherwise you can miss valuable sources. For example,
if I had not looked in the main catalog under Bali, I might have
missed the following older, but classic, work:
Bali Island-Ethnography
Bateson, Gregory Balinese Character: a photographic analysis; by
Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead. New York, 1942. xvi, 227 p. 100
illus. (Special Publications of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Vol. II.)
Remember, this catalog is the best place to locate many older works;
it is an excellent retrospective bibliography.
2. Author Catalog
Suppose you already know that a particular author has done major work
on your topic. For example, maybe you are interested in some aspect of
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your topic. For example, maybe you are interested in some aspect of
the work of Alfred Kroeber on California Indians. Under Kroeber,
Alfred Louis, in the Peabody author catalog are listed 126 entries on
works by Kroeber, covering the course of his career from 1900 through
the 1950's. There are numerous articles on California Indians. After
the publications by Kroeber are listed various works about Kroeber,
which may also be useful.
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that.) The SSCI Source Index gives you the following information for
the first of Shweder's articles:
One beautiful thing about the SSCI is that in the Source Index it
lists the reference sources of every article indexed. So you not only
have a reference to Shweder's article in Ethos, you have a list of all
the sources he cited, even before you go look at his article. His
reference list is given right below the entry for his article. Let's
look at one of Shweder's sources, as listed in the Source Index.
Bateson is the author. 67 means 1967. The name of the journal in which
the article appears is American Behavioral Scientist. (The Index has a
listing of all abbreviations used.) 10 refers to the volume number of
the journal, 29 is the page number.
2. Citation Index
The Citation Index of the SSCI enables you to find out which authors
are being cited by others. The authors who cite Shweder's articles on
culture and personality, for example, are probably writing about the
same or related issues. The person who cites Shweder may provide
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When you find a good article on your topic, you can find other sources
by finding out who has cited that article (or author) since its
publication. The Citation Index lets you pursue citation chains in a
new direction. Before, you could only trace sources cited in an
article you had your hands on, which meant you could only find works
published before the date of publication of the article you have. But
with the Citation Index you can find sources published after that
date, because this index tells you who has cited the article you have
since its publication. So not only can you find a lot of potentially
useful sources fast by using the SCCI, you can also keep up with the
most recent developments and ideas in a field, and check to see how a
work was later evaluated, a theory revised, or a conceptual framework
expanded, modified or given up as worthless.
This kind of library research is likely to pay off a lot faster than
paging through journals one by one.
Here's how you go about using the SSCI Citation Index: First you look
up the author in the index. The titles of the author's articles are
listed, by year of publication, under his or her name. Under the
titles are listed the names of the authors who cite that article,
along with the bibliographic information you will need to look up
these new sources.
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for 1941, you will find digests (that is, summaries) from several
reviews of this book which appeared in various periodicals, including
American Anthropologist and American Political Science Review.
Return to contents
No two bibliographies or indexes are exactly alike. So every time you
use a new reference work, you will need to spend some time (fifteen
minutes to a half hour), learning how to use it. That goes for the
reference works that were discussed in more detail before--you can't
learn how to use something like this entirely from someone's
descriptions. You have to go and actually use these reference works in
order to consolidate what you've learned. It takes some practice.
GENERAL
Cultural Anthropology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources.
1991. Guide to reference literature in cultural anthropology, as well
as libraries, publishers and organizations.
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Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition. vol 1-4 Covers most major aspects
of Islamic history and religion.
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Index America: History and Life. 1964 - . Table This work indexes and
abstracts periodical articles in the field of North American history
and culture. Includes articles on native American history, prehistory
and culture. Includes book reviews.
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HANDBOOKS
Handbook of Latin American Studies, 1935- Publishes separate volumes
on humanities and social sciences. Annotated.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Anthropological Bibliographies: A Selected Guide. 1981. Extensive list
of bibliographies arranged geographically with a final section of
topical bibliographies.
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ATLASES
Atlas of Mankind. 1982. Contains general background information on
peoples of the world, including issues such as migration, race,
kinship, language, and environment.
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DIRECTORIES
AAA Guide. Current year. Describes anthropology departments in 485
institutions, lists American Anthropological Association members,
recent PhD dissertations in anthropology, and student statistics.
Now, at first you might think, well, duh--libraries house books, I'm
looking for books, so like what's the limitation line all about? It's
about periodicals. Using ROGER, you can locate which library
subscribes to which journal, which is useful, but now what? To find an
article on a particular topic, what do you do? You bag ROGER, that's
what.
[Jan. 2001 update: The new millennium has brought changes to the
system, and the rate of change is increasing. Much of the following is
based on the "old" 1998 MELVYL interface (which is still available);
resources today are vastly greater. Start your online library search
for journals at the California Digital Library
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Instead, use MELVYL and get into one of the periodical databases: CC,
MED, or MAGS (by typing CC, MED, or MAGS at the MELVYL prompt--not
difficult!) The search syntax is a little different in each but each
has a complete users guide--type "help" or "e med" [or "e mags" etc;
"e" is for "explain"]--and it is worth learning because with these you
can locate any article written by a particular author or that contains
a given word (or words) in the title. For example, say you found an
interesting article by Richard Wrangham that he wrote in 1980, and you
want to see if he's written anything else since then. Tell CC (the
Current Contents database) to find all articles by the personal author
R. Wrangham:
CC: f pa wrangham, r.
CC: f tw anamensis
and you're away. Note that this will miss an article about anamensis
that happens to be titled "A new hominid from Kanapoi, Kenya"; hey, no
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single system is perfect (once you know who discovered the fossil, you
can do an author search to get everything else by that person...).
