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MRK
'

I

amona Vo
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, CA, USA

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-444-52196-5

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visrt our website at books.elsevier.com

t ....~ ." j i
'\ i t~ il J
'
"I ~ ~.. '
':'! 4" I
. '
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07 08 09 10 11 ' '

...., . '

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. elsevier.com


is i11 a state of flux and 110 final conclusions have been clrawn.

sections and perturbative CD is covered well in Halzen and Mar-

tin ' uarks and Leptons: An Introductory Course in Modern Particle
Physics', the CTE 'Handbook of Perturbative CD' and, on a more -

phenomenological level, Perkins 'Introduction to High Energy Physics'.

For more on ultraperipheral collisions, see the reviews by Baur et al.
and Bertulani et al.. The review by Cleymans, Gavai and Suhonen
' uarks And Gluons At High Temperatures And Densities' was very
useful in preparation of the chapters on thermodynamics and hydro-

v
 Pre ace

Intro(J1_ ct ion
r z. 1

, or I 1 e l,J ,..

r O d revi 'A'S Y

1 ' . reviews y a o e
--
-

m the proceedings o t e uar

mee inz in thi ~ field.
1 oo 1s orga111ze . .

chapters on high mass thermal dileptons and quarkonium cover two

. . ot1 1 e to
,..
. \..
an en t
11s a or 11sef11

Contents
Vll

1 Kinematics and invariants 3

1.1 Introd uction 3

1.2 Four-vectors ancl kinematic variables ....{

1.3 Invariants 14

2 Cross sections 25
2 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2. 2 Derivation of the cross section from nonrelativistic per-

turbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 The wave-optical model and total cross sections .... 47
2.4 The quark model, hadron-hadron interactions and par-
ton distri bution functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.5 -ion
collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 96

3 . . . . eometry 105
.l ntro uction 105
.2 105

.3 117

Vll
 I

128

149

149

1
1.54

171

183

221
5 Hydrodynamics
221
. 1 Introduction . . .

-0 ....) Energy-momentum tensor

22.s
5.3 228
5.4 . . zitu 1na

238 -
expansion . . . . . . . . . .

radial expansion . . . . . . . . . . 257

5.6 Observable consequences . . . . . . 269

6 Lattice gauge theory

279
6.1 Introdt1ction . . . .
279
6.2 S metries and the Lagrangian . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 280
Basics of lattice gauge theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4

292

6. 5 ing . 333
Selected results from lattice CD . . . . .

341

7 Thermal dileptons

7.1 Introduction . .




e.

7.4




7 .. 5










 Content
IX

uarkonium 385
r.) - -
J60
.2 uarkor it1111 levels at T 0 . 387
t1ar koni t1n1 prod uction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
401
8.5 uarkonium suppression by haclrons . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.6 N ucleus-nucleus collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

9 Hadronization 427
9.1 Introduction 427
9.2 Fragmentation in pp collisions 42'(
9.3 Nuclear effects . 445

Bibliography 455

Index 469

'
.
l


 '

'

international collaborations. As the energy is increased; the relevar.,

remai-n intact or be broken up into light nuclear fragments. As various

thresholds for particle production are reached, some of the energy of
the system may go into producing new particles, such as pions or kaons,
At high enough energies, the relevant degrees of freedom are expected
to be quarks and gluons rather than hadrons, forming the quark-gluon
plasma.
The modern era of heavy-ion collisions arrived with beam energies of
10-200 Ge V nucleon at fixed-target facilities: the Alternating Gradient

Research CERN . Both the AGS and the SPS accelerated protons


11 10 ere 0

r 1 leon at he A d 20 ]

the maximum energy per aucleon of io

beam is not a high as the n1axi11111m possible proton beam energy.
Ema;. The maximum ener for ions is EmaxZ A where Z is the nr-:, .. 'Jn
number nuclear charge . Protons and lighter ions can be accelerated
to higher energies per nucleon, E A, due to their larger charge-to-r.:a.ss
ratio, Z "'4. The Z A ratio determines the acceleration capability be-
cause while the uncharged neutrons are unaffected by the electromag-
netic fields, they remain bound in the nucleus. The maximum possible
center-of-mass ener for these fixed-target machines is rather low. 4.4
GeV nucleon for At1+Au collisions at the AGS and 16.8 GeV nucleon
for Pb-l-Pb collisions at the SPS.
Now, two nuclear colliders take hea -ion physics to the next level.
In a collider, both collision partners, the 'projectile' and 'target' are
accelerated, leading to much higher energies than those possible at

their

earn ine in vacuum at

rotons are acce erate y t e mac an t en sent to t e ooster.

y t e ooster a11 t en
 1.1. Introduction
5

1 .

fed into the AG where the ions are further accelerated from 37 o the

points.
aroun etectors, ta e an
ata.

ot

c am using inacs w ic then ee

an t e e ore

eing trans erre at
on i . . t
rin s ast rea on t e an ort an est reas on t e
xe -tar et areas. n a ition t ere is a
 1

SPS

- ::0.1 G' t; L l.ll

C.rt1a JC +'It
73ek-. 0.3c by here

'
Start the protons out here .
'

Fi e 1.2: CER"" -
copyright.

'

beam line from the SPS to a neutrino production area. The neutrinos
are detected at the Gran Sasso laboratory in Italy, 456 miles 730 km
away. The LHC rings are 16.9 miles. 27 in circumference. The
CERN complex straddles the borders of Switzerland and France. There
are four interaction points fore eriments ALICE, ATLAS, CNIS and

located in Switzerland. The others are all in France. The LHC tunnel
is 50-17.5 m underground. The varying distance below ground is due
to the fact that the tunnel runs under the J ura mountain range. The


1

r
11
l )

l

l
-1

our vec ors an 1ne

under Lorentz transformat

ions.

as x where == 0, , 3 and
1.1

The zeroth coordinate is the time coordinate while 1 2 and 3 are

vectors more explicitly here but note that this is not typically done.

four-vector with the time variable while the components with i '. .

transverse coordinate, XT ==
so that
1.2
t, Xy, Z
 1

l c - 0
0 r- l

E 1. '3
E PT P. 1.

icle en ~ ~
e have
azain taken c 1 between Eqs. 1.3) and 1.4 .
To multiply four-vectors we need to 1::Je able to raise and lower t:_ F:.
indice e sentially to change a row vector to a column vector. e use
the metric tensor 9v to raise ancl lower the indices where

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 ..s
0 0 0 1

v en the metric tensor operates on a four-vector, it changes the sign

- --
of the three-vector components, l, 2, 3. The four-vector with the
lowered index is written as a column vector rather than a row vector
so that e.g.,
tD
t -

X 9vX Xy 1.6
,._,
7
-~... .

E
v
9vP == PT 1.7 "a.

Pz
-

Then, when we multiply four-vectors, we multiply a row vector with

four components by a column vector with four components, resulting t
in a scalar. e have

ab 1.8

where a and b are any pair of four-vectors. Two cases are particularly
useful in our further studies. They are the multiplication of the position
 1. 2.
9
fa
s. l e fi st is denote .l t.1

l.9)

1.10

1.11)

'

Figure 1.3 shows the collision of two particles at ultrarelativistic

energies. The vertical axis is the time direction where the lower half
'

plane is before the collision while the upper half plane is after the
collision. The projectile comes from the left z < 0 and goes off to

'

E* E 1.12

Pz
 t

2 2
t -z >0

z
-t

'

and one time

dimension. t2 z2 < 0
regions after the collision at t z 0 are indicatecl.

1.13
E* 1E- Pz ,
.-- 1.14
r Pz E . , ,

l
!
 1. 2. 11

Ill.

1.1 =)

By substitution 1

E* * 2
2 - p ..-
(1.16;

2 1.17
E* 2 - Pz

1.18
y ==
2 E Pz
The rapidity of the particle can be written in terms of its velocity,
ntz , instead of the momentu1n and energy if we define its direction of
n1otion to be along the z axis since p z E. Then
1.19
icle y ==
-
2 1-
.,
~

1
e can make use of Eq. 1.18 to define the energy and longitudin_3:1
'
nee momentum in terms of the.transverse mass an apu it , using the defi-
I

1.20
\ .
1.21
my sinh y .

the
 12
1. Kinematics and invariant.s

exp y E+pz E Pz
exp -y
E Pz ' E+pz

exp y +exp y E+pz

E Pz 2E
E2 Pz2 + E2 p~ my '
exp y exp y E+pz E Pz 2pz
E2 p~ E2 p~ my

Rearranging terms ancl using the definitions of cash y and sinh y, we have
Eqs. 1.20 ancl 1.21 .

advantage of rapidity over velocity is that it transforms more

A11
straightforwardly under Lorentz boosts. If y is defined as in Eq. 1.18 ,
then, in the boosted frame,

l+
1.22
1-
EXA PLE: Prove Eq. 1.22 .
S11bstituting the definitions of E* and p; from Eqs, 1.13 ancl 1.14 and
rearranging terms, we have

E* +p; 'Y E
Pz + ')' Pz
'
'
E
y*
2 E* Pz* 2 'Y E Pz E)
'Y Pz
1 E+pz 1+
y
2 1+ E Pz 1

y~ . 1.23

1.23 .
 1.2
7

-x 2

.2
2. 0

1.19 ctS

1
y == - ln 1 f3) .

u /3 -

is often a more useful experimental measure, especially if the par ic -=

detected are not identified and their masses are thus ll own. -e de-

'

'

2 '
2p + ... 1.25

E+Pz ~
1.26

Pz
using

we can
1.27
2

is 0 ten more conven1en c

ations since t e mass 0

 14
1. inetriaiu:s and uiuariants

variable to use.

varia

the measurement is made. Th11s, for convenience, the cross sections

P1

P4

---1') 2 scattering

are outgoing.

our-momenta.
 -:)

rz g. .

1 + '} + . 2
2 j 2-
T P1 p3 - ')
2
P2 Pt 1.29
[! - ')
2
P1 p4 P2 P''J 1.3)

S, is usually used to

I
'
'

1
units are used.

EX_A!VIPLE: Show that S is a Lorentz invariant.

Tl1en
2 -I -I 2 1.31)
,.

- S' P1 + P2
~

2
t
--
E1 Plz +r E2 P2z
~ ' 2 2
, ,BE1 +r E2
.
~

~ PlT + P2T 'Y,Plz P2z

~
..
:;;
-
"'
.-
~
s
,.
~
~

2 2

->> : 1.32
'--' 1 2 - 2p1 P2
 16
1. Kinematics arid invariarit.s

1
Pein= S-
2 s 1.33

Note that Pcm is symmetric with respect to 1 and 2. If m1 m2 m, then

1
S - 4m2 .
1.34
The ce11ter-of-mass energy of e.g. particle 1 with mass m1 is E1 cm ==
1.33 , we find
1
E 1 cm = ---;::= S+ m 2 _
m.2 2
.
1.35

If, instead, we
- wanted E2cm, then m., arid ~n2 are interchanged i11 Ec1. 1.:35
so that
1
E2cm =
2 s ], .36

Note also that if mi rri2, 1

~ i11 lly, imilar r l -
tions to Eqs. 1.33 - 1.36 c . t i11 2
scatteringif m , > m3 and m r

In the fixed-target

If the
e11 of Ie as was the case
e beam is

ugrn since

--1k1n+m1

rem e partrc e mas
 -

JJ -

ep i a
n -o - ner
11 d finiti 1

S'

Thi gives tis

Pcm S S
P1 = --- ~ --

center o mass, 2cm

an Eq. 1.41 for the

P1 1.42

2cm
'- llab + m2

oost o the

rame is
. . . . 1 lab + m2 1.43

/2cm
 1

r c 1 -ill b b , e _l be ~ .. r

. 1 b
J ,,
r

Y -1... ~fJ2 = Ylab ince :1J1 .Ylab and .Y2 0 l ile

particles are moving toward each other wi 11 , ' e

" . . ..

increases with ener .

