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Gastro-oesophageal reux disease is one of the most common disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. Over past Lancet 2013; 381: 193342
decades, considerable shifts in thinking about the disease have taken place. At a time when radiology was the only Published Online
diagnostic test available, reux disease was regarded as synonymous with hiatus hernia. After the advent of the March 8, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
exible endoscope, reux disease was, for a period, equated to oesophagitis. The introduction of oesophageal pH
S0140-6736(12)62171-0
monitoring made us believe that reux disease could be dened by an abnormally high proportion of time with
Department of
oesophageal pH less than 4. Moreover, the successive arrival of histamine-2-receptor antagonists and proton-pump Gastroenterology and
inhibitors changed our idea of treatment for the disease, with swings from and towards surgery, endoscopic Hepatology, Academic Medical
techniques, and alternative pharmaceutical options. Center, Amsterdam,
Netherlands
(A J Bredenoord MD,
Introduction heartburn, acid regurgitation, or both, at least once a Prof A J P M Smout MD); and
Reux of gastric contents to the oesophagus is a week) is 1020%, whereas in Asia the prevalence is Department of Medicine,
physiological event: a healthy person typically has reux roughly less than 5%.4,5 In the USA, this disease is the Northwestern University,
Feinberg School of Medicine,
episodes. Gastro-oesophageal reux disease is dened as most common gastrointestinal diagnosis to prompt an
Chicago, IL, USA
reux that causes troublesome symptoms, mucosal outpatient clinic visit (89 million visits in 2009).6 The (J E Pandolno MD)
injury in the oesophagus, or both of these.1 By this rising prevalence of gastro-oesophageal reux disease Correspondence to:
denition, oesophageal lesions (erosions, ulceration, seems to be related to the rapidly increasing prevalence Prof Andr J P M Smout,
intestinal metaplasia) are not needed for a diagnosis of of obesity. Department of Gastroenterology
and Hepatology, Academic
the disease. In fact, most patients with gastro-oesophageal
Medical Center, 1100 DD
reux disease show no abnormalities on endoscopic Pathophysiology Amsterdam, Netherlands
examination. This subgroup is generally said to have Dysfunction of the oesophagogastric junction a.j.smout@amc.uva.nl
non-erosive reux disease. Three components make up the oesophagogastric
The two most typical symptoms of gastro-oesophageal junction: the lower oesophageal sphincter, the crural
reux disease are heartburn (pyrosis) and regurgitation. diaphragm, and the anatomical ap valve. This complex
Heartburn is characterised by a painful retrosternal functions as an antireux barrier.
burning sensation of fairly short duration (several The lower oesophageal sphincter, sometimes referred
minutes). Prolonged oesophageal pH monitoring has to as the intrinsic sphincter, is a 34 cm segment of
shown incontrovertibly that this symptom is indeed tonically contracted circular smooth muscle at the distal
generated by the arrival of gastric juice in the distal end of the oesophagus. The resting tone of this muscle
oesophagus; the interval between reux event and can vary in healthy individuals, from 10 mm Hg to
symptom onset is usually shorter than 1 min. Some 35 mm Hg relative to intragastric pressure. Moreover,
patients perceive their reux episodes as angina-like temporal variation is considerable, with uctuations
chest pain. Regurgitation is dened as backow of gastric happening after meals, activity, and sleep.7 Reux can
content into the mouth, not associated with nausea or take place when increases in intra-abdominal pressure
retching. Although reux and heartburn happen pre- overwhelm a hypotensive lower oesophageal sphincter
dominantly during the day, in particular postprandially, (gure 1). However, the most common mechanism for
both can also occur during sleep. Nocturnal reux is reux is transient lower oesophageal sphincter
associated signicantly with severe oesophagitis and relaxations (TLOSRs), which are independent of
intestinal metaplasia (Barretts oesophagus) and can lead swallowing. These events are the result of a vagally