Now--what's the difference between CC, MED, and MAGS? CC covers a wide
variety of scientific journals across many fields; MED is more
specialized to journals that carry articles related in some fashion to
medicine (this covers a surprising number of topics that might seem
fairly peripheral to medical topics). Finally, MAGS covers--surprise--
magazines (like Discover or Time).
Finally, a nifty feature of MED and MAGS is that for some articles you
can access the abstract and (in MAGS), sometimes even the whole
article online. In response to a search, output looks like:
3. Evans, Dylan.
The WEB
I'm not going to attempt to "cover" research on the web; just want to
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Second, while the web has everything on it, you may not be able to
find it. I recently wanted statistics on timber exports from Gabon,
and figured it was a natural for a web search. Two frustrating hours
later, nothing. On a whim, I tried MELVYL and within 3 minutes had the
call number of a recent book on African timber trade, that had
everything I could ask for and more on the subject. (A week later, an
expert I'd contacted finally got around to emailing me with a couple
of urls to websites with superb statistics on worldwide logging--like
I said, it's there, just need to find it...) No single search strategy
will get everything, and failure to find information using one
resource means try another one--not "but there's nothing on my topic!"
Back to contents
FOOTNOTES
2 Writing skills are also useful in the world at large, of course. One
of the practical aspects of anthropology courses is their frequent
emphasis on writing. You will find the writing and research skills as
taught in anthropology useful in the REAL WORLD--more useful than an
ability to ace multiple choice exams. And research and writing are not
really so hard, once you've had enough practice. back
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4 That may sound trite, but it is significant, and worth working on. A
professor once remarked that he found some kind of wrongheadedness in
the first sentence of almost every paper. If that's true--and who am I
to argue with a professor? [Steve wrote this while still a grad
student, now he can argue]--then there is probably an awful lot of
poor word choice going on. If you are careful to pick the best words
for the ideas you want to express, you will probably be one of the few
who do--that doesn't guarantee an A, but it comes closer to
guaranteeing it than any other writing habit I can think of.back
7 You can still use content footnotes, if you like. Content footnotes
discuss ideas, issues, or details that are pertinent (or,
occasionally, important) but not a necessary or direct part of the
exposition or argument of the paper. This type of footnote is for
discussion and elaboration. Unlike reference footnotes, content
footnotes do not (usually) provide bibliographic information.back
8 However, if you suspect that your audience will not be familiar with
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9 You can get pretty dummy-like after reading 100 term papers in a
row.back
11 The reference librarians are always going to know more about the
library than anyone else, so if you can't find what you need, don't
assume the library does not have it until you have asked a librarian.
back
13 I think I already told you that TAs have funny ideas about how to
spend their time.back
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in the box?"
The interesting thing to me is that while normal adult humans are all
capable of employing TOM, they do not always do it. When writing
papers, remember that the reader is another person, who may or may not
know all the things you know, and almost certainly has not organized
them in the same way you have. You need to develop logic, present
data, explain ideas. If you've read this far, you are almost certainly
human and capable of employing TOM. Do it on papers (and in seminar
presentations!!!) and you will earn delighted surprise (and points)
from your audience.
back to top
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Research papers
Research Papers
Jim Moore, Anthropology, UCSD
In the unlikely event that you're another
teacher and would like to use this, please -- be my guest!
Research papers are not essays or reports. This handout addresses 4 important subjects:
plus some miscellaneous useful information. Click here to skip ahead to sections on plagiarism
and a set of thumbnail examples of research papers that illustrate the good, bad and ugly of
what gets handed in.
"The style for research papers emphasizes the unambiguous, easily understood
presentation of information and ideas, rather than the expressive use of evocative,
complex, and richly ambiguous imagery and symbolism. In other words, research papers
require an expository, not a literary, style. ... A term paper is not a 'report' of the kind
often assigned in high schools, which meekly repeat information found in one or two
sources. Nor is a library research paper similar to a lab report, or a report on the results
of an experiment. It is never merely the presentation of a set of data [pieces of
information that can be used in analysis]. Writing a term paper requires a good deal more
intellectual involvement and commitment than writing a report does.
Then what is a term paper? Like a report, a library research paper presents data and
ideas (which are, however, typically drawn from several sources). Unlike a report, a
research paper presents your analysis and interpretation of data and ideas found in a
survey of the ... literature relevant to the topic of your paper. Analysis is the process of
organizing and summarizing data and ideas in order to answer a question. Interpretation
refers to a discussion of the meaning and implications of your answers for the issues,
ideas, and problems that your paper addresses."
(Parish, 1981: 2-3)
Research-paper writing skills and citation formats may seem picky and arcane. Is this a
case of academics trying to perpetuate a style and foist it off on students who will never
need what they learn? No (trust me...); research papers are central to a variety of fields:
First, research papers are what academia is all about. If you plan to go to grad school &
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Law: The whole game is based on research and critical written analysis presented in a
format that justifies each element of an argument and illustrates where each came from.
Conservation: Many BioAnthro and EBE majors are interested in conservation, ecology,
the state of the world. One important way to have input into that state (and to get jobs in
those fields) is through research papers on topics such as, e.g., rates of species loss
under different land-use schemes in a tropical forest habitat. Such reports don't often
convince people in charge to act ("Oh, gee, I didn't realize our oil well was going to do
that--we'll tear it right down...") but they are vital ammunition in the legal maneuvering
that ultimately leads to change. We hope.