J
I ~ 111
 19

te
lab me

Y.beam

Ytarget- -Yem

Figure 1.5: Tl1e op an

I
,

than Using
Eq.

Ylab == == 6.86819192
l 1

while the rapidity of the bean in the center-of-ma8s frame is

2cm
r
1- 2 ClTI

Then Yem Ylab Yf3cm 3.43409596 Yf3cm Ylab 2 .. Note that we have
kept full accuracy here since, while ~ 1, rounding off would mean y > oo,
a situation that wot1lcl be impossible in a real accelerator .

)
,

1.45
 20
1. Kinematics and itiuariarits

For the realisti

1
I

The discussion in Eqs. 1.32 - 1.41 above concentrates on the ini-

1.35 . . "

This is t ically not done, however, since not all the interaction
products may be observed in a single experiment. For example, when

early 1980's, the detectors were designed to measure all hadrons and
charged leptons. N eutral hadrons, which rnay not be visible to a detec-
tor that can only track charged particles, are observed through charged

the detector is still blincl to neutrinos which pass through all material
without a trace. The detector could compensate for the escape of the
neutrinos because the events were very clean and it was possible to
 ?
-

l 11
1 l
;i ini i l a 1
Ill

1
le c t r1ze l .
a t I' c nd ~ e ec r J e

a so ,. ' - .) JJ..a 1

T Elem E3cm
2
Plcm P3cm
2
1.46
2 2 2
E
. 1 cm E3cm P1cm + P3cm 2p1 crnP3 cm cos e I

2 2 4Pl ?re
Elem E3cm Plcm P3cm cmP3 cm sin" ?- /

2
E1c1n - Plcm =F P3cm 1.4 (

general ancl it is only when making the last substitution in Eq. 1.-! 7
that we assume 2 > 2 scattering. If the ener is sufficiently high that

1.48
+T+

-p1 == P2 p3 P4
 22
1. Kinematic.s and invariant.s
detector

U P2 p3 2.

can define the fot11~-1no1nenta as

Ecm,O,pcm ~ S'2,0, 82
1.49
Ecm, 0, Pcm ~ S 2, 0, S 2 .
1 ..so
Here we have assumed that 1 and 2 are traveling in eq11al but opposite
directions along the z axis with no moment11m component in the trans-
verse direction. By convention, the 'projectile' particle, 1, is defined
to have positive longitudinal momentum while the 'target' particle, 2,
has equal but opposite longitudinal moment11m. hen the center-of-
1uass energies of particles 1 and 2 are 111ucl1 larger than their masses,

i-
If we assume that the pion is produced in a 2 2 scattering as in
Fig.

3, PT3 'Pz3
I
1.51
I E4, PT4 'Pz4
1.52

verse direction gives

.-

I
'

1.53
I where Pr3
1
 24
1. Kinematic.s and invariants

-Xerc1ses

) '

surne pp interactions with a proton mass of 0.938272 GeV. The

velocities should be in c 1 units so that v . The values of

e,
mass

{
As-

~)/

iter-
t

that originally collided may not appear at all in the final state. Either
scenario is allowed as long as no conservation laws such as energy,
momentum, charge and baryon number are violated. The first situation
of a glancing collision where no new particles are produced, is known as
an elastic collision, while the second, where new particles are produced,
is referred to as an inelastic collision. Together, these two components
me make up the total scattering cross section.
To describe what happens i11 a heavy-ion collision, we measure as

of kinematic variables such as rapidity and transverse momentum, as

,. ' r tYa '

 26
2. Cross section.s

hadrons.

_ er1va ion o
e. cross sec ion ro

eor

wet and then move to the relativistic picture more appropriate for high
energy hea -ion collisions. The classical 11011relativistic kinetic ener
of a free particle with mass m,

E == --
2m' 2.1

8 :
x 2.2

i- == 0 ' 2.3

n
* is t e corn p ex

n a co ision, we nee to eep trac o
 2.~.D
J

-
1 l 1 e.q. mo
e f ar icles in
1

a
v

( 9_.J~
v

so that

_,
\1 jdV . r2.6
v v

the continuity equation,

'?.. 2

equation, Eq. 2.3 , and multiply by i * on the left-hand side and

subtract it from the complex conjugate equation, multiplied by it!1 on
the left-hand side. e can then identi - the current as

-i J
2.8
J ==

V' *

2m

2.9

and multiply the left-hand

ility
2.10

a *
--

1 e

p ') 1 ~
I w - -4 -

t ot
.
e~ rear1
-. -

-z ') ..... -

v-
.

'I!)
2m

v2
Eq. 2.8 as the definition of the_, current. This can be seen by operating
on both sides of Eq. 2.8 with 'V since the cross terms of the der ivat ives,
</; 'V ", drop out.

A free particle solution of the nonrelativistic operator equation is

ip' i iEt 2.14

where the particle has energy F; and momentum p .

EXA PLE: Prove Eq. 2.14 and determine p and j for this vslue of

Taking the derivatives of with respect to time and space, we obtain

8 ot iE and V72
find the nonrelativistic expression
.....
for the kinetic energy, Eq. 2.1 . Then
using the definitions of p and j in terms of , we incl

p N2
2.15

p
J N 2 .
m 2.16

'
I
?. .1 is not Lorentz
covariant.
 29

f tl1e

:. ;. .12
'
2.17

2.2 into
Eq. 2.17 and let it operate on a covariant wavefunction to obtain
again with n 1 '
32

It is clear from Eq. 2.2 that. covariant four-momenta P transforms

wave equation is known as the Klein-Cordon equation, the relativistic

version of the Schroding ... r equat c 11.
e can also obtain r , 1 tivi si ic fo r 1~ for the probability density and
current,
ze of a A-, /L ,+, * 2.19
J p' J i '+' '+' ,

so that the covariant continui y eq 1at ion becomes

. we 2.20

EXAJvIPLE: Prove Eq. 2.19 .

-'l

0, 2.21

a2 * 2.22
-i

- o .
8t2
 30 2. Cross sections

s cc ncels in the s11 btr action, leaving

2.23)

pull one derivative 011t from the temporal and spatial derivatives and a
factor of 1 to obtain

8* ..... -
-i

*V- \7* == 0 . 2.24

Equation 2.24 is suggestive of the nonrelativistic continuity equation in

Eq, 2.7 . The first term in square brackets can be identified as p while the
-
second term corresponds to the current, j ..

A free particle, plane-wave solution of the Klein-Gordon equation

IS

== N exp ip i iEt == N exp -ip x 2.25

where the last equality is written in covariant form as a four-vector

product.

EXA PLE: Find the covariant form of the current for .

Substituting and its complex conjugate * into Eq. (2, 19), we find

p 2EN2 2.26

'
J 2.27

J 2.28

Klein-Gordon equation are

2.29

ener

negative.
 2. 2.
31

nd a - m,,'
(2.30)

.24)

the
energy states that was all filled up the Dirac sea so that positive en-
ergy particles would not collapse into it. The negative energy states

1011 could, however, be excited into a positive energy state. The way to get
around this problem is to let the positive energy solutions be particles
and the negative energy solutions be antiparticles.
.25 Stuckelberg and Feynman developecl an elegant solution to this
problem of negative energy states which is how they are 110-vv treated.
If the electric charge e is inserted into the current, j, then it can be
:ie described as a charge current density rather than a probability density,
2.31

Then the four-vector current for an electron is

J e
- 2.32
.27

2.33
J
-2e N 2
E, p . 2.34

c'

e
 ?-

e+ E

positron pair. The left-l1and side shows both the electron and positron

the positron as an electron propagating backward in time toward the

vertex.

left-hand side, the e e+ pair is ''popped out of the vacuum" and both
the electron and the positron are propagating outward from the vertex
forward in time. The way this is actually calculated is on the right-
hand side. A negative energy electron moves backward in time to the
vertex where it scatters with the virtual photon and then propagates
forward in time. The time direction is indicated by the arrows:

is forward in time while is backward in time.

So far, all we have discussed are the free particle solutions to the
I
wave equation. However, to get a cross section, we need to discuss
interactions. e will go back to nonrelativistic perturbation theory to
describe the basic framework for calct1lating the cross section, starting

e solve the Schrodingor equation for the behavior of a particle in

-
x, t
2.35
The solutions,

2.36
n
 ') ')
0J

and a time-

(2.37)

,,n n == mn (2.38
\/ I'

ron- Tl1e
II
t .iat unless . . '

condition, I
''
'

the 2.36
'
111to Eq. 2.35 ,

i
n

Ho+ V x, t 2.39
zht-
::> n

leading to, with Eq. 2.37 ,

dan t
i

n .i exp iE.n.t) ::._
dt
n

v x, t 2.40
n

Now we can get da., t dt on one side by itself by multiplying both sides

dan t j

x '/.,

n x exp
dt
n

"'n x exp -iEnt . 2.41

a final state.
 2. Cros s s eciio ns

he left-hand side of
rn c 1 r condi ion l1e11 gives us n . so tha

dt

-i - En t . 2.43
n

Before V interacts on the particle, at some initial eigenstate i of the

unperturbed Hamiltonian, a, T 2 1. For other eigenstates, ti i,
an T 2 0. Thus we taken ion the right-hand side of Eq. 2.43
to obtain

2.44
dt
If the potential V i, t is not too large and acts over a short time
interval, we can assume it is independent of time, V i, t > V x . e
then integrate both sides over time up to t T 2 when the interaction

written suggestively as
T/2
I
-i dt 1 x exp
-T/2
I

-i *xVx i x . 2.45

scattered from the initial state i into the final state . Since V x is

fi 2.46
 2.2. D tio
0
35
l

=r L Ji - E l t.

)ll-

2
Tfi
Iim 2.48
T 00 T
00

lim dt vf'i exp i Et e, t

T ,oo
00

T/2
x 2.49
-T/2
3

2 T/2
'7'

e Vti E t' 2.50

Ji lim E1, 'l,

T 00

T
T/2
e,
2.51

tion over the initial and final states.

1
)

e can
 2.

l l 'i y f f 1 l cl l '"' ~S
p 'f dE1 is J11e r urnl ~r
'""'/. In e6rr .ing Er.J.. 2.51
get the transi ion r'" e

2rr

(2.52;
is the first term in the pertl1rbative expansion of the amplitude
This result can be iteratecl over any number of intermediate states.
More terms can be added. If we have one particle in and one particle
out, what happens in the intermediate. region can be said to occur

Fig. 2.2 a for the case of a single scattering

f ;
J

-
--
-
T/.
i 11 l

a
J.
! c

a one, b two, and c

three intermediate states.

number of intermediate steps can be aclded involving sums over un-

known intermediate states so that

)
1

nr-i
_/.. . 'l - n + 'ZE

1 1
+ ------. Vnm ------V: + 2.53
m 'lE
 ant though by e.g. considering the motion of a charged partic e. like

potential A so that in Eq. 2.17 , p p, + eAJ.L or ifJJ.L iEJ eA.