to sleep disturbance.2 Some patients who complain of mediated reex that is triggered by gastric distension
heartburn do not have gastro-oesophageal reux disease; and serves to enable gas venting from the stomach. On
rather, they have a syndrome called functional heartburn.3 average, a TLOSR persists for about 20 s, which is
In addition to the oesophageal symptoms of gastro- signicantly longer than the typical swallow-induced
oesophageal reux disease, extra-oesophageal symptoms relaxation.8
can occur, such as hoarseness, cough, and asthma. The right crus of the diaphragm forms a sling that
Although evidence is sucient to support an association surrounds the distal oesophagus, creating a teardrop-
between these symptoms and reux, establishing that an shaped hiatal canal. This structure serves as an extrinsic
individual patients extra-oesophageal symptoms are sphincter by augmenting the high-pressure zone of the
caused by reux can be dicult. Uncertainty surrounds lower oesophageal sphincter.912 During TLOSRs,
whether gastro-oesophageal reux can cause pharyngitis, temporal loss of crural diaphragm activity happens.13
sinusitis, pulmonary brosis, recurrent otitis media, and In healthy people, an anatomical ap valve is present
sleep apnoea.1 at the oesophagogastric junction, which functions to
In developed countries, the prevalence of gastro- keep the distal part of the lower oesophageal sphincter
oesophageal reux disease (dened by symptoms of in the abdomen and to maintain the angle of His (ie, the
Normal ridge of tissue approximates Ridge is slightly less well dened Ridge is eaced and the hiatus Hiatus is wide open at all times and the
closely to the scope and opens with respiration is patulous sphincter is displaced axially
Figure 2: Progressive anatomical disruption of the gastro-oesophageal junction as it relates to the ap valve antireux barrier
(Upper panels) Three-dimensional endoscopic anatomy with endoscope retroexed. (Lower panels) Endoscopic manifestations of the ap valve grade. Modied from
reference 14, with permission of Elsevier.
Acid pocket
Most meals have a buering eect that leads to reduced reux symptoms, and currently, evidence is unclear to
acidity of the stomach in the postprandial phase. However, support once-in-a-lifetime endoscopy of all patients with
acid reux (as detected by pH monitoring) is generally gastro-oesophageal reux disease.42,43 By contrast, people
most pronounced after meals. In the postprandial period, who present with alarm symptoms (dysphagia,
a layer of unbuered acidic gastric juice sits on top of the haematemesis, weight loss) warrant endoscopy, because
meal, close to the cardia, ready to reux.32 This occurrence they might have clinically signicant complications of
has become known as the acid pocket (gure 1) and is gastro-oesophageal reux disease or other pathological
facilitated by an absence of peristaltic contractions in the features.44 For example, the test serves to rule out
proximal stomach.33 In patients with gastro-oesophageal alternative diagnoses, such as eosinophilic oesophagitis,
reux disease, the acid pocket is located more proximally infection, and pill injury; furthermore, an observation of
with respect to the squamocolumnar junction, and it typical reux oesophagitis conrms the diagnosis of
could even extend above the manometrically dened gastro-oesophageal reux disease. The severity of
lower oesophageal sphincter.34 Treatment with alginate- endoscopically observed reux oesophagitis is graded with
antacid preparations abolishes the pocket or increases the the Los Angeles classication (gure 3).45 However, the
distance between the upper border of the acid pocket and overall diagnostic yield of endoscopy in gastro-oesophageal
the squamocolumnar junction.35 reux disease is low, mainly because most patients with
the disease do not have visible erosions in the oesophagus,
Oesophageal hypersensitivity partly attributable to widespread acid inhibition. Thus,
In a subgroup of patients with gastro-oesophageal reux endoscopy is a test with high specicity but low sensitivity
disease, reux symptoms are noted while oesophageal acid for gastro-oesophageal reux disease.
