Key to phonetic :

1/Vowels :

3-Diphtongs : Short vowels : Long vowels :

/eI/ as in bay /beI/ /I/ as in pit /pIt/ /i:/as in key /ki:/

/aI/ as in buy /baI/ /e/ as in pet /pet/ /a:/ as in car /ka:/

/I/ as in boy /b I/ // as in pat /pt/ /u:/ as in coo /ku:/

/I/ as in near /nI/ // as in pot /pt/ /:/as in saw /s :/

/ / as in poor /p / // as in put /pt/ /3:/ as in bird /b3 :d/

// as in go /g/ //as in putt /pt/

/e/ as in bear /be/ // as in ago /g /

/a/ as in now /na/

2/consonants :

/p/as in pen /pen/ , // as in this /Is/

/b/ as bee /bi:/ , /z/ as in zoo /zu:/

/t/ as in toe /t/ , // as in measure /me/

/k/ as in cap /kp/ , /l/ as in Live /lIv/

/f/ as in fat /ft/ , /r/ as in read /ri :d/

// as in thing / I/ , /j/ as in yet /jet/

/s/ as in s ip /sIp/ , /w/ as in wet /wet/

// as in ship /Ip/ , /d / as in june / d u :n/

/h/ as in hat /ht/ , // as in sing /si/

/m/ as in map /mp/

/n/as in now/ na/

/t/ as in chin /tIn/

/d/a s in dose /d s/

/g/ as in game /geIm/

/v/ as in voice /vIs/

Introduction to phonetics :

1/Definition of phonetics :

-the word phonetics comes from the greak word phone which means sound or voice.

*Phonetics is defined as the science or study of speach sounds and their production,transmission and
reception and their analyses, classification and transcription.Its smallest unit is phone.

*Phonetics is the scientific study of speach .The central concerned in phonetics are the discovery of
how speach sounds are produced, how are they used in spoken language, how we can record speach
sounds with written symbols and how we hear and recognize different sounds.

*Phonetics refers to the branch of languages that deals with speach sounds and their production,
combination, discription and representation by written symbols.This system facilitates the process of
language learning.In this context the International Phonetics Alphabets (IPA) has been put which is
standardized representation of all human sounds by specific symbols .

2/Branches of Phonetics :

A/Articulatory Phonetics : deals with position and mouvments of the speach organssuch as the lips
and the tonhue in producing sounds.

B/Acoustic Phonetics : is concerned with the physical properties of the sound waves.

C/Audition Phonetics : deals with the perception of the speach sounds of the effects of the air.

3/Phonetics and phonology:

Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speach sounds with reference to
their distribution and patterning.Thus, a phonologist usually attempts to study how speach sounds
are combined, organized and convey meaning in particular language.Its smallest unit Phoneme

*Phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a particular language.a change in
the phoneme may result in a change in the meaning of the word.Thus, Phonemes are fundamental
units from which words are built.Exc : /m/ and /b/ are different phonemes in English language
because replacing one phoneme by another results in the formation of different word with different
mening like in mug and bug .

Phone : is one of many possible sounds in the languages of the world.

The smallest identifiable unit formed in a stream of speach.

Pronounced in a defined way and represented between brackets : [b] , [j]

Phoneme : is a contrastive unit in the sound system of a particular language.

A minimal unit tha seves to distinguish between meanings of word.

Pronounced in one or more ways , depending on the number of allophones and represented
between slashes : /b/ ,/j/.
Articulatory Phonetics :

Speech Production :

All the sounds we make when we speak are the result od muscles contracting.The muscles in the
chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech
sounds ;muscles in the larynx produce many different modification in the flow of air from the chest
to the mouth.Afeter passing through the larynx,the air goes through what we call the vocal tract,
which ends at the mouth and nostrils ;we call the part comprising the mouth the oral cavity and the
part tha leads to the nostrilsthe nasal cavity.Here the air from thelungs excapes into the
atmosphere.We have a large and complex set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape of
the vocal tract,and inorther to learn how the sounds become familiar with differentparts of the vocal
tract,these different parts are called articulators, and the study of the mis called articulatory
phonetics.

Articulators vs parts of articulation

Movable organs / non-movable organs

Tongue,lips,lower jaw / upper teeth, the palate

Stages of speech sounds production :

Speech production is a very complex process ,in which different levels of processing are involved.The
following are the three major stages of speech sounds production :

1-The Psychological stage :

In the brain, the intention to create speech relats the intended concept to a particular spoken word
to be expressed.

2-The articulatory stage(the physiological stage) :

At this level, the nervous system transmits the message created in the brain to the speech
organs,which inturn will produce specific pattern of sounds.

