Journal of Research in Biology - Volume 3 Issue 5

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC 50) of Organophosphate (OP)
pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera
Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities
of Southeastern Mexico.
Journal of Research in Biology
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Francisco Ucan-Marin* 1,2,
Vctor Cobos-Gasca3 and Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are commonly used in agriculture;
Roberto C. Barrientos- this group of compounds includes very toxic chemicals. Diazinon (IUPAC name:
Medina3 O,O-Diethyl O-[4-methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl] phosphorothioate, INN-
Dimpylate) is used often in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Regular tropical rain-floods
Institution: and the Yucatans karstic topography allow Diazinon to be incorporated quickly into
1. Aquatic Toxicology,
Aquaponika Ltd. 126-340
the freshwater watersheds and other aquatic ecosystems surrounding agricultural
Parkdale Ave. Ottawa Ontario, areas. This dispersion process has various negative consequences for the aquatic
Canada K1Y 1P2. ecosystems. In the present study we used the Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velfera) a native
2 . Chemistry and and endemic fish of Southeastern Mexico as a biomonitor for the first time to assess
Environmental Toxicology, some of the basic gaps in the Diazinon toxicity data. 96 juvenile fish (fry) were exposed
Department of Chemistry, to two time exposure-observations; for acute (24 hours) and chronic exposures (10
Carleton University. 203 Steacie weeks). Three Diazinon doses were added as follows: 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/l (and a
Building Ottawa, Ontario, duplicated control group). The results showed that the acute dosed group has 100%
Canada K1S 5B6.
mortality. Fish exposed to a 0.01 mg/l did not have any observable effects. The LC50
3. Cuerpo Acadmico de value calculated during this experiment for Yucatan Mollies exposed to dissolve
Ecologa Tropical, Depto. de Diazinon is extremely toxic at 0.02 mg/L. These results confirm, that the sensibility of
Ecologa. Facultad de Medicina
Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Poecilia velifera as a native bioindicator for pesticides; and compared with other
Campus de Ciencias Biolgicas published LC50 data appears to be the most sensitive. Further studies are
y Agropecuarias, Universidad recommended to continue the study on the Yucatn Molly physiology; this fish has the
Autnoma de Yucatn. potential to become a reliable sentinel for the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan
Km. 15.5 Carretera Mrida- Area, Mexico.
Xmatkuil, Yucatn, Mxico.
Corresponding author: Keywords:

Francisco Ucan-Marin Agriculture, Diazinon, LD50, Yucatan Molly, Biomonitor, Yucatan Mexico,
Ecotoxicology
Email Id: Article Citation:

Francisco Ucan-Marin, Vctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-Medina.
Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of Organophosphate (OP)
pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914)
as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico.
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002
Dates:
Web Address:
http://jresearchbiology.com/ Received: 18 June 2013 Accepted: 01 July 2013 Published: 16 July 2013
documents/RA0359.pdf.
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and
reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
993-1002 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Scientific Research Journal www.jresearchbiology.com
Ucan-Marin et al., 2013
INTRODUCTION has been previously reported as a dangerous chemical

The Yucatan Peninsula in located in able of acute toxicity and sub-lethal effects in fresh water
Southeastern Mexico, and is an intensive production area fish and other aquatic organisms (Banaeea et al., 2011).
for citrus and horticultural farms, most of the farming is The mode of action of OP chemicals it is associated with
de vel op ed t h r ough sm al l gr oups ca l l ed the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase, and oxidative
Ejidos comunitarios (Community Cooperatives). stress (Ozcan and Demet 2007). Diazinon disrupting
Agricultural activities in this region includes: citrus effects on aquatic organisms has been widely
production, mango and papaya farming, vegetables and documented in freshwater organisms such as snail
herbs, but also intensive cattle and horse ranching. (Gillia altilis), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are used openly for and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), among others
infestation management and applied intensively. It has (Robertson and Mazzella 1989; Pan and Dutta 1998;
been noticed that farmers and agricultural workers in the Beauvais et al., 2000).
Yucatan area do not use proper protection during Mexicos Yucatan geography and hydrological
pesticide applications. Furthermore, there are no conditions create a unique aquatic underground
enforced disposal regulations for the remaining environment (Figure 1), and also a variety of unique
chemicals or containers. Diverse factors of management endemic species of fish (Figure 2) and aquatic
and inadequate disposal protocols have contributed to ecosystems. Due to this unique karstic ground (limestone
leaking and accumulation of pesticides in sites near bedrock) characteristic, the leaching and transporting of
water sources. Therefore the potential of pesticides contaminants such as pesticides and fertilizers into
entering the aquatic ecosystems increase the possibilities groundwater do not favor soil absorption (Pacheco and
of endocrine disruptions effects in wildlife, and Cabrera 1996). In the Yucatan, underground water is the
eventually the surrounding human settlements. only source for human consumption since rivers are
Diazinon (O,O-diethyl O-[6-methyl-2-(1- almost not existent. The underground water table is close
methylethyl)-4-pyrimidinyl] phosphorothioate), is an to the surface in the north and near the coasts, but in the
organophosphate insecticide, it has agricultural and higher elevations of the middle and south of the
commercial uses, and is used in Southeastern Mexico to Peninsula water is too far below the surface for access by
control a wide diversity of insects including aphids, hand-dug wells; nevertheless, the ancient Maya
beetles, scales, pill bugs, and others (Cobos-Gasca 1995; maintained dense populations in this area for centuries
Cox 1992). Diazinon is a compound of large variety of using reservoirs and underground tanks (chultuno'ob).
applications soluble in water, and produces a chemical Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of water and
half-life recorded up to 12 weeks in water (Blackburn environment quality through biomonitoring is highly
et al.., 1988). In addition, Diazinon does not settle significant for a local social, economic and community
permanently in sediments; as a result, it is easily hydro context.
transported which facilitates its presence in aquatic Previous regional studies has assessed the effect
ecosystems (Blackburn et al., 1988). Diazinon of OP pesticides in estuarine ecosystems aquatic macro-
permanency in the aquatic ecosystems has been fauna such as; shrimps from genus Penaeus
associated directly with rain-runoff and its unofficial (Acosta-Maya et al., 1997), and mosquito fish
unregulated disposal, where it has been noticed to settle Gambusia yucatana (Rendn von-Osten et al., 2005).
on freshwater ecosystems (Bailey et al., 2000). Diazinon Diazinon has also been repeatedly detected in
994 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002
Figure 1 Cenote (in Spanish) or Sinkhole a common Figure 2. Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velfera, male) a
freshwater ecosystem in the Yucatan area of Mexico native fish of Southeastern Mexico (Credit: Lizbeth
(Credit; Francisco Ucan-Marin). Chumba-Segura)
horticultural water supplies (underwater sinkholes) in the MATERIALS AND METHODS

Yucatan region (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997). One of the Gravid female Yucatan mollies were captured
most common observable fish surrounding the areas of from freshwater near the port of Celestun, in the State of
concern is the Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera, Regan, Yucatan, Mexico, and kept under laboratory conditions.
1914). The Yucatan molly (Figure 2) belongs to the Fish tanks were used for the acclimation, and 15 days
Poeciliidae family, and is an endemic species to the after collection, 134 fingerlings were hatched and were
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Miller 1983; Miller 2005; fed with commercially available food for four weeks.
Hankison et al., 2006). This fish was introduced The bioassay to assess the toxicity of Diazinon was
internationally for two main reasons; first, as a valuable conducted by selecting 96 juveniles (fry), of similar
aquarium specie, and as a biological control against length and weight, and distributed randomly sex
mosquitoes larvae (Courtenay and Meffe 1989; Lever independent into four tanks with 20 liters of freshwater.
1996). The conditions were: temperature, 26.9 0.1C;
Studies assessing the toxicity of Diazinon to saturation of dissolved oxygen, 62 0.1%; electric
aquatic fauna had documented that this pesticide is able conductivity, 468.61 0.1 S /cm and pH of 7.40 0.1
to cause neurotoxic effects on fish (Dias-Assis et al., units. The experiment had four treatments 0.04 mg/l,
2012). However, the importance of the present study is 0.02 mg/l, and 0.01 mg/l of commercially available
the original contribution of lethal and sub lethal data Diazinon (Dragon) and a control group.
assessing this native and endemic species. The values do Mortality was first observed after 24 h and data
not only contribute to aquatic toxicology knowledge, but were adjusted accordingly with two regression models:
also add the proposition to use the Yucatan Molly as a binomial logit model (Collet 2003) and the probit model
biomonitor of pesticide activities surrounding (Finney 1971), with the help of STATGRAPHICS
agricultural communities across the southeastern package. This statistical procedure consent the estimation
Mexico. of regression parameters by maximum likelihood method
and use the percentage of deviance explained as a
measure of fit for comparing the models, and estimates
the median lethal concentration (LC50). The bioassay was
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 995

sustained up to 10 weeks of exposure, where changes in the swimming behavior. Regression analyses
concentration levels were applied in order to study revealed that both; the logit model and probit models, are
severe chronic effects, and a constant concentration of appropriate to describe the relationship between
pesticide in the tanks were monitored. Mortality data concentration and mortality at 24 hours of exposure.
obtained after 10 weeks, excluding the highest Both models were highly significant (P < 0.001). Probit
concentration, were analyzed using repeated measures model had greater percentage of deviance in the data
analysis of variance (ANOVA), considering weeks as (98.84%) when compared to logit model (97.89%).
repeated sampling units and using as response variable According to the probit model, estimates of the
the number of dead organisms (base-10 log transformed) regression parameters are 0 = 2.4246 and 1 = 127.93,
and concentrations as treatments employing Tukey-test both significantly different from zero according to the
as multiple comparison procedure to distinguish the dose confidence limits at 95% (Table 1). This means that in
effects, including the control group (Kuehl 2001). the modeling of mortality by effect of diazinon the
Repeated measure ANOVA were carried out with PAST intercept (0) should be considered as an intercept, as a
software (Hammer et al., 2001), version 2.14 and for all measure of the response obtained in the absence of
statistical analyses, the significant level of 5% was pesticide (natural mortality), and that the association
considered as appropriated. Finally, to aid in the between pesticide dose and mortality is direct and
interpretation of results, standardized mortality was significant, given that mortality is increased nearly 124
calculated according to the following expression units (on average) by each increase in the applied dose of
(Raymond 1985): diazinon.
The estimate of LC50 was 0.0189 mg / l (0.0160
to 0.0231 mg / l, 95% confidence), statistically similar to
Where ME is the standardized mortality, MT is the value of intermediate concentration used
the death occurred in each dose and MC the mortality
that occurred in the control group. This expression
allows separating the mortality caused by the pesticide of
natural mortality.
RESULTS
Within the first 24 h of exposure, all organisms
exposed to the highest concentration (0.04 mg/l)
perished. Diazinon effects on the exposed fish began to
be noticeable at the moment of the first exposure, where
erratic swimming behavior and disruption in the posture
were clearly observable. Fish exposed started to swim
close to the bottom of the tank, revolving around a single Figure 3. Relationship between the concentration of
point, with the head close to the bottom and the body diazinon and mortality of Yucatan Molly
Poecilia velifera, according to the probit regression
placed in perpendicular to it. Fish groups exposed at model. The 95% CI for the regression curve is also
0.02 and 0.01 mg/l had mortalities of 16% and included (dotted lines).
52% (Figure 3), and control registered no deaths or
100
Table 1. Estimates of the regression parameters Control
according to the probit regression model. 0.01 mg/L
0.02 mg/L
Parameter Estimation SE CI 95%
Mortality (100%) Logarithmic

0 -2.42 0.43 -4.46, -0.39
1 127.93 26.97 11.87, 243.98 10
SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval
(0.02 mg / l), which will cause a mortality of 52%.

Comparing selected data (Table 2) as average for lethal
concentration obtained in this bioassay for freshwater 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks
fish (Figure 4), shows that Yucatan Molly tolerance to
Diazinon exposure is clearly lower. The repeated Figure 4. Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera)
accumulative mortality for each treatment during
measures ANOVA revealed significant differences
the 10 weeks of exposure to Diazinon.
between treatments (F= 1164, P<< 0.05 with 2, 29 df). In
fact, the three treatments differ in terms of mortality spinal paralysis. In both cases, fish were not able to feed
(Tukeys P< 0.05, in all cases): the two sub lethal for themselves and perished.
concentrations causes mortalities of 9 and 48%
respectively, compared with control (Figure 4). At the DISCUSSION
intermediate concentration, which produces five times Given the intensive use of pesticides in Yucatan,
greater mortality than the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/ several evaluations of the quality of groundwater have
l), swimming disruption was observed after three weeks been done; mainly assessing areas specialized in growing
of exposure. In the fourth week we observed that one fish citrus and vegetables (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997; Santos-
had damage in the orbits and visible spine paralysis, Vzquez 1989; Cabrera et al., 1992). These studies have
which prevented movement and feeding. The fish died a shown that the presence of these contaminants in the
few hours after this behavior first appeared. At the aquifer is linked to the rainfall season. During this event
seventh week another fish was observed also with severe the rain wash and carry the all sort of organic compounds
Table 2. Comparative levels of LC 50 (lethal concentration, 50%) of Diazinon

(mg /l) for some freshwater fish.
Species LC50 Time of exposure Reference
Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) 11.00 96 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) 9.01 96 h Turner L, 2002
Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) 7.83 96 h Giron-Perez et al., 2007
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) 4.97 96 h Turner L, 2002
Cyprinodon variegatus (Lacepde, 1803) 1.47 96 h Turner L, 2002
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) 5.52 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque, 1819) 0.76 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Micropterus salmoides (Lacepde, 1802) 0.09 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989
Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822) 2.52 96 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia sphenops (Cuvier, 1846) 1.65 96 h Turner L, 2002
Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) 1.27 48 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia reticulata (Peters, 1859) 0.08 96 h Turner L, 2002
Poecilia velifera (Regan, 1914) 0.02 24 h * Present study