exposure is within the normal range; thus, these individuals
are hypersensitive to acid.36 Hypersensitivity to acid occurs Proton-pump inhibitor test
both in people with erosive oesophagitis and in those with The symptomatic response to a short course of treatment
a macroscopically normal mucosa (gure 1). Experiments with an inhibitor of gastric acid secretion, nowadays
in which acid is infused in the oesophagus indicate that the invariably a proton-pump inhibitor (PPI), has become
threshold to development of heartburn and pain is lower in known as the PPI test. Generally, a reduction of symptom
patients with either erosive oesophagitis or non-erosive severity by at least 50% is judged a positive test result and
reux disease than in controls.37 Factors contributing to the is indicative of a correct diagnosis of gastro-oesophageal
noted increased oesophageal sensitivity are impaired reux disease. However, the PPI test might also be positive
mucosal barrier function, upregulation of peripheral in other acid-related disorders, such as peptic ulcer disease
nociceptors, and central sensitisation.3840 and functional dyspepsia, and an important placebo eect
has been seen. Therefore, the specicity of the test is poor
Helicobacter pylori (2465%) and is not higher than that of testing with
Helicobacter pylori does not have an important role in the placebo (3841%).46 However, in primary care, a short trial
pathogenesis of gastro-oesophageal reux disease. of a PPI is deemed useful, because the combination of a
Eradication of the microorganism does not lead to an favourable response and absence of alarm symptoms
increased chance of development of the disorder.41 makes additional diagnostic testing unnecessary.
7
With pH sensors, only acidic reux (pH <4) can be
detected. However, when antisecretory treatment is
used, two-thirds of all reux episodes are non-acidic, yet
4 these episodes can also trigger reux symptoms.49
pH
sphincter (cm)
7 Histological analysis
4
pH
Heartburn 5
Light microscopy of mucosal biopsy samples in patients
09:42:00 09:42:30 09:43:00 09:43:30 09:44:00
with gastro-oesophageal reux disease can show
Time (h:m:s) elongated papillae and hyperplasia of basal cell layers
with dilated intercellular spaces.58,59 Inammatory cells
Figure 5: Combined pH and impedance monitoring to identify non-acid reux
(including eosinophils) can be present, but pronounced
Upper traces show intraluminal impedance signals recorded from the oesophagus at 17, 15, 9, 7, 5, and 3 cm from
the lower oesophageal sphincter. The lower trace shows pH at 5 cm above the lower oesophageal sphincter. A eosinophilia is more indicative of eosinophilic
proximally migrating fall in intraluminal impedance is seen at 09:42:30 h, indicating reux of uid (upward dashed oesophagitis (more than 15 eosinophils per high-power
arrow). The uid reaches the electrodes at 9 cm proximal to the lower oesophageal sphincter. This reux event eld) than gastro-oesophageal reux disease. A large
cannot be distinguished in the pH signal, because pH does not drop less than 4. At 09:43:30 h the reuxate is
interobserver variation, low sensitivity, and low specicity
cleared from the distal oesophagus (downward dashed arrow), undoubtedly by a peristaltic wave.
strongly limit the value of histological analysis as a
diagnostic method for gastro-oesophageal reux disease. acid hypersecretion, such as Zollinger-Ellison syndrome,
Biopsy samples should, therefore, only be taken when the level of acid secretion in patients with gastro-
other causes of oesophagitis are being considered. oesophageal reux disease is similar to that in
asymptomatic controls.64 Most individuals with mild
Treatment symptoms occurring less than once a week can be treated
Lifestyle and dietary modications with on-demand antacids. Alternatively, standard-dose
A common belief is that the rst step in management of and over-the-counter histamine-2-(H2)-receptor antag-
gastro-oesophageal reux disease should consist of onists can be used for on-demand treatment in patients
changes in lifestyle, including diet. Dietary advice is with non-erosive reux disease or mild oesophagitis.65
based largely on epidemiological observations showing In patients with moderate-to-severe symptoms of gastro-
associations between reux symptoms and eating habits. oesophageal reux disease or severe erosive oesophagitis,
High dietary fat intake is associated with increased risk treatment with PPIs should be regarded as rst-line
of gastro-oesophageal reux disease whereas a high bre treatment.66 Findings of many studies show a clear