Then the Klein-Gordon equation becomes

ticle 02 + '1TI2
(2.5-J

EXA1'v1PLE: Sbow this.

Start with Eq. 2.17 but now make the substitution p ,;a
" - ioJ.L . eA.
Then
2
2.55

2.56)

After squaring, these become

2
a2 8Ao . a 2 2 2.57
E 8t2 8t .... .... _, 2 A'2 2.58

-r-ie
8t2
2.59
-k

gives
2.60

2.61
- e2 A2 .
 2. Cross sections

' 18

1, 2.62

Since the partial derivative in the second term of Eq. 2.62 acts on both

The11

-ie *
f

_ i d4 XJ
fiA , 2.63

where we have multiplied the definition of the current in Eq. 2.19

'spinless' electron scattering in Halzen and Martin 4 .

EXA PLE: If i x Ni exp zp, x

e assume N is real. e also have 8 z ipi .,

- Pi x . Then, by ub it 1

Ji 2.64

Thus if we have two spinless particles, say two spinless electrons,

scatters to nal-state 3 and initial-state 2 scatters to final-state 4. the

'
two currents are

.3 p 1 + p3 exp i Ps p1 x , 2.65

4 P2 + P4 exp i p4 - P2 x . 2.66
 I I

cat

') , -

- . _,

auo
== p4 P2 Using this in Eq. 2.6:3 . -e find

r 4 31 1 .
q
and
After sl1bstitt1tion of the currents. Eqs. _2.65 and 2.66 . and integra-
tion over d4x, we find
- p3 P-t J\lt , 2.69
Tti == -
where the invariant amplitt1de , the matrix element, is defined a
I '
he i .9v . v
ie P1 + p3 -i 2 ie P2 + p4
q

function arises from the integratio11

p3 p4 . x
.-. -1
I
4r4
2 rr u P1 +P 2 - p3 p4
.

~.66
 40
2. Cross sections

vV1..; === ---

TV . 2.72

Substituting Eq. 2.69 and squaring, we have

2
p3 2.73

484
e can cancel the TV in the denominator by one power of 27f p. +
Pz p3 p4 . Then putting in the definition of N, we are left with

2
Ji 2.74

This is proportional to the cross section after we sum over all final
states and average over the initial states:

cross section == ----- 2.75

initia llX

The cross section is usually denoted a and has dimensions of area. For
most particle interactions, the area is expressed in units of barns, b,
as in ''can't hit the side of a barn''. The total cross section for e.g.

The number of final-states is calculated in a periodic box of volume

L x L x L V. In the z direction, the momentum ranges from Pz to

as

2.76
 2.2. D
0

101 1 +2
c/'3p.,v l rI
v rt 1 i
') --)
--I

. I 2
e start with
o 1e oost 1s .. J .,, --

,,...--

dp:- 1dPz 'Y j3 dE . '.t78)

2.17 , we have

EdE Pz dpz. 2.79

u 2.78 and factoring out dp ; E, we have

Pz
i
2.8
---
nal

the invariance of the transverse momentum ' we find that the differential
. is
boost invariant,

d3p* 2.81
==
For E* E*
1

as it should be.

The initial fl llX is also invariant but it is most convenient to cal-

culate it in the laboratory frame for a fixed target. The number of

normalized to 2E. The number of beam particles is not computed per

'
we have
2.82

. 6

. --- .... ,,.. ,_

 42 2. Cross sections

F 2.83

other, we can write F as

F 2.84

e can finally write F in the invariant form,

2 2
F 4 2.85

equivalent to the definition i11 Eq. 2.84 .

EXA PLE: Show that Eqs. 2.84 end 2.85 are equivalent .

F 4 R,
2 2 2 2
P1P2 - EE
1 2 - PI P2 - m1 m2

e su bsti tu te E2 ==
collinear momentum to write P~l P2 p'1 p2 . The11

2.84 .

P2

 2.. D er

l - 2 (

...
I c It bt
c ering r . ec .

Eq.
v2 2 21{" 4
da P-iJ
V1 2E12E2

x--------32E3 2.88
2n 2n 32E4 .

as
2
2.89)

2.90
dLips ==

1
dLips
47f
2.91'
p3 p4 .

2.92

6

l( ., l I'
.1 '
lr , l gy . r
n f.TJ v ~ ,::J ===
l l .., I r 1 "'V t ., l c f I C j 11 del a f nc ion in p3

p3 dpr~ {J'

'

p3 P3(;) (2.04J
P3rJ S
EX.,4A1P LE: Show this.
Let f P:3 S E3 Et:!. To determine p.30, we let f (p3 = 0 so that

'
P 2
3
+ m23 +

After some algebra, p30 Pcm in Eq. 1. 33 . Then 8 f 3 8p3 is

j

s
P3o 2.95
3 4

After st1bstitt1ting Eq. 2.94 into Eq. 2.92 , the factors of E3E4
cancel along with one power of p3, leaving us with
1 c5 P.3
dLips ==
47T2 4 s 2.96
47T2 4 s
Using the result for dLips with the flux calc11lated in the center-of-
mass frame, Eq. 2.87 , the differential cross section in solid angle d0.

IS

2
== --~ --- == ---
2.97

e can change variables from solid angle to mon1entt1m transfer T to

obtain
2

2.98
 2.2.
4.J
E
l n h::tp .. r 1
'

( 2. 99)
Since dD. =

dfl dT== 7r P1P:30 .

~-94 (2. ioo,

e, in e ectron

< > 1llS W . ' ' n

Pi e + e > - - e

J) l ((-' - )

left-hand
f-
if2

diagram, shown also in Fig. 2.3, is known as a T-channel diagram and

the right-hand as a U-channel diagram from the corresponding Man-
delstam invariants. The matrix elements from the two diagrams have
0
to be added and squared to get the complete result.
e do not have to have identical particle scattering to have sym-

>

rrr osr; s,:;ctzor1
J
. s

+ f)4

t ab VC for Jl ctr fl S.,c:L

'"'c n int 1 e: ct with each otli r l sads to ct third liagr. rn with a. trir~r-::-
glu 11 v . . rtex. 11 111-e diagrt ms are shown i11 ig. 2 . .S. 11:: 18ft,-r18_r,d
lie 0ra.111 sh ws th thr . . c-gluou vertex he .5 channel) while the rr1idrlle
an i right-han l diagrams correspon l to the l and 7), channel processes

Figure 2.5: Leacling orcler contributions to gg > in the s left 1

t
middle and u right channels.

'

and p2 rather than the outgoing particles as in Fig. 2.4 since quarks
and antiquarks are not i11distinguishable. The three matrix elements
are added before squaring. For completeness, we note that, at leading
order, there is another contribution to hea quark-antiquark pair pro-
duction, qq > , referred to as qq annihilation, shown in Fig. 2.6.

This process is also in the s channel. Note that when referring to the
invariants in the gg and qq processes we have used lower case letters, s ~
t and u to refer to the Mandelstam invariants. e do this because the
quarks and gluons carry only a fraction of the parent hadron momen-
tum, as discussecl later in this chapter, and are thus on the parton level
rather than on the hadron level. These partonic Mandelstam invariants
are written in lower case letters.
e can use these properties to translate between different t es

matrix elements can be usecl to arrive at those for e+ e scattering

 -

Figure 2.6:
lil

P'1 e .!. )

t -f

irks
- ts
g
)TO- tain those for electron-positron scattering. The left-hand annihilation
':'>
'
6 . diagram is an S-channel process while the right-hand scattering dia-
e gram is a T-channel process.
' s,
e
n-

vel ave-o ica

ts
cross sec ions

es
g
ng
 rovi i r tl1 r gener l c scri] tion Jf sect tering.
tsider a pl; ne wave, normalized to unity, 1b e..,{p(ikZJ; where
1

k 1 an l /\ 21T is the de Broglie wavelength. The t irne depen-

d enc 11<: b c11 0111ittecl. Insteacl of considering a preferred direction .
. . . uch as two particles moving toward each other, the plane wave is rer.>-
resented by a superposition of incoming and outgoing spherical waves.
Outgoing plane waves can be observed emanating from the center of
the disturbance when a rock is clroppecl into a still pond. At a large
distance r from the center, kr >> 1, the spherical wave has the form
exp ikr kr to conserve probability. The flux through a spherical J

Tr
shell of radius r is then independent of r. The angular dependence
is determined by the Legendre polynomials, Pz cos e , as appropriate
for a spherical expansion. Thus for kr >> 1, the incident wave can be
expanded as
-

z exp ikz

1 'l
2[ + 1 -ikr
2kr -
l
ha
-exp ikr A case . 2.102

The first term, proportional to exp ikr , is the incoming and the
second, exp ikr , is the outgoing wave. If' the time dependence is in-
cluded, the difference between the incoming and outgoing components

scattering center, Eq. 2.102 should be appropriate.

26t and 'T/t 0 < tn < 1 respectively so that

i
total 2l + 1 -ikr
2kr
l

Pi cos e . 2.103
 s 2.3. Th.e wnve-o t. l
, PvlCOJ model and total cross sections 49

The sce:i .
e11 vvaves T . .

'
'l/J i

scatt .vtotal
t1u1 ,
-i exp ikr

2l + 1 YJL exp 2i8t - 1 Pl cos8)

2kr l

er of exp
__ ikr_;_p e . 2.104)
r
1
rical

infinitely massive. The approximation is rather goocl for a low energy

e
1 be
electron scattering off a proton since mp >> me.
The scattered outgoing flux through a spherical surface of solid
angle drl is

2 2.105
u; F fJ dn

i
2.106
the

d(J"el
2.10 {
l013 ==
dDi

2.108
by

l l'
- 1 *
x 2i
2i
 . C~,1SS sectio, S

1 1

= L11fO[ [' 2l + 1 , 2.109

'

i the 01thonor111ality condition. Then the elastic cross sec-

L,L'
tiou b 0111es

77t exp 2iOt - 1 2

2l + 1 (2.110)
l
2i

The last equality comes from replacing the wave number k with the
de Broglie wavelen h and using the orthonormality of the Legendre
pol omials. If the incoming wave is not absorbed, rn 1, and

exp 2i6z -1 2
2l + 1
l
2i

2.111
l

If the phase shift, bz, is zero, this corresponds to no scattering potential

and O'eI 0.
If T/t < 1, then there is some absorption and we calculate a reaction
cross section, also known as the inelastic cross section, using probability
conservation. The reaction cross section is the difference between the

2 2
O"inel
lil out

2
2.112
l

E:

~ ' .,..
l I

F,

fl . J) a

-
l
e Replaci110 k 1)\'v 1
0 2.112 .

ael + O"inel
2
77z , 1
_L
1
I
TJz - 2TJl cos 26i
')

tion

1
lmF e
2k
l

If B 0, cos(] 1 and Pl 1 1 in the forward direction for all l.

out
Then
k 2.11
ImF 0

.2 of the forward scattering amplitude is known as the optical theorem.

