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Crosses
Involves taking two parents, mating them, observing the phenotype
of their progeny, and comparing it to that of the parents.
Gives an idea of how traits are passed.
Reciprocal Crosses
Involves crossing two individuals, each true-breeding for a
different trait then doing another round of crossing but this time,
with two the male being true-breeding for the phenotype of the
female last time and vice versa.
Phenotypes
Controlled by genes/genotype.
Diploid
Two copies of a gene. One from each parent.
Test Cross
Designed to observe the genotype of an individual.
Mate individual with unknown genotype with a homozygous
recessive individual for a trait and observe the phenotype to make a
conclusion about the genotype.
Back-Cross
Crossing a filial generation back with the parent to produce a
progeny that is more genetically identical to the parent. Often used
in horticulture.
Mendel Found:
The F1 progeny of a cross between two true-breeding
lines establishes the dominance of the phenotype.
The F2 progeny established the Law of Segregation
CHISQUARE TEST
(Observed Expected)^2 = x^2
Expected
Degree of Freedom (df) = # of categories 1
Compare to P value
If P > 0.05, then you fail to reject the null.
P < 0.05, you can reject the null.
Chromosomal Basis Of Heredity 10/23/2013 9:23:00 PM
Ploidy
Ploidy tells us how many copies of each chromosome we
have.
Haploid Just one copy of a chromosome.
Diploid Two copies of a chromosome (one from mom
and one form dad in humans
o Human have 23 pairs of chromosomes total in each
somatic cell.
Cell Division
Two types: Mitosis & Meiosis
Mitosis
Why?
o Growth & Repair
What type of Cell
o Somatic Cell
Every cell besides sex cells
Goal
o To create a daughter cell that is exactly identical to
the parent cell.
In humans
o Start with a diploid cell, end with two diploid cells
Cell Cycle
G1 Active gene expression and cell activity. Prepares
for DNA replication.
S phase DNA replication occurs here.
o 2n 4n
G2 Preparation for cell division
M Phase Mitosis or Meiosis
Regulation of Mitosis
Mitosis is regulated at many different stages by different
genes.
The cell cycle has checkpoints. Cells that reach a certain
checkpoint just meet some requirements before it can go
on to the next stage in the cell cycle.
X-Linked Dominant
Trait appears equally in males and females.
Calvin Bridges
Discovered the non-disjunction event through mating
drosophila.
Expected only red-eyed females and white eyed males in
the F1
o However, found that 1/2000 of the progeny were
exceptional, meaning that they were white-eyed
females or red eyed males.
o This is due to Non-disjunction
Bridges proposed that exceptional females were XXY.
o Y came from Dad, XX came from mother due to
failure to separate homologous X chromosomes in
females during meiosis.
Gametes end up with XX and O
o Exceptional males were XO meaning they had no Y
chromosomes.
Ultimately fund that genes and chromosomes are co-
inherited
o Therefore, genes must be on chromosomes.
Sex Determination
Different across species
In humans, Y is required for male development.
In drosophila, a single X develops as male and two X as
female.
Dosage Compensation
In female mammals, there exists a mechanism to equalize
the amount of expression of genes on the X chromosome
with that of males.
This is called X-Inactivation.
One of the X chromosomes are silenced in females and is
turned into a transcriptionally inactive structure known as
a barr body.
Aneuploidy
An abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell.
Gene Interaction I 10/23/2013 9:23:00 PM
Incomplete Dominance
One allele is not completely dominant over the other.
Results in phenotype that is different from the
homozygous recessive and dominant however it more
closely resembles the dominant.
Codominance
Type of dominance in which both alleles for the same
gene are expressed equally and are expressed in the
phenotype.
Allelic Series
Many alleles for one gene but there is an order of
dominance
Lethal Mutation
Mutation that results in inviable progeny.
Sex-Limited Traits
Traits whose dominant characteristics depends on the
sex.
Beards for example are dominant in males but not
recessive in females.
Gene x environment
Some genes arent shown in the phenotype unless youre
in a certain environment.
For example, Phenoketonuria (PKU), is a disease in
which an individual cannot metabolize Phenylalanine.
Can be solved simply by not eating things with Phe in it.
Pleiotropy
When one single gene mutation affects many different
phenotypes.
For example, Sickle Cell Anemia.
Genes in pathways
Many genes interact with one another via pathways.
Gene for Insulin for example interacts with other genes
involves in glycolysis for example.
Can also be seen in eye pigment for flies.
o Eye color is coded through a biosynthetic pathway
with multiple inputs whose output is combined at the
end to create the phenotype.
Horowitz
Using Beadle and Tatums data, Horowitz asked, are
mutants for the same phenotype mutants for the same
genotype as well?
Tested this question by removing intermediates in the
biosynthetic pathway for methionine and observed which
compound accumulated.