Theories of the Universe Collapsing Clouds of Gas and Dust

Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang theory says that the universe was in a tiny
ball, and then it exploded and become bigger and all of
the stars and planets came into existence then. Nobody
knows where the original ball came from. the Big Bang
theory is correct, then it happened about 13.7 billion
years ago.
A great cloud of gas and dust (called a nebula) begins to
collapse because the gravitational forces that would like
to collapse it overcome the forces associated with gas
pressure that would like to expand it (the initial collapse
might be triggered by a variety of perturbations---a
supernova blast wave, density waves in spiral galaxies,
etc.).

This theory is supported by the fact that the universe is

continually expanding, and the this theory says that the
universe just constantly expands. In 1965 two scientists
discovered a pocket of heat that is thought to be a
remnant of the heat that caused the Big Bang.

Creationist Theory

This theory states that a God created the universe in

seven days. This theory is supported by the Bible, but if
this is true, the universe would be very young. Some
people think that the universe is only 6,000 years old, if
this theory is proven true.

Intelligent Design Theory

This theory is an offshoot of the creationist theory. This

theory says that something above God and outside of
our knowledge created the universe. If this theory is
right, that would automatically mean the creationist
theory is wrong. Some think that if this theory is true,
that would mean that aliens are observing us.

Holographic Theory

This theory states that the entire universe is just a

hologram. If this theory is correct, it would also mean
that every living thing would also be a hologram. This
theory is far different from all of the other theories
because if it is true, all other theories would be
pointless because the whole universe technically
wouldnt exist.

Always Existed In the Nebular Hypothesis, a cloud of gas and dust

collapsed by gravity begins to spin faster because of
This theory states that the universe was always here,
angular momentum conservation
and will always be here. Although not technically a
theory, many people believe this theory because no The Spinning Nebula Flattens
other theory fully explains their theory. This is also
considered a counter to the creationist theory, as
nobody knows for sure who created God. This theory
would also solve any fears of an end of the universe
theory, as the universe would always exist.

The Origin of the Solar System

The Nebular Hypothesis in its original form was

proposed by Kant and Laplace in the 18th century. The The collapsing, spinning nebula begins to flatten into a
initial steps are indicated in the following figures. rotating pancake

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Because of the competing forces associated with gravity,
gas pressure, and rotation, the contracting nebula
begins to flatten into a spinning pancake shape with a
c) protosun heats up, wind blows gas away
bulge at the center, as illustrated in the following figure.
d) protoplanets grow by accretion
e) modern solar system
Condensation of Protosun and Protoplanets
As the nebula collapses further, instabilities in the
collapsing, rotating cloud cause local regions to begin to
contract gravitationally. These local regions of
condensation will become the Sun and the planets, as
well as their moons and other debris in the Solar
System.
As the nebula collapses further, local regions begin to
contract gravitationally on their own because of
instabilities in the collapsing, rotating cloud
While they are still condensing, the incipient Sun and
planets are called the protosun and protoplanets,
respectively.
Evidence for the Nebular Hypothesis
Because of the original angular momentum and
subsequent evolution of the collapsing nebula, this
hypothesis provides a natural explanation for some
basic facts about the Solar System: the orbits of the
planets lie nearly in a plane with the sun at the center
(let's neglect the slight eccentricity of the planetary
orbits to simplify the discussion), the planets all revolve
in the same direction, and the planets mostly rotate in
the same direction with rotation axes nearly
perpindicular to the orbital plane.
Planets form in a disk
a) flattened cloud of gas and dust
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b) dust settles to midplane and accumulates into
planetesimals
Dust Pebbles Planetesimals Planets
Condensation
Transition directly from gas (vapor) to solid
phase
Example on Earth: formation of snowflakes
Solar Nebula slowly cooled down, so
condensation could begin
Regions nearest Sun were warmer than those
far away
Pattern of condensation was determined by
local temperature
DESCARTES THEORY
Rene Descartes (1650)
He proposed that solar systems formed
into bodies with nearly circular orbits because
of the whirlpool-like motion of the pre-solar
materials.
BUFFONS THEORY
George Louis Leclere Buffon(1707-1788)
He proposed that planets were formed
by the collision of the Sun with the giant comet.
The resulting debris formed into planets that
rotate in the same direction as they revolved
around the Sun.
JEANS TIDAL THEORY
JAMES HOPWOOD JEANS (1946)
Planets were formed from the
substance that was torn out of the sun. It pulled
out due to the gravitational attraction. The torn
off material subsequently condensed to form
the planets.
BUFFONS THEORY
George Louis Leclere Buffon(1707-1788)
He proposed that planets were formed
by the collision of the Sun with the giant comet.
The resulting debris formed into planets that
 rotate in the same direction as they revolved
around the Sun.
Conditions for Life
Earth: The Fragile Miracle
The Goldilocks Zone
The Greenhouse Effect
Earths life-sustaining conditions are possible
because of its position in the solar system
It is not too hot and not too cold if the Earth
was any closer or further away from the Sun,
the planet could not support life
The greenhouse effect allows for heat in the
atmosphere (carbon and water vapor) to be re-
radiated back to Earth
Without proper water and carbon, the earth
would be -73 degrees C.
Plants play a significant role in creating a stable
temperature through releasing water vapor and
oxygen by the processes of photosynthesis and
transpiration
Dark areas of vegetation absorb heat from the
suns rays and limit the albedo effect heat
being reflected back into space