The relations we have produced between the elastic, inelastic and
 52

his probability co11servatirJr1 is also called

his ndi ion rneans that the intensity of the
ot1tgoi11cr wave c 1111ot xcee I that of the incoming wave. 'vVe can see

partial wave as
T/L exp 2iOt -1
l ==
2i -r- T/t exp 2iOt 2.118)
so that

2l + 1 l 2 .
2.119
l

The partial-wave amplitude can be plotted as a vector in the complex

plane since Re l T/t 2 si112c51 and Im l 1 2 1 T/l cos 261 .
"hen T/l 1, the end of the vector describes a circle of radius 1 2
centered at i 2. At Oz 0, Re l 0 and Im l 1 2 while at
6z 7r 2, Re l 0 and In1 l 1. The end of the vector lies within
the unitary circle if 17z < 1, as shown in Fig. 2.8. The maximl1111 elastic tb
scattering cross section is at 6z Jr 2,

2l + 1
2.120
l

where D'tot ae1. On the other hand, the inelastic cross section is
independent of bz but has its maximum at 7Jz 0, sl
2
2l + 1 ' 2.121
l

hen 7Jz == 1, the inelastic

7(
2

2.122
 0

11

2.118 . \t'vnen 'TJt < 1

the vector lies within the circle, as shown.

120 The wave-optical picture can be li ed to elementary particle scat-

tering. If l goes through a maximum for a particular l and , the
11 . s two particles resonate. For l) to pass through a maximum, the phase
shift passes through bz 7r 2. This 'resonance' has a unique total an-
gular momentum, J l, and a mass equal to the center-of-mass energy
of the two particles. The resor .. ance state has a finite width, r, or life-

l
2i

ran sin i
cos 8 i sin 6
1 2.123

cot 6 - i
<'
 E + E

+ ... (2.124)

At E ER, cot c ER 0 and dcotc5 E ER dE 2 r. If

ER dE2 0.
If the resonanc is broad, the phase space varies over the width
and the resonance is asymmetnc. After substituting the value of the
derivative with respect to E i11 Eq. 2.124 , we have

cot6 E
2.125
Then

E 1
cot d E i

1
- E-ER 2 I'-i

r 2
2.126
The elastic cross sectio11 is then
I
(7el
2i
E 2

r2 4
E ER 2 + r2 4 ' 2.127
the Breit- igner formula,


R b P . .77 e . To sh J rhow
I W h e t .k fl r .l . nd
. me s 1 Ie i btair e<l it
l J e [ l t J I' I . ,.,

. 12 11111111 a v,.,.. 11\r.

ltl .,1 (; . s.

,
,,
,,
'
not l
I

II
I I
' \

I
I I \
f t e
I
I I
I I

\

I \
I I

I I I \

I I I \
I
I I \
,
~

8 I I \

b ,
I
I
I
I

'

b0.5
,,
I
I
,, I
I
'
,, I
\
I
'
I I
'

/
I I '
,,
;'
I '
,, I
\
\
'
... ...
....
I

- -

I
I
\
\
\,
.....
-

-
/ ' ......

0.0
0 1 2

E/ER

ER We take ER =
0. 77 Ge V, the p mass and r 0. 1 ( dashed , 0.3 solid and 0. 6 dot
dashed GeV.

The lifetime is relatecl to the width by T Ii r so that the energy

dependence of the amplitude corresponds to the radioactive decay of
127 the resonance by Fourier transform, taking w R ER n and T n r.
The wavefunction of a decaying state is then, with n 1,

0 exp -iwRt exp t 2T

2.128
0 exp t iER r 2
 I t t t t/J ( 2
CX[J t T

l 0 ex J t r) . {r) 1
c: ..L
2(
.::) J
I
I

Tl1e FotL1ier transform is

".X)
r

9 w di t exp iwt
0
00

dt 0 exp t w WR t exp t 2T (2.130)
0

Changing variables from w to E with n

l, we have
00

dt exp tr 2 i E ER
0

i E ER + r 2
K
2.131

where K is a constant proportional to 0 .

If the resonance is elastic, such as

I

n+r:
7r: n -4) i6. + -4) 7r+n 2.132
'

then the cross section is proportional to the decay probability so that

shown that the maximum elastic cross section is

2.133
to tic
elastic cross section at the maximum,
2 2 max

2.134
 1
-J
+l 2

2.13

measured for S > 60 Ge V. Reactions with secondary beams such as

A simple relationship between the elastic, inelastic and total cross

sections can be obtained by taking 17z 0 in Eqs. 2.110 : 2.112 and
2.11.s . Then

2l + 1 '

l
1at 2l + 1 )
d l
y

n,
 2.

. ... .
..c ' o2 2
,0
~
a ,
1
. a,
'
0. Cl..
0. Io.
b 101 101
...
0106106107108109 10-\oOJ 0110210110410106107108109
(GeV) (Ge I) .....--

..c 102
E .... ,,,,

101 102 100 101 102

(GeV p (GeV)
.. .. 102
..c
... s ; .... .,

c::a. 101 -
+
:w:
b

10 101 102 10 101 102

P1ab GeV P1ab GeV

Figure 2.10: The total and elastic cross section data as a function of
1(

the laboratory momentum for h + p left-hand side and u right-hand

side collisions. From top to bottom, h p, 7r and K. 'I'he total cross
sections are represented by open circles, the elastic cross sections by

crosses. The data can be obtained from Ref. 5 .

section drops far below that of the total. Clearly, the inelastic cross
section dominates in the high Ptab region where it is possible to produce
particle-antiparticle pairs without going through a resonance. This
difference also points out the increasing importance of gg scattering in
particle production with ener . The highest ener pp collisions come

the Fermilab Tevatron. An energy scan was taken to measure the

total and elastic cross sections between S 630 and 1800 GeV 6 .
The measurements show that both the total and elastic cross sections
 ns
del 59

t l1 1- 7 I 1 r
r s > 2 rl ., .

--....
,..Q 102 102 ,.D

,, 8 ,;
'- "
0.. 0..
.... 0..
b
\::
..... b
101 101

P1ab GeV

1 of r
,..Q
'

d
SS
by

SS
Figure 2.11: The total hadron-proton cross section data 5 as a func-
uce
Iis
and lower . The positive charges of h are indicated by circles, the
Ill
me
at
he
6.
ns
m
 0

a' P 11 2

T}
1

The

nch ~ A + B ln S . 2.138)
)
-.

erac ions an

'

example of gg > where gluon beams of definite momentum cannot

be produced. In this case, the gluon must be obtained from an initial
hadron. Cluons, quarks and antiquarks exist within hadrons. It was
 n
61

11-

There a .. .).
'.13 (
11 lllll ) - 1 . . ~ ~

a\re inte - .

~.138

s.
or
' the top quark is more massive than the w bosons, it decays directly
'"'"'0.8 through t > band does not form hadrons. No further quark families
exist, precluded by precise measurements of the width of the z0 gauge
boson at LEP 10 . The antiquarks with opposite electric charge and
baryon nt1mber but equal masses are not listed in Table 2.1.
The quarks also carry color. The color charge was first postulated to
describe the existence of the 6++ uuu state with spin +3 2. Without

make the t,.++ wavefl1nction antisymmetric overall. Thus the quarks

>r the
ot
ial
further below.
as
a
rons
ed
e-
ks by
 2.

uark type
down (d -1 3 0.01()
up it 2 3 ')
strange ( s) - 1 J G.15
charm c 2 3
bottom (b) -1 3 4.5 5
tOJ) t 2 3

and masses.

Baryon uar k content Mass GeV

p ltUd 0.938
n ddu 0.939
A uds 1.116
dds 1.197
,....0 us S 1.315
n- SSS 1.672
A+ udc 2.285
c
E++
c uuc 2.452

-+c USC 2.466

nc SSC
2.698
I
-+cc dee

Ab udb 5.624

I
I
I
while the first hints of bottom production will also be measured. Bot-

ener is higher than at the Tevatron pp collider where the first evi-
I
 2 . .&

l l l
~ , l 'l l j ~.. ::

ts more rnassi v tha 11 twic the kaon mass Jr; that rv KK 1:1, n os

however, and those that lie above the DD and BB thresholds do decav..,
almost exclusively through these channels. Their lifetimes are then
correspondingly shorter. The quarkonium system will be discussed
more thoroughly in Chapter 8.
The antibaryon quark composition is identical to that in Table 2.2
once the quarks are replaced with antiquarks. However, for example,
the 1T+ and 7r are each other's antiparticles. Therefore it is typically
more difficult to produce a baryon-anti baryon pair, such as pp in a

hadronic collision than a pair of mesons such as 1T+1T- due to the larger
mass threshold that must be overcome for particle production.
The center-of-mass threshold energy for production of any given

2.139
S>

i

J ne

1-

2
2.140

i
LSS8S.
 2. Cro.'J.c; sections

is incl u

LL.- rk content Ic ss (GeV

n+ u cl 0.140
J,,. O (ls 0.498 1
u+ us- 0.494
SS 1.020
no cu 1.864
n+ cd 1.869
n+s cs 1.968
-
J cc 3.097
-
Bo db 5.279
-
B+ ub 5.279
-
Bos sb 5.370
-
y bb 9.460

2
- m2 -
1
m22 2.141

'/,

PLE: Calculate the minimum laboratory energy needed to pro-

duce an antiproton in a proton-proton collision. Also calculate the
beam momentum and the beam kinetic energy.
The antiproton was first discovered in 1955 at a machine, known as the Be-
vatron, specially designed to produce antiprotons just above threshold. At
the time, the Bevatron was the world's most powerful accelerator. Since, in

ton, there must also .be three protons in the final state, two to match the
 6.5

n, P i
]J --+ l lJ fJ]J

IS

2mp
The laboratory momentum is

Pl lab _ m2 1/2 =
p 48mp 6. 50.5 Ge V

while the kinetic energy of the beam is

6.5 GeV. In
1959, Emilio Segre ancl Owe11 Chamberlain won the Nobel Prize in Phvsics v

for their discovery of the antiproton 11 .

valence quarks are, however, not the only 'partons' in the hadron.
1,

Neither the qq pairs nor the gluons contribute to the charge, baryon
']-
number or mass of the hadron since they exist only virtually and do
not come on mass shell unless there is an interaction that disrupts
the hadron wavefunction and allows them to materialize. The quark
,_
'
content of the hadron can be studied in depth using deep-inelastic scat-

2
''
 p

ton. The electron emits a virtual photon which interacts with a charged
parton in the proton. The interaction disrupts the proton wave c-
tion. bre ing it up in a spray of partons.

proton momentum, XBj for Bjorken x, usually abbreviated as x. This

momentum fraction is the ratio of the momentum transfer squared to
twice the product of the hadron and virtual photon four-vectors in the
rest frame of the hadron the laboratory frame for fixed-target e er-
iments but equivalent to the photon-hadron S when the masses are

ignored . Thus I]

2.143 a
2 Ph q
c
r
I
tron, v Ee Ee'. (
I
I I

1
1
I
 s
n

inc h
tly I

uar ks .
state.

a color and an anti-color. Thus the gluons are the force carriers 'crauo-e
0 b

the
s quantum electrodynamics ED .
0
There is an important difference between gluons and photons though:
tS ~.n the as we have already alluded to in our discussion of diagrams contributing
to the gg > matrix elements, In ED, when two electric charges

are pulled apart, the force between them decreases due to charge screen-
ing. However, since quarks carry color while gluons carry a color and an
anti-color and photons carry no charge at all, gluons interact with each

~.143
a
creases with distance. Therefore, at short distances, e.g. within the

will be, observed.