Table 3. Qualitative descriptors for categories of fish The abnormal behavioral responses (loss of
and aquatic invertebrate toxicity (from Zucker, 1985) equilibrium, hanging vertically in the water, rapid gill
LC50 or EC50 Category description movement, erratic swimming, swimming at the water
< 0.1 ppm Very highly toxic
surface, and staying motionless on the aquarium bottom)
0.1- 1 ppm Highly toxic
> 1 ppm Moderately toxic of the Yucatan Molly in the present study are similar
> 10 < 100 ppm Slightly toxic behavioral responses observed with the guppy
> 100 ppm Practically non-toxic [Poecilia reticulate] (Viran et al., 2003), freshwater
passing over calcareous soil, which cause difficulty of catfish [Heteropneustes fossilis] (Saha and Kaviraj 2003)
absorption into the subsoil. If a compound is exposed and young mirror carp [Cyprinus carpio] (Calta and Ural
directly over the karstic soil, the heat and light of the 2004). Nevertheless, the physiological response has been
tropics are a decisive factor to their breakdown. Also, extensively analyzed, where it has been recently
due to the edaphological characteristics of the area, these observed by Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) that the Brain
do not allow bacterial enzymes to speed the breakdown Acethyl cholinesterase is the main enzyme affected by
of Diazinon. However, since the pesticide is stored in OP insecticides. Briefly, the mechanism of action of OP
cold water underground, the persistence of Diazinon is insecticides is based on the irreversible inhibition of
an environmental concern. Toxicology studies assessing Brain Acethylcholinesterase (AChE) which leads to the
other native fish species to the Yucatan Peninsula, the accumulation of ACh in synapses resulting in an initial
mosquito fish Gambusia yucatana (Rendn von-Osten over-stimulation of neurotransmission followed by
et al., 2005) determined, granted midsize lethal depression of neurotransmission, paralysis, and eventual
concentration (LC50 of 0.085 mg/l for chlorpyrifos, 17.79 death (Pope 1999). The disruption of AChE activity
mg/l for glyphosate, 0.636 mg/l for carbofuran and either above or below 50% of normal has been
0.011 mg/l for a mixture of chlorpyrifos and glyphosate). considered as a valid indicator of adverse effects
Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6- (De Marco et al., 2002). The loss of mobility and lack of
trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) after 96 h of coordination in animals previously exposed to pesticides
exposure had LC50 values of 0.085 mg/l in mosquito fish is often attributed to a decrease in the activity of brain
(Rendn von-Osten et al., 2005). AChE (Arufe et al., 2007). Yet, the same effect was
Our results showed that Diazinon is extremely observed when brain AChE activity is increased, Zatta
toxic to the Yucatan molly fry, with high probability to et al., (2002) studied mice exposed to aluminum and
cause mortality as these chemicals enter the surrounding reported that brain AChE increased activity also has the
aquatic ecosystems (wells, watersheds and sinkholes) effects of paralysis and lack of control in the mobility.
where frequent use is registered for this pesticide (Cobos One of the possible mechanisms of action of
-Gasca et al., 1997). Differences in LC50 values among Diazinon is centered on its potent ability to open
different species may be due to physiological and g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated ClK channels
ecological factors, although most fish are sensitive to (Campbell 1989) in both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Diazinon, it is known that fish living in fresh and hard Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) studied salmon smolts and
(calcium-bicarbonate-containing) waters are more observed that behavioral symptoms similar to those
resistant to those who live in saltwater environments associated with Diazinon are observed when AChE
(Banaeea et al., 2011). disruption is present, where either an elevated or
depressed significantly brain AChE activity can be a
response to stress (Nijholt et al., 2004). Diazinon can intensive agricultural activities.
be metabolized to diazoxon by cytochrome P-450
monooxygenase (Hogan and Knowles 1972). This CONCLUSION
compound, which is a potent inhibitor of the brain In the present study we obtained an LC50 of 0.02
acetylcholine esterase (Ucan-Marin et al., 2012), is mg/L (24h) for young (fry) Yucatan molly
usually not detectable in vivo because of its rapid Poecilia velifera (Regan 1914) and due to its high
hydrolysis, catalyzed by the oxonase, to 2-methyl-6- sensibility to Organophosphate compounds (OP) can be
i sopr opyl -4-pyr im i din ol (pyr imi din ol ). Th e used as a bioindicator for the presence of pesticides in
monooxygenase-catalyzed reaction accomplishes also an the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Peninsula,
oxidative ester cleavage (Sultatos 1991). So, the Mexico. P. velifera is an exceptional sensible fish able to
production of diazoxon is accompanied by the concurrent physiologically react to very low concentrations of
formation of other metabolites, including pyrimidino1 Diazinon present in their ecosystems. Since Diazinon is
(Fuji and Asaka 1982). Finally, Diazinon can also be a used today in diverse agricultural activities in Latin
substrate for the glutathione S-transferase, which cleaves America, therefore the use of P. velifera as a first class
an ethyl group from the phosphate and gives rise to the biomarker could improve the time, precision and costs of
S-ethyl-glutathione conjugate (de Bruijn I and monitoring practices.
Hermens 1991). The remaining portion of the OP may be
hydrolyzed by phosphodiesterases to give pyrimidinol ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and other products. Since monooxygenases are present We want to thank to the personal at the
in fish with very different levels, it is likely that the rate Experimental Biology at the Autonomous University of
of formation of the oxon from diazinon as well as Yucatan (UADY). The funding for this study was
from other organophosphothionates, acts in combination obtained trough the Yucatan Contaminants Monitoring
with the AChE affinity to cause the species-specific Program (V Cobos-Gasca) and Aquaponika Ltd.
toxicity of OPs among fish (Keizer et al., 1995).
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Ucan-Marin F, Ernst W, O'Dor RK and Sherry J. Advantages
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(Poecilia reticulata). Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety.

Original Research
A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden

(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Animesh Dey1*,
Susmita Debnath1, Biplab Insects are the largest taxonomic group in the animal kingdom and their
Debbarma1, PS Chaudhuri 2.
significant role in ecology needs no description. Spiders are exclusively predatory,
hence can play a very important role in regulation of insect population in any
Institution:
1. Department of Zoology, ecosystem. Comprehensive study of spider fauna of Tripura has not been carried out
Maharaja Bir Bikram yet. In our present study, we are attempting to provide relevant information regarding
College, Agartala - 799004, spiders. This information may serve as the baseline documentation for future studies
West Tripura in Tripura. A survey was carried out during July 2011 to January 2012 in a house
garden (artificial mixed plantation) in Khayerpur of west Tripura district. A total of 47
2. Department of Zoology, spider species belonging to 36 genera of 14 families were collected. Among all the
Tripura University, families, Salticidae dominated the studied assemblage and represents approximately
Suryamaninagar 799022,
38% of the total species collected.
West Tripura

Animesh Dey Spider diversity, artificial mixed plantation, salticidae, insect predator

Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri.
A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden (artificial mixed
plantation) in West Tripura, India.
Web Address: Dates:

http://jresearchbiology.com/ Received: 24 June 2013 Accepted: 18 July 2013 Published: 16 Aug 2013
documents/RA0361.pdf.

1009-1017 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Dey et al., 2013
INTRODUCTION illustrated account of the diversity, beauty and intricacies

The arachnids are the second largest contributor of spiders has been documented by Taylor (1999).
(8.3%) of total arthropod diversity after insects. Spiders Although few reports on spiders from southern part of
belong to the order Araneae of class Arachnida and are the country are available up to some extent (Charpentier,
one of the diverse and functionally important predators. 1996; Jose and Sebastian, 2001; Jose et al., 2006; Smith,
Hence, spiders can play a very important role in 2004; Sugumaran et al., 2005; Vijayalakshmi and
regulating the terrestrial arthropod populations Ahimaz, 1993), there are scanty records on diversity and
(Coddington and Levi, 1991). Considering, the distribution of spiders in India including its north east
potentiality of spiders as bio-control agents of insect part as compared to other regions of the world. In NE
pests and bio-indicator as well, exploration of spider India, diversity of spiders approximately unexplored and
diversity need to be done with immediate effect. Since have received least attention in conservation strategies
the distribution and occurrence of spiders are greatly (Singh et al., 2012). A very few documentations
related to habitat structure and vegetation parameters (Tikader, 1970; Biswas, 2000a, 2000b, 2003, 2004,
(Buddle et al., 2000; de Souza and Martins, 2004; 2006, 2007) are available on spiders of north east India.
Greenstone, 1984; Uetz, 1991; Wise, 1993), study of As far as the spider diversity of Tripura is concerned, it
spiders can be very much helpful for understanding is still not completely explored or understood. The main
biodiversity patterns (Platnick, 1999). Despite of their aim of this study was to explore the spider species
enormous importance in the natural ecosystem, spiders richness in a house hold garden. Considering the duration
are largely ignored in conservational studies (Chetia and and plot size, this study is far from the complete
Kalita, 2012). exploration of spider fauna of the state. However, it
Now-a-days, distribution and diversity of spiders forms the basis for further investigations on this faunal
has been studied in different parts of the world. A well group and reveals the importance, as well as potentiality
Figure 1. Showing the study site (Khayerpur) near Agartala city

Dey et al., 2013
of house hold gardens as natural habitat of spider fauna.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted during July 2011 to
January 2012 in a house hold garden having an area of
80 m2 in Khayerpur (23 50' 37.9'' N, 91 20' 39.9'' E;
elevation 24 m) near to the Agartala city of west Tripura
district (Fig. 1). Since, polyculture house hold gardens
with such type of size are very rare in the core city of
Agartala now a days, the above site is selected for this
preliminary survey of spider fauna near to the city.
Aerial and ground hand collection methods, along with
vegetation beating was mainly used for the collection of Figure 2. Showing the total number of genera
represented by different spider families
spider specimens. Spiders were searched visually also
under fallen tree branches, leaf litters etc. Collected respectively (Framenau, 2013; Richman et al., 2005).
specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol for further Rest are endemic to south-east Asia (Siliwal et al., 2005)
identification. Keys and catalogs provided by Biswas and and distribution of four species (Thiania bhamoensis,
Biswas (1992, 2003, 2004), Sebastian and Peter (2009) Argiope versicolor, Cyrtophora unicolor, Amyciaea
and Tikader (1987) were followed for the identification lineatipes) are reported in India for the first time
of spider specimen. (Keshwani et al., 2012).
A total of 1686 spider species accounts with
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION India (Keswani et al., 2012) and 47 species are recorded
A total of 47 spider species were collected from during the study from a small house hold garden.
the studied house hold garden. Among the collected Records on spider diversity from the other parts of the
species of spiders, eighteen species belong to the family country viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sikkim,
Salticidae, seven species to the family Araneidae, three Calcutta and Assam (Chetia and Kalita, 2012; Singh
species each to the family Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae and et al., 2012; Tikader and Biswas, 1981; Tikader, 1970,
Thomisidae, two species each to the family Nephilidae, 1977, 1980) are comparable with the observations of the
Oxyopidae, Sparassidae, and Theridiidae, one species present study. Highest species diversity was shown by
each to the families Scytodidae, Hersiliidae, Uloboridae, Salticidae, followed by Araneidae, Tetragnathidae,
Corinnidae and Miturgidae (Table 1). India represents Lycosidae, Thomisidae etc. (Fig. 3). Plexippus paykulli
438 genera (Keswani et al., 2012) from which 36 genera was found to be most abundant in the studied garden
were recorded during the study. Highest generic diversity followed by Phintella vittata, Myrmarachne sp1,
was found in Salicidae (12), Araneidae (6), Neoscona sp, Araneus mitificus, Pardosa sp, Camaricus
Tetragnathidae (3), Lycosidae (3) and Thomisidae (2) formosus etc. Out of total spider species recorded, about
(Fig. 2). Among the collected spiders, four (Cyrtophora 48 % (22 species) were found to be foliage runner, 28 %
unicolor, Camaricus maugi, Nephila pilipes, Heteropoda (13 species) were orb web builder, 15 % (7 species) were
cervina) and one (Menemerus bivittatus) species of ground runner, 6 % (3 species) were ambusher and 4 %
spiders were also reported from Australia and USA (2 species) were scattered line weber (Fig. 4).

Dey et al., 2013
Table 1: List of spider species collected from the household garden during study
Family Species Distribution
Salticidae 1) Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) IND, CHN, LKA
(Foliage runner)
2) Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878) IND, CHN, SGP
3) Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS
4) Asemonea sp. IND, LKA, THA
5) Phintella versicolor (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS
6) Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) IND, LKA, MYS
7) Epeus sp.1 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN
8) Epeus sp.2 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN
9) Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831) IND, USA
10) Thiania bhamoensis (Thorell, 1887) SGP, IDN, MYS
11) Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899) IND, IDN, BTN
12) Brettus sp. IND, CHN, LKA
13) Siler sp. IND, LKA
14) Rhene danieli (Tikader, 1973) IND
15) Myrmarachne orientales (Tikader , 1973) IND, PAK
16) Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambridge, 1869) IND, LKA, CHN
17) Myrmarachne sp.1 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK
18) Myrmarachne sp.2 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK
Araneidae 19) Neoscona sp. IND, PAK, CHN
(Orb web builder)
20) Argiope versicolor (Doleschall, 1859) SGP, IDN, VNM
21) Cyclosa sp. IND, LKA, MYS
22) Cyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859) IND, LKA, MYS
23) Araneus mitificus (Simon, 1886) IND, PAK, BGD
24) Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857) LKA, PHL, AUS
25) Gasteracantha hasselti (C. L. Koch, 1837) IND, CHN
Tetragnathidae 26) Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864) IND, LKA, SGP
(Orb web builder)
27) Opadometa fastigiata (Simon, 1877) IND, PHL
28) Tylorida sp. IND, CHN, AUS
Lycosidae 29) Lycosa mackenziei (Gravely, 1924) IND, PAK, BGD
(Ground runner)
30) Pardosa sp. SGP, THA, CHN
31) Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867) IND, LKA, CHN
Thomisidae 32) Camaricus formosus (Thorell, 1887) IND, CHN, PHL
(Ambusher)
33) Camaricus maugi (Walckenaer, 1837) IND, LKA, AUS
34) Amyciaea lineatipes (Cambridge, 1901) SGP, IDN
Nephilidae 35) Nephila kuhlii (Doleschall 1859) IND, LKA, SGP
(Orb web builder)
36) Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) IND, CHN, AUS

Dey et al., 2013
Oxyopidae 37) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell 1887) IND, LKA, MYS

(Foliage runner)
38) Oxyopes javanus (Thorell 1887) IND, CHN, PHL
Sparassidae 39) Heteropoda venatoria (Latreille, 1802) IND, JPN
(Ground runner)
40) Heteropoda cervina (C. L. Koch, 1875) IND, AUS
Theridiidae 41) Chrysso sp. IND, CHN, JPN
(Scattered line weber)
42) Ariamnes sp. IND, AUS
Scytodidae 43) Scytodes pallida (Doleschall 1859) IND, CHN, PHL
(Ground runner)
Hersiliidae 44) Hersilia sp. IND, LKA, MMR
(Foliage runner)
Uloboridae 45) Zosis sp. IND, TWN
(Orb web builder)
Corinnidae 46) Castianeira sp. IND, BGD, BTN
(Ground runner)
Miturgidae 47) Cheiracanthium danieli Tikader, 1975 IND
(Foliage runner)
Abbreviations: IND India, CHN - China, LKA Sri Lanka, SGP Singapore, MYS Malaysia, THA
Thailand, IDN Indonesia, USA United States, BTN Bhutan, PAK Pakistan, VNM Viet Nam, BGD
Bangladesh, PHL Philippines, AUS Australia, JPN Japan, MMR Myanmar, TWN Taiwan
According to earlier reports, the spider fauna of present study is not focused on specific spider families
Tripura is represented by 6 families, 15 genera and 27 like the previous authors, who studied only six families
species (Biswas and Majumder, 2000). Present study (Araneidae, Oxyopidae, Tetragnathidae, Salticidae,
represents 14 families, 36 genera and 47 species (plate 1 Lycosidae and Heteropodidae) and the survey is carried
and 2), collected from a small house hold garden during out in a natural habitat of spiders, greater species
a very small survey, among which 45 species were richness is observed. Hence this study reveals the
reported for the first time from the state. Since, the potentiality of Tripura state as the reservoir of large
Hersiliidae
Figure 3. Percentage of total species diversity Figure 4. Graph showing the number of species
shared by shared by different spider families represented by different types of spiders

Dey et al., 2013
Plate 1. (1) Plexippus paykulli (2) Plexippus petersi (3) Phintella vittata (4) Asemonea sp. (5) Phintella versicolor
(6) Portia labiata (7) Epeus sp.1 (8) Epeus sp.2 (9) Menemerus bivittatus (10) Thiania bhamoensis (11)
Telamonia dimidiata (12) Brettus sp. (13) Siler sp. (14) Rhene danieli (15) Myrmarachne orientales (16)
Myrmarachne plataleoides (17) Myrmarachne sp.1 (18) Myrmarachne sp.2 (19) Neoscona sp. (20) Argiope
versicolor (21) Cyclosa sp. (22) Cyclosa bifida (23) Araneus mitificus (24) Cyrtophora unicolor
spider diversity. Inter-specific variation in coloration of spiders on these regards are completely untouched in
among different spiders might be linked with different Tripura, NE India. Checklist or records of these spiders
environmental effects and behavioral patterns observed are not yet prepared. However, spiders can be considered
on them (Craig and Ebert, 1994; Hoese et al., 2006; as the most efficient one, among the few bio-indicator
Huber, 2002; Oxford and Gillespie, 1998). species in ecological studies (Kapoor, 2008; Noss, 1990).
Relationship between spider distribution with habitat
CONCLUSION patterns and its various patterns of responses to the
Ecological as well as taxonomic information on different disturbances create complexities in using them
Indian spiders are lacking up to a great extent and studies as indicator species (Chetia and Kalita, 2012). This study