3-The Acoustic stage (the physical stage) :

The mouvment of the organs of speech will create disturbance in the air whcih enables tthe hearer to
receive particular sounds and discriminate between them.

The peech mechanism :

When producing speech sounds, each speech organ has a particular role.

1-The position of the glottis :

The air coming from the lungs is considered the source of energy required in the speech.After
escaping the lungs,the air passes throughthe tarchea and through the larynx.This latter contains two
stitcheed vocal cords.As they open and shut , these vocal cords regulate the amount of air tha
passes.Therefore,the first classification of sounds to be considered depends on the different
positions that the vocal cords can take.

1-a- When the glottis is tightly closed , the air flow is cut and escapes with difficulty creating a glottal
stop / ?/ Ex :butter /b t/

1-b-when the gmlottis is wide open, the air stream passes freely.This is the case of normal breathing
and usually the production of voiceless sounds./p,t,k,f,s, t, ,h, /

1-c-The glottis may be brought together but not completely.In this case, the air passing through the
opening between ords causes vibration.This is the feature of all vowels and voiced consonant .
/b,d,g,d,v,z, ,m,n,w,r,l,j ,, /

2-The position of the soft palate :

After it has gone through the larynx, the air stream is further modified at the level of the pharynx at
its top end, it is divided into two, one part being the back of mouth and the other being the begining
of the way through the nasal cavity,the air can go into either the oral or nasal cavity,depending on
the position the soft palate ca take.

2-a-When the soft palate is lowered in normal breathing the air passes through the oral and nasal
cavity( the mouth and the nose).In this case ,for instance,the nasalized French vowels can be
produced,as in en in centand in in instinct
2-b-In other cases, the soft palate can be lowered with an obstacle at some points in the
mouth,enabling the air to escape only throughthe nose.This is the case in the production of the
English nasal consonants/n,m, /.

2-c-When the soft palate is raised, the nasal cavity will be shut off.In this cas,the air escapes only
through the mouth producing all oral consonants.

3-The position of the tongue :

The tongue is a very important articulator and can be moved into many different parts,namely :the
tip,the blade,the front,the back,and the root.

4-The position of the lips :

The shape of the lips can considerably affect the type of the sound produced :

a-the lips can be pressed together as in/p ,b/.

b-the lips can be brought into contact with the upper teeth as in /f,v/.

c-the lips can be rounded to produce the lip-shape for such vowels as /u:/they can also be open-
rounded as in / /.

d-the lips can be spread or neutral as in /i:/ and / /.they can be in a relaxed position as in/e/.
 Plural and past tense formation in English

1-Plural formation :

The /s/ sound can be realized in different ways, according to the preceding sound :

a-when the word ends with a voiceless consonantthe /s/ sound is realized as /s/

Ex : book-books ,map-maps.

b-when the word ends witha voiced consonantthe /s/ sound is realized as /z/

Ex : rule-rules, mind-minds.

c-when the word ends with /s/ ,/ t/ , / / (voiceless consonants) and /z/ (voiced consonant) the /s/
sound is realized as /iz/.

Ex :class-classes , rose-roses , wish-wishes , match-matches.

2-Past tense formation (ed) :

The finbal ed can be realized in different ways according to the perceding sound :

a-when the verbends with a voiceless consonant the ed is realized as /t/.Ex :to book-booked

b-when the verb ends with a voiced consonant the ed is realized as /d/.Ex :to raise-raised.

c-when the verb ends with /t/,/d/ (voiceless and voiced consonants) the ed is realized as
/id/.Ex :to add-added , to start-started.

daniel jones diagram :

daniel jones diagram was divided by the British Phonetition daniel jones to provide a framework that
should work as a system of reference for the pronunciation of vowels in various languages.It is based
on the physiological observation of the mouth in the act of pronunciation The cardinal vowels on
the scale do not actually exist :They are mere landmarks against which the vowel sounds of various
language are assessed,provided a set of fixed points of reference for the position of the mouth and
the contribution of the tongue while pronuncing the vowels.

Diphthongs and Triphthongs :

1/Difining Diphthongs :

Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another.Avowel
which remains constant and does not glide is called pure vowel.During the production of a glide, the
tongue adopts one position that quickly shifts into a different and studier position.Diphthongs can
also be defined as those vowels that consist of a pure stressed vowel (the nucleus) and a glide
towards a second vowel sound.That is why,the term glide is often used.
Clasification of Diphthoings :

a-Diphthongs can be classified as :

*Falling :the nucleus is the first element.

*rising :the nucleus is the second element.