Location: MELVYL is great, but the subject/author searches only cover books. The
majority of the information you need for a research paper is in journal articles. How do
you locate relevant articles?
Citation: The most obvious advice here is LOOK AT HOW THINGS ARE CITED IN
THE ARTICLES YOU READ. For clear and explicit instruction, see (Parish, 1981).
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There are two elements to citing your work: (1) the in-text citation where, in the body of
your paper, you tell the reader where you got an idea or quotation, and (2) the reference
to that work in your bibliography. BOTH are important. NOTE: Your bibliography should
include ONLY items discussed in the text (if you must list other things you read but did
not cite, do it as a separate "Additional Reading" section).
If you are citing a chapter from an edited book, cite the author of the chapter, not
the editor of the book!!! For example, if you read Jim Moore's chapter "Inbreeding and
outbreeding in primates: What's wrong with 'the dispersing sex'?" that appears on pp.
392-426 in the book The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding: Theoretical and
Empirical Perspectives edited by Nancy Thornhill, and you wanted to say in your paper
that some really dumb things have been written on the subject, you might write "some
really dumb things have been written on the subject, except of course for Moore (1993)" -
- you would not say "except of course for Thornhill (1993)" unless you were willing to
defend the assertion that all the chapters in the book were as insightful as mine. (Since
this medium isn't great for nuances - yes, this is irony ;-) Also, if you read several sources
that make basically the same point (good, you can be confident the point is valid!), do not
review each one in slightly different words; combine them. .
Wrong:
Do not write the same thing over and over (Smith, 1918). Jones (1935) cautions
against repetition. According to Ndwiamo, "redundant sentences are a plague in
college papers" (1967: 25).
Correct:
When writing a research paper, avoid needless redundancy (Smith, 1918; Jones,
1935; Ndwiamo, 1967, p. 25).
Bibliogaphy format also varies, but the main goal remains the same: convey to the
reader the author[s], title, source and date of the publication. Publication sources include
a) Periodical -- give name of journal (often abbreviated), volume number, and pages
of article
b) Book -- name of publisher and city of publication
c) Edited book -- title of book, names of editors, pages of chapter, plus city and
publisher
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EG:
Speth, J. D. (1989). Early hominid hunting and scavenging: the role of meat as an
energy source. J. Hum. Evol. 18: 329-343. {i.e., volume 18 of the Journal of Human
Evolution)
Strum, S. C. & Mitchell, W. (1987). Baboon models and muddles. pp. 87-105 IN
Kinzey, W. G. (Ed.), The Evolution of Human Behavior: Primate Models. Albany:
SUNY Press.
You would reference the book itself if you had said in your text "several fine
books are available on the subject (e.g., Kinzey, 1987)" and in that case, in the
bibliography it would appear as
If you cite a book review, cite the review (not the book!):
Daegling, D. J. (1993). Book review of Big Footprints: a Scientific Inquiry into the
Reality of Sasquatch, by G. S. Krantz. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 92: 124-126.
The WEB: citation formats for Internet/Web materials (includes email, gopher, FTP, etc)
are still being standardized; see NCHS (1996) for some recommendations. Basically,
author, title, URL, and date. Note that I strongly disagree with one of the
recommendations at that site, namely, that you list only the date of your visit to the site
(you wouldn't cite "Marx, 1997" if that was the year you read Das Kapital, would you?). If
available, give the last update date; only if that's not available, give your visit date (and
identify which it is!)
NCHS (National Center for Health Statistics) (1996). How to cite electronic media.
http://www.cdc.gov/nchswww/howto/ sitelec/citelec.htm [updated 11/7/96]
Miscellaneous
A small thing that is starting to drive me buggy: In-text citations are part of the sentences
they appear in; they do NOT belong after the period.
It's not a big thing, but since NO published material that I'm aware of does it the "wrong"
way, I keep getting astonished by students who make that mistake. Learn by example! I
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1999 addendum: OK, a friend recently told me that in fact there are some genres in
which the citation floats around after the period, and that this is commonly taught in
high-school. All I can say is, I've never seen it in natural or social science writing;
whether I'm parochial or K-12 teachers need to get with the program, you decide. If
you're writing for a natural/social science audience, put the period after the citation
until told otherwise.
A last minor point: NUMBER YOUR PAGES !! Geez, like I can't count? It helps me when
I make comments ("on p. 3 you said X, on p. 5..."). I have actually done statistics on
papers handed in; students who write papers near the limits of an assignment (too short,
too long) are significantly more likely not to number their pages than those in the middle
of the suggested range. Hence, as soon as I see a paper without page numbers, I assume
something's wrong with it--not numbering backfires.
3) Jones (1984) says the sky is blue. I think this is wrong because it looks kinda grey to me.
The end.
POOR: While the student is reading critically and is not afraid to disagree with the author,
no real supporting evidence or detailed argument is presented to support that
disagreement; just one person's opinion. This is close cousin to "Jones says it's blue, but
it might be grey. The end." Arguments need to be supported by data and/or explicit logic.
4) Smith (1902) says the sky is yellow. Jones (1984) says it is blue. The end.
BAD: no attempt at resolution of obvious conflict; no opinion. (Another "report")
5) Smith (1902) says the sky is yellow. Jones (1984) says it is blue. Obviously this is a
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complex question and researchers will someday come up with the answer. The end.
Formally OK: This is a common one, and you get a common grade for it. The student
read the material in enough detail to recognize the conflict, but "further research needed,"
by itself, is wimpy. At the very least, make some specific suggestions about where the
further research should go--e.g.,
"Since most people think the sky is blue, perhaps the answer to this problem has
more to do with the writers than with atmospheric optics; future work should focus
on what was wrong with Smith."