Dey et al., 2013
Plate 2. (25) Gasteracantha hasselti (26) Leucauge decorata (27) Opadometa fastigiata (28) Tylorida sp. (29)
Lycosa mackenziei (30) Pardosa sp. (31) Hippasa greenalliae (32) Camaricus formosus (33) Camaricus maugi
(34) Amyciaea lineatipes (35) Nephila kuhlii (36) Nephila pilipes (37) Oxyopes birmanicus (38) Oxyopes
javanus (39) Heteropoda venatoria (40) Heteropoda cervina (41) Chrysso sp. (42) Ariamnes sp. (43) Scytodes
pallida (44) Hersilia sp. (45) Zosis sp. (46) Castianeira sp. (47) Cheiracanthium danieli
shows information related to the species distribution in a Biswas B and Biswas K. 2007. Araneae: Spiders. Fauna
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Habitat Structure: The Physical Arrangement of Objects

Original Research
Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River:

A tributary of Narmada River
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Vipin Vyas* and Kripal

Singh Vishwakarma The Sip River is a tributary of the River Narmada, joining Narmada right bank
just upstream of Indira Sagar Reservoir. A systematic study of fish diversity in River
Sip has been neglected and the information on this aspects in scanty, either very old
Institution: or not been updated for decades. Keeping this in view, the present study was
Department of conducted. The aim of this study is to document ichthyofauna and to provide
Environmental Science and measures for their conservation. The present work was done from the period of May
Limnology, Barkatullah 2011 to April 2012. A total of 29 species belonging to 17 genera, eight families and
University, Bhopal-462026, three orders were recorded. A total of 427 individuals were caught from eight
India stations. The most abundant group of fish was Cyprinidae. Out of all these,
Rasbora daniconius has the maximum number of individuals (116) recorded from all
sites and contributes 27.16% of the total population.

Vipin Vyas Biodiversity, Sip River, Narmada River, Conservation, Ecosystem

Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma
Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary of Narmada
River
Web Address: Dates:
http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0366.pdf. Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 26 July 2013 Published: 10 Aug 2013

Journal of Research in Biology 1003-1008 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Scientific Research Journal
www.jresearchbiology.com
Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013
INTRODUCTION district, (Longitude 76 56 E and Latitude 22 54N) at

The Narmada River is a west flowing river of an elevation of above 292 M msl. Total length of Sip
central India which has been extensively studied for its River is about 68 km. The catchment area of Sip river
ecological aspects. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Narmada basin is shown in Map 01.
has been documented by various workers in concern of Fish sampling was conducted at eight pre-
fish community by Hora and Nair (1941), selected locations in the river Sip namely Kaliyadev,
Karamchandani et al., (1967), Vyas et al., (2007). Most Ambha Kadim, Jhirniya, Chhapri, Pandagaon,
of these studies were confined to the main river but Confluence Point of Sip River, Up Stream Sip
tributaries have not been studied yet. Narmada River Confluence and Down Stream Sip
Some recent works on various aspects of fish Narmada River Confluence.
diversity were also confined to central part of the river
Narmada (Vyas et al., 2007). Very first record of fish MATERIALS AND METHODS:
diversity of Narmada was on the hill stream of Satpura Sampling and Analysis:
ranges (Hora and Nair 1941). Later Tawa and Barna Physicochemical Analysis:
tributaries were dammed to form reservoirs and studies During the study, water samples were collected
were done on these reservoirs. Vyas et al., (2009) at seasonal interval during May 2011 and April 2012,
worked on Ganjal River which joins Narmada River near using clean 1L-polyethylene bottle for analysis of water
the backwaters of Indira Sagar. No record of fish fauna variables in the laboratory from preselected station of the
of Sip River is available in the present literature. river. The water quality parameters such as air and water
Therefore, our objective in this study is to temperature, pH, Secchi Disc transparency, alkalinity
document the fish diversity and species composition in (carbonate and bicarbonate) and dissolved oxygen were
Sip River. The information from this investigation will measured on in the field itself. The air and water
serve as a baseline data for carrying out further study on temperature was recorded with the help of mercury
ecology, conservation, sustainability and management of thermometer, pH, conductivity and turbidity were
fisheries resources of this tributary of Narmada in light recorded through digital equipment and dissolved
of the changing habitat conditions due to dam formation. oxygen was analyzed use Modified Winkles Method.
STUDY AREA: The methodology adopted for the analysis of
The Narmada River is one of the three major physicochemical properties was followed from American
rivers in peninsular India. It flows over a length of Public Health Association (APHA, 1998) and Adoni
1312km before draining through the Gulf of Cambay et al., (1985).
into the Arabian Sea. Narmada receives 41 principal Collection of fish:
tributaries. Out of which 22 tributaries join from the left Th e fi sh e s we r e c ol l e c t e d using
bank and 19 from the right bank. The river under the monofilamentaous gill nets of 10-50 mm mesh size. We
study is a right bank tributary of river Narmada namely also used cast nets of 10-25 mm mesh size for collecting
Sip river. The Sip river originates near Ramdasi village fish in shallow areas. Fish specimens were also collected
of Ichhawar Tehsil in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh, from different fish landing sites. All specimens were
(Longitude 77 11 E and Latitude 22 34 N) at an preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution at the field.
elevation of above 432 M msl and joins river Narmada
near village Satdev of Narsurlaganj Tehsil in Sehore
alkalinity (182 mg/l 504 mg/l), Dissolved oxygen (6.4

mg/l -13.6 mg/L), chloride (7.94 mg/l - 69.5 mg/l), total
hardness (90 mg/l 190 mg/l), calcium hardness (46.2
mg/l 102 mg/l), magnesium hardness (43.8 mg/l 88
mg/l), and Turbidity (1.05 NTU -15.4 NTU). The river
serves as a source of water for irrigation.
During the present study of fish biodiversity of
Sip River, a total of 29 species belonging to eight
families and 17 different genera and three orders were
recorded. The species were collected at different
sampling sites during May 2011 to April 2012. The
members of family Cyprinidae were dominated with 19
species, followed by Cobitidae three species,
Ophiocephalidae two species, Gobiidae one species,
Heteropneustidae one species, Siluridae one species,
Ambassidae one species, Bagridae one species. Family
Cyprinidae was represented by the Oxygaster bacaila,
Oxygaster gora, Rasbora daniconius, Garra gotyla,
Puntius sophore, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius conchonius,
Puntius sarana, Puntius chola, Puntius chrysopterus,
Map 01: Map showing Sip river and its catchment Puntius ticto, Amblypharyngodon mola, Danio devario,
area in Narmada basin Labeo bata, Labeo boga, Labeo pangusia, Labeo
calbasu, Aspidoparia jaya and Tor tor Family Cobitidae
Laboratory Procedures: by Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Nemacheilus botia and
Fishes brought to laboratory were preserved in Nemacheilus duyi, Bagridae by Mystus bleekeri,
10% formaldehyde solution in separate specimen jar Heteropneustidae by Heteropneustes fossilis, Siluridae
according to the size of specimen. The fishes were by Ompok bimaculatus, Gobiidae by Glossogobius
identified using standard keys of Jayaram (1981), giuris, Ambassidae by Chanda ranga, Ophiocephalidae
Qureshi and Qureshi (1983), Jhingran (1991), Day by Channa gachua and Channa striatus. From all the
Francis (1994) and Shrivastava (1998). Fish Base stations, Cyprinidae formed the largest dominant family
website was also referred for various aspects of fish contributing the 19 species (62.06%); Cobitidae formed
fauna (www.fishbase.org). the subdominant family contributing three species
(10.32%) and rest of the family followed the order of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION : abundance.
At the period of this study, the two seasons were: During the studies 427 fish individuals were
dry (October- June) and wet (July September), pH (7.0- collected from eight sites, belonging to three orders,
8.9), air temperature (27C - 36C) , water temperature eight families, 17 genera and 29 species (Table -1). Out
(22C -31C), transparency (09cm - 90cm), conductivity of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum
(270 /cm - 618/cm), free Co2 (22 mg/l 50 mg/l), total number of individuals found from all the sites. The

Table - 1: Systematic Position of fish fauna of Sip River

S.No Order Family Species
1 Cypriniformes Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys guntea
2 Nemacheilus botia
3 Nemacheilus duyi
4 Cyprinidae Oxygaster bacaila
5 Oxygaster gora
6 Rasbora daniconius
7 Garra gotyla
8 Puntius sophore
9 Puntius dorsalis
10 Puntius conchonius
11 Puntius sarana
12 Puntius chola
13 Puntius chrysopterus
14 Puntius ticto
15 Amblypharyngodon mola
16 Danio devario
17 Labeo pangusia
18 Labeo bata
19 Labeo boga
20 Labeo calbasu
21 Tor tor
22 Aspidoparia jaya
23 Bagridae Mystus bleekeri
24 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis
25 Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus
26 Perciformes Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris
27 Ambassidae Chanda ranga
28 Ophiocephaliformes Ophiocephalidae Channa gachua
29 Channa striatus
dominant species, Rasbora daniconius has total 116 Siliuridae and Ambassidae (0.46%) and Gobiidae
individuals (27.16%) followed by Danio devario with 59 (0.23%) respectively (Figure-1). Vyas et al., (2006- 07)
individuals (13.81%) and Puntius conchonius with 47 reported, a total of 47 species of fishes belonging to 29
individuals (11%) respectively. The least abundant fish genera, 15 families and six orders in the Hoshangabad
was Lepidocephalichthys guntea with one individual stretch of River Narmada.
(0.23%). Vyas et al., (2012) worked on fish biodiversity of
Among all these families Cyprinidae was the Betwa River, a total of 60 fish species belonging to 18
most dominant family constituting (88.75%) which is families and 36 genera were recorded. Verma and
followed by Cobitidae (5.38%), Bagridae (2.81%) Kanhere (2007) revealed that at least 39 species in
Heteropneustidae and Ophiocephalidae (0.93%) and Narmada River are declined and considered as threatened
bodies in the management and conservation of fisheries

resources of this river where there are dearth of
information related to its fish and fisheries. Moreover
formation of reservoirs on the main river course and on
its tributaries may result in the change in fish faunas in
due course of time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Dr. Dinesh Damde and
Figure 1. Family wise fish species of Sip River
Dr. Vivek Parashar for their kind support during the
species or endangered species. work. Thanks are due to Mr. Ankit Kumar, Mrs. Reetu
Various workers have done work on main river Sharma and Mr. Shyam Panwar who helped during field
whereas very little is known about the tributaries of visits. Our special thanks are due to the University
Narmada river. First detailed work on Narmada was done Grants Commission, New Delhi for providing funds in
by Karamchandani et al., (1967) which recorded 77 fish the form of Major Research Project during the course of
species belonging to 41 genera, 19 families and seven present investigation.
orders. In a stretch from Jabalpur to Khalghat Anon
(1971) reported 46 species belonging to 27 genera, 14 REFERENCES
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pertaining to the river and have enlisted 84 fish species India, 1-127.
belonging to 45 genera, 20 families and six orders.
Anon. 1971. Fisheries Department, M.P. Fisheries
Hora and Nair (1941) Very first recorded 41
Survey in Narmda River, 1967-1971.
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Satpura ranges. Vyas et al., (2009) studied on fish fauna APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of
some tributaries of River Narmada and recorded 52 water and wastewater, American Public Health
species belonging to 28 genera, 13 families and seven Association, Washington, DC.
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Fish diversity of Narmada in submergence area of
Indra Sagar Reservair. Journal of Inland Fish

Original Research
Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method

mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Reuben K. Esena
This paper presents a continuum of triangulation designs ranging from
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), surveys, parasitological to satellite data for a
holistic approach to a research on trypanosomiasis a disease affecting human and
livestock. The purpose is to combine several methods to improve the quality of
trypanosomiasis control in the coastal savannah. This is the most extensive work on
Institution:
trypanosomiais in an African coastal savannah ecosystem, covering eleven districts in
Department of Health Policy
Planning and Management, Ghana. In this study, quantitative results were supplemented by qualitative methods
School of Public Health, to improve on the validity and reliability. The study focused on farmers production
University of Ghana, P. O. objectives, constraints associated with the use of Berenil to control trypanosomiasis,
Box LG 13 Legon Accra, and satellite data for mapping areas at the risk of diseases for appropriate targeting,
Ghana predictions and control. This mixed-method studies seeks convergence (triangulation),
of results by examining different aspects of a phenomena (complementarity) on using
methods sequentially (development) on discovering paradox and fresh perspectives
(initiation), and on adding breadth and scope to a project (expansion). In this paper,
issues of triangulation, validity and reliability has been discussed.

Reuben K. Esena Triangulation, Tsetse, Trypanosomiasis, Berenil, Dosage, Mixed-Method.