e
 2. Cross sections
-
or below the 11fi11e111e 1t sc le. \i can calculate how they evolve to

r ~ fie . \ e learn about the dist: ibut ion of partons in the hadron -~ '

own
region, as well as reliance on leading order rather than next-to-le ing
order calculations for comparison to data led to lower limits on the
compositeness scale 13 than those obtained later 14 . Composite-
ness refers to quarks being composite objects and not point particles.
In addition, boson as metry measurements as a function of ra-
pidity showed that improvements were needed in the light antiquark
distributions 15 .
Here we_ will describe some of the properties of the parton distri-
butions inside hadrons and discuss how these parton distributions are
used in CD calculations. This is not meant to be a detailed overview
of the p 011 model. There are many excellent descriptions of this ma-
terial in high energy physics textbooks such as Halzen and Martin 4
as well as Field 16 and some more recent reviews such as that in the
GTE Handbook of Perturbative CD 17 .
-

while x x t ically refers to the parton momentum distribution. As

that

I
2.144
2.145
 s

69

l
I , l pu
- l.
, .,.
~'
(J 2.146)
l

1 r2.147
0 '

. nown
10'
0 they give a

-osite- 1
'

(2.148)
0
a- 1
quark
(2.149)
0
1
2.150
0

and The total mo-

rnentum carried by all the partons must add to the proton momentum,
that is, the integral over all the parton densities weighted by the mo-
e rnentum fraction, the parton distributions, must be unity. en the
- momentum carried by all the charged partons was Sll ed, it was only
y equal to about half the total proton momentum. The rest is carried by
s the gluons so that
e 1
- s

ryon 0
-s -s
2.151
0
2.151 )
1ark
0
 2. Gross sections

S (JD tarzets s 1c}1

ut rium ,. 11 h 1 light 1 l i re ur lie n t ron dis ributions.
11 11 s tha t the 11 u ron pc 1 on d nsi ties c re related to hose in
the pr ton y l1ctrg symmetry so tha
1lp 1_: clp 1 == lln X ,
up x dp x == lln X , f2.152J
sp x Sn ~T ,

The glt1011 distribution is assumed to be the same for the proton and
the neutron. By charge symmetry, we can also assume that
1

dx tl~ x 1 ' 2.153

0
1

dxd~ x 2 2.154
0

EXA the rules for the proton and neutron, write down t
i
the appropriate rules for a ~ .

The ~ dds is sometimes used as a secondary beam in fixed-target ex- I-

periments. The mass of the strange quark is always ignored since parton l
distributions are calculated in the infinite rnornentum frame where the par-
ton is treated as massless. Then we can assume
1
dx s~- x 1 ' 2.155
0
1 i
dx~- x 2 ' 2.156
0

and

2.157
== U~- X

 71

l
d~r ic rr-
v 1 1
0 ' (2.158)
1

cl~r: d~- :r 1 (2.159)

0

where now

+ 7..l~- x: ' 2.160

+cl~- x . 2.161

1
s s
dx 7..lrr- x 7..lrr- x 0, 2.162
0
I
s
dx d~- x drr_ X 0, 2.163
0
ex- I
s 2.164
dx Srr- x 881T- x 0.
0

EXA rite the rules co1~responding to Eqs. 2.158 - 2.161 for

the zr ".

Since the valence quarks of the ;r!- are u and d, the relations for the 7f+ are
the antiparticles of those of the zr ". Thus,

v s 2.167
u1T"+ x U1T"+ x + U1T"+ X
'
-:V s 2.168
d1T"+ x d1T"+ x + d1T"+ x

l.S
 72 2. Cro s sections

r1
in ish e ; 11 e dif-
n n di i b 1 i ns ince i is an in lusive mea: uremen .
tr the r cture f in tion,

Ff x 2 P z + P x (2.169;
1x
f
here u, d, s, c, .... 'I'he charm and heavier quark parton densities
are typically zero below production threshold and, when included, the
heavy quarks are treated as massless as well.
The Drell- Yan process 18 has been useful in establishing the rel-
ative sea quark distributions in hadrons. Thus we now introduce the
Drell-Yan process, qq > "'!* > z+ t: t.o leading order, where the in-
termediate virtual photon has an invariant mass, . As we discuss
further a bit later, at higher orders, where at least one power of the
strong coupling constant is needed, the virtual photon can be in the
final state. The real next-to-leading order corrections are qq annihila-
tion, qq > "'!* g, and the CD Compton scattering diagram, qg > q1*.
In both cases, the intermediate state is a quark, In the latter process,
the q can be replaced by a q. If the photon is not virtual but real, these
processes are the leading order processes for real photon production in
CD.
Drell-Yan dilepton production is another example of a 'hard' probe.
Hard pro bes are so named because their large scale such as mass NJ in

hea quarks or transverse momentum jets originating from massless

partons or real high PT photons makes perturbative CD calculations
possible. The CD properties of asymptotic freedom and confinement
both play a role in determining when perturbative CD can be used.
The large momentum or mass scale means that the interaction takes
over a short time interval or distance scale, r fie . If > 2 Ge V,

we are in the asymptotically free regime. Th11s we can talk about two
 11 11 J 1 I u 0

1 I
J
f i I l i ]
11 1 dis at , Ia fl 10 -

the

l-
1 the in the Drell-Y<:tr1 case the factorization thecJ18r11 further states that the
1

.... s
the
the final state partons were procluced by photons, electrons or hadrons.
e
The nonpertt1rbative process that produces the final state hadron from
a-
the initial parton is parameterized by fragmentation functions. 'vVe will
briefly discuss some aspects of hadronization or fragmentation) in a
later chapter .

lll

q e -

~SS I
s
t
'Y *
d.
es
-q +
I, e
te
d
0
s an cross sec 1 . .

e the pr0Je9 1 e anc c . . .

 1

-
q,r1,g 0

part onic cro s section for Drell-Yan production as a f motion of 1;

2
with /i.12, is
- 2
- !vf2 (2.lrl

where s is the square of the parton-parton center-of-mass energy.. '3 ==

x1x2S, x1 is the fractional momentum carried by the projectile parton,
x2 is the fractional momentum of the target parton, and S is the square
of the hadron-hadron center-of-mass four-momentum.
Note that in Eq. 2.171 we have replaced the equivalent four-
dimensional delta function, as in Eq. 2.88 for the 2 > 2 scattering

nominator, 2E, by an integral over the ener , insisting on a positive

energy by a theta function and that the virtual photon be on mass shell

1
2.1 (2

I - 1\112 2.173
I
'

s p3 + p4 2
I
I
' 2.1'/ 4
2 2
I t p3 p4

' 2.175
2 2
I u Pt1 p3
I
' 2.176
I
'I

'

'
''
'

I
 ns
7~5

111

~a,1 state
he
ll
' 1nanipl1latio1i. can be done to obtain for massless initial and final-state
'
partons, 8 s + t +it , as seen in some papers. If the parton masses are

with quark mass m , then the delta function may be written as either
8 s + t +it 2m2 or 8 s + t1+1l1 with t1 t m2 and u1 u m2.
To obtain the hadroprod uction cross section as a function of pair
mass, the partonic cross section is convoluted with the quark and anti-
quark densities evaluated at scale NI,
r- .
daDY 1
~tering 8na2 e2
dNI 9NI f
le- 0 f
)Sic; ve
2.177
s shell

'
.te

EXA
and .
2.177 and we replace s with
x1x2S. Then
n
1
I
d(J'DY 81T"0'.2

~.174
' , dMdxF 9M o
2.178
'5
.176 f
 r6
2. Cross sections

that
daDY 1

d1\1dxF 91vf (2.179;

0
x
+
f

A cha11ge of variable in the second delta function is then used to integrate

over x2,

2.180

where the second relation makes use of the result from the first delta func-
tion. I11sertingthis into Eq. 2.179 , we find

2
f
+ 2
2.181
The change of variable to y and !VJ is left as an exercise. In this case, we
will find

S exp y , x2 = ).'VI s. exp( y , 2.182

.

The values of x1 and x2 for Drell-Yan production given in Eq. 2.182

can also be obtained by using four-momentum conservation i11 2 ) 1

2,0,x1 2 '
2.183
2, , X2 2 .
2.184
 77

coupling constant, 0:8 The virtual photon has four-momentum

mr cosh y, Pr, mr sinh y

2.185

Four-momentum conservation tells tis

2.186

conservation,

cosh y ~ 2.187

- JV! sinh y . 2.188

2 2

2.189

while su

cosh y - y . 2.190

0
 2. Cross sections

S r_;an be
ttin ~l' 1 r '1'2
111it r. In

inspection of Eq. 2.182 .

-

10 ,..,-----,-- --.., .:
''. '

// . .. . ' . . .

10-1
/
/ .:
. . .
/
/
/

/
-
'. ' . .
. '
F-
r- '. '
.'

/, / . ..
' '
.:

// . / . /
.. ''
10-2 ' ,'' . ,,

/
//

. / .
/

. /
/
. '
.

'


/ /
'. '

..-1
10-3



/

/

'. -,






/ .
/
'

/, ' ','
. '
/ /

/
.

//
/
'. '
10- 5 / .: '. ' th
/
./
. ' '

'.' '
10-6 /./
/ / ',' 10-6
/

.
'
'
10-7 '-'---._.._____ __..._____ ~ __________ '. 10-7

-5 CC
0 5 -5 0 5

t
Q

b I

d
for 4 GeV and, from top to bottom, S 20 'solid , 40 dashed ,
60 dot-dashed , 200 dotted , 1800 solid , 5500 da..5hed and 14000 I
dot-dashed GeV.
r
f
To conclude our discussion on the Drell-Ya11 process, we recall the
f

section. The two additional processes, real corrections to the cross

'
I
 l

q
q
-

</
.9 o (j

ton pair is taken into account, the full Drell-Yan cross section is of order

be those of the virtual photon, the momenta of the individual leptons

does not enter the calculation of the Drell-Yan cross section.
The importance of these next-to-leading order corrections to the
Drell- Yan cross section depend on the pair mass since 0'.8, although

for as is
127f
2.191
33-

or er o . .
pen ence o s '
 2. C'10.:;.c_; sections

a !1 Ve 1 t

'l1 n 1.. <

bot 111 t hr . . . .
tl ' I ' - A
I r . blc w

the leading order evaluation .

0.4 1.0 4.0 10.0

40.0 100.0
Q2 GeV2

Figure 2.16: The leading order strong coupling as a function of scale

with A 200 MeV for n1 4.
'

.
'
I
'

a. ~ 1 and a5 is not changing very rapidly with 2. Here the scale

I
 81

r
e.. pans1011 a .
1s not small. , s'
'

total cross section is finite . The first caveat exists because some lead-

parton momentum is defined as in Eqs. 2.183 and 2.184 . e make

the second caveat since a total cross section can only be calculated for
finite mass partons and leptons where 011e can take the parton PT to
zero since the mass scale regulates the denominator of the cross section,

LE:
 _,. . r
11 2. s. 1 . . 1 c
.:..J d 1. 0 '.l m _, r.apter
1.

l i 11 tr" nsv s ... rn, finding

h
tum

1.52 become

p3 nvr cosh y3, PT, nvr sinh Y3 , I

Four-momentum conservation dictates

I I + ,2.192)
P1 + P2 P3 P4

mr cosh y3 + cosh Y4 ,
'
'

XI S X2 S
- mr sinh y3 + sinh Y4 .
2 2
2.193

e can solve these two equations for x1 and x2, obtaining

2.194
'
-y3 +exp -y4 2.195

tions can then be written as

2 x u x -dx 2.196
x

'
-
11
. 1 t! 7 1 1' l 1 (J J ; vs l _ quark di ribu-
ti
11 si l s f . 2 .1 !~f c ret 1: ne ob ains the

1
x
1 2
= ') +
..J
0

incl udcd more realistic assessments of the uncertainties from both the

tions inherent in the initial parameterizations, low x behavior and

experimental statistical and systematic errors on data, choice of cuts,
analysis techniques standpoints.
An example of a recent set evolved to next-to-leading order i11 the

conservation.