All English Diphthongs are falling ,and the nucleus is considerably longer and louder then the glide
,which is often merely suggested,never fully articulated.

b-They can also be described as :

*wide :which imply a significant movement of the speech organs.Ex:[ai],[ :]

*Narrow :which suggest a lesser movement of the organs.Ex :[i ],[ ].

c-Concerning the direction of movement of the speech organs ,Diphthongs are classified as :

*closing :Diphthongs move towards a closer vowel.Ex :[ai],[ i].

*centering :Diphthongs move towards the shwa [],[i],[].

*opening :Diphthongs move towards a more open vowel such category does not exist in English.

In English there are 8 diphthongs :

1-[ei] :falling,narrow and closing diphthong.The sound glide from a relatively more open to a more
closed vowelpositions.Ex :play [plei]

2-[ai] :falling,wide, closing,the diphthong begins with an open vowelwhich is between the front and
the back position.Ex :buy [bai].

3-[ i] :falling,wide,closing.It glides to the front,close position.Ex :boy [bi].

4-[a] :falling,wide,closing.The diphthong begins at the point between the back and the front opent
position .Ex :loud [lad].

5-[] :falling,narrown closing,the diphthong start in the central shwa position.The sound then glides
to the back,close position of the vowel.Ex :close [klz].

6-[i] :falling,centering,narrow.The diphthong starts with a tongue position similar to that of [i] and
glides towards the central shwa position.Ex : near [ni].

7-[ ] :falling,centering,narrow.It starts in slightly closer position then the vowel in put before
gliding towards the central shwa position.Ex :Pure [pj].

8-[e] :falling,centering, narrow.This vowel starts with an open front position and glides towards the
central shwa position.Ex :bear [be].
2/Triphthongs :

English also has typical vowel sequences that consist of three sounds.They are called Triphthongs.the
five English triphthongs are /ei/,/ai/,/i/,//,/a/.Unlike diphthongs,however,triphthongs
are not analysed as separate vowel phonems.They are interpreted as closing diphthongs followed by
a shwa.Ex :Royal /ri/.

SSsss

Syllables in English :

In oral communications,phonems-or rather,their allophones-rarely appear in

isolation.Generally,they come in clusters(group) that form meaningful units.Ex :words or phrases
.Such meaningful units can be broken down into smaller phonological units-syllables.

1Syllable=monosyllabic words.

2S=disyllabic words.

3 or more=Polysyllabic words.

1-Definition :

Syllable, as a basic unit in speech, can be defined both phoneticly and phonologicly.In phonetics,
a syllable is usually described as consisting of a center which has little or no obstraction to airflow
and which sounds comparatively loud ;before and after this center ((i.e at the begining and end of
the syllable)), there will be greater obstraction to airflow and/or less loud sound.Phonologicly,this
unit is rather defined as ((a unit of prnunciater uttered without intereption,forming a word or part of
it.It is composed of one vowel ((pure vowel or diphthon)) and optionalli surrounded by one or more
consonants.

2-The struction of the English syllable :

Like words,syllable can also be segmented.It can be divided into two parts : the onset and the
rhyme.This latter consist of the nucleus (the peak) and the coda.

a-The onset : it is the opening section of the syllable ;the one preceding the nucleus.These sounds
are always consonants up to three consonants.All consonants can form the onset of the syllable
exept // ,The //is rare.

b-The rhym :within the rhym ,we find the nucleus and the coda.

b-1 The nucleus :It is the core and the essential part of the syllable ;it is the central segment.In
English language the peak is a pure vowel or diphthong in most cases.However, some consonants can
replace the nuclei of the syllables.

b-2 The coda :Being the final segment of the syllables the coda is usually one or more consonants
that follow the nucleus (up to four) the s and d contribute to increasing the number of codo
consonants phonems.

*-The preceding consonants before the nucleus are called the onset.

*-The consonants or consonants clusters following the nucleus are called the core.

An English syllable requires a nucleus of a syllable and optionally has an onset or a coda.

1-Zero onset : If the syllable doesnt contain any consonant before the vowel (nucleus)

2-Zero coda :syllable has no consonants after the vowel (nucleus).

A syllable can be analysed in the following way : flat

The onset /fl/ s(syllable)

Rhym /t/ O(onset) R(rhym)

The nucleus // N(nucleus) C(coda)

Coda /t/ [fl t]

EX :

Justification

Jus/ti/fi/ca/tion.

S S S S S

Onset rhym onset rhym onset rhym onset rhym onset rhym

N C N C N C N C N C

[ d S] [t i ] [f i ] [k ei ] [ n]

Syllable description optionalty

Onset Initial segment of a syllable optional

Nucleus Central segment of a syllable obligatory
Coda Closing segment of a syllable optional

Consonants clusters :

Consonant clusters is a group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a
vowel between them.It is important to destinguish between consonants clusters and diagraphs with
which they are often confusing.This latter is a group of two or more consonants that stand for just
one sound.In the word character c and h appear contiguously but are not consonants clusters
even though both are separate consonants in other contexts ch in the word character is a diagraph
because it represents a single sound in the underlying English sound system.