Reuben K. Esena
Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method mode
research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control.
Web Address:
http://jresearchbiology.com/ Dates:
documents/RA0367.pdf. Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 28 Aug 2013

1041-1053 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Esena, 2013
INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT one such example adapting several methods
Multiple methods have in social science to arrive at a coherent result for targeting and control.
a distinct tradition of research strategy. This study
adopts a multimethod/multitrait (Campbell and Fiske, RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS
1959; Creswell, 1994), or triangulation (Webb et al., Rationale for Research Approach and Methodology
1966). These notions share similar conception that there This research, combines qualitative and
is the need to combine qualitative and quantitative quantitative design as the most appropriate method of
methods as complementary. But combining methods analysis. In support of the mixed methodology design in
alone has been viewed as somewhat controversial procedure and data analysis, Morse (1991) stated, a
(Hilton, 2002) because there are other types of project must be either theoretically driven by the
triangulation that need to be addressed for confirmation qualitative methods incorporating a complementary
and completeness. Some of these triangulations are quantitative component, or theoretically driven by the
theory, data sources, methods and analysis. The reason quantitative method, incorporating a complementary
for such mixed-methods is that limitations in single qualitative component.
methods do not manifest in mixed-methods The main purpose of this research was to explore
(triangulation) and this could improve the validity of the views of cattle farmers on the importance of
research findings (Mathison, 1988). It is not the simple trypanosomiasis in relation to their production objectives
combination of different kinds of data that matters but and to find out how farmers controlled cattle
the attempt to relate them so as to complement each trypanosomiasis in the area. This research was to develop
other and counteract the threats to validity in each. This a model that could identify the constraints affecting
is what the current paper seeks to explain. It gives an in- control of trypanosomiasis by farmers in the study area
depth analysis and explanation and exemplifies how as well as predictions of the disease. Therefore a mixed-
multi-methods could be used to converge and validate methodology design of both qualitative and quantitative
data for a holistic approach as evidence for decision approaches was adopted. As qualitative research occurs
making on trypanosomiasis planning and control. in natural settings where human behaviour and events
Problem Statement occur, it was rightly used for certain aspects of the study
Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control are public although supplemented occasionally with quantitative
health programmes in Ghana, but sustainable control tools.
has not yet been achieved. Several unsuccessful In certain aspects of the research, the qualitative
attempts have been made in the past to control suggestions of (Marshall and Rossman, 1989) and the
the disease (Stewart, 1937, 1946, 1954; Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Techniques
Nowosielki-Slepowron, 1962; Ghana Ministry of Food (Grandin and Young 1994; Hadgu, Yisehak, and Tekle
and Agriculture, 1996) but currently some 60 % of the 1992; Kirsopp-Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994) were
country is still infested with various species of tsetse flies adopted. This is because the focus of this research was
(Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2009). on respondents perception and experiences (Locke,
Spiriduso, and Silverman, 1987, Fraenkel and Wallen,
The control of the disease is a complex
1990; Merriam, 1988; IAEA, 1998) especially of major
(and multifaceted) and requires investigation into
animal health problems (Catley, 1997), and to assess the
several aspects for a holistic approach. This study is
success of disease control measures (Catley, 1997;
Esena , 2013
Ghirotti, 1993; McCracken, Pretty, and Conway, 1988). statistical data analysis (Bailey, 1982), and some
This approach is appropriate for understanding multiple techniques can be used with fewer than 30 cases
facts, characteristics and constraints of trypanosomiasis (Champion, 1970). For the Participatory Rural Appraisal
control, livestock diseases and the development of a (PRA) technique, 850 farmers comprising drovers,
forecasting tool. Therefore the purpose of this herdsmen and owners were interviewed for matrix-
methodology design was to seek convergence scoring of the production objectives and the effect of
(triangulation) by examining different aspects of the animal diseases on livestock and their products.
research and adding breadth and scope to the project For the purpose of trypanosomiasis prevalence
(Greene, Caracelli, and Graham, 1989). studies a current cattle population census of the various
The quantitative method of this research are districts was obtained from records of the respective
concerned with measurements and evaluation of the use Veterinary Offices. A minimum sample size of all herds
of Berenil and the prevalence of trypanosomiasis (lab (kraals) was chosen at a 95% confidence level, an
studies) as well as the use of satellite data for prediction assumed (estimated) prevalence of 20% (Ghana, 1999)
and control. Therefore, the emphasis is on numerical data and within a precision (margin of error) of 5%
and measurable variables. It was appropriate to use (Lemeshow et al., 1990; Lwanga and Lemeshow, 1991).
multivariate analysis and GIS (ArcView) to analyse In each herd (within the kraals) the required
certain aspects of the data to develop epidemiological number of animals was selected by simple random
models. Hence a multi-method approach was adopted sampling so as to ensure that each animal had an equal
for this research as a strategy for validation. chance of being selected.
Population and sample In this survey, 1,830 cattle were sampled. But
The respondents consisted of 250 herdsmen the research also adopted a total of 6,902 samples for
representing 15.14% of the total population of herdsmen analysis as secondary data from the Tsetse Control Unit
in the study area. The number of cattle farms owned in (Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Food and
the study area is 1651 (Ghana, 2009). They were grouped Agriculture) to strengthen the validity of the research
into various districts as follows: findings.
In the central region there are 112 farms at Procedure
Awutu-Efutu-Senya (AES) district and 139 in Gomoa Participatory Rural Appraisal Surveys (PRA)
District. In the Greater Accra Region, there are 20 in the The PRA survey relied on a technique known as
Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA); 185 in Dangme preference ranking of variables within a matrix (Kirsopp-
East 429 in Dangme West and 205 in Tema District. In Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994). Participants were asked to
the Volta region, 198 in Akatsi district 33 in Keta district rank the importance of different cattle production
46 in Ketu and 119 in Sogakope (South Tongu) district. parameters and also their perceptions of the importance
Of this total number of farms, 250 were selected for the of livestock diseases. Parameters included hide, beef,
study and the respective herdsmen were identified as milk, manure as well as customary and ceremonial uses.
respondents and interviewed. In a survey design, a The criteria were listed in the rows of a matrix with the
sample of 10 to 20% of the accessible population is classes of livestock in columns. Within each cell of the
enough to generate confidence in the data collected and matrix, participants could specify the relative importance
the subsequent generalization (Ary, Jacob, and Razavieh of every category by placing between zero and ten maize
1979). It was noted that 30 cases is minimum for seeds within the matrix. The production objectives,

Esena , 2013
farmers perceptions of the importance of livestock from the Department of Geography and Resource
diseases, livestock disease types in relation to Development (University of Ghana, Legon), while
trypanosomiasis and cattle diseases affecting Climatological data were obtained from the Ghana
productivity (i.e. the rows of a matrix) were determined Meteorological Headquarters (Accra) for analysis.
after discussion and pre-testing with farmers. Satellite data
The survey was carried out in 75 villages within Normalised Difference Vegetation Indices
11 districts (Figure 1) as follows: five districts in the (NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) derived from the Advanced
Greater Accra Region, four districts in the Volta Region Very High Resolution Radiation (AVHRR) on board the
and two districts in the Central Region. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
In each village, participants were asked to divide (NOAA) satellites were used for the period 1999. The
themselves into groups according to their ethnic origin indices were simplest and most convenient way to
and wealth relative to cattle herd size: small < 50 herds, monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid estimation
medium 50-99 herds and large > 99 herds (Ghana, 2009). of vegetation cover properties from remotely sensed
Each completed the matrix separately. Contract data.
herdsmen completed the matrices as groups separate to The significant (p < 0.05) Normalised Difference
the owners of the herd. Herders were also asked to Vegetation Index (NDVI) band affecting tsetse
complete the matrices according to herder types and the distribution was RANGEDVI and the equation could be
type of ownership (sole ownership, family ownership represented as,
and communal ownership). Prioritization process was TSETSEDistribution = - 3.097 + 0.33 RANGEDVI.. (1)
followed by informal discussions to clarify issues
relating to the matrices, cattle disease, treatment and Equation (1) shows that for a unit (1.0 %)
constraints for each type of livestock. increase in RANGEDVI, the tsetse density increased by
Ground Surveys: 0.0033. The relationship between NDVI and tsetse was
Glossina spp. Tsetse fly sampling was done in represented by,
the study area (where PRA surveys and parasitological
= 0.993+1.186 RANGEDVI1.364 MINNDVI(2)
studies were conducted) using 20 unbaited biconical
traps (Challier and Laveissiere, 1973) in each area for Equation (2) shows relationships between
24 hours. The species, sex and numbers of tsetse were RANGEDVI, MINNDVI and trypanosomiasis
identified (Geoffoy et al., 1993; WHO, 1988) and prevalence. A unit increase (1.0 %) of RANGEDVI
photographed, recorded and stored in the database as increases trypanosomiasis risk by 0.0186 and with a 1.0
flies per trap per day. The data were supplemented with % decrease in MINNDVI decreases Trypanosomiasis
those of the National Livestock Survey Project. The risk by 0.01364. Thus the distribution of tsetseflies
Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate the Glossina palpalis and trypanosomiasis risks were
longitudes, latitudes and altitudes of the study sites. influenced by changes in RANGEDVI and MINNDVI
Land use and climatological data bands respectively.
It is important to examine the interaction The indices were simplest and most convenient
between trypanosomiasis risks and agricultural activities way to monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid
such as crop and livestock production. To achieve this, estimation of vegetation cover properties from remotely
digitized land use maps of the study area were obtained sensed data.
1044 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5):1041-1053
Esena , 2013
Fig 1. The study area showing Gomoa, AES, Ga, AMA, Tema, Dangbe West, Dangbe East,
Sogakope (Tongu) Akatsi, Keta and Denu (Ketu) Districts in Ghana
Trypanosome identification in cattle The identification of trypanosome species were

The techniques adopted (Murray et al., 1983) are made on morphology of the parasites (Hoare, 1972;
based on the premise that following blood centrifugation, Itard, 1989) the behavioural pattern observed in the
trypanosomes are concentrated mainly in the buffy coat buffy coat dark ground illuminated preparations, and
zone. Each animal was bled from the jugular vein into a mensural characteristics: The species identified were:
herparinized vacutainer tube (10 mls) and from the ear Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei.
vein into a haematocrit capillary tube which were Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control
transported to the laboratory on ice at 4 C. The capillary of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers
tubes containing blood were microscopically examined Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment
for trypanosomes using the Buffy Coat Technique, BCT procedures of trypanosomiasis by herdsmen was
[Woo method] (Woo, 1969). The buffy coat prepared in assessed by questionnaire and results presented in
a microhaematocrit capillary tube and centrifuged as for Figure 2. Respondents, were interviewed on the use of
measurement of Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. Records
examined for trypanosomes as follows: included the volume of Berenil administered to cattle.
The capillary tube was cut with a diamond The data were supplemented by relevant records and
pointed pen 1mm below the buffy coat to include the information from the following sources: Department
upper layer of the red blood cells, and 3cm above to of Veterinary Services, Veterinary Technical officers
include the plasma. Using a microhaematocrit capillary (Community Animal Health Officers/Frontline Staffs),
tube holder, the contents of the capillary tube were District veterinary doctors and the National Head of
gently expressed on a slide, mixed and covered with a Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Unit.
cover slip (22 x 22 mm). The preparation was then Quality of care of Veterinary drug services
examined using the following microscopic set up: Farmers were asked to rank quality of drug
A Leitz SM microscope, periplan GF x 10 eyepieces, services using Likert scale. The farmers view of drug
P.V. 25/0.50m objective and Heine phase contrast services were presented in tabular form and ranked
condenser. The entire coverslip area was then examined as follows: excellent [5], good [4], fair [3], undecided [2]
for about five minutes. and poor [1]. The variables used were: general
satisfaction, coverage of needs, satisfaction of needs,

Esena , 2013
Fig 2. Trypanocide (Berenil) usage in relation to Trypanosomiasis prevalence in Ghanas coastal savannah
presentation of treatment methods, effectiveness similar. For example, one group of farmers might only
of treatment, information given, understanding of use a range of zero to five maize seeds, whereas another
drugs, language gap, sellers follow up and regularity of group the full range of zero to 10. In the first group, a
follow up. trait with a score of five is the most important, although
Data processing and analysis it will be an intermediate score in the second group. The
Participatory Rural Assessment (PRA) data for each herd and animal group were transformed
The data were analyzed using a linear-mixed- using the formula:
model that included the effects of regions, districts, Ystd = Yorg/(n/Yorg
villages within districts, ethnic groups, herd size and
whether the respondents were cattle owners or herdsmen, Where Yorg = original score of trait
business-ownership of cattle (sole, family, communal) n = number of recorded traits
and vegetation type of each study site. Thus the standardized trait measures the
Yijklmno = Regioni + districtj + villagek + ethnic groupl + importance of this trait relative to all scored traits within
herd sizem + ownershipn+ vegetationo+ eijklmno each herd. An F-test was used to test the significance of
the various factors and the LSD-test to investigate the
regions, districts, ethnic group, herd size and vegetation differences of levels within a factor. The results are
were regarded as fixed factors, whereas village within presened in Table 1 and clearly shows that among
district was regarded as a random factor. The data were herdsmen, the production objectives were ranked as
standardized to ensure that relative ranking of objectives milk, acquisition of cattle, beef, manure and hides. The
and disease type by different groups of respondents was importance attached to milk by herdsmen might be
Esena , 2013
motivating factor to control trypanosomiasis without
Mean
rank
0.63
2.96
1.98
0.84
3.71
2.03
technical guidance.
Constraints associated with the control of
Table 1: Farmer Perceptions of Cattle Production Objectives and the Importance of Hide, Beef, Milk, Manure and Ceremonial Uses
Ceremonial
trypanosomiasis by herdsmen
2.17
0.43
Use
0
To empirically estimate the marginal effect of
constraints affecting the control of trypanosomiasis,
Owner
multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS

Consumption
programme by the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)

Own
0.81
2.15
1.76
1.87
1.32
0
analysis. In this analysis, the general to specific
approach of Hendry (Johnston and DiNardo, 1997;
Kennedy, 1998; Koutsoyiannis, 1977; Thomas, 1993;
Cash
1.09
6.73
4.19
0.65
8.97
4.33
Zar, 1984) was adopted in order to arrive at coherent
regression results. The results as presented in Table 2
Mean
rank
0.88
2.80
4.70
1.30
3.10
2.56
shows the factors and relative impacts.

Quality of care of drug services
Ceremonial
The data were transformed semi-quantitatively

2.41
0.48
Use
by assigning values to the variables. The qualities of the

Herdsman
likert-scale were assigned values as follows: excellent =

Consumption
5, good = 4, fair = 3, undecided = 2 and poor = 1. The

Own
0.95
2.32
4.49
2.64
2.08
PC Programme SPSS was used to run multiple

0
regression to test the significance of the impact of the

farmers view of the qualities of drug services.
Cash
1.68
6.08
9.61
1.27
6.89
5.11
Furthermore, the Spearmans rho () was used

for a two-tailed test for possible correlations between the
Mean
Rank
0.28
1.95
3.27
0.94
1.88
1.66
variables. The results showed that although cattle

farmers were generally satisfied with the effectiveness
Ceremonial
of treatment using trypanocide drugs purchased, yet

1.38
0.28
Use
their perception on drug effectiveness is not very

satisfactory. In some districts, the cattle farmers ranked
Drovers
drug services as poor or undecided.

Consumption
Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis surveys

Own
0.36
1.27
1.96
0.74
0.87
0
The GIS ArcView and ArcInfo Programmes

were used to map the current distribution of the flies
(Figure 3) and trypanosomiasis (Figure 4) in the study
Cash
0.47
4.59
7.85
2.08
4.26
3.85
area. Glossina palpalis was the only species found in the

area Trypanosomiasis vivax was found in 61% of cattle.
Products
Mean Usage
Whole Cow
Manure
Hide
Milk
Beef

Esena , 2013
Fig 3. Glossina palpalis distribution (catches/trap/day) in relation to mean for decadal

NDVI for year 1999 in the Coastal savannah;
Table 2: Re-estimated profit model of herdsmen

stabilate codes and frozen in liquid nitrogen by
Variables Beta t-value p-value progressively sinking the tubes in the vapourphase of the
Constant (K) 2.342 24.219 0.001 liquid nitrogen container.
Farm size 0.176 7.488 0.001
Management experience 0.264 3.545 0.001 DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION OF
Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006 STUDY
Management experience 0.1680 2.655 0.008 Multimethod approach, convergence of results and
Dosage of Berenil 0.0074 3.105 0.002 tests for validity and reliability
Extension training -0.0071 -2.376 0.018 The various mixed-method of techniques
Business/cattle ownership) 0.0035 2.117 0.035 comprising data sources, methods, analysis theory and
instruments generated a rich and comprehensive picture
Cryopreservation of Trypanosome-infected blood of trypanosomiasis prevalence in the study area. It is a
samples for future drug (trypanosome) susceptibility range of quantitative and qualitative perceptions
analysis designed to converge results. The output of the analysis
This section was conducted at The Noguchi were presented as maps, tables, graphs, statistical
Memorial Institute of Medical Research (Legon-Accra, analysis, and models then tested for validity and
Ghana) as follows: reliability.
Trypanosome-infected blood samples from cattle In seeking explanations for diverse results, the
in selected areas were treated with anticoagulant, heparin researcher may come out with unexpected findings. For
(0.005%). One volume of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) example the Participatory Rural Appraisal [PRA] data in
sterilized stock (20%) solution was added to three this research helped to explore the reason for
volumes of blood, to give a final concentration of 5% indiscriminate use of trypanocides by herdsmen: they
and mixed well. The samples were aliquoted in 0.8 mls were rewarded mainly with milk (by cattle owners) as
[8 x 10-3 litres] cryotubes, screwcapped, labelled with the main source of remuneration. The ground surveys
1048 ournal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053
Esena , 2013
Fig. 4 Trypanosomiasis prevalence (%) in relation to mean of decadal NDVI for year 1999 in the study area
together with satellite data made it possible to accurately Validity and Reliability
map areas most affected by trypanosomiasis for The issue of validity is to draw attention to the
predictions, it was also a relevant information for land extent that the findings really measure the concept that it
use patterns. The cryopreservation of Trypanosome- purports to measure and reliability (repeatability)
infected samples was for future drug susceptibility measures the accuracy and consistency of the tests. All
analysis and to test for probable identifications of approaches to investigate validity have been designed to
resistant strains associated with the control procedures. establish convergent validity (Campbell and Fiske
In effect, multi-method approach gives a holistic view of (1959). But this notion of validity is currently
the disease and identifies the appropriate strategies for controversial (Trochim, 2002) and has been argued as the
targeting control. best available approximation to the truth of a given
In effect, the triangulation seeks a logical pattern proposition, inference or conclusion (Trochim, 2002).
in results and to test for validity and reliability of the But the concept of validity and reliability should be seen
findings. The belief is that once the researcher merges as a collective whole (comprising all components) with
qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the internal the view to ensuring consistencies. This paper therefore
validity of the research is strengthened (Bowen, 1996). examines the tests and accuracies of these measurements.
It has been argued that one can rely on the use of only In this research, the reliability of the tests
two methods for maximizing the credibility of research (internal validity) were calculated using Crobanchs
findings (Bowen, 1996), But expanding on this notion, alpha (a) for possible split-half reliability (Bryman and
some researchers have suggested the need to statistically Cramer, 1997) and found to be 0.81. For convergent
test the validity and reliability of research findings validity of this research the maximum possible validity
(Schmidt, Hunter, and Urry, 1976). coefficient test (French and Michael, 1966) was used to
test for the internal validity of the samples. The result
was 0.78 and indicates a good validity.