Uv an
 2. Cross .s ections

''

''
'' '

' ... ''

0.75 - ' ', '
10 GeV2
''
'

''


' .... '

''

''

' ', ~ '

0.50 -



<, ''

-v, '

''

1 I
>< '


......,.

......
. ...... '


.....
-.:
''

.... .... ' '
...... .
.,
...
...
-.._: _
.... ' """ '
0.25 r-- . . . .... .
. ' . - ... - ' '. / ' \
. ,
. .
....... . ,,
...
/ . ~ .
/

' ....
~

. . \

. .... . . . .,. ',... ... \

\
. ........ . . ' ... , .... ...
. ..__ . ' . , .....
\
. . ............ \
.... . '...... -. . ........ '
0.00
10
4 ~-----~-----~-
10-3 10 2 10 1
.......... JO.......

lS-
tribution functions as a unction of momentum raction x at 2 == 10
s
&S e , ot- 1-lp
as - as 1- as -
_e g uon

e va ence istri utions e ave as x"

t ey rap to zero as x > an peak at x ~ .2.
tri ution is a out twice t

e e avior at ar
, postu ate y 's.

power IS
n I

r.....:, ti,
n t e case o va ence uar
tators so t at or a

J
I

di tributions.

in their evaluation. The sea quark and gluon distributions persist o

and 5 for the proton.

2.1

'
 2

'
......

..


......
-
. -
...... ......

_______ _ - - - - - - -. -.._- - - - ..
------ ---------- ....._
-...., . -. ~

0~8-4
==========-----~-----~___,...-----= 1 - . .
- . . . .-J
10 3 10 2 10
x

distribution is multiplied by 0.1 while the strange sea is multiplied by

10.

1 1
'
T dx1 dx28 T X1X2
0 0
2 2 2.198
x i/h1 X1, j/h2 X2,

2.1 { I .

i an j/p
i/p p

mass ess, > cc, on y u,

e sum. n t e case o uction,
are active avors an

e elta
, s an c.
 l

l

T
l.J T
.1)
JI It - -
~

d p x 2' 1\-1\,f2
+
2.200 -
+

convo ution is
2 2.201
2

'

' >

at1ons, 1 s.

. pp co isions
anc
ra i it an mass
 2.

Figure 2.19: The qq and gg parton luminosities as a ction of

s == -

indicated by the solid, dashed ancl dot-dashed curves respectively. The

luminosities are calculated for the CTE 61L parton densities.

using the CTE 6 parton densities, as in Fig. 2.17. The rapidity dis-
tributions are shown in three relevant mass bins: 2 < 1\1 < 3 GeV,

the region just below the J mass; 4 < 1\1 < 9 GeV, the mass region
between the J and Y masses; and 11 < 1\1 < 20 GeV, above the

s
2.202

== 200 .._ 20

an 2. since t e cross section is

ominate
mass contri ution.
 r
'
4-
oor----
o ------~----

0
- ---- - - - - - - - --- - ------ - -- - -
b
'U 0.0 ,.___r---t---- ~-- ---

l l<M<20 Ge
0.02 - - ---------
.... ------ - -- - ...
I
0.00 - -
-2 0 2

... eV bottom .

average x o the valence quark distrib tion at the scale !11. er

a
in an the entire rapi ity range is shown. This is not

t e case or t e
or 11 < 1 < 20 ""'
istribt1tion is reflected in the

mass

region; an
ote t at t
 2. SS

1-2.2<y<-1.2 +
I
IYI < 1 1.2 < y ,.,. 2 2 ...
I I
I
I \
I
I
I I , ...
I \
I I \
- ... 10-l :
I I
1 ~
I
\
\ ::J r-
... ,;
\
\ \ \
I \ \
\ \ \
I \ \
I \ " .J
... .;I \ I
\ \ \
\ \ \ _110-2 ~
\ \
\ \
\
\
"d
\ \
\
\ \
\
\
\
\ \
\
\ \
\
\ \
\
\
\
\
'' \
\ '' \
\
\
\
\
\
\ -+- \
\ -e- \
\

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
M GeV M GeV M GeV

at 200 dashed and 500 GeV solid in the rapidity windows: 2.2 <
y<

u an

mg x .1n

wou ecome In

next section. us, In a

ton istri utions, a num er o: 1 eas 1ave
ave


(
I

_(_; O -g - I -
. 'J.'

LS

e
-
1
1

1
2

stron er 111 ea
-
,
)

) == -2, 0 a11
I

x are eccesei

s a owing

anG anc 1
I
I
 --- -- - ,,
/

< /

a::: 0 /

( ) valenc
--- - - e

I
10-2

x x
1.2 ...._ I _jJ
,... .....
I
I,,...,---.....,
,..-.,. 1.0
:><:,, I
'eo / \
< ,... ,, / \ I
0.8 ,... ,...
--
~

-- (c) gluon
0.6 -

10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100

Fi re 2.22: The EKS98 parameterization of the modification of the

c are
shown for calcium, A 40, solid and lead, A 208, (dashed '
nuclei.

Recall from Eq. 2.182 that x NI S exp y . For y 0, S 0.015

and 0.0.5 for M 3 and 10 respectively. Then exp y 2 7.4 and

== 2 and
= 10 is in the EMC region. The other values of x lie in the antishadowing

region.

Ill
 n

,I

y '.J 1

-2 '
'

(
1:) .J

')
_,
0.11 .. j {

Drell-Yan production are negligible even though there is a gluon-quark

contribution to Drell-Yan production at next-to-leading order. Since

> X2 >
or < 12
 0.6 -

'

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
M GeV) M (GeV) M (GeV)

center ; and 1.2 < y < 2.2 right . The shadowing results. t 1e ratios
with to without shadowing are given by the dashed curves vhile tne
solid curve is the d -l-Au pp ratio without shadowing.

shadowing is present over the full mass range. 1i21e for 11 I 4 Ge\-.
1.2 < y < 2.2 corresponds to 0.006 > x2 > 0.0022 while 1\J 10 o-v
corresponds to 0.015 > x2 > 0.0055.
The solid curves in Fig. 2.23 are the d+Au pp ratios without shad-


g.)
nd h

l 2 - .

1 0 --
------
------ -
0.B ----- - -- - - - -

2< <3 Ge1/

0.6
1.2
- l -
-- ----- -
1.0
- -------
- -- -- --- - -- - I
0.6 .... --
4<M<9 GeV
0.6 ..
1.2 I

------ -
1.0
., .... -- ----- - -- -
- --
--- .... ....
0.8 I
11<M.<20 GeV

0.6
0 2
-2

OS
e

effect.
The

on is

negative rapidity to a small x shadowing effect at large positive rapidity.

'

on
an


SICS Ill eav lOil co lSIOilS

liders, electromagnetic interactions may be studied by examining colli-

sions where the two nuclei do not physically touch each other. Instead
they pass by each other at distances greater than 2RA in s etric
AA collisions where RA is the radius of nucleus A. These interactions
are referred to as ultra-peripheral collisions or UPCs 33, 34 . It is pos-
sible to study electromagnetic interactions through photoproduction a
photon from one nucleus interacts with a quark or gluon from the op-
posite nucleus and two-photon processes two photons, one from the
field of each nucleus using UPCs because highly accelerated ions are
surrounded by photon fields. These photons are almost real since their

Since the electromagnetic interaction is long range, photons can -

interact with partons in the opposite nucleus even when the nuclei
themselves do not interpenetrate. Because the photon energies are
less than those of the nucleons, these photo-nuclear interactions have
a smaller average center-of-mass energy than hadronic parton-parton
collisions. However, even though the ener is smaller, the coherent
 25
a

n

(J
a) 'J
b)

,,
-1/ -'I
I

1-
(j
"J-
stead
c Q 0-
s y
c) -f]
d)
pos-
a
The crossed diagrams fer a
and b are not shown.
e

The ryg > qq process, the ID()St direct probe of the nuclear gluon c.,
1

can tribution, is the same for hea and light q quarks. In the latter
case, the light quarks appear as streams of particles, known as jets.
A generic clirect photoproduction cross section for ultra-peripheral
AA collisions is obtained by convoluting the partonic photoproduc-

'

d20"dir oo d3N 1
12 '"YA
2 dz
krnin X? .
-m111
,

' 2 "'
s ') '103
.-.; ......

d
x

. - didu
'l q,q,g
.ng
 2.

e 1 a

nd 1011gitttc:linal coordinates. The factor of two in Ec1. (2.203 J arises

collisions are considered, this factor is not included.

The photon can also fluctuate into states with multiple qq pairs
and gluons, i.e. n qq m g , n qq pairs and m gluons, the combinatioj,
of which remains a color singlet with zero flavor and baryon number.
011e of these pl1oton components can interact with a quark or gluon
from the target nucleus 'resolved' production 35 . The quark and
gluon constrtuents of the photon open up more production channels
and could, in principle, lead to larger rates for resolved production in
certain regions of phase space. For example, resolved photoproduction
of heavy quarks also includes the qq > channel, not available for
direct photoproduction. The total photoproduction cross section is the
sum of the direct and resolved contributions.
The photon flux is calculated using the eiszacker- illiams method.
The flux is typically greater for large Z nuclei since a distance b away
from the nucleus, the flux is

2.204
'
'

where w kb 7L, k is the photon energy, 'YL is the Lorentz boost in the
collision center-of-mass frame and K 0 w , 1 w are modified Bessel - .

functions. The photon flux decreases exponentially above a cutoff en- to

er determined by the size of the nucleus. In the center-of-mass frame,

I

'

 s 2.5 p
~, ori ri ii ' o-pho to n pit ys ics 99

g1 veu by .he Jl1 .

Tl ~ analytic

d1V-r
dk

where WR
krp+R.4

kb rL in
Eq. 2.204 to obtain
n clN'Y 2Z2 a k
00
1 2 kb
dbb + ')Ko 2.206
= 1
dk 1f rL 'ti. rn.
b = X"'(L k and X111in

2kRA '"'IL The final form of the integral is

00 1 2
2.207

X111i11 ry L
We tlse the Bessel function int~~gral
~
--
,.,,.
;;. .
j
-j
C
-

2.208
s
I
-- K; 1 (_x Kn+l X

to simpli the results. Note that K-n x Kn x if n is an integer, useful

== Ko+ 21<1 x for the K~ Integration.
en- Putting all this together gives
e,
00
s, x
1 00 2.209
+

x > O as x > co. Regrouping and making tlse of the

Xmin
identity 1
 2.

111t r cti 1 r 11e ini ia] 111~t l 011-111cleJ11 interac -'i ns in cen ral c Jlli-

parton densities. 111 the case of resolved production, i11 addition trJ the

111ayinteract with the field around the opposite nucleus, leading to

!! or two-photon interactions. The rate of two-photon interactions is r1:::

b r 2.210 ?1
--
b> R.4. r> R.4.

where P b r is the probability of a hadronic interaction.

The square of the two-photon center-of-mass energy, S'"Y'"Y' is depends

S since kma:x << Pbearn.