6) Smith (1902) says the sky is yellow. Jones (1984) says it is blue. Experts disagree, but that
can be explained because they were writing 82 years apart. The end.
Formally OK: The student recognizes the conflict and attempts to resolve it by saying that
if it got into a journal/book, it must be true; therefore, any resolution of the conflict, no
matter how far fetched, that lets everyone have their way is OK. As I said, this is formally
OK but makes the student look pretty silly. The sky was yellow in 1902? One learns lots in
classes (maybe); one hopefully is also bringing knowledge, experience into them. Use
that.
7) Smith (1902) says the sky is yellow. Jones (1984) says it is blue. Doe (1967) describes a
rare neurological disorder affecting people who spend too much time on Black's Beach. This
disorder reverses colors so that one perceives "yellow" when looking at blue objects. Since
Smith lived in La Jolla (Who's Who in LJ, 1910), it is reasonable to suggest she was suffering
from this syndrome, thus resolving the apparent disagreement. The end.
GREAT: Presented with a paradox, the student dug into the subject, found extra relevant
material, integrated it in a reasonable package, and suggested (not "proved") a resolution.
That's an A paper.
Not all sources are created equal. Most of the best-known journals are refereed. This means
that when an author submits a manuscript for publication, the editor sends copies of it to
between 2-5 (normally) other researchers in the same field, who do their best to tear it to
shreds. Based on their reviews, the editor either accepts, accepts with modification ("OK, but
change the following..."), or rejects the article. The author never (officially) finds out who the
reviewers were; cloaked in anonymity, normally they don't hold back. What this means to you
is that anything you read in a refereed journal has at least been heavily screened by a couple
of independent experts on the subject. The data and ideas in it may not be sound and/or
correct, but at least there are not likely to be serious, basic flaws.
This is NOT SO for many non-refereed journals or books. In those cases, the decision to
publish is made by a single editor or publisher, who maybe asked a friend about the article. I
have a ca. 200 page monograph, Original Report Number XV of the Okamura Fossil Laboratory,
entitled New Facts: Homo and all Vertebrata Were Born Simultaneously in the Former Paleozoic
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in Japan. It looks very impressive and scientific. It is written by Chonosuke Okamura, who has
discovered that if you look very closely at various rocks, you can find microscopic fossil fish,
reptiles, dinosaurs, dragons, and people--all less than 2-3mm long, and dating from
paleoaeozoic rocks. With all respect to Dr. Okamura, I suspect that he's been looking through
the microscope for too long; "eccentric" is about the kindest way of putting it. Point is, it is
published and has an official sounding title and all that. READ CRITICALLY. Journals usually
indicate somewhere if they are refereed (e.g., instructions to authors will say "submit 4 copies
for review").
TEXTBOOKS are another issue. They are handy for background, but do not use them as
sources in research papers. The purpose of a research paper is to teach you to cope with
primary sources, with conflicting interpretations of data and with mutually exclusive theories--
i.e., to challenge you and make you think for yourself [the procedure is a bit like tossing
nonswimmers into the deep end of the pool]. Since textbooks are designed to smooth out all
the controversies and difficulties so that you can just "learn the facts," relying on texts would
miss the whole point. You can identify textbooks pretty easily; "Introduction to..." or titles that
are fields ("Psychology") are giveaways, as are introductions directed "to the student" or
review questions at the ends of chapters. If in doubt, ASK.
***********************
--Tom Lehrer
Back to contents
These lyrics are from a Tom Lehrer song about a nineteenth-century Russian mathematician
who got caught plagiarizing. Unless that's how you want to be remembered ("Oh yeah--
Debbie--she's the one who plagiarized her term paper"), it is worth going over just what
plagiarism is.
At the end of my first 2 years here, EVERY time I'd assigned a research paper to a class, I
CAUGHT SOMEONE PLAGIARIZING. At the start of the quarter I ask, "Everyone know what
plagiarism is and that you shouldn't do it?;" everyone looks extremely bored and says yea, don'
bore me, mon. Three months later, one of them is explaining to a dean "But I didn't think that
was 'plagiarism'." So far the "guilty" students have ranged from freshmen who clearly hadn't a
clue what the problem was, to graduating seniors (who--eventually--did graduate) who claimed
to be clueless. Hence this handout; I hope never to catch anyone again (seems to be working,
the rate is way down).
Which raises point number one: it is extremely difficult to establish intent to plagiarize
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("guilt" in the moral sense) in most cases. On the one hand, this means that swearing
innocence usually works to convince a prof (me, anyway) that the event was accidental. On the
other hand, because it can be so hard to know the truth, my standard policy is to pass the
student along to the academic dean of his/her college anyway. Report'em all, and let the
admin sort'em out. "The recommended minimum administrative penalties are probation for the
first offense and suspension or dismissal for a subsequent offense", with "Dismissed for
Academic Dishonesty" noted on the student's transcript (UCSD General Catalog 1996-97, p.
72).
What is plagiarism?
"Plagiarism is the use of someone's work without acknowledgement--as if it were your own. If
in your term paper you were to use someone's data, ideas, or words, without documenting
that use with a citation, then you would be guilty of plagiarism" (Parish, 1981).
The key to avoiding plagiarism is simple: correct documentation of any use of sources. IE,
citation format and when to use it. Parish (1981) is a simple, clear, and useful guide to citation
format. The bookstore usually carries it (about $3.00), and I have loaner copies; alternatively,
just click here to open the online version in a new window. The following is quoted from Parish
(pp. 21-23).