Esena, 2013
Residual (difference between the observed and inappropriate criteria for treatment and wrong treatment
expected) probability plots followed a normal intervals. Constraints associated with quality of drug
distribution; the data were found to fit the assumptions of services were inadequate information given to farmers,
the research model. Residual analysis was used to language gap, and inability of drug sellers to follow up
identify individual subjects whose values on the outcome and the lack of presentation of treatment methods.
variable do not fit with other subjects (outliers). With An aspect of this research focused on the quality
large samples, (250 as in this research) multivariate of drug services among the 250 farmers. Some of the
models are sufficiently robust (Katz, 1999) and therefore variables were: general satisfaction of services, coverage
the results can be generalized to another situation in the of needs, presentation of methods and effectiveness of
new situation. treatment. Others were: information given, understanding
In this study, econometric model was developed of drugs, language gap, sellers follow up and regularity
to explore the views of herdsmen on the quality of drug of follow up.
use and the impact of control procedures on profit Contrary to the relevance of validity and
margins. In this model, the test of significance of reliability for ensuring the strengths of researches, some
parameter estimates was carried out by the use of the writers (Trochim, 2002) have criticized the notion of
student t-test. In econometric applications, researchers validity as measures, and that samples and designs dont
(Koutsoyiannis, 1977) test the null hypothesis for each have validity; only propositions, inference or conclusions
parameter against the alternative hypothesis. The can have validity. Instead, Trochim (2002) subdivided
decision rule (for significance tests) is that the t-values validity into four types as (external, construct, internal,
associated with independent variables that are equal to or conclusion) that build on one another. The external
greater than theoretical value (t.05 (2)n-k) are considered to validity relates the ability to generalize to other persons,
have significant effects on the dependent variables and places and time; the construct validity concerns the
are retained in the model. While the t-values determine ability to generalize to other constructs and the internal
the significance of the respective independent variables, validity concerns the causal relationships.
the F-values determine the overall significance of the
independent variables of the results. In this study, only SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
certain variables turned out as expected in the equations. This article has discussed the need for multiple
Apart from variables that were dropped by the computer triangulation methods and exemplified the theory of
itself (probably due to collinearity) variables with very triangulation and analysis to enhance the quality and
low t-values (p 0.05) were also dropped from the validity of research findings. Each taps a different
subsequent equation to re-estimate the model. dimension of a problem and captures a more complete
Findings of the PRA indicate that milk is the and holistic view of research. An illustration of a mixed-
most dominant production objective of farmers methodological triangulation involved the use of
(normally sold for cash or savings) and were most Participatory Rural Appraisal technique (PRA) to
affected by trypanosomiasis. Some of the constraints explore farmers production objectives and their
identified as associated with the use of trypanocide were perceptions of the importance of diseases in relation to
inappropriate dosage of Berenil and pour-on trypanocide use. Ground surveys (using unbaited
techniques, the lack of extension training and wrong Challier-Laveissier biconical traps) determined the
dilution methods of trypanocide drugs. Others were distribution and density of Glossina palpalis and

Esena , 2013
trypanosomiasis prevalence obtained from cattle. Bailey KD. 1982. "Methods of Social Research
Econometric model assisted in identifying the constraints (2nd ed)," Free Press, New York, p. 553
associated with drug use by cattle farmers while The
Bowen KA. 1996. The Sin of Omission - Punishable
Geographical Information System (GIS) ArcView
by Death to Internal Validity: An Arguement for
programme was used to map the risk areas for accurate
Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
targeting and control. All these multi-method approach
Methods to Strenghen Internal Validity. http://
helped to give a holistic view of cattle trypanosomiasis in
www.socialresearchmethods.net/Galler y/ Bowen/
the study area and convergence of information on
hss691.htm)
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Campbell DT and Fiske DW. 1959. "Convergent and
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in livestock disease data collection". Chester, Society for
The author wishes to acknowledge the following Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine.",.
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wish to express my thanks to Dr David Haran and Julia
Muscidae): description et essais sur le terrain. Cahiers
Kemp both at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
O.R.S.T.O.M, serie Entomologie Medicale et
for their good advice and useful comments on the
Parasitologie 11(4):251-262.
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Original Research
Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in

coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Reuben K. Esena Cattle trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock development in

Ghana and is demonstrated by the fact that cattle farmers treat the disease by
themselves. The main objective of this study is to identify the constraints associated
with the control of trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers. To identify the constraints, 250
herdsmen were interviewed on the use of trypanocides to treat cattle
trypanosomiasis. The interview focused on treatment procedures such as knowledge
of diagnosis, trypanosomiasis treatment procedures, dilutions, injection techniques,
volume of trypanocides used and prophylaxis use. The data were supplemented by
relevant records and information from the following sources: Department of
Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal Health/Frontline Staffs), District
veterinary doctors and the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control Unit.
Institution: To empirically estimate the marginal effect of constraints affecting the
Department of Health Policy control of trypanosomiasis, multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS
Planning and Management,
version 16 programme by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis. In this analysis, the
School of Public Health,
University of Ghana, general to specific approach of Hendry as found by Koutsoyiannis (1977) was
Legon - Accra, Ghana adopted in order to arrive at a coherent regression results. This provided a reliable
means of recommending appropriate and effective control strategies and good drug
services for traditional husbandry systems.
In this research, certain factors were identified as affecting cattle production.
They are, inappropriate dosage of Berenil used by farmers, selective treatments
adopted, pour-on techniques and lack of extension training. Others were the criteria
for treatments, inappropriate treatment intervals, underdosing of Berenil used, and
cost of inputs and services. Some others were injection techniques, lack of knowledge
of trypanocides and dilution of drugs. These are factors that affect productivity and
need to be addressed by policy makers especially by the Veterinary department to
improve drug use by herdsmen.

Reuben K. Esena Trypanocides, Berenil Trypanosomiasis, Constraints, Drug use, Quality Control.

Reuben K. Esena
Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in coastal
savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use
Web Address: Dates:
documents/RA0368.pdf. Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 20 Aug 2013
Journal of Research in Biology 1018-1031 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Scientific Research Journal
www.jresearchbiology.com
Esena, 2013
INTRODUCTION herdsmen has never been attempted mainly due to a

Certain policies have been instrumental in paucity of data on such important factors as diagnosis of
affecting veterinary drug use, especially trypanocide in the disease, drug dosages, farmers knowledge of
Africa. Prominent among these policies is the Structural trypanosomiasis and treatment strategies. Prominent
Adjustment Programme (SAP) which has been a strong among these constraints is the lack of knowledge of on
factor in the move towards privatization in Africa. A the effects of the disease on livestock productivity;
free market policy as a component of SAP, has especially the difficulties in quantifying the values of
triggered privatisation and commercialisation of almost livestock and their products in traditional husbandry
all sectors of the economy including animal production systems (ILCA, 1992a).
and the social marketing of Veterinary drugs (especially At the herd or household level, livestock
trypanocides) by the private sector. The belief was that, productivity can be measured in terms of the output of
a free market with price flexibility could maximize the meat, milk, inputs of preventive and curative treatments
effect of SAP and thereby stimulate economic growth. using trypanocidal drugs (Swallow, 2000) whilst
But the decentralization of the ministry of food and incomes, expenditures and profits are commonly used
agriculture as a component of SAP created stagnation in economic measures. Therefore this procedure, analyses
national livestock services projects because of unclear the annual costs of livestock products such as milk, meat,
responsibilities and lack of communication at national, manure, hides, and cost of cattle sales in economic terms.
regional and district levels (Ghana, 1998a) and thereby Infact, cattle farmers are more concerned with
enabling cattle farmers to treat their own livestock profitability of the use of trypanocide in relation to their
especially animal trypanosomiasis. livestock and products rather than the products by itself.
The constraints inherent in SAPs does not only The productivity in this study was therefore measured
affect the poorest sections of the population, but also and calculated for sales and profits and analysed in the
failing to steer the economy towards self-sustaining model.
development (Araka Morna et al., 1990). In the African Trypanosomiasis is one of the most
agricultural sector for example, the rapid change in the important constraints to livestock development in sub-
privatization of the veterinary services and provision of Saharan Africa. Despite almost a century of research on
drugs has serious implications on disease control. In the subject, and considerable investments, little impact
fact, the failure of livestock production to grow and has been made on its control. African trypanosomiasis
contribute to national development is not only due to are caused by species of trypanosomes, protozoan
policy changes, nor lack of requisite drugs, inputs and parasites (Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei)
finance. Indeed it is related to drug use. that are transmitted by tsetse flies. Currently, the only
Until the problems and constraints associated effective treatment is the continuous dosage of
with drug use against animal diseases are recognised, trypanocidal drugs such as Diminazene aceturate
policy reforms promoting livestock production cannot be (Berenil) and Isometamedium chloride (Samorin). In
implemented. This section discusses some important an area of intensive tsetse challenge, each animal may
aspects of veterinary drug use especially trypanocides for need several treatments per year.
cattle trypanosomiasis control and makes This study examines the impact of a spectrum of
recommendations. A comprehensive quantification of factors on sales, profits, drug use and the prevalence of
the impact of trypanosomiasis control on productivity by animal trypanosomiasis among cattle farmers in the
Esena, 2013
coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. This is necessary to reason is that profit measures the scale of what actually
identify major factors influencing production and to happens in the businesses and excludes the value of
quantify the relationships. It will also help to inform materials which are merely bought and sold (Harper,
farmers on the appropriate choice of control measures for 1984).
cattle trypanosomiasis in the coastal savannah. The This study is the type needed at the micro-level
objective is to establish a relationship between cattle for the successful implementation of agricultural
management practices and cattle productivity as found in economics and drug use policies. Another advantage of
the village production systems where animal this model is that it helps in the forecasts on sales and
trypanosomiasis is controlled by cattle farmers profits of cattle productivity as well as factors associated
themselves. Identifying the procedures and constraints with the control of trypanosomiasis. The research
associated with the control of animal trypanosomiasis by problem is linked to a policy question and the approach
cattle farmers is what this research seeks to answer. The to the policy question is in turn embedded in the
models used for the analysis consist of trypanosomiasis econometric framework.
prevalence, drug use and sales and variable profit Variables used for the Models
functions. The collection and organization of data for this
model is described and presented below. Data were
METHODOLOGY required for the dependent variables (sales, profit,
Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control trypanosomiasis prevalence, Berenil dose rate) and
of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers independent variables and are presented as follows:
Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment s = Dependent Variable 1: Sales ($)
procedures of trypanosomiasis by 250 herdsmen was = Dependent Variable 2: Profit ($)
assessed by questionnaire to interview respondents on = D e p en d en t Va r i a bl e 3 : T r yp a n os om i a si s
the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. Prevalence (%)
Records included the volume of berenil administered to = Dependent Variable 4: Dosage of Berenil (mg/kg
cattle. The data were supplemented by relevant records body wt)
and information from the following sources: Department Independent Variables:
of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal VAL.INPUTS: Value of Inputs (in US$)
Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and COST.SERVICES; Cost of Veterinary Services
the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control (in US$)
Unit. AGE.ENTPRISE: Age of enterprise or kraal (years)
The Models MANAGEMNT.EXP : Management Experience (years)
The research problem discussed in this section HERD.SIZE : Herd size (number of cattle)
considers the impact of farming practices associated with DOSE Dosage: Estimated Berenil dosage (milligrams/
sales and profits on cattle farms. Sales turnover is a kg body weight of cattle)
measure for defining the scale of enterprises (Harper, 0 = < 1.9 1 = 1.9-3.4 2 = 3.5-7.0
1984). Value added or profit, which is the difference EDUCATN: Education of herdsman
between sales and the cost of purchased material 0=No education, 1 = Basic/primary/JSS,
supplied or labour, is a further refinement and 2 = Secondary/Technical, 3= Training College/Diploma/
theoretically preferable version of sales turnover. The University