Other Life Sustaining Conditions

Photosynthesis
Earths rotation on its axis and orbit around the
Sun helps distribute heat evenly around the
planet

Earths magnetic field protects the planet from

deadly radiation and particles

Earths gravitational field holds the atmosphere

in place preventing oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon dioxide from escaping into space

Four Conditions for Life

1. Stable Temperature Range

2. The Importance of Water

3. The Importance of Gases The Importance of Water

4. The Role of the Atmosphere
Stable Temperature Range
A stable temperature range (-50 to about +50
degrees Celsius) allows life to thrive the
average temperature has been between 10-20
degrees Celsius for 3.5 billion years
First water likely came from volcanic activity
water collected on the cooling surface and as
vapour in the atmosphere creating the water
cycle
Biologists believe earth first began in the oceans
blue-green algae

3
 Oceans cover 2/3 of the Earth absorbs heat
and distributes it around the world and controls
our weather patterns and climates

Helps distributes nutrients to plants and other

organisms

No living this consists of less than 50% water

Water is the metabolizing agent that allows

plants and animals to dissolve minerals and
nutrients to create energy

The Importance of Gases

The Four Spheres
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide
0.03% - quite different than other planets in the 1. Lithosphere earths crust (soil, rocks, and
solar system minerals)

The plants have removed most of the carbon
dioxide that originally existed and produced lots
of oxygen
Without life on earth, carbon dioxide would
increase
The production of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins require oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen
atoms from the atmosphere, and hydrogen
from water
The Role of the Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere earths water
3. Atmosphere the gases in the air
4. Biosphere all living things (plants, bacteria,
animals)
5. The Lithosphere
6. The Lithosphere contains all of the cold,hard
solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the
semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the
liquid land near the center of the planet.

Layer of gases about 80-100 kms thick very

thin compared to size of Earth

Helps maintain a consistent temperature

Shields earth from collisions with cosmic

particles (meteors)

Oxygen levels at 21 allow for life, if they drop,

animal life would not be possible, if it exceeds
25% most plants would be consumed by fire
The Hydrosphere
Oxygen is produced by plants and consumed by
animals and the burning of plants and fossil The hydrosphere contains all the solid,
fuels
liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. It ranges from
10 to 20 kilometers in

What are the subsystems of the Earth? thickness. The hydrosphere extends from

Essential Questions Earth's surface downward several

What are the 4 spheres of the Earth? kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12
kilometers into the atmosphere.
How do these spheres interact?
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is
What are the major cycles of the Earth?
salty.
How do humans impact these cycles?

4
 The upper portion of the atmosphere protects
the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's
ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits
heat. When air temperature in the lower
portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs.
As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or
cooled, it moves around the planet. The result
can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a
tornado.

How do the 4 spheres interact?

Humans (biosphere) built a dam out of rock

Biosphere
Encompasses all living organisms including
humans
Divided into separate but interdependent units
called ecosystems well defined habitats
hosting systems of interacting organisms
The biosphere contains all the planet's living
materials (lithosphere).
Water in the lake (hydrosphere) seeps into the
cliff walls behind the dam, becoming
groundwater (lithosphere), or evaporating into
the air (atmosphere).
Humans (biosphere) harness energy from the
water (hydrosphere) by having it spin turbines
to produce electricity.

things. This sphere includes all of the

microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth.