intake decreases the risk.60 However, the eectiveness of advantage of PPIs over H2 blockers for both healing of
dietary recommendations has not been shown, and in oesophagitis and maintenance of healing. Data comparing
view of this absence of evidence, limitation of dietary the various PPIs (omeprazole, pantoprazole, lansoprazole,
advice seems wise. Thus, recommendations are to have a rabeprazole, esomeprazole) show only small dierences
generally healthy diet and to avoid food items that, in the between drugs, which are not clinically relevant, across all
experience of the patient, trigger symptoms. patients with gastro-oesophageal reux disease.67
Cessation of tobacco smoking is a sensible Individuals not responding to standard-dose PPI
recommendation in general, but no data show that treatment might benet from either a dose increase to
stopping smoking leads to a reduction in reux twice the standard dose or splitting the dose to a twice-a-
symptoms. By contrast, much evidence indicates the day regimen.6870 Addition of an H2 blocker at bedtime to
eectiveness of weight reduction, at least in patients who PPI treatment enhances the inhibition of nocturnal acid
are overweight or obese.61,62 The frequent advice to elevate secretion, but this eect wears o within a few weeks.71
the head of the bed is only rational for patients with PPI treatment is very safe. However, over the years,
gastro-oesophageal reux disease who have reux some concerns about the eects of prolonged acid
episodes at night. Although symptom-based studies suppression have been raised, including: a high risk of
suggest the prevalence of nocturnal reux is more than infection; enhanced propensity to develop atrophic
50%, 24-h pH studies indicate that, in many patients, gastritis; increased risk of Clostridium dicile-associated
reux episodes only occur during the day. Findings of a diarrhoea;72 greater risk of fractures;73 hypomagnesaemia;74
small randomised trial suggest that an induced change deciencies of vitamin B12 and iron;75 and the potential
(through training) from thoracic to abdominal breathing for a transient increase in acid secretion after dis-
can improve gastro-oesophageal reux disease, as continuation.76 Clinically important drug interactions are
assessed by pH, quality of life, and PPI use.63 rare. The platelet aggregation inhibitor clopidogrel is less
active in conjunction with PPI treatment because of
Antacids and alginates decreased activation. However, recent work suggests that
Nowadays, antacids are used mostly in primary care and this interaction is not clinically relevant.77 In patients who
for self-treatment. Typically, they are used on demand need prolonged PPI treatment, the argument to eradicate
because their onset of action is rapid and their eect H pylori is not compelling.36
short-lived. Depending on the preparation, excessive use
of antacids can lead to diarrhoea or constipation and, in Other medical treatment options
patients with renal failure, to hypermagnesaemia or Theoretically, treatment with a prokinetic drug that
hyperaluminaemia. Alginate is a polysaccharide derived accelerates gastric emptying, increases lower oesophageal
from seaweed. It binds water to form a viscous gum that sphincter pressure, or hastens clearance of reuxate
oats in the proximal stomach, thereby reducing the acid from the oesophagus could be benecial in gastro-
pocket.35 Commercially available alginate preparations oesophageal reux disease. However, the currently
also contain an antacid. available prokinetics metoclopramide and domperidone
are not eective for treatment of this disease.78 Cisapride
Acid inhibition was an eective drug but is no longer available.79 New
Although the pathogenesis of gastro-oesophageal reux prokinetics are in development.
disease depends mainly on anatomical disruption and Most reux episodes happen during TLOSRs, and
abnormal motor function, the most reliable medical these can be inhibited pharmacologically. The -amino-
treatment is based on reduction of acid secretion in the butyric acid (GABA)B-receptor agonist baclofen reduces
stomach. This approach provides no denite solution: the incidence of TLOSRs and reux episodes, but this
once the drug is discontinued the symptoms will return. drug is not suitable for treatment of gastro-oesophageal
With the exception of very rare diseases associated with reux disease because of its central side-eects.80 Results
of trials with new TLOSR inhibitors are disappointing metaplasia, ulceration, or stenosis that develop or persist
thus far because of side-eects and limited ecacy.81 despite adequate acid suppression.