Esena, 2013
EXTN.TRG : Extension training (1 if herdsman received ANTIBIOTICS.USE: Antibiotics use (against secondary
extension training, 0 if otherwise) infections) in conjunction with Trypanocides (1, does not
BUSS.OWN: Business Ownership of livestock (1 if use antibiotics in conjunction with trypanocides for
partnership, 0 if sole ownership) trypanosomiasis treatments; 0 if otherwise)
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE : Encounter tsetse during POURON.TECHNIQUE: Pour-on technique. (Use
migrations, movements or grazing (1 if cattle do not integrated vector control strategies of pour-on for disease
encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations, 0 if control 1, does not use pour on technique 0)
encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations or grazing) CRITERIA.TREATMNT: Criteria for trypanosomiasis
KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE : Knowledge of Trypanocides treatment (ie for drug use). (1 drug used when animal has
( 1 if farmer has knowledge of Trypanocides, 0 if all the following characteristics: lean, off-feed,diarrhoea,
otherwise) watery eyes, or clinically diagnosed; 0 if drug is used
PROF.ADVICE : Professional advice. (1 if farmer seeks only when animal is lean, weak, off-feed or whenever
or adopts Veterinary Technical advice on trypanocide drug is available).
use, 0 if farmer does not seek professional advice Production or sales
prior to trypanocide use). The sales production function is specified as:
DILUTION : Dilution of trypanocides (1 if correct Equation 1.1

dilution of trypanocide-Berenil i.e. 1 sachet of Berenil S= ( VAL. I NP UT S, COST . SE RVI CE S,
in 125mls of distilled water, 0 if otherwise) AGE.ENTERPRISE, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,
INJECTION.TECNIQUE: Injection Techniques DOSE, EDUCATN, EXTN.TRG, BUSS.OWN,
(1 if farmer uses appropriate needles ie 4 cm (16G) ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE,
1.5 mm and injects at appropriate sites i.e. neck or rump P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,
and excess injected at two separate sites; or injection by INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, TREATMT.INTERVALS,
Veterinary Technical officer and 0 if otherwise). SANAT IVE. PAIR, SE LECT IVE.T RE ATMNT,
TREATMT.INTERVALS: Treatment Intervals. Correct PROPHYLAXS, ANTIBIOTICS.USE,
intervals (3 to 4 months) between Treatments 1, POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT)
prolonged intervals (> 6 months) between treatments 0) where,
SANATIVE.PAIR: Sanative pair. Uses sanative pair of S = Sales
drugs (Isometamedium and Diminazene)for VAL.INPUTS = Value of inputs (US$)
trypanosomiasis treatment 1; does not use sanative pair COST.SERVICES = Cost of Services (US$)
of drugs, 0) AGE.ENTERPRISE = Age of enterprise/kraal (years)
SELECTIVE.TREATMT: Selective treatment. Adopts MANAGEMNT.EXP = Management experience (years)
selective treatment of infected cattle only 1; adopts mass HERD.SIZE = Herd size (number of cattle)
treatment of all animals whenever trypanosomiasis cases DOSE = Dosage of Berenil used by farmer
are detected 0) EDUCATN = Education of herdsmen
PROPHYLAXIS: Prophylaxis use (1 if farmer treats all EXTN.TRG = Extension training

animals with samorin prior to the Period for highest BUSS.OWN = Business ownership of livestock
risk such as rainy season and movement of cattle, 0 if ENCOUNTER.TSETSE = Encounter tsetse (during
otherwise). migrations, movements or Grazing)
KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE = Knowledge of trypanocides
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PROF.ADVICE = Professional advice ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNQ+b15lo

DILUTIONN = Dilution of trypanocides gTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16 logSANATV.PAIR+
INJECTION.TECHNIQUE = Injection technique b17 logSELECTV.TREATMNT+b 18 PROPHYLAXS+
TREATMNT.INTERVLS = Treatment intervals b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECHNQ+
SANATIVE.PAIR = Sanative pair b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT
SELECTIVE.TREATMNT = Selective treatment Equation 1.4
PROPHYLXS = Prophylaxis Log=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S
ANTIBIOTICS.USE = Antibiotics use ERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EX
POURON.TECHNIQUE = Pour-on technique P+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8log
CRITERIA.TREATMNT = Criteria for treatment EXTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.T
Variable Profit Function SETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.A
The variable profit function is specified as: DVICE+b13 logDILUTN+b14 logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+
Equation 1.2 b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P
= (VAL.INPUTS, COST.SERVICES, AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA
AGE.KRAAL, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE, XS+b19ogANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.
DOSAGE, EDUCATN, EXT.TRAING, BUSS.OWN, TECHNIQUE+b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT
HUSBNDRY.T YPE, C ATTLE. MO VEMNT, Equation 1.5
ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, ORIGIN.TSETSE, DIAGNS, Log=logb0 +b1 logVALINPUTS+b 2 logCOST.
CLIN. DIAGNS, KNOW.T RYPANOCI DE, SERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.E
P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N , XP+b5 logHERD.SIZE+b 6 logDOSE+b 7 logEDUCTN+
INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, REGULAR.TREATMNT, b8logEXTN.TRG+b9 logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNT
T RE AT MT. I NTE RVALS, SANAT V. PAI R, ER.TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPR
S E L E C T I V E . T RE A T M N T , P RO P HY L A X S , OF.ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14 logINJEC.TECHNIQ
ANTIBIOTICS.USE, STERILITY, UE+b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIV
POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT E.PAIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHY
Where, LAXS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TE
= profit CHNIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT
The other independent variables are the same as in Equation 1.6
(Equation 7.1) above Log=logb0+b1logVALINPUTS+b2logCOST.SE
Functional Forms RVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP
In terms of functional forms, equations (Equation +b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE
7.1) and (Equation 7.2) are estimated as log-linear XTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.TS
equations. The log-linear sales function is shown as: ETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.AD
Equation 1.3 VICE+b13 logDILUTN+b 14 logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+
LogS=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P
ERVICES+b3ENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP+ AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA
b5 logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE XS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECH
XTNSN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER. NIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT
TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.

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Estimation Procedures Testing for the overall significance of a

The Ordinary least Squares (OLS) was applied to regression, we generalize the test for models including
the data regressions in equations (Equation 1.1) and any number of explanatory (independent) variables.
(Equation 1.2). When ordinary least squares is Such tests aim at finding out whether explanatory
appropriately applied to data, the choice among all variables do actually have any joint significance
possible lines is normally done on the basis of the least influence on the dependent variable. Formally the test of
squares criterion. The rationale for this criterion is easy overall significance of the regression implies that the null
to understand: hypothesis
It is intuitively obvious that the smaller the H0 : b1 = b2 =.bk = 0
deviation from the line, the better the fit of the line to the
scatter of the observations. Consequently from all Against the alternative hypothesis
possible lines, we choose the one for which the deviation H1 : not all b1s are zeros
of points is the smallest possible. The least squares If the null hypothesis is true, that is, if all the true
criterion requires that the regression line be drawn parameters are zeros, there is no linear relationship
(i.e. its parameters be chosen) in such a way as to between Y and the regressors. To test for the overall
minimize the sum of squares of the deviation of significance of the regression, F ratio is computed and
observations from it. compared with the theoretical F* (at p = 0.5 level of
Test of Significance sinificance) with v1 = k-1 (numerator) and v2 = n-k
Test of significance of parameter estimates was (denomenator) degrees of freedom. If F* > F, we reject
carried out by the use of the student t-test. Traditionally, the null hypothesis, ie. we accept that the overall
in econometric applications, researchers (Koutsoyiannis, regression is not significant: not all b1s are zeros. If F*
1977; Wonocott and Wonocott 1979) test the null < F, we accept the null hypothesis, that is, we accept that
hypothesis H0 : b = 0 for each parameter, against the the overall regression is not significant. In general,
alternative hypothesis H1 : b1 0 higher values of F* suggest significant relationships
This type of hypothesis implies a two-tail test of between the dependent variable and the independent
a chosen level of significance, usually at the 5 % (and variables.
more rarely at the 1% level). We compute the t ratio for The generalization of the formula of the
each b1. This is the observed (or sample) value of the t coefficient of multiple determination maybe derived by
ratio which we compare with the theoretical value of t inspection of the values of R2 (goodness of fit). It should
obtainable from the t-table with n-k degrees of freedom be noted that the inclusion of additional independent
(where n = number of observations and k = number of variables in the function can never reduce the coefficient
independent variables). The decision rule (for of multiple determination and would usually raise it. By
significance tests) is that the t-values associated with introducing a new regressor, (independent variable) the
independent variables that are equal to or greater than value of the numerator of the expression for R2 is
theoretical value (t.05 (2)n-k) are considered to have increased, and the denominator remains the same
significant effects on the dependent variables (eg. sales, (Koutsoyiannis, 1977). It is important to adjust R2 (2)
profits) and are retained in the model (Koutsoyiannis, by taking into account degrees of freedom [df] which
1977). decrease as new regressors (independent variables) are
introduced into the function. The R2 expresses the
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goodness of fit or the coefficient of multiple positive because most of the herdsmen have many years
determination. In this case it expresses the proportion of of experience. Hisrich and Peters (1992) have explained
the total variability on dependent variables (sales and that entrepreneurial experience is one of the best
profits) attributable to the dependence of sales and profit predictors of success, particularly when the new venture
on the joint independent variables. The greater the is in the same field as the entrepreneurs (herdsmans)
proportion (near unity), the better the goodness of fit of new experience.
the values of joint independent variables around their The herd size (coefficient b5) was expected to be
mean. positive and the dose rate b6 negative. Appropriate
In conclusion, it should be noted that, while the t dosage rate in the field is difficult because procedures
values determine the significance of the respective depend on the accurate estimation of body weight
independent variables, the F-value determines the overall (Connor, 1992). The coefficients b7 (education of
(or collective) significance of the independent variables herdsmen) was expected to have positive signs because
2
of the results obtained from the computer. The R as noted by Harper (1984), educational background or
determines coefficient of multiple determination of the training normally equip the entrepreneur (farmer) with
regressors (independent variables). knowledge to plan and manage his business and thereby
Economic Theory and a Priori Expectations survive in economically turbulent times (Anheier and
Certain independent variables were included in Siebel 1987). Furthermore Swallow (2000) found that
the sales (Equation 1.1) and the profit functions migratory pastoralists with higher education raise more
(Equation 1.2). The reasons for inclusion of these livestock as compared with less educated. Extension
variables may be explained by the fact that some were training (b8) was expected to be positive because this
variables to be tested in the hypotheses. Others were could assist the farmer with the knowledge to increase
findings from the field research while the rest were productivity. Business ownership type (b9) was expected
derived from literature review and also responses from to be negative in the area. Sole and family
respondents as factors affecting the control of animal proprietorships are unable to meet adequately the
trypanosomiasis. financial needs of Small Scale Enterprises SSEs (Popiel
Among the variables included in the equations, 1994; Soyibo 1996; Aryeetey 1995). On credit they are
expectations were made on the signs of each as they constantly being discriminated against obtaining credit
could affect sales and profit. For example, in equation (Liedholm and Mead 1987) and they are unable to meet
1.1 coefficients b1 (value of inputs) and b2 (cost of the cost of inputs.
services) were expected to have negative signs. This is The presence of tsetse (b10) is expected to be
because profitability of the use of trypanocides is negative because as livestock pass through high-risk
determined by the cost of inputs (drugs) and services/ areas they are infected with trypanosomiasis that could
treatments (Brandl, 1988). Jahnke (1974) and Adelheim deteriorate animal health and decrease productivity
(1980) estimated the cost of treatment to be between 50 (Brandl, 1988). Knowledge of trypanocides (b11) and
and 100% of the cost of drugs. In Uganda for example, professional advice (b12) are both expected to be negative
(Jahnke, 1974) estimated that the cost for trypanocides because the herdsman or owner carries out the treatment
used by pastoralists amounted to 50% of their family without regular Government Veterinary supervision.
incomes. The age of cattle business b3 (Enterprise) and Dilution (b13) of drugs and injection techniques (b14) are
b4 (management experience) were expected to be both expected to be negative because of the difficult

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nature of making up solutions correctly on the field for both sales and profit. Other findings were that: age
(Connor, 1993) and the difficulty of getting access to the of enterprise (b3), dosage of Berenil (b6) and business
use of appropriate needles. ownership (b9) were positive while education of
Treatment interval (b15) and the use of sanative herdsmen (b7), Presence (or encounter) of tsetse were
pairs of drugs (b16) are expected to be negative because negative as expected. Contrary to expectation,
they are generally done without regular Veterinary Knowledge of trypanosomiasis (b11) was positive for
supervision. The amount of trypanocidal drugs used in both sales and profit. Dilution of drugs (b13), injection
Africa is known to be small in relation to the numbers of techniques (b14) and treatment intervals b15 were all
animals at risk (Anheier and Siebel 1987). (Trail, Murray positive in the model. Furthermore, it was observed that
et al., 1984). Although the concept of a sanative pair the following coefficients were positive as expected:
of drugs is known to be effective against trypanosomes sanative pair of drugs (b16), selective treatments (b 17),
(Brandl, 1988) drug use among farmers depends on prophylaxis (b18), and pour-on technique (b20). The
availability. Selective treatment (b17) is expected to be criteria for treatment (b21) was negative as expected.
positive because mass treatment is now known to have Antibiotic use (b19) turned out to be positive.
led to the appearance of resistant trypanosomes (Geerts Re-estimation of the models
and Holmes 1998). Prophylactic drug use (b18) is In this study, only certain variables turned out as
expected to contribute positively in the control of the expected in the previous equations (Equation 1.2 and
disease (Lee and Maurice 1983). Antibiotic use (b19) is 1.4), Apart from the variables that were dropped by the
expected to contribute negatively because of the computer itself probably due to collinearity, those
likelihood of drug misuse (Roderick, Stephenson et al., variables that had very low t-values (p > 0.05) were also
2000). The use of the pour-on (b20) is expected to be dropped from the subsequent equation to re-estimate the
positive because it prevents infection with trypanosomes model. The reason was that, these variables were
and thereby improve animal health to increase unreliable.
productivity (Brandl, 1988). Trypanosomiasis control Re-estimated Sales and profit function results
requires an integrated approach using drugs and vector The re-estimated sales model is presented in
control to reduce the tsetse challenge (Peregrine, 1994). Table 1 and while the re-estimated model for profit is
Criteria for treatment (b21) are expected to be negative presented in Table 2. The re-estimated models for
because farmers were not trained to identify the disease. trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of Berenil by
Sales and Profit Function Results herdsmen are presented in Table 3 and Table 4
The findings of sales and profit functions respectively.
indicate that the signs of the coefficients were all similar
except for cost of services (b2), education of herdsmen DISCUSSION
(b7) and the criteria for trypanosomiasis treatments (b21) Constraints associated with drug use by herdsmen
which were positive for profit models. Contrary to The findings of this model have been compared
expectations, the coefficient b1 (value of input) was to the objectives, hypothesis, and literature review and
positive. The cost of service (b2) was negative for the are discussed below. The focus of this discussion is
profit model as expected. Management experience (b4) mainly on the constraints associated with the use of
was positive as expected and herd size (b5) was positive Diminazene aceturate (Berenil) by herdsmen for the

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Table 1: Re-estimated sales model of herdsmen Table 2: Re-estimated Profit model of herdsmen
Variables Beta t-value p-value ariables Beta t-value p-value
Constant (K) 2.3890 26.5500 0.001 Constant (K) 2.3420 24.219 0.001
Farm size 0.1760 7.488 0.001
Farm size 0.2000 8.9810 0.001
Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2640 3.545 0.001
Management experience 0.2110 3.5581 0.001 Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006
Prophylaxis 0.1000 3.5990 0.000 Management experience 0.1680 2.655 0.008
Dosage of Berenil 0.0074 3.105 0.002
Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2060 2.9840 0.003
Extension training -0.0071 - 2.376 0.018
Dosage of Berenil 0.0056 2.6640 0.008 Business/cattle ownership 0.0035 2.117 0.035
control of cattle trypanosomiasis. and profit increases by 0.00176. This is an encouraging

Important issues have emerged in this model. finding for farmers whose priority is cattle population
Firstly, it has been observed that, there is a significant increase. However some workers believe that as
(p < 0.05) impact of the joint regression between sales livestock population increases and/or tsetse free areas
and the independent variables and also a significant (p < are taken up by other forms of land use, it may become
0.05) impact on the joint regression between profit and necessary for livestock owners to enter tsetse infested
the independent variables. Similar findings were areas and there is a tendency for some of the cattle to
observed for trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of acquire trypanosome infections (Lee and Maurice, 1983).
Berenil as dependent variables in relation to the Jordan (1986) explained that as challenge increases the
respective independent variables. However only certain problem of administering drugs effectively and the
independent variables were identified to have significant consequent risk of a high incidence of drug resistance
(p < 0.05) impacts on sales, profit, trypanosomiasis developing also increase. The result further shows that

prevalence and dosage of Berenil . Although some farm management experience had a significant (p <
variables were insignificant (p > 0.05) others had 0.001) impact on profit. The issue of farm management
positive impacts on productivity. For example, it was has been noted by other researchers (Trail, Sones et al.,
observed that cattle management experiences (p < 1985). They showed that a good farm management and
0.001), age of kraal (p < 0.001), farm size (p < 0.001), an efficient trypanosomiasis monitoring programme
dosage of Berenil (p < 0.001) and prophylactic use of (chemoprophylaxis) is highly effective in maintaining
drug (p < 0.001) had positive impacts on sales. This cattle in areas of high tsetse challenge.
establishes an important equation which explains that On the issue of farm management, (Sadhu and
those who adopt prophylaxis and an increased dosage of Singh 1995) explained that the farmer normally acts as