Word Stress Rules :

1-Definition of word stress :

The manner in which stresses are distributed on the syllable of a word it is the verbal emphasis
(focus) placed on one syllable of a word.this occurs in every English word that has more then one
sylable.It is not always the same syllable but there are ouple of rules to be familiar with when it
comes toward stress.First ,word stress is only on a vowel of word it is never on a
consonant.Second,there is only one word stress per word.Word stress helps you to contextualize
which version of a particular word you are hearing.Ex :anthropology is the noun that refers to the
study of human kind anthropological.One part of a certain word said louder and longer then other
parts of the same word.
1. Two-Syllable nouns and adjectives

In most two syllable nouns and adjectives, the first syllable takes on the stress.

Examples:

SAMples
CARton
PURple

2. Two-Syllable verbs and prepositions

In most two syllable verbs and prepositions, the stress is on the second syllable.

Examples:

reLAX
reCEIVE
diRECT

3. Three-Syllable words

For three-syllable words, look at the word ending (the suffix), using the following as your guide:

Words ending in er, ly

For three-syllable words ending with the suffixes er or ly, the stress is placed on the first syllable.

Examples:

ORderly
SIlently
LOvingly

Words ending in consonants and in y

If there is a word that ends in a consonant or in a y, then the first syllable usually gets the stress.

Examples:

RARity
OPtimal
GRAdient
Words with various endings

Take a good look at the list of suffixes below (suffixes are word endings).

The stress is going to be on the syllable right before the suffix. This applies to words of all syllable
lengths.
Examples:

1. able: ADDable, DURable, LAUGHable

2. ial: differENTial, SOcial, fiNANcial
3. cian: muSIcian, phySIcian, cliNIcian
4. ery: BAkery, SCEnery
5. ian: coMEdian, ciVILian, techNIcian
6. ible: reSIstible, imPOSsible, TERRible
7. ic: arCHAic, plaTOnic, characteRIStic
8. ics: diaBEtics, paediAtrics, TOpics
9. ion: classifiCAtion, repoSItion, vegeTAtion
10. ia: MEdia, bacTERia, vicTORia
11. ient: inGREdient, PAtient, ANcient
12. ious: mySTERious, reLIgious, VARious
13. ish: SELfish, ENglish, PUnish
14. osis: hypNOsis, diagNOsis, osMOsis

Words ending in ade, ee, ese, que, ette, oon

Words that use the suffix ade, ee, ese, eer, que, ette, or oon have the primary stress actually placed on
the suffix.

This applies to words of all syllable lengths.

Examples:

1. ade: lemoNADE, cruSADE, arCADE

2. ee: aGREE, jamborEE, guaranTEE
3. eer: sightSEER, puppeTEER
4. ese: SiamESE, JapanESE, chEESE
5. ette: cassETTE, CorvETTE, towelETTE
6. que: unIQUE, physIQUE
7. oon: baLOON, afterNOON, carTOON

Prefix :

Usually prefixes do not take the stress of a word.There are few exeptions to this rule.However,like
un,in,pre,ex,mis which are all stressed in this prefix.Ex :inside,mistake,prearange.

Stress on the second from the end syllable

You put stress on the second syllable from the end of the word with words ending in ic, sion, and tion.

Examples:

iCONic
GRAPHic
hyperTENsion
teleVIsion
nuTRItion
reveLAtion
Stress on the third from end syllable

You put stress on the third from end syllable with words that end in cy, ty, phy, gy and al.

Examples:

deMOcracy
geOGraphy
ALlergy
NAUtical
CLArity
CRItical

Word stress for compound words

A. Compound noun

A compound noun is a noun made out of two nouns that form one word. In a compound noun, the
most stress is on the stressed syllable of the first word.

Examples:

SEAfood (sea + food)

ICEland (ice + land)
TOOTHpaste (tooth + paste)
FOOTball (foot + ball)
BAsketball (basket + ball)

B. Compound adjectives

A compound adjective is an adjective made of at least two words.

Often, hyphens are used in compound adjectives. In compound adjectives, the most stress is placed in
the stressed syllable of the second word.

Examples:

ten-MEter
rock-SOlid
fifteen-MInute
old-FAshioned

C. Compound verbs

A compound verb is when a subject has two or more verbs. The stress is on the second or on the last
part.
Examples:

Matilda loves bread but deTESTS butter.

Sarah baked cookies and ATE them up.
Dogs love to eat bones and love to DRINK water.