A quotation, the use of someone's words, not only requires a citation, but must be set off
from your writing by quotation marks or by indentation and single spacing. This is true of
phrases as well as of whole sentences and passages. Consider the following example from
African Religions of Brazil by Roger Bastide. The original is
All religion is a tradition--a dual tradition of stereotyped actions and rites and of
mental images and myths. It has often been claimed that the two elements are
inseparable, myths being a definition or justification of the ceremonial action (Bastide
1970:240).
And here is the same passage plagiarized almost word for word in a student paper. (The
paper is hypothetical. If a student did this, he'd find his graduation getting pretty
hypothetical too.)
This religion is a dual tradition, like any other; a tradition both of stereotyped actions
and rites and of psychological images and myths. The two elements are inseparable,
with myth being the definition of ceremonial action.
Only a few, very minor, changes have been made; essentially it consists of Bastide's
words. Here is an example of how to use this passage properly:
According to Bastide, "all religion is a tradition" and as such consists "of stereotyped
actions and rites and mental images and myths." He notes that it is possible to view
ritual and myth as a unitary phenomenon in which myth is a statement of the
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It is clear that Bastide is being quoted, so a single citation at the end of the passage does
the trick. Remember: it is still plagiarism even if you put someone's thoughts or data into
your own words (in a paraphrase or summary) and do not acknowledge that use with a
citation. Plagiarism occurs whenever a citation is required, but is not given, whether for
quotes or paraphrases, ideas or data.
Parish goes on to point out that poor note-taking is one of the major causes of accidental
plagiarism; you scribble something on a piece of paper, then weeks later you try to remember
where it was from, or whether what you scribbled is a verbatim quotation or not. TAKE GOOD
& CAREFUL NOTES.
Now: when writing a research paper on, e.g., the hominid hip joint, it is hard to paraphrase
sentences like "There are nine joints or sets of joints in the lower limb: the sacroiliac joint, hip,
knee, ankle or talocrural joint, intertarsal joints, tarsometatarsal joints, intermetatarsal joints,
metatarsophalangeal joints, and interphalangeal joints" (Shipman et al. 1985). Put it in your
own words-- right. And yet, if you put "" around everything the paper starts to look like an
exercise in cut-and- paste, and the reader starts asking rude questions like "are you quoting so
much because you don't understand what you read?"
This is known as being between a rock and a hard place, and there is no easy answer. Nor is
there a formula (that I know of) for the maximum length of a phrase that you don't put ""
around. Discussing the above, it is pretty clear that you wouldn't come up with the 2-word
phrase "talocrural joint" out of thin air, but in a research paper you obviously wouldn't put
quotes around every use of a technical term. There are lots of gray areas, and all I can say is:
Why is it wrong?
1) Cheating of any sort places honest students at a disadvantage, since most courses are
graded on some sort of curve. Whether this disadvantage is unfair or not is culturally
determined; you may have heard of serious problems at several universities in India, where
students rioted (major riots, people injured if not killed) over the right to cheat on
examinations. Such riots do have a certain logic: when cheating is common, students at a
university that tries to crack down are at a great disadvantage on any standardized national
test. Have you ever missed an "A" by a couple points? Ever think it might be because someone
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else in the class cheated & shifted the curve? Think. Logically, there are just a few possible
alternatives:
Hopefully the EBE majors at least can see what I'm on about--the analogy with genetical
evolution of altruism is pretty obvious. For those who are thinking, "Yeah--and I can show
mathematically that selfish genes will invade every time," let's discuss the naturalistic fallacy. If
you want to have the ethics of a molecule, fine; don't be upset if you get treated like a
molecule then (there are some interesting ideas about the evolution of moralistic aggression
that seem relevant here...).
2) Plagiarism doesn't give the original author credit for the work/idea you are using (that
includes the words used to express that work/idea, which can be a lot of work themselves). By
now you probably know that teachers/academics don't usually get paid much: if you want to
see how people like me stand in the world, tell your parents you have decided to become an
anthropologist & study monkeys. They will immediately give you 35 or 40 excellent reasons for
not doing such a dumb thing; at least 20 will be true. Recognition is about as concrete a
reward as most academics hope for, and so failure to give that recognition strikes right at the
heart of some very emotional issues for academics. There are practical reasons why it is bad
practice (below), too.
3) Plagiarism obscures "paper trails"--making it hard to see precisely how an idea was
developed, and upon which data it was based. This can cause all sorts of trouble. For example:
say Ernie (1988) is writing about the human fossil record, and steals a section from Frank
(1972), without citing Frank. You read Ernie's article, which states confidently that we have
absolutely no idea how tall our ancestors were, 2-3 million years ago. Now, you, as a careful
student, know that partial skeletons Lucy (found in 1974) and OH62 (found in 1986) both give
a pretty good idea of stature. Obviously, Ernie in 1988 should know about these famous
fossils, so what is going on? Is he saying that Lucy and OH62 are not ancestral to us (a
position that some people believe)? Are you safe in concluding that, in your paper? You easily
could spend hours trying to work out this rather odd passage--at least, if you cared enough (&
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most academics do)--all because Ernie didn't state that he was basing his conclusions on a
1972 paper (which of course clears up the problem). Bottom line: plagiarism can make life
more difficult for readers of the plagiarised article.