Berenil have higher chances of increasing their output entrepreneur or proprietor of the farm business and is
for sales and profit margins. responsible for framing the general policy or plan of his
Farm size was observed to have a positive impact business or his system of farming. Indeed some writers
on productivity (Table 1). In other words large scale (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) have noted that
farmers (> 99 cattle) appear to have more outputs and these social and cultural setting influence peoples
benefits than medium (50-99 cattle) and small scale response to the drug. They further explained that
farmers (<50 cattle). The results show that for every unit pharmacology, epidemiology and social sciences
of increase (1%) in farm size increases sales by 0.002 determine drug use. There is no doubt that in areas of

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Table 3: Re-estimated trypanosomiasis Table 4: Re-estimated model; dosage of Berenil

prevalence model usedby herdsmen
Variables Beta t-value p-value Variables Beta t-value p-value
Constant (K) 1.1530 17.984 0.001 Constant (K) 3.131 6.833 0.001
Treatment intervals -0.0088 - 3.080 0.002 Education of herdsmen 0.543 4.919 0.001
Dilution -0.2140 - 2.992 0.003 Pouron technique -0.652 -3.683 0.001
Dosage of Berenil
0.1070 2.394 0.017 Districts 0.00528 2.161 0.032
Selective treatment 0.1110 2.084 0.038 Ownership of business -0.177 -1.990 0.048
low trypanosomiasis challenge, it is more economical to (Berenil) in the study area. Dosage of Berenil
control the disease by chemotherapy than by tsetse however had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on both sales
control (Jordan, 1986). and profit. Although dosage was expected to have a
Brandl (1988) has added that, the prevention of negative (p < 0.001) impact on both sales and profit, it
loss of performance of animals as a consequence of was contrary. But the survey showed that only two
trypanosomiasis has economic significance for the districts (Akatsi and AMA) used the appropriate dose
livestock enterprise and for the national economy. The (3.5 to 7.0 mg/kg body weight of Berenil). One of the
cultural setting determines how society views drug use in main difficulties in the field is to achieve correct dosage
terms of its social acceptability and its social rate because appropriate dose depends on the accurate
significance (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki, 1993). estimation of body weight which is difficult to achieve.
Non-compliance has become an important issue in When subcurative doses of trypanocides are
medical, veterinary and socio-scientific research. It given by livestock owners or herdsmen, there is the
becomes more pronounced where the prescribed danger of selecting resistant trypanosomes (Connor,
treatment is complex (Hingson, 1981) and long (Sackett 1993). Weight estimation by eye is a method which is
and Snow 1979) or where there are side effects prone to inaccuracy and perhaps the greatest source of
(Christensen, 1978). Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki error in the accurate administration of drugs (Boyt,
(1993) clarified this issue by explaining that health care 1984). This method is ineffective (Connor, 1993)
systems vary widely from country to country because especially with trypano-susceptible cattle. The reason is
they are embedded in different historical, social, cultural that the animals have to be treated several times if sub-
and political values of the country. For example, the therapeutic doses are given. In fact it is a method which
principle of equal access to drugs is associated with a requires skills that can only be acquired by training
more general emphasis on social equality and with a which only few livestock owners and veterinary staff
socio-political structure that more readily accepts have the opportunity to acquire (Connor, 1993). The risk
governmental control. associated with frequent treatment of cattle with
Prominent among the constraints associated with trypanocidal drugs especially in cattle with poor body

drug use was the dose of Berenil used by farmers and condition has been noted in Kenya by Stevenson and
its positive impact on trypanosomiasis prevalence. For Sones et al., (1995).

the fact that dosage of Berenil had a positive impact on The effects of trypanocide dilution and treatment
trypanosomiasis prevalence suggests that there could be intervals on trypanosomiasis were both inversely
a threat of resistance of trypanosomes to the drug proportional and tend to decrease trypanosomiasis

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prevalence (Table 3). The survey indicates that most wealthy. On the cost factor, Kimbel (1993) added that
farmers had two blanket treatments yearly; the dilution although it concerns national administration it is a matter

was a sachet of Berenil in 125 mls of distilled water. It that must concern the health professionals as a whole. In
was usually measured with a syringe that were the light of this argument one observes that drug
recommended for the appropriate amounts. Therefore utilisation can make an important contribution by
preparation of injectable solution was not a problem striking a balance between the benefits and the risk of
among farmers in the study area as expected. However drug use (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes, 1993).
the appropriate dose was not administered by all farmers. The age of cattle business/enterprise (Kraal)
Surveillance is necessary in addressing the problem of (Tables 1 and 2) had positive impacts on sales and profit
dosage and in determining the treatment intervals of respectively. In fact the entrepreneurial age (age of
chemoprophylactic regimes. Although drug surveillance herdsmen reflected in experience) and their
schemes were set up in 1964 to identify risks WHO chronological age are the best predictors of success
(1972) it is not effective in developing countries. The particularly when the new venture is in the same field as
need for treatment is judged by the farmer. The farmers enterpreneurs (herdsman) new experience (Hisrich and
response generally is to treat only problem animals i.e Peters, 1992). Cattle farming as an enterprise has been
those with clinical disease that are recognised as sick and noted to be an old business among Fulani herdsmen in
whose productivity or life is visibly threatened (Connor, particular (Dickson and Benneh, 1995) and this could
1993). have an advantage in enhancing productivity.
(Brandl, 1988), explained that under normal Certain factors had positive impacts on the
circumstances herd treatment should be carried out dosage of drug use (Table 4): Education of herdsmen had
through regular administration of a curative dose of positive impacts on the use of Berenil. Extension

Berenil or Samorin as a prophylaxis. But the cost of training was inversely correlated with profit. Extension
monitoring and logistical requirements limit the training and educational background in general normally
efficiency of prophylactic regimens. The requirements equip the herdsman with knowledge to plan and manage
today of farmers to pay for such treatments make it less a business. This is however not the case in the study area
likely that herd prophylaxis will be widely practised where extension training has not yet been given to most
under traditional management systems. The explanation of the farmers.
is that, there is a general belief that the cost of Pour-on techniques and farm/business ownership
trypanocidal drugs and their use is high. Trail et al., had negative impacts on drug use. In other words farmers
(1985) argued that notions of high cost of trypanocidal with a higher education level who used pour-ons (jointly
drugs and their use is a reasonable but unfounded with drugs) tend to decrease the dosage of Berenil used
assumption because there is little published information and communal farms did not comply with appropriate
on the economics of use of trypanocidal drugs on doses as compared to farms that were family owned or
livestock productivity. But some writers (Haaijer- solely owned. It is like farms that where farms were
Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) believe that alongside the communally owned, different farmers attempted to
medical/veterinary and social determinants of drug use influence the herdsmens practices. Other constraints
economic factors play an important role. They argued were identified in the model and are were presented in
that money has always been relevant to the use of drugs the model itself. Antibiotic use in conjunction with
and indeed the best medicines were available only to the Berenil had some positive impacts on sales and profit

Esena, 2013
and even decreased trypanosomiasis prevalence. The use trypanocide drug use by herdsmen. Some of these
of antibiotics mixed with trypanocides has had also been constraints pose threats to the emergence of resistance
noted among cattle farmers (massai pastoralists) in strains of trypanosomes. To address these problems,
Kenya by (Roderick, Stephenson et al., 2000). These there is the need for a trypanocide classification system
farmers used homidium or diminazene in conjunction as a tool for comparative studies of both supply/
with oxytetracycline in the absence of Veterinary marketing and use. Such a system will provide a solid
supervision. There were other factors correlated with basis on which to compare trypanocide drug use among
trypanosomiasis prevalence in the model but these were farmers in the study area. Furthermore, the veterinary
not significant (p > 0.05). These were the poor injection department and the Ghana standards board in
techniques and criteria for treatment. Other factors had consultation with the government should promote the
negative impacts on trypanosomiasis prevalence. These accreditation of Veterinary drug stores at national,
factors were: knowledge of trypanocides, professional regional and district levels. The Ghana Veterinary
advice, sanative pair of drugs and prophylactic drug use. Medical Association should be encouraged to promote
The variable criteria for trypanosomiasis treatment professional ethical standards by formulating a code of
tends to increase trypanosomiasis prevalence. This ethics assuring quality of services provided for the
implies that the diagnosis and treatment of cattle community.
trypanosomiasis among farmers have been questionable.
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Original Research
A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park

Gurgaon, Haryana (India)
Authors: ABSTRACT:
Girish Chopra,
Anil K. Tyor and The present study was conducted in Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon,
Seema Kumari* Haryana (India) from February, 2011 to January, 2013 to analyze the avian diversity
along with its status and abundance. During the study period, a total of 79 wetland
species belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 56 genera were identified. The order
Anseriformes was the most dominant represented by 18.9% of the total identified
wetland avian species followed by Charadriiformes (17.72%), Passeriformes (16.45%),
Ciconiiformes (15.18%) and Pelecaniformes (5.06%). The order Apodiformes and
Institution: Podicipediformes were the least represented order (1.26%) with one species each,
Department of Zoology, namely, Swift, Apus apus and Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis respectively. Out of
Kurukshetra University, total 79 wetland avian species, 31 were occasional species, 13 were uncommon
Kurukshetra- 136119, species, 12 were abundant species, 11 were common species and 12 were rare
Haryana (India) species. Based on the frequency of sighting, Pied King Fisher, Ceryle rudis;
Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater, Merops leschenaultia; Cotton Pygmy Goose,
Nettapus coromandelianus; Eurasian Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia; Little-ringed
Plover, Charadrius dubius; Pheasant-Tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus were
rarely sighted wetland species.

Seema Kumari Wetland, Wetland Species, Water Birds, Water Associated Birds, Sultanpur
National Park.

Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari
A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana
(India)
Web Address: Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040
documents/RA0370.pdf. Dates:
Received: 24 July 2013 Accepted: 30 July 2013 Published: 23 Aug 2013
1032-1040 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

An International
Chopra et al., 2013
INTRODUCTION of wetland ecosystem, as they form important links in the

The wetlands can be defined as transitional lands food web and nutrient cycles.
between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem where the From time to time various ornithologists have
water table is near the surface or land is covered by studied flora and fauna in various wetland ecosystems in
shallow water (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). One of the protected areas (Saxena, 1975; Hussain et al., 1984;
best functions of wetlands is that these provide the best Singh and Roy, 1990; Hosetti et al., 2001; Bhat et al.,
preferred ground for feeding, breeding, nesting, roosting 2009; Chopra and Sharma, 2012).
for birds as well as rearing site for their young ones Sultanpur National Park is one of the famous
(Stewart, 2007). According to Vyas, (1992), freshwater wetlands in northern India. This national park is
wetland alone support 20% of known range of considered as a major habitat for the cross boundary
biodiversity in India Therefore, monitoring of these sites migratory birds. Keeping in view of the conservational
provides valuable information about the ecological values of wetland birds, systematic efforts have been
health and status thereof, which can be a key tool for made during the present study with an objective to
developing awareness regarding the importance and prepare the exhaustive checklist of wetland and wetland
conservation value of wetlands. wetlands are used by dependent/associated birds of Sultanpur National Park.
birds for the purpose of feeding, nesting and roosting and
these birds are generally classify as water birds or MATERIALS AND METHODS
popularly known as waterfowls and waders. According Sultanpur National Park (2828 N latitude and
to Kumar et al., (2011), bird groups like kingfishers, 76 53 E longitudes) (Fig. 1) is located in a
raptors and some passerines are also ecologically depend predominantly agricultural landscape with an area of
on wetlands, hence known as wetland dependent/ 13,727 ha and includes its core area of 143 ha of low-
associated birds. These birds are the essential component lying marshes, which were notified as a bird sanctuary
Fig. 1(a) Location of study site within the Fig.1(b) Diagrammatic presentation of
map of Haryana Sultanpur National Park

Chopra et al., 2013
by the Haryana State Government in 1971 (Kalpavriksh, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1994). Sultanpur Lake is a seasonal lake with irregular Besides being ideal indicators of the health of
margins and fluctuating water level throughout the year, wetland, the wetland birds play a significant role in
being maximum water level in rainy season and winters, human lives culturally, socially and scientifically
and nearly dried condition during hot summer season. (Stewart, 2007). As a wetland ecosystem, Sultanpur
Periodic fortnightly visits were conducted from National Park provided varied habitats, including forest
February, 2011 to January, 2013 in terrestrial and aquatic patch and low laying marshy areas for nesting and
habitats in the area in the early morning and later in the feeding of various types of birds.
evening to record avian species. Line transects method During the study period of two years from
(Sale and Berkmuller, 1988) and point count methods February, 2011 to January, 2013, 79 wetland species
(Blondel, et al., 1981) were used to enumerate the belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 57 genera were
population of birds species. Binoculars (Nikon 750 reported from Sultanpur National Park (Table 1). These
CF) were used to locate/identify the distant birds, Sony include both water bird species and water associated bird
handy cam models DCR-HC-42E and digital camera species; former were significantly more than latter. A
Nikon L-120 model were used to take photograph of the checklist of the wetland birds observed during the study
birds encountered. Later, the wetland populations were period along with their conservation status and
identified with the help of different field guides (Ali and abundance is represented in Table 1.
Ripley, 1987; Grimmett et al., 1998 and Inskipp et al., Earlier studies have also revealed the existence
1999). of significant number of wetland avian species in the
Seasonal variation in avian diversity was wetland area of Haryana (Harvey, 2003; Gupta and
recorded in different seasons viz., winter, summer, Kaushik, 2008; Gupta et al., 2011 and Chopra and
monsoon and autumn seasons. On the basis of frequency Sharma, 2012). Harvey (2003) reported a total of 102
of sighting, the observed birds were segregated following wetland avian species which includes 58 species
Srinivasulu and Nagulu (2002), as Ab-abundant occasional and 44 species of uncommon bird in the
(encounter rate 95 % to 100 %); Cm- common wetland of Sultanpur region of Gurgaon district
(encounter rate 65% to 95%); Uc- uncommon (encounter (Haryana). Gupta and Kaushik, (2008) reported a total of
rate 40% to 60%) Oc - occasional (encounter rate 20% to 80 wetland avian species belonged to 10 orders and 20
40%); and Rr- rare (encounter rate less than 20%). families in northern Haryana. Gupta and Kaushik, (2011)
Status of the birds were categorized as: RS- resident reported 47 species of wetland birds belonging to 9
species (found in the study area throughout the year); orders and 13 families in the wetland area of
WM- winter migrant species (found in the study area Yamunanagar District (Haryana). Chopra and Sharma,
only in winter season); LM- local migrant species (found (2012) reported 88 wetland avian species belonging to 17
irregularly in study site but resident of India); SM- orders and 32 families in the wetland area of Panchkula
summer migrant species (found in the study area only district of Haryana.
during summer season) and SU- status unknown species During the present study, out of total reported 79
(not observed in any of the above mentioned categories). wetland avian species, 20 (25.3%) were resident
species and 59 (74.6%) were migrant species. The
migrant species included 11 (14%) local migrants, 43
(55%) winter migrants and only 5(6%) summer migrants