The effective luminosities for photon-nucleus and photon-photon
interactions at the LHC are shown in Fig. 2.26. The left-hand side
compares the effective r A luminosity i11 pPb and Pb ; Pb interactions.
The two cases shown for pPb are when the leacl nucleus emits the pho-
ton !'P and when the proton emits the photon "'yPb . The luminosity
is higher when the photon comes from the nucleus.
Two factors contribute to the difference. The first, and largest, is

a discussion of luminosities in nucleus-nucleus collisions at the LHC .

-
l

I
'

1<f1 ~ .......~~~ ~~~ ............... .,._.,.........~ ~-...

I PbPb -----
yp - '
1u1' PP - - -
pPb-
.... "'
-::: 1u1''

,""
....
"'

yPb @PbPb .....

1a3' --- -- - --- -- - --

- -- - --
.
vPb ---- .
I' , . ...








-- - . -. -



- ... - -
-
1a27 i......... ............... .....__--....... ......__ -- .............. ............
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
102 101 10 101 1a2 101 10.J 10, 106
Syy111 [GeV]
k [Ge VJ

and Pb-t-Pb collisions at the LHC. From 37 . .

in pp, pPb and Pb-l-Pb collisions at the LHC. The effective luminosities
are the product of the AB luminosity and the 'Y'Y luminosity calculated
 2. c 0 ,

l
l in rs i li
n i te 11
e 1 I \ er c nd h sho ild b ra] idity g::1.f1S )e -,", een
1 :l ~tic:
t 1 1 n l b f h .ollision par J1 E- s. du - f--

l

I
l

I


0
)

JJp > 1\ I\~

] n. t.n l\- !\--
PJJ pptt + n n<J

7TJ) l\- j
pd pn6 +1To
pp > J ' pp
nJ >DD
-
PP > tt

that

2.
-

3. Derive the Drell-Yan cross section as a function of y and ;\[.

'

4. For 2 > 2 scattering, derive the partonic t and u invariants as a

function of x1 and X2.

5.

'
'
.

momentum conservation .

gg
an
104 2. Cross .sections

Nucleus A Z
RHIC
0 16 8 12.5
Si 28 14. 125
I 127 53 104
At1 197 79 100
LHC
0 16 8 3500
Ar 40 18 3150
Kr 84 36 3070
Sn 119 50 2920
Pb 208 82 2750

7.

and Z B, and neu trons, A and B in nuclei A and B.

8.

S==
.__, e .
T en ca cu ate the rell- an cross section as a unction o 1 at

rom t e earn energies at an ta u ate in a e 2.5,
ca cu ate t e orentz actors, 1L, "'max, an max in t e nuc ear
rest

sractions,

we

isions, e on y ca cu atec

owever, we ave not iscusse ow t at

twice t e nuc ear ra ills.
ra ius was c eterminec.

e nuc ells.

e c ar e c istri ution. 1 e, as we iscusse

r
'

deflected passing through the foil. Most were not but some were scat-
tered more than 90, back toward the source, repelled by a much larger
charge. Thus it was determined that the positive charge of the atom
was localized i11 a small area of the atom, the atomic nucleus. It is

usually assumed that the charge and matter distributions are identical
so that fits of the nuclear charge density distributions can be applied
equally well to the nuclear matter distributions.

the determination of the nuclear density distributions, Recall that the

'/, .
'

'

dtexp -i E, -

3.1
 107

s cliffere11ce d

~a-
dV (3. 2)
47r r' - f"

nucleus
of
f dQ

:l.t-
r r'

r' electron

in,

Figure 3.1: The charge density distribution is obtained from the po-
tential energy between the charge element d in the nucleus and the
electron probe where the distance between the two charges is r T'.

nuclear volume,
3.3
'
1

where d3r' is the nuclear volume element. The total interaction poten-

. Ze2 3.4

Vr r f'

47f
 -- -

Ze2 p r'
_, 3.s
4rr r'- 11

we have
Ze2
==A- 3.6
4rr s

ment, proportional to the cross section for an electron scattering off a

point-like heavy target,
da-
dq2
'
where we have written the cross section as a function of the Mandel-
stam invariant T with T ==
the electron-proton scattering cross section to account for the nuclear
charge in the matrix element. The additional factor due to the nuclear
charge density is the square of the nuclear form factor, F q , where

3.8

The form

elastic scattering . - Taking the inverse Fourier transform of the form

'

>
Pi PJ .

e defined q' Pi

.-
1..
'
-+-
I
t ""
')
--
..

I\
 3.2.
109

Pi I 'fJ1 I, we have

3.5

cos 8' = 2sin2(B' 2). Then

rarti-

q 4p2 si112 fl' 2 1/2 2 p sin

f)' 2 . (
r:)
J.
9')

'
Then
2 and thus the electron-
proton cross sectioii
'
3.6
daep 47ra2 3.10
-
off a starting from Eq. 3. 6 .
We first calculate the matrix element for ep scattering in the lab frame
assuming the proton is point-like. In this frame, for a target with a mass
Q7
much greater than the electron mass, the target can be considered to be at
rest both before and after the scattering, known as recoilless scattering,

ndel- 3.11

- f ep s
--

3.12
ds d( cos B)s exp] iqs C()S 8 .

3.8-

. exp iqs cos

ep iqs 1

d.s . 3.13
. exp iqs - exp -'iqs .
.orm iq '

The

in t e po en ,
Ra tom
 1 a - 1 iq

l -11 a

1 1

... iq 1 a tq 1 a + iq

er a dinz the two contributions. the fc ctors of iq cancel. along

factor o wo i11 the denomins tor so that
')
e- o 1-0
_,\;f ep == A---- == J.
1 a 2 + q2

element, needed for the cross section, is

3.16

where we have replaced the electric charge by the electromagnetic coup g

2 > 2 scattering. It is

2
Pl Ps mp - 3.1 (

when one particle is at rest, is

1
p3 p, --------

e have also thus

 I
l }l l I
J l ll

l J l 1. l p
I

dD

e m m , . \ . 1 .

l-vectcr

2 . 3.20)
p

3.21

so that the cross section becomes

3.22
4a2
==
q
 'J.

-jJ2=- "' I )d ... ,

7TQ2
rJ 2r
ql
s2 e' 2 . .). .~ J

E . cperin ent have shown tha the nuclear charge density at tr1e

distance until almost at the nuclear surface. 'Therefore, the number 0

A
3.24

where R,4. is the nuclear radius, To satis this constancy, we need

3.25

The proportionality constant, To, has been determined to be rv 1.2 fm.

distribution as a function of distance is to assume that the nucleus is

like a hard sphere with

PA r PoeR 3.26

constant in Eq. 3.24 and -

3
3.27

t an the nuclear raclius since interactions can still occur when the tails
y clear

1. 1 l
'

f 11 1l p
l 11 l

l l

l 1 1 n l p -

1 a11 . . t rizr
c l l t. ll 1 a d
1

r1 l
ither t ;\O r tlu

1 +w ,. r. - ' '")

P.4 r ,
'
e exp r c ,..,- +l

'
t
i
f
f approximation

2 3.29)
r ==
47rpo drr2
r2 1;2 c r-: l.07A113. The
In '
paran1eter z is typically rv 0.545 fm 41 .

of its central value to 10 o of that value within about 2.3 . This

distance, the skin thickness, is related to the parameter z in Eq. 3.28 .

r
-.
EXA PLE: Show that the skin thickness is '"" 2.3 fm.
'
oods-Saxon distribution for the nuclear density, we have, for r1,

1
exp r1 c z

1

exp r1 - c z 9

Likewise, for ri,

;
r2
I
 I

-. - - - --- -


0.15
\
\

, '

....
\

\
'\
('j \
I I
\
I \

0.10 \
't J
'
, ' I \

, '
I
\

J-c
\
u \
" <
~

I \
Q..
I
\
\
0.05 \ \

\
\
\
\
\
\
\
''
' .... ' .... --
0.00

-
0 2 4 6 8 10
r fm

Figure 3.2: The nuclear density distributions for oxygen dot-dashed ,

copper dashed and lead solid nuclei.

for z 0.545 fm. The individual values of r1 and r2 are

r1 c z ln 9

c + z In 9 .

axon orm has been used for A> 16 with success. The nuclear matter

3.30

'
'

"
 ...

z
J 1 )
J.l ?
0.1699
'""'t
...... ll . 4.214 0.1 Jl
I 110 5.3:3 0 (). l.)77
u 197 6.38 0 (J.1693
Pb 208 6.624 0.549 0 fJ.1600

.Li.:...1-1

Before finishing this section, one last nucleus should be discussed.

The det1teron, A 2 and Z 1, has been accelerated at RHIC in
d-i-Au collisions at SN1v 200 GeV. These dA collisions may be pre-
ferred over pA collisions for technical reasons: the det1teron beam and
the hea -ion beam have similar Z A ratios, simpli ing the magnetic

optics.

distribt1tion,

2
2
wr 3.31
1.L r
P<l + '
T
r r

 .J. Geometry

u r X[J
3
NE 1 - exp _,_./ ca: - Xe 2 1 + 1 - exp L r: I Ctr

- exp -1ar 2 exp -o:.r .

A.

-------------- -- l
0.15 - '
,,. '
(l'J
' '\
I \

'I
E
I
\
\
... ,,,,
\
\
,.M, 0.10 \
... ,, \
\
\

'\
\
0.05 1--
''
\
\

''
0.00
0 2
--
4 6 a 10
r (f111)

ution for deuterium so i corn-

 3.3. 117

The s 'Ste111
c oser to th
11

pact parameter is not directly measurable but experience at the BNL

cles, the multiplicity, and the energy of the produced particles in the
transverse direction, the transverse ener , Er, are both proportional
to the number of nucleon participants. Thus since the dependence of

nuclear density distributlon, we can get a good handle on the collision

centrality.

nt1cleus.
 b

'
I
'
'

of the target nucleus.

any given impact parameter. as long as the proton is impinging on

the nucleus at some b, the proton drills a cylinclrically-shaped tube

t ough the nucleus, The length of this tube depends on the distance
from the center or the 'thickness' of the nucleus at that point. The
nuclear thickness function, T.4 b , is just the integral of the nuclear
clensity over longitudinal dimension,

dzpAb,z, 3.32

PA 3.33
then, for a given b, the longitudinal distance to the surface from the I
center is z l

R2 b2
A

,--.--
dz== 2p0 3.34
I

RA
2 b2

ge,
I

0 3 A .

'
'
ry o 11-

) .

1 _- i tribu ion

s 11 ce (Jo a11 11
1011 c ndi io .

2.0 -

\
\
0.5 \
,
~

\
\
i
, \
I
0.0 10
4 6 B
0 2
r fm)

sharp surface rest1lt dashed .

I
' lated with the 2-parameter oods-Saxon density distribution to that
I assl1mi11ga sharp surface, as in Eq. 3.34 . 'The two results are es-

I
face result is zero. The difference between the two assumptions about

j
I

I
B1
11 .a 11
: ili .e

11 l n -l . lz A JfJJa ili __ ,
21
, B 1 l t111 e 1e1L1 ... r 1 d a l - B a c

. . " ic 11L1 cle n-nucl 11 collision. Tl e prob . . .

in the volume element cl2b.4d::.4 at po. i ior

1

3.36

proportional to the density distribution in the nuclear volume divided

by the mass number A. The probability is norm 'zed so that : -
tegration over the nuclear volume gives unity since we ha 'e def ned

ability is a delta function times the N N inelastic. c10 ... s section, a:ne: >.;- - -

'
b be . Then

elements of both nuclei, normalized per AB,

O"inelTAB b
AB
_,~ --+ ~

1 b - lJ.4 - be

O"inel
3.3~
I
I


l
B
l 11

l
r :: t ..
l 7

TB b o

'

b (3.40

300
- ...
' .....
.....
''
''
,
C\l
... ''
I
' .
'I
s
I
' ... \
... "'

,, '
. - - '\

100 ,_.__
... ...