Within the biosphere, living things form

ecological communities based on the physical

surroundings of an area. These communities are
referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and
tropical rainforests are three of the many types
of biomes that exist within the biosphere.

The biosphere contains all the planet's living EVALUATION

things. This sphere includes all of the Earth: The Fragile Miracle

microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth. Conditions for Life

Within the biosphere, living things form The Goldilocks Zone

ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings of an area. These communities are
referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and
tropical rainforests are three of the many types
of biomes that exist within the biosphere.
The Atmosphere
Earths life-sustaining conditions are possible
because of its position in the solar system
It is not too hot and not too cold if the Earth
was any closer or further away from the Sun,
the planet could not support life

The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's

system.

It extends from less than 1 m below the

planet's

surface to more than 10,000 km above the

planet's surface.

5

Other Life Sustaining Conditions
Earths rotation on its axis and orbit around the
Sun helps distribute heat evenly around the
planet
Earths magnetic field protects the planet from
deadly radiation and particles
Earths gravitational field holds the atmosphere
in place preventing oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon dioxide from escaping into space
Four Conditions for Life
1. Stable Temperature Range
2. The Importance of Water
3. The Importance of Gases
4. The Role of the Atmosphere
Stable Temperature Range
A stable temperature range (-50 to about +50
degrees Celsius) allows life to thrive the
average temperature has been between 10-20
degrees Celsius for 3.5 billion years
The greenhouse effect allows for heat in the
atmosphere (carbon and water vapor) to be re-
radiated back to Earth
Without proper water and carbon, the earth
would be -73 degrees C.
The Greenhouse Effect
Plants play a significant role in creating a stable
temperature through releasing water vapor and
oxygen by the processes of photosynthesis and
transpiration
6
Dark areas of vegetation absorb heat from the
suns rays and limit the albedo effect heat
being reflected back into space
The Importance of Water
First water likely came from volcanic activity
water collected on the cooling surface and as
vapour in the atmosphere creating the water
cycle
Biologists believe earth first began in the oceans
blue-green algae
Oceans cover 2/3 of the Earth absorbs heat
and distributes it around the world and controls
our weather patterns and climates
Helps distributes nutrients to plants and other
organisms
No living this consists of less than 50% water
Water is the metabolizing agent that allows
plants and animals to dissolve minerals and
nutrients to create energy
The Importance of Gases
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide
0.03% - quite different than other planets in the
solar system
The plants have removed most of the carbon
dioxide that originally existed and produced lots
of oxygen
Without life on earth, carbon dioxide would
increase
The production of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins require oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen
atoms from the atmosphere, and hydrogen
from water
The Role of the Atmosphere
Layer of gases about 80-100 kms thick very
thin compared to size of Earth
Helps maintain a consistent temperature
Shields earth from collisions with cosmic
particles (meteors)
Oxygen levels at 21 allow for life, if they drop,
animal life would not be possible, if it exceeds
25% most plants would be consumed by fire
 Oxygen is produced by plants and consumed by
animals and the burning of plants and fossil
fuels
The Four Spheres
1. Lithosphere earths crust (soil, rocks, and
minerals)
2. Hydrosphere earths water
3. Atmosphere the gases in the air
4. Biosphere all living things (plants, bacteria,
animals)
Biosphere
Encompasses all living organisms including
humans
Divided into separate but interdependent units
called ecosystems well defined habitats
hosting systems of interacting organisms
Nutrient Cycle - Continuation of life depends on
the constant recycling of chemical ingredients
called nutrients (Example: plants and animals
die and decompose)
Most powerful element in the Earths
atmosphere
Microscopic bacteria live on the roots of certain
plants known as legumes and converts nitrogen
to ammonia and nitrates which the plant
absorbs and converts to protein food
production
Most from evaporation some from
transpiration; water drawn by plants and
released through their leaves
Groundwater dissolves nutrients in the soil
Famous astronomers
Tyhco Brahe
Tycho was a Danish astronomer he became
famous for creating precise astronomical
measurements of the solar system about 700
hundred stars.
During his free time he studied stars, one of his
great discoveries was he found a supernova
near the Cassiopeia constellation in 1972.
Galileo Galilei
Galileo (1564-1962) was an Italian physicist and
astronomer he is greatly remembered for some
7
of his very important contributions to
astronomy and physics. Galileo got a degree in
mathematics and taught theories that
contradicted Aristotle theories.
In 1609 he heard that in Holland a spy glass had
been invented, and he was inspired to create
the first telescope . He also discovered
sunspots.
Johannes Kepler
Johannes (1571-1630) was a German natural
philosopher and astronomer who was known for his
ability in formulating and verifying the three laws of
planetary motion. They are known as the Keplerss laws.
He studied theology and classics at the university of
Tubingen
Johannes became Tycho Brahes assistant at the
observatory near Prague. When Tycho passed away,
Kelper took over his job and spent the rest of his like
writing books.
Clyde Tombaugh
Clyde (91906-1997) is in the astronomers hall of fame.
He was the final discoverer of Pluto after he spent may
of years researching it. When Clyde was 22 he had made
a home made 9 inch reflector which he used to make
drawing of Saturn and Jupiter. When he sent in the
pictures to Lowell Observatory he was immediately
offered a position as a astronomical photographer.
Later, his research gained him another position as
researcher, and his goal was to find the infamous Planet
X, which would later be Pluto. Finally, on March 12,
1930, Pluto was discovered.
Nicholas Copernicus
Nicholas (1473-1543) was a polish astronomer, he was
well known for his Copernican theory. His theory started
that the sun rest near the centre of the earth, which
spin daily on its axis revolved around the sun. The
process is now known as the heliocentric or
suncentered system.
During the Janurary of 1497 he began to study canon
law at University of Bologna while living with a
mathematician, Domenico Maria de Novara. Novara
sparked Copernicus' interest in geography and
astronomy, and the final climax of it came when the two
watched the occultation(eclipse by the moon) of the
star Aldebaran on March 9, 1497.
Edmund Halley
 During his life he also wrote another important Velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below 50
treatise called Astronomiae Cometicae Synopsis. km of depth
It was started in 1682 and published in 1705.
Separates crust from underlying mantle

