Mrs.

Glennalin Medina
De La Salle University
Sept 17, 2008
Precision

How closely two or more measurements of the
same quantity agree with one another

Describes the reproducibility of measurements

(closeness of results that have been obtained in
exactly the same way)

Described by standard deviation, variance,

coefficient of variation, relative standard deviation
Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true
or accepted value

Expressed by the error (either absolute

or relative error)
Accuracy vs Precision
Systematic/Determinate Error

A consistent error and it can be detected and corrected

Causes the results to be too high (+ error) or too low (-
error)

Affects the accuracy of the measurement

Example: The pH meter was calibrated and the pH

reading was set to be 7.08 when it should have read 7.00.
All subsequent readings will be higher by 0.08 units.
 Random or Indeterminate Error

Can neither be identified nor directly
compensated

Causes the results to scatter more or less
symmetrically around the mean value

Affects the precision of the measurement

Example: The way the analyst reads the

buret reading and the fluctuation of the
electrical current affects the performance
of the pH meter or the balance.
GROSS Error

Occurs occasionally and may cause the
result to be either high or low

Product of human errors

Produces outliers (results that

significantly differ from others)
Statistical Treatment of Analytical Data
MEAN

Average; Sum of the measurements divided by n

MEDIAN

Middle result when replicate data are arranged
according to increasing or decreasing value
 Statistical Treatment of Analytical Data

Mode the value that occurs most frequently

Absolute Error:
E = Xi - Xt

Relative Error:

Er = (Xi - Xt / Xt) x 100%

 Statistical Treatment of Analytical Data

Deviation:
d = IXi - meanI

Relative deviation:
dr = (d / mean) x100

Standard deviation:
s=

(x x )2
i

n 1

Relative Standard Deviation: RSD = s/mean

Coefficient of Variation: CV = RSDx100

EXERCISE!!!
See Excel File
RULES IN SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
3. For nos.<1, all zeros to the right of the first
nonzero digit are significant. All zeros to the left of the
first nonzero digit are not significant.
4. For nos.>1, all zeros to the right of the decimal
point are significant.
5. For large numbers that do not contain digits after
the decimal point, the terminal zeros may or may not
be significant.
Exercise Significant Figures
1. 25 6. 0.00005642
2. 0.09034 7. 3000
3. 1.00 8. 2.056
4. 0.50789 9. 3.654 x 104
5. 2008 10. 4.0570
Exercise Scientific Notation

54320.03 5.432003 x 104

76568.43 7.656843 x 104
0.000056892 5.6892 x 10-5
0.0001456 1.456 x 10-4
SIG FIG OPERATIONS
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The limiting or key number is the
measurement with the least number of
decimal places (or least number of digits
specified after the decimal point). This indicates
the measurement obtained with the least
degree of precision.

After performing the indicated mathematical
operation, the final answer must be rounded
off to contain the same number of digits after
the decimal point as the limiting number.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION Examples

3.6923
+ 1.234 8.7937
+ 2 .0 2 2.123
6.9463 6.6707
round off to 6.95 round off to 6.671
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The limiting number is the measurement with the
least number of significant figures.

After performing the indicated mathematical operation,
the final answer must be rounded off to contain the
same number of significant figures as the limiting
number.
4 . 24 2 2 . 783 2
x 1.2 3 x 1. 4
5 . 21766 3 . 89648
round off to 5.22 round off to 3.9