Chopra et al., 2013
Table 1: Systematic position, status and abundance of wetland species in Sultanpur

National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India).
Order Family Common name Zoological name Status Abundance

1.Podicipediformes Podicipedidae Little Grebe 1.Tachybaptus ruficollis RS Oc
2.Pelecaniformes Phalacrocoracidae Little Cormorant 2.Phalacrocorax niger RS Cm
Great Cormorant 3. Phalacrocorax carbo LM Oc
Indian Cormorant 4. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis RS Cm
Darter 5. Anhinga melanogaster LM Oc
3.Ciconiiformes Ardeidae Grey Heron 6. Ardea cinerea LM Uc
Purple Heron 7. Ardea purpurea RS Oc
Indian Pond Heron 8. Ardeola grayii RS Ab
Great Egret 9. Casmerodius albus LM Oc
Little Egret 10. Egretta garzetta LM Uc
Cattle Egret 11. Bubulcus ibis RS Ab
Intermediate Egret 12. Mesophoyx intermedia LM Oc
Painted Stork 13. Mycteria leucocephala RS Ab
Ciconiidae
Black Necked Stork 14. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus WM Rr
Open Billed Stork 15. Anastomus oscitans LM Uc
Threskiornithidae Black headed Ibis 16. Threskiornis melanocephalus WM Oc
Eurasian Spoonbill 17. Platalea leucorodia SM Rr
4.Anseriformes Anatidae Greylag Goose 18. Anser anser WM Ab
Bar Headed Goose 19. Anser indicus WM Ab
Spot Billed Duck 20. Anas poecilorhyncha WM Ab
Common Pochard 21. Aythya ferina WM Cm
Eurasian Wigeon 22. Anas penelope WM Ab
Tufted Pochard 23. Aythya fuligula WM Uc
Cotton Pygmy Goose 24. Nettapus coromandelianus WM Rr
Ruddy Shelduck 25. Tadorna ferruginea WM Uc
Northern Pintail 26. Anas acuta WM Oc
Mallard 27. Anas platyrhynchos WM Cm
Gadwall 28. Anas strepera WM Cm
Northern Shoveler 29. Anas clypeata WM Ab
Lesser Whistling
30.Dendrocygna javanica WM Cm
Duck
Common Teal 31. Anas crecca WM Cm
Garganey 32. Anas querquedula WM Cm
5.Falconiformes Accipitridae Black Kite 33. Milvus migrans LM Oc
Black Eagle 34. Ictinaetus malayensis LM Rr
Shikra 35. Accipiter badius RS Uc
Brahminy Kite 36. Haliastur Indus LM Oc
Black winged Kite 37. Elanus caeruleus WM Uc
Sparrow Hawk 38. Accipiter nisus WM Oc
Pied Harrier 39. Circus melanoleucos LM Oc

Chopra et al., 2013
6.Gruiformes Gruidae Sarus Crane 40.Grus antigone RS Oc

Rallidae White Breasted Waterhen 41.Amaurornis phoenicurus WM Oc
Common Moorhen 42.Gallinula chloropus WM Oc
Purple Swamphen 43.Porphyrio porphyrio WM Cm
Common Coot 44.Fulica atra WM Ab
7.Charadriiformes Charadriidae Little-ringed Plover 45.Charadrius dubius WM Rr
Red-wattled Lapwing 46.Vanellus indicus RS Ab
White-tailed Lapwing 47.Vanellus leucurus WM Oc
Jacanidae Pheasant-Tailed Jacana 48.Hydrophasianus chirurgus SM Rr
Scolopacidae Common Redshank 49.Tringa tetanus WM Uc
Spotted Redshank 50.Tringa erythropus WM Uc
Common Sandpiper 51.Actitis hypoleucos WM Oc
Wood Sandpiper 52.Tringa glareola WM Oc
Green Sandpiper 53.Tringa ochropus WM Oc
Marsh sandpiper 54.Tringa stagnatilis WM Rr
Little Stint 55.Calidris minuta WM Rr
Ruff 56.Philomachus pugnax WM Uc
Recurvirostridae Black-winged Stilt 57.Himantopus himantopus RS Ab
Black-necked Stilt 58.Himantopus mexicanus WM Rr
8.Apodiformes Apodidae Swift 59.Apus apus RS Oc
9.Coraciiformes Alcedinidae White Throated Kingfisher 60.Halcyon smyrnensis RS Cm
Pied Kingfisher 61.Ceryle rudis WM Rr
Meropidae Green Bee-eater 62.Merops orientalis RS Cm
Blue Cheeked Bee-eater 63.Merops persicus R Oc
Chestnut Headed Bee-eater 64.Merops leschenaulti SM Rr
Coraciidae Indian Roller 65.Coracias benghalensis RS Oc
Bucerotidae Indian Grey Hornbill 66.Ocyceros birostris RS Oc
10.Passeriformes Hirundinidae Red Rumped Swallow 67.Hirundo daurica WM Oc
Plain Martin 68.Riparia paludicola RS Oc
Oriolidae Eurasian Golden Oriole 69.Oriolus oriolus WM Uc
Dicruridae Black Drongo 70.Dicrurus macrocercus RS Ab
Muscicapidae Hodgson Bush Chat 71.Saxicola insignis WM Oc
Orange Headed Thrush 72.Zoothera citrina WM Oc
Blue-throat 73.Luscinia svecica WM Oc
Rusty-tailed Flycatcher 74.Muscicapa ruficauda SM Uc
Red -throated Flycatcher 75.Ficedula parva SM Oc
Motacillidae Paddy-field Pipit 76.Anthus rufulus RS Oc
White Wagtail 77.Motacilla alba WM Oc
Large -pied Wagtail 78.Motacilla maderaspatensis WM Uc
Yellow Wagtail 79.Motacilla flava WM Rr
RS = Resident species LM = local migrant species SM = summer migrant species WM = winter migrant species
Ab = abundant species Oc = occasional species Cm= common species Uc = uncommon species Rr rare species
(Fig 2). The present study revealed that local migrants site. Maximum numbers of migrant species were
such as, Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Open Billed reported in the winter season because migratory water
Stork (Anastomus oscitans) and Pacific Reef Egret birds species like Bar headed Goose (Anser indicus),
(Egretta sacra) were observed irregularly from the study Grey Leg Goose (Anser anser), Cotton Pygmy Goose

Chopraet al., 2013
Fig 2: Percentage composition of residential status of Fig 3: Percentage composition of abundance status
wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park, of wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park,
Gurgaon (India) Gurgaon (India)
(Nettapus coromandelianus), Gadwall (Anas strepera) Sultanpur lake was elevated.

and Eurasian Wigeon (Anas Penelope) visit this place During the present study among 79 wetland
from December to February. Minimum numbers of water species, 12 (15%) species were abundant, 11(14%)
bird were observed in the month of May and June. species were common, 31 (39%) species were
Wetland species adapt differently to different occasional, 14 (18%) species were uncommon and 11
water levels as the food preference of water birds (14%) species were rare (Fig 3). On the basis of
changes with fluctuation in the water level (Mukherjee, frequency of sighting common wetland species included
1972). Red Wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) and Little Cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger), Indian
Black Winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) (Order- Cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis), Common
Gruiformes) were observed at variable water levels of Pochard (Aythya ferina), Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos),
the lake but other representatives of this avian order, Gadwall, (Anas strepera), Lesser Whistling Duck
namely, Spotted Sandpiper (Tringa erythropus), (Dendrocygna javanica), Common Teal (Anas crecca),
Common Red Shank (Tringa tetanus) and Ruff Garganey (Anas querquedula), Purple Swamphen
(Philomachus pugnax) occupied the lake only in shallow (Porphyrio porphyrio) on the other hand, Grey Heron
regions. Their arrival coincided with the reduction in (Ardea cinerea), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Open
water level in the lake so that, they could avail the food Billed Stork (Anastomus oscitans), Tufted Pochard
easily by probing into the mud. Similar observations (Aythya fuligula), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea),
were made earlier on water birds of Sunderban Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Spotted Redshank
(Mukherjee, 1972) and Anekere wetland of Karnataka (Tringa erythropus), Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) were
(Bhat et al., 2009). The present study also revealed that the uncommon wetland birds and Pied King Fisher
Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) (Order- (Ceryle rudis), Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater (Merops
Ciconiformes) was observed throughout of the year even leschenaultia), Cotton Pygmy Goose (Nettapus
when the water level in the lake was drastically reduced coromandelianus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea
in summer months (May and June), while another leucorodia), Little-ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius),
representative of this order, i.e., Black neck Stork Pheasant-Tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)
(Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) was sighted during the were rarely sighted wetland species. Maximum wetland
starting of winter season when the water level in the bird species in the study area belonged to order
Chopra et al., 2013
Table 2: Per cent distribution of avian species belonging to different orders and families
Order No. of species (%) Family No. of species (%)
1.Podicipediformes (1) 1.26 % Podicipedidae (1) 1.26 %
2.Pelecaniformes (4 ) 5.06 % Phdlacrocoracidae (4) 5.06 %
3.Ciconiiformes (12) 15.18 % Ardeidae (7) 8.86 %
Ciconiidae (3) 3.79 %
Threskiornithidae (2) 2.53 %
4.Anseriformes (15) 18.90 % Anatidae (15) 18.90 %
5.Falconiformes (7) 8.86 % Accipitridae (7) 8.86 %
6.Gruiiformes (5) 6.32 % Gruidae (1) 1.26 %
Rallidae (4) 5.06 %
7.Charadriiformes (14) 17.72 % Charadriidae (3) 3.79 %
Jacanidae (1) 1.26 %
Scolopacidae (8) 10.12 %
Recurvirostridae (2) 2.53 %
8.Apodiformes (1) 1.26 % Apodidae (1) 1.26 %
9.Coraciiformes (7) 8.86 % Alcedinidae (2) 2.53 %
Meropidae (3) 3.79 %
Coraciidae (1) 1.26 %
Bucerotidae (1) 1.26 %
10. Passeriformes (13) 16.45 % Hirundinidae (2) 2.53 %
Oriolidae (1) 1.26 %
Dicruridae (1) 1.26 %
Muscicapidae (5) 6.32 %
Motacillidae (4) 5.06 %
Anseriformes (15, 18.9%) followed by Charadriiformes and representative of this order utilize grassland and
(14, 17.72%), Passeriformes (13, 16.45%), terrestrial ecosystem for feeding, breeding and roosting
Ciconiiformes (12, 15.18%), Falconiformes (7, 8.86%), purpose (Sundar, 2005; Urfi et al., 2005 Shahabuddin et
Gruiiformes (5, 6.32%) and Pelecaniformes (4, 5.06%) al., 2006; Sultana et al., 2007; Pande et al., 2007, Chopra
while the representative of the order Apodiformes and et al., 2012). However, during the present study in
Podicipediformes were represented by single species, i.e, Sultanpur National Park only 13 wetland avian species,
Swift (Apus apus) and Little Grebe (Tachybaptus i.e., 16.45% of the total sighted wetland avian fauna
ruficollis) respectively (Tables 1 and 2). All the 15 represented this order (Table 2).
members of order Anseriformes belonged to the single During the present study most of wetland avian
family, i.e., Anatidae constituting 18.9% of the total species were observed near the submerged vegetation of
wetland avian species, whereas representative of the wetland area and utilized these vegetation for nesting,
order Charadriiformes belonged to 4 families namely, roosting and feeding ground whereas, Painted Stork
Charadriidae (3), Jacanidae (1), Scolopocidae (8) and (Mycteria leucocephala), Open Billed Stork (Anastomus
Recurvirostridae (2) consitituting 3.79%; 1.26%; 10.12% oscitans) and Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis
and 2.53% respectively. The families, Bucerotidae, melanocephalus) were found to utilize the wetland area
Coraciidae (Order- Coraciiformes); Oriolidae, Dicruridae for feeding purpose and trees were mainly used for
(Order- Passeriformes); Apodidae (Order- Apodiformes); nesting and roosting by these species.
Gruidae (Order- Gruiiformes) and Jacanidae (Order-
Charadriiformes) were represented by single species CONCLUSION
(Table-2). In the terrestrial habitats, majority of the It is revealed that a total of 79 wetland species
reported avian species belonged to order Passeriformes were observed which includes 12 species of abundant

Chopra et al., 2013
category, 11 species of common category, 31 species of Foothills (India) Nature and Science. 10 (7): 86-93.
occasional category, 13 species were of uncommon
Chopra G, Tyor AK, Kumari S and Rai D. 2012.
category with 12 species were rare sighted wetland
Status and conservation of avian fauna of Sultanpur
species. Though, Sultanpur National Park has a rich
National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) Journal of
diversity of flora and fauna and important attracting
Applied and Natural Science. 4 (2): 207-213.
wetland area for Anseriformes, increased anthropogenic
factors such as habitat fragmentation and destruction, Grimmett R, Inskipp T and Inskipp C. 1998. Birds of
tourism pressure and scarcity of water during the the Indian subcontinent. Delhi: Oxford University. 888.
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Gupta RC and Kaushik TK. 2011. Insight into wetland
Besides, the herds of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus),
winter Migratory avian biodiversity in Hathnikund
Stray dogs and wild cattle also occasionally trampled the
Barrage in Haryana State in India. International Journal
chicks and eggs of water birds in this national park.
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Successful conservation of the avian species will depend
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993-1002 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

INTRODUCTION has been previously reported as a dangerous chemical

horticultural water supplies (underwater sinkholes) in the MATERIALS AND METHODS

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 995

according to the probit regression model. 0.01 mg/L

Parameter Estimation SE CI 95%

Mortality (100%) Logarithmic

SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval

(0.02 mg / l), which will cause a mortality of 52%.

Table 2. Comparative levels of LC 50 (lethal concentration, 50%) of Diazinon

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 997

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 999

1000 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 1001

Santos-Vzquez AR. 1989. Determinacin por

Segner H. 2004. Cytotoxicity assays with fish cells as an

Sultatos LG. 1991. Metabolic activation of the

Turner L. 2002. Diazinon, Analysis of Risks to

1002 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden

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This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/

1009-1017 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

INTRODUCTION illustrated account of the diversity, beauty and intricacies

Figure 1. Showing the study site (Khayerpur) near Agartala city

of house hold gardens as natural habitat of spider fauna.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017 1011

1012 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Oxyopidae 37) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell 1887) IND, LKA, MYS

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017 1013

1014 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017 1015

Survey of India. 4(2): 93-128. (6): 686-691.

1016 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

Smith AM. 2004. A new species of the arboreal

Sugumaran MP, Ganeshkumar M and Ramasamy K.

Taylor B. Ed. 1999. Spiders. Lorenz Books, New York.

Tikader BK. 1970. Spider fauna of Sikkim. Records of

Tikader BK. 1987. Handbook of Indian Spiders.

Tikader BK and Biswas B. 1981. Spider fauna of

Tikader BK. 1977. Studies on spider fauna of Andaman Advantages

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017 1017

Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River:

Vipin Vyas* and Kripal

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Journal of Research in Biology 1003-1008 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

INTRODUCTION district, (Longitude 76 56 E and Latitude 22 54N) at

alkalinity (182 mg/l 504 mg/l), Dissolved oxygen (6.4

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008 1005

Table - 1: Systematic Position of fish fauna of Sip River

bodies in the management and conservation of fisheries

Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008 1007

Jayaram KC. 1981. The Freshwater fishes of India, Soc.India.41(2`): 18-25.

Karamchandani SJ, Desai VR, Pisolkar MD, and

Qureshi TA and Qureshi NA. 1983. Indian fishes,

Rao KS, Chatterjee SN, and Singh K Anil. 1991.