'
... ''
...
. ... . . . .... ''





.. ... ... ' ''
. - - .. - - .. - - . . -


.. -
' ' ... ...
-- . . . - . . - . -. . -



-. -.

10.0 12.5 15.0

2.5 5.0 7.5
b fm

eter
 122

para1neter.

: b 3.41

does depend 011 energy since the inelastic cross sec-

tion grows with s. The inelastic cross section is 32 mb at S' 20
GeV, 42 mb at S 200 GeV and 60 mb at S 5.5 TeV. Thus

same system at 5. 5 TeV relative to 20 GeV, a large increase. Since the

t
section, the number of collisions is dimensionless.
I
The probability for n inelastic N N collisions at impact parameter
b out of a possible AB collisions is

n AB n
I
AB
PAE n,b 3.42
n
I
'
I
where I
I
l
AB AB!
3.43
n n! AB - ti !

The two factors in Eq. 3.42 are the probability for ti hits with AB n l
l

from 1 to AB and the integral over impact parameter is

i

Ill
PAB ti, b . 3.44 I

n
AB

. . . eriveEq. 3.44.

'

I AB AB n
PAB n, b - ncoll b .
n
 23

m n
a :.t.;n ( rt -n = a
(
n
I 1

I ,
( o: + ~c rn. a1'~

n 1
lll . ncoll a11 x ncol: b), we o .tain

_.
P.4.B b
n 1
AB
ncoll b + 1 - ncoll b
1 1 ncoll b AB ,

giving us Eq. 3.44 .

2
Ii J
EXAIVIPLE: Determine n , n2 and the standard de>riation.

The average number of nucleon-nt1cleon collisions is

1
ti
n==l
.AB .b 1 b 3.-17
1 I A.B n. J ti .4.B-n
ncoll\ - coll
n
n 1

rn
AB AB l
AB AB 1
'
n 1 ! AB nl
n
n! AB ti '

n 1
n 1 AB 1
AB 1 3 .--1:8
AB 1 l AB 11' 1
n '

ti 1

ti 1 1 Then
'

ti ' AB ti

since AB

AB 1 1 b
.4.B n

'3.~9
as l b AB ri
b 1 ncoll
ABncoll ncoll
n 1
n PAB b n 1

,
'

"
 l

8-
b
11

,'1, - )
l

B
1
n
ri== l
-~B
1 2 AB n b ,4B n
ti ncoll b 1 - ncoll
P.4B b n 1
ti

m n 1 as in Eq. 3.50 , we obtain

ABncoll b
PAE b
AB m b 1 b } .4B m
ncoll ncoll 3.52
m

The first term in 1 + m is equivalent to n , calculated iJ.1 Eq. ( 3. 50 . The

second term can be obtained by replacing m by n 1 so that I
AB AB

AB! 'AB -1: 'I

n-1 '

m 1
-m! n-1-!AB-n)l
n 1 ' '

AB
'AB 2 !
AB-1

3.53
'n - 2 ! 'AB n !
n 1 '

Then
b
ABncolI b
AB
AB 2
x ti 2 b 1
n 2

n 1

== ABncoll b 1 + AB - 1 ncol1 b
3.54
 3. 'J.

?
- n 2 = ncoll b)) .

,-\-n
A T.4 b ( 3. 56)

I
A
T,4 b 3.57'
1

n 1

3.57 can be approx-

imated as a11 exponential so that

A
' 3.58

. I
I
since the A's cancel in the expo:t1e11t.
e can then use Eq. 3.58 to find the number of participant nu-
cleons in a nt1cleus-nucleus collision. The number of participants in
nticleus A is proportional to the nuclear profile function at transverse

nucleon-nucleus collision at transverse position b s in nucleus B

d2 s TA s 1 exp (linelTB b
s

.,

3.59
 .9. Gt!ometry

cen te I collision. the

-
part b cl2 s T.-t s + Ts ( b s (3 6fJ

-- .... ....
''
''
'
''
'
,. ''
'
,.CJ
....
''
''
~

200

- - -


~

Q.
....
.... ''
z ....
' -,
''
... ''
-
-
'
''
100 1--




''
.- - -- - -

''
-

-

- -

' ....
....
-

--
----
..
- . -

-.

-. .
.....






- ....
....
-. - -. . . - .._
-
- ... - .
. ... '
.....

'''

l
5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 I
b (fm) I
l
'

Figure 3. 7: The number of nucleon participants as a function of impact

parameter b. for O+O clash-dasl1-dash-dotted), Si+Si dot-dot-dot-
dashed Ca-l-Ca dot-dot-clash-clashed , Cl1+Ct1 dotted , I+ I dot-
1

dashed , Au+Au dashed and Pb+Pb solid collisions.

I
j

ter. The oods-Saxon parameterization of the nuclear density gives a I

somewhat smaller number of participants at b 0 than does the sharp
surface density. There is some variation in the number of participants

is directly proportional to O"inel.

I

As instructive examples, we can calculate the maximum number of

I
'j
 -

1
l

p r.12 sT
s

gets, At b 0, nucleus A clrills a cylinclrically-shaped hole throug ~

number of participants in B are those in the volume of the cvlinder

swept out by nucleus A so that

I
where
The11
I
Npart 0 A+B
3 .,42/3 81/3
.. ct

3.62
2
== 0, T~4.B 0 '
yy"'l1en
e-
A B,
- s2

R.4.
1 4 2R4
2npo A
0
If

3.63
I
 T. B

B1f3+A1/3
"/'
B ~ 3 - 2/'J
A ~1 ')
ln (3.64

Bl/3 A 1/3

EX 4_ t P LE: Sliow this.

We tart with the integral

T.4B 0 - 32

R2
+ .s4 1;2 .
0
I
With the substitutions x s2, c 1, 2 2 2i. 2.

R a+ bx+ cx2, we have an integral of R over x. This is a standard form

I
where
I
Xmax
I

4c 8c3/2
cR+ 2cx + b I
Xmin
Xrni11
I

Substituting the values of R, a, b and c as well as inserting the upper and

I'
lower limits of integration, we obtain Eq. 3.64 .

tion. ''

'


- r 1 r
g n er no

u 11 v l e sl re in r <r ( 1

y ""' 1 c 11 e11 "\ 11 ir die . er

cl . . . op1)111g.

I1 11 . . .
llln t.... '"'Ofi\'e1te( . . . . . .. -

c es also IY .

111 <Y hadro .

nucleus c 1 ~

Ill
I
[

The G lat1ber model used to calculate the number of participant nu-

.nd cleons and the number of nucleon-nuclecn collisions cannot be fullv ~

correct because it assumes the same cross section for each intern1edi-
ate collision. However, after each collision, the nucleon that interacts
l loses some of its rapidity so that each subsequent collision it suffers is
l
at lower effective S. hile the pp total and inelastic cross sections

:le-

ice
'

,'

)er
J
J
I

 after 011 collision is 46, 47
o--1
= ax 1 o
J. 6 )r-

collisions by

al
W X.n 1 , X.n == N CYXn
3.66
where Xn < x11_1, normalizecl so that

0 3.67
EXA PLE: Calculate Nin Eq. 3.66 .
From Eq. 3.67 , we have
Xn.-1
1 Na clx n xan 1
0
X1i- :l

Nx~ Nx.~ 1 J

0
I
so that

N == xn~l

3.68
and

a I 1
W Xn 1, Xn

Xn 1 3.69

The stopping will redistribute the nucleon momentum distribution

after n 1 collisions, er n collisions the momentum distribution is

further reduced, becoming
I
1

I
-1)
Xn 1 W Xn 1, Xn ,
Xn. 3.70 '
I
I
'

'
 131

)
== 1 .

== 0, is a delta functi on
defining x0 1

( 3. 72)

After n. subsequent collisions,

s:

-a lnxn n-l 3.73)

ti 1 1

1
xo w(xo, x1
Xl

I 1

dxo\~ .xo

Xl 3.74

I

X2
X Q'. 1 2 a-
1
1 a-1 2 == ()'. x')..,

I

1
I
2xa 1 ln x1
()'. 2

) X2 3.75

II

I
I

I
I
 l

J
-1
-1

.t: J
1 1
dc ,,_ 1
. - } n .C 2 :::::: -x,., - 11 - Xr;
'j

') .J ') -
t: ~ x2 - -
0 .a-1
- ~C3 ( J
.)
r:c:
f lJ
')
-

Ion ' Xn ) IS

xn
I (n)

1 1
dXnXn -----:---- 0: . . ( (
0 n 2 ' ,...a:
r
~(..n-1

due to the normalization condition in Eq. 3. 71 . The integral is then

1
1 d Xn 1
I Il n 2
Xn 1
0 Xri Xn 1 n 2 !
1 71, 1 1

0
Xn
1 Inn

0 n-1!
n
'

a+l 3.78

iteration. From Eq. 3. 78 , it is clear that ''

'
I'

'
'

Xn l
a+l 3.79 l
.
'
'
'
I
'
I
I
'
I
I
 13' ')
...)

mr
Xn, = YN
I

1 u. rn ax
d Xn D(ri)
Xn
0 y,,,, ru i n
u, m ax
3.81)

where dx ; x1idy.,1. The limits of the integration over Y are Yn, min ==
-oo and Yn, ma.'< yN ln my m . e then have

1
-a ln Xn n
I' ti 1 t
my a .
exp a Yn YN
m
-a ln(mT m + Yn 3.82
x .,2___2.=--~.:::_:_,~:.___~~~-=-~- .
n 1 ~
m+

l
3.83
I
l n 1 t
Yn

Zn

Yn
'
Zn., mi n
(n)
Zri, 111ax

dz z + YN
Z1i. rn in Zrt, 111 ax (n) 3.84
f

- ln mr tti +

Y.N Z rt , r11 i 11

I
'!
 134 .J. Geomeiru

111ce
~

I
0 l

- .1J1 + 111 my tri

- 1)~
an n! I
I
a~i-1 ti 1 ! I
n
3.85

- 1 collision, we similarly
I
find
n-1
Yn 1 YN + 111 mr m 3.86 I

I
I
1
yn 1 Yn . 3.8'(
I
Busza and Coldhaber 45 inferred a loss of rv 0.5 units of rapidity

I

'

completely the nuclei can be stopped depends on the initial rapidi

l

more completely stopped than high energy collisions where the rapidity I
is large. In addition, the larger the nuclear radius, the n101'etimes an j

More rapidity is lost with larger targets. The N A49 collaboration at the
I
I
CERN SPS 48.

l'

I'
'

I

l

r
- J

110 op
-

I I
1e pectator's a1' , . . . -
I 1llS t e r ar ~/
egree enerz E . .
er1 heral
I
l

II
I

nearly head on.

I The zero degree energy for one beam in an AB collision depend=
on the number of participants in the interacting nucleus i11 that beam.
The dominant contribution to the zero degree energy is the spectator

I 3.88
EzDc b

'
I