4) A final problem with plagiarism is related, but affects the plagiarizer. Some things get
published that are just plain dumb; others are OK when published but then completely
outdated by a new theory or discovery a few years later. Using the example above: even
supposing the plagiarism is not detected, since Lucy is pretty well- known for a fossil, Ernie
comes out of this looking like a real idiot, an incompetent twit who just invents "facts" out of
the air. If he'd cited Frank (1972), he wouldn't come off nearly so badly: we'd perceive that he
didn't read enough, but at least he looked into the issue, recognized it's importance, and
accurately presented the 1972 state of our knowledge.
Example #2: That monograph on microfossil humans, dragons, and other animals found in
various rocks by C. Okamura (see under "research papers" above). It is either a terrific spoof,
or the guy pushes the term "eccentric" boldly where it has never gone before. If you stumbled
onto it and plagiarized from it for a paper on human evolution, I would fail you on the spot. I
mean, this stuff is off the wall. If you said exaclty the same thing but cited Okamura, I would
know that maybe we should talk about your credulity, but that in fact you had tried the
assignment and simply stumbled onto a joker in the academic deck; undergraduates aren't
supposed to know the field so well that they can avoid all those. So citing sources protects the
writer--not only is credit going where credit is due, but so is "blame."
REFERENCES CITED
Okamura, C. 1987. New Facts: Homo and all Vertebrata Were Born Simultaneously in the
Former Paleozoic in Japan. Original Report of the Okamura Fossil Laboratory No. XV (pp. 347-
573).
Parish, S. M. 1981. The Overworked Student's Practical Guide to Writing Term Papers for
Anthropology (and related subjects). Regents, University of California.
Shipman, P., Walker, A. & Bichell, D. 1985. The Human Skeleton. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
********************
From an anonymous course questionaire, Fall 1989 :
What topic seemed least interesting, or relevant to what you wanted to learn?
Genetics
What aspect of the course do you think was the most important/ educational?
Genetics
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Back to contents
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Course handouts and descriptions
Course-related materials
If you happen to want to use any of these materials other than Steve Parish's "Overworked Student's
Practical Guide..." for any educational purposes, please go ahead and do so. For that one, you'd need to
contact Steve [you can get him via the UCSD anthro dept web page]; it's copyrighted.
We're primates ourselves and are interested in our Order because it gives us a unique
ANTH42: perspective on who we are and where we came from. This is not the only perspective; we
Primates in can learn about ourselves from studies of dolphins, or parrots for that matter. This class is an
Nature introduction to primates and primatology. The "in nature" part is there because the focus is
on primates themselves, out in the wild.
About class General suggestions about writing papers for my courses. Formatting, reference citation,
word limits, etc. This is short, sweet, idiosyncratic; "Guide to Term Papers" (below) covers
papers
everything, and "Research Papers" is more about what they are, plagiarism etc.
Plagiarism is dealt with in passing in Research papers and Guide to term papers, below,
but I'm still catching (and failing & reporting) students doing things they really shouldn't. This
Cheating site (run by my esteemed colleague David Jordan) goes into detail, with examples, about
cheating (inc. esp. plagiarism) and it's consequences at UCSD. If you're in my class, you're
responsible for knowing this stuff.
Literacy in Another of Prof. Jordan's websites; in his words: "This short (if growing) guide has been
term developed over many years in response to particularly common mechanical and usage errors
papers that I keep finding in student termpapers, theses, and dissertations."
Guide to The online version of Steve Parish's "Overworked Student's Practical Guide to Writing
term Term Papers for Anthropology (and related subjects)". If you're a student, are
papers overworked, and have to write a paper... well, read it.
Research This is a handout I wrote that covers topics similar to Parish's, with the exception that I've
papers-- included some "sample papers" to illustrate common conceptual errors. They are short and I
short form hope useful.
J. R. Platt
1964: This paper, published in Science 146: 347-353, is a classic discussion of how we know things
Strong when we don't want to blindly accept an "authority" (like Aristotle, or a religious text) but
Inference cannot experimentally or logically prove them -- i.e., nearly everything in science.
[PDF]
Who cares
It has been argued that proper examination of evolutionary theory and the fossil record can
about fossil account for communism, homosexuality, oppression of women, racism... and you can't do it
names, properly without getting the details right.
anyhow?
Creation scientists sometimes attack the idea that we evolved on the grounds that if we don't
Non- know which hominid around at a particular time was our ancestor, or the name we apply to a
ancestral set of fossils has problems, then the ancestor doesn't exist and so we must have been
"ancestors" created, not evolved. This is faulty logic; see this page for an analogy that might help see
why.
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Course handouts and descriptions
One of the elements of human evolution to which we pay little attention in the Human
World Origins class is total population (partly because the early estimates are so uncertain). But it is
population interesting to put the Pleistocene into a population perspective. This is a graph of estimated
history world population from 10,000 years ago up to 30 years from now. The estimates come from
the UN; if they are even close, it's an impressive figure.
Background This grossly oversimplified look at how nerves and hormones work is intended to provide just
on nerves enough detail to convince you that it is possible to go from strings of nucleotides on
and chromosomes (aka, DNA) to complex structures and behaviors; the mechanisms do exist,
hormones we're not just waving our hands and saying "presto". Not all the time, anyhow.
Mental
BioAnthro tends to focus on the wetware, but thinking is not fully explained once you
models: understand what an axon is. This paper (by UCSD grad student Brian Derfer) is a good
How do our introduction to some of the questions being asked by cognitive anthropologists (among
minds others).
work?
Allometry This is a handout that attempts to explain the use of allometric analysis in comparative
studies, focussing on relative brain size in primates as an example.