Reduction of oesophageal (hyper)sensitivity would be a 5-year results of a randomised European trial
useful approach in patients with gastro-oesophageal comparing maintenance PPI treatment (esomeprazole)
reux disease with low acid exposure and absence of with laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication85 showed that
mucosal damage. Data suggest that tricyclic anti- the remission rate did not dier between therapeutic
depressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors strategies. However, at 5 years, acid regurgitation was
can reduce sensitivity, but evidence is not sucient to more prevalent in the PPI group than in the
recommend these drugs for use in routine practice.82,83 fundoplication group. This disadvantage of conservative
treatment was counterbalanced by the nding that
Endoscopic treatment dysphagia, bloating, and atulence were more common
Currently available techniques for endoscopic treatment in the fundoplication group.
of gastro-oesophageal reux disease include suturing Although the traditional Nissen procedure is a
devices, transmural fasteners and staplers, and complete (360) posterior fundoplication, several variants
radiofrequency ablation. Although the techniques all entailing partial or anterior fundoplication have been
seem feasible and have safety proles that are similar to described and investigated. In recent years, meta-
those of antireux surgery, they are not as eective as analyses comparing the eects of Nissen and Toupet
surgery for returning acid exposure to normal, healing of fundoplication (270) have been undertaken.86,87 Both
oesophagitis, and resolution of symptoms. Widespread procedures are equally eective with respect to reduction
use of these techniques cannot yet be recommended. of oesophageal acid exposure and lessening of reux
Patients considering these procedures should be referred symptoms, but the Toupet procedure is associated with
to specialised centres and enrolled in clinical trials. less dysphagia.
Fundoplication has also proven eective in patients for
Surgical procedures whom non-acid reux is an important determinant of
Since publication of the procedure by Rudolf Nissen in symptoms.88 Fundoplication certainly carries a risk of
1956,84 fundoplication has become the gold standard for mortality, but recent gures indicate that 30-day mortality
surgical treatment of gastro-oesophageal reux disease. is as low as 005% in patients younger than 70 years.89
Presently, the most common indication for surgery is In morbidly obese patients with gastro-oesophageal
persistence of troublesome symptoms, particularly reux disease, laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
regurgitation, in patients with proven gastro-oesophageal should be considered. This bariatric procedure is highly
reux disease who have a favourable but incomplete eective against the disease.90
response to PPI. Another frequent reason to choose Two alternative laparoscopic antireux techniques have
surgical treatment is the patients reluctance to use a PPI been trialled. One approach entails placement of a
for the rest of their life. Fundoplication is undertaken exible band of magnetic beads around the
infrequently for complications such as intestinal oesophagogastric junction.91 The second procedure
includes implantation of an electrical stimulator
Alarm or refractory
connected to electrodes into the lower oesophageal
symptoms sphincter.92 Initial open-label studies of these techniques
have yielded encouraging results. However, more
Los Angeles grade C, D, or Barretts Los Angeles grade A or B
Endoscopy information from well-designed comparator-controlled
No abnormalities studies with long follow-up is needed before routine use
of these procedures can be advised.
8 week course
8 week course of PPI 8 week course
of PPI of PPI Management
Persistent Persistent Most patients with gastro-oesophageal reux disease are
symptoms symptoms treated satisfactorily by lifestyle modications, antacids,
alginates, or acid inhibitors. Figure 6 shows our
approach to management of individuals in whom
Symptoms 8 week course of Persistent 8 week course of Symptoms symptoms persist or who present with alarm symptoms.
under control double-dose PPI symptoms double-dose PPI under control After endoscopy, patients undergo a trial of single-dose
PPI, but when this approach has already been tried
Positive Reux monitoring Negative twice-daily PPI is started. When the response to PPI is
satisfactory, patients with severe oesophagitis and
PPI Consider Consider other PPI on
maintenance surgery diagnoses demand (or Barretts oesophagus should continue with daily PPI
maintenance) (maintenance treatment) while those with none or mild
oesophagitis can use a PPI on demand. When symptoms
Figure 6: Management algorithm for symptoms of refractory reux persist despite a suciently long period with high-dose
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