Shadow Zone
In this he mathematically demonstrated that comets
Absence of P waves from about 105 degrees to 140
move in a elliptic orbits around the sun and how over
time they would pass the same point. He had such an degrees around the globe from an earthquake
accurate prediction that when the comet (now Halley's Can be explained if Earth contains a core composed of
Comet) returned in 1758, it validated his theory. materials unlike the overlying mantle
Edmund (1656-1742) was a British Astronomer, who Discovering Earths Composition
was the first to calculate a comet's orbit. He went to
the University of Oxford, where he studied the theories Crust
of Sir Isaac Newton. Because he was so interested with
Early seismic data and drilling technology indicate
the theories, it inspired him to write the Principle which
that the continental crust is mostly made of lighter,
he published with his own money in 1687.
granitic rocks.
Maria Mitchell
Mantle
Maria (1818-1889) is one of the first famous
Composition is more speculative.
female astronomers.
Some of the lava that reaches Earths surface comes
She was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Her
from asthenosphere within.
love for astronomy began when her father
began maintaining a small observatory. The Core
accomplishment that brought her international
reorganization was when she discovered a Earths core is thought to be mainly dense iron and
telescopic comet in October of 1847. nickel, similar to metallic meteorites. The surrounding
mantle is believed to be composed
Claudius Ptolemy of rocks similar to stony meteorites.
Claudius (AD 100?-170?) was one of the most
famous astronomers and mathematicians, even
though some of his theories were later proved
wrong. Yet he laid down the foundation for
future astronomers and mathematicians to
take. His theories dominated the scientific field
until the 16th century.

His name "Claudius" means 'roman citizenship',

but Ptolemaeus means 'resident of Egypt',
which would make sense since most of his life
was spent in Egypt, specifically Alexandria.
Claudiuss most famous work, Almagest,
contained geometric theory which
mathematically explained the motions and
positions of planets, sun, and the moon against
stars that did not move. Geocentric-earth
centered.

8.4 Earths Layered Structure

Layers Defined by Composition

Discovering Earths Layers

Moho

8
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