BioAnthro A listing of some films that draw on biological anthropology for inspiration, along with some
in films questions to ask yourself then next time you watch Encino Man.
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Publications Things I've worked on... (includes complete text of some papers)
One of the things I've worked on, updated in light of new published analyses and the
2014 Ebola outbreak. It's just possible that we could learn something useful about our
HIV and AIDS
response to ebola if we'd acknowledge some uncomfortable things about the origin of
HIV.
BioAnthro at
Some general information on biological anthropology.
UCSD
A variety of handouts and other teaching- related materials. STUDENTS: this is the place
Courses
for handouts on research papers, who cares about fossil names, and other nifty things.
This is an archive of information on field sites where gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos
have been studied. It is intended for use by researchers interested in comparative
African Ape
socioecology, and contains data, maps, photographs, site bibliographies and the like. For
Study Sites
material on ape conservation, see Great Apes Survival Partnership (GRASP-UNEP), Pan
African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA) and the Bushmeat Crisis Task Force.
This describes the work my colleagues and I are doing at Ugalla, Tanzania, primarily
focused on the adaptation of chimpanzees to a wooded savanna habitat similar to that in
Ugalla Primate which hominids appear to have originated (see e.g. reconstructions of Ardipithecus
Project (UPP) ramidus ' paleohabitat). Note about "savanna chimpanzees": the botanical definition of
"savanna" is based on having grass understory - not the absence of trees, as in the
popular concept of "savanna" as shortgrass plains with only scattered trees at most.
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Southern This is a twice-annual conference (meetings generally in April and November) that
California alternates among various colleges, universities and zoos in SoCal. Link to see past and
Primate future programs, register, etc.
Research Forum
Seal If you can't go all the way to "the field" to observe charismatic megavertebrates and
study both their behavior and how people relate to nature, just visit La Jolla's Children's
Conservancy
Pool!
You don't have to go much farther away to visit the California Wolf Center (formerly the
California Wolf Julian Wolf Preserve, formerly the Julian Center for Science & Education--OK, there's an
Center identity thing...). The CWC participates in the breeding program for the highly
endangered Mexican wolf, and is always looking for volunteers. It's fun!
CONTACT Ready to go [conceptually] a lot farther away to apply your anthropology? CONTACT is
an annual conference of anthropologists, science fiction writers and space scientists.
To understand the difference between where you are and where you go, in time as well
Shifting as space, you need to understand your baseline for comparison. Visit this site. It
Baselines illustrates an important concept that applies to ALL habitat, wildlife,
environmental health and globalization issues.
One way to stop baselines from shifting out of sight is to support sustainable forestry.
Maybe you don't use much wood (until you buy a house), but imagine if you convince
your school, or business, or city to adopt such a policy. The Forest Stewardship Council
SAVE
FORESTS [FSC] approves guidelines for labeling wood products; "FSC certified" is what you
want to buy (they certify both temperate and tropical forests, it is a global
organization). Visit Rainforest Action Network for much more information, many links,
and searchable archives.
There are a couple of great tools available online for looking at changes in
forest cover, introduced late 2013/early 2014. The first is Global Forest
Change, operated out of the University of Maryland. The more recent, which looks like
it's the more powerful and user-friendly version of the same database, is Global Forest
TOOLS for Watch. The GFW "About" page states "Global Forest Watch (GFW) is a dynamic online
understanding forest monitoring and alert system that empowers people everywhere to better manage
shifting forests. For the first time, Global Forest Watch unites satellite technology, open data,
baselines of and crowdsourcing to guarantee access to timely and reliable information about forests.
forests GFW is free and follows an open data approach in putting decision-relevant information
in the hands of governments, companies, NGOs, and the public." One of it's nifty tools
allows you to draw a perimeter and query the database for the amount of forest
gain/loss over the last decade. VERY USEFUL WEBSITES if you're trying to monitor
what's happening around you.
And here I am talking about individuals. Nonhuman primates are difficult pets when
young, nearly impossible as adults. Biomedical researchers generally use only young
chimpanzees, as older ones can be dangerous. The result is hundreds of "retired"
SAVE
animals who need care. We owe them that much. Here are several excellent facilities
PRIMATES
which can use your help: Save the Chimps and Chimp Haven. There are a number of ape
(and other primate) orphanages in Africa - see Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA).
Since I happen to be on the Board, a specific shoutout to Friends of Chimps.
Picture worth
6,000,000,000
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Jim Moore home page
words (and
counting)
Forget about anthropology for a while. Or is this anthro? My vote for best contribution of
the web to modern civilization as we know it (if the link fails, google "hatten ar din"; it
will be somewhere!). And if you enjoy it, turns out there is perhaps a genre being born
Hatten on the web; if you liked Hatten, try Hyakugojyuuichi! (thanks, Richard Bribiescas, for this
addition!), and Yatta. Thanks to Heather York for this rather batty contribution. FYI
added in 2017: I originally posted these back in the 90s? Anyhow, "genre being born
on the web" hardly begins to capture it.
Ardipithecus Back to anthropology. An excellent summary of one of the most important hominid (or
ramidus hominid, if you like) fossils that has been found. Many thanks to Prof. Hill.
Intelligence All of us have an idea of what "intelligence" is, but to understand the concept from both
biological and cultural perspectives is a challenge. Here, a crack research team presents
explained
a succinct and thoughtful summary.
Bersin's
blueprint,
business A true story of refrigerator-buying that may be relevant to K-12 educational policy.
models, and
Sears
"Beware, all too often we say what we hear others say. We think what we are told that
we think. We see what we are permitted to see. Worse, we see what we are told that we
see. Repetition and pride are the keys to this . To hear and to see even an obvious lie again
and again and again, maybe to say it almost by reflex, and then to defend it because we
have said it, and at last to embrace it because we've defended it."
Octavia Butler (my emphasis)
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Where am I?
YOU
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Jim Moore home page
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UCSD BioAnthro
Questions & comments: email me at jjmoore@ucsd.edu; for more on who I am, try here
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Here are some sites, some about sites [sorry] and some more
general: Sahelanthropus [aka Toumai], the oldest hominid fossil
(as of August 2002); Handprint human evolution site offering
Start with a few good visual summary; Dmanisi - site overview of the oldest
quick hits.. (1.7my) hominid site in Europe; Ice ages summarized and
discussed by the Stage Three Project; kid's-eye intro to human
evolution; and finally, the source for these links and MANY
more, the LSB Leakey Foundation links page.
"The Understanding Evolution web site -- written for teachers
but accessible to the general public -- is intended to provide
"one-stop shopping" for evolution education." It is a
Understanding
Evolution
collaboration between the National Center for Science
Education and the University of California Museum of
Paleontology, funded by NSF and Howard Hughes, and looks
GREAT.
This 7-part series is scheduled for showing in September 2001.
The website gives brief descriptions of the episodes, from
"Darin's Dangerous Idea" to "What About God?" Looks
PBS "Evolution"
interesting, though unfortunately it looks like they bought into
the idea that there was a revolutionary "event" 50,000 years
ago to explain the Upper Paleolithic. Oh well, NEXT series...
This site is based on a usenet group devoted to discussions of
human origins;this is THE BEST PLACE to start exploring the
Talk.Origins
creation/evolution debate on the web! See especially the FAQ
page ("Frequently asked questions").
Given the question "what does it mean to be 'human'?", most
people would say that chimpanzees are not quite there
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Neanderthals and
Modern Humans (wherever "there" is...). But what about ... neandertals? They
weren't quite us, but they weren't clearly not us, either. Explore
the puzzle here.
This site was created by a friend and colleague, Jeanne Sept, to
Human origins cover both the topic and her courses. If you were in Indiana,
you might be taking these classes!
The Institute of Human Origins (IHO) brought this site out in
Becoming Human
2001; highly polished and up-to-date news & images.
For a thorough and entertaining discussion of the theory that
we went through an aquatic phase prior to Australopithecus, this
Aquatic Ape Theory is THE place to go. Erudite, witty, and insightful -- it's a Jim
Moore thing... [the author of the page is yet another Jim
Moore].
As illustrated above and below, it can be all too easy to
generate a persuasive model of human evolution from a few
initial assumptions ("priors"). This article is a WONDERFUL
Bathrobe Theory
illustration; recommended reading for anyone interested in
evaluating models of human origins [and too lazy to read my
paper in Great Ape Societies (1996)].
Institute for Creation
Research Always interesting to see...
One of the biggest issues in "what [if anything] makes us
different" research is language, and the nativist position
(identified with Chomsky, Pinker et al.) has dominated the
debate for some time [language is so complex it can't be
Could Chomsky be
Wrong?
learned without a genetically specified 'language organ';
acquisition of 'that gene' is what makes us different]. This
online article not only summarizes counter-arguments, it has
direct links to much relevant literature. Great starting point on
evolution of language!
A consortium of paleo-related information and links. Some
Paleoanthropology excellent sites on here, including everything from sites devoted
Online to particular dinosaur taxa to discussions of creationism, with
all points between. Check it out!!
NCSE works to promote the teaching of science in schools,
National Center for
Science Education
including (but not limited to) combating creationist efforts to
exclude evolution from public school curricula.
The Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Club is a
student-initiated and run club at UCSD. While the goal is
promotion of "intelligent design" theories, meetings are
IDEA Club at UCSD
friendly, informal and encourage discussion from all viewpoints
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(and often have free pizza!). It's a good venue for those
interested in constructive dialog on the issue.
For background reading on the "Intelligent Design" argument,
Michael Behe's book "Darwin's Black Box" is essential. So are
Behe's Empty Box
the reviews and criticisms of the book, assembled online here.
You judge.
"Although numerous lines of evidence show that life has
changed through time, the concept of evolution is widely
misunderstood among the general public. Evolution and the Fossil
Evolution and the Fossil
Record [PDF]
Record , an eye-catching booklet produced by the American
Geological Institute in cooperation with the Paleontological
Society, aims to change that situation." [from the AGI News
page] Download it and see!
The debate (in the USA, at least) over creation/evolution
revolves around how we know things and how we resolve
disputes when different people know fundamentally opposing
things. This article by David Brin suggests a way that the
internet can help out. He writes: "In the long run, the Internet
Disputation arenas
(David Brin)
will serve us best if it enhances two seemingly contradictory
traits -- individualism and accountability. This may seem an odd
blend, but their synergy is what brought us nearly everything
we cherish about the modern era. Exploring ways to utilize this
synergy, in order to create new systems of dispute resolution,
will be the aim of this article."
Materials for some of my courses, plus some odds and ends. In
particular: discussions of "non-ancestral ancestors" (or, why the
ICR Museum doesn't mention Homo habilis and the importance of
Course handouts and fossil names for understanding why we have racism, genocide,
descriptions sexism, violence and the like (at least, that's the argument...).
For another twist on the connection between politics and
biology see Genotypes, phenotypes, Radcliffe-Brown and
Nazism .
Anatomy and
genetics
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YOU
will be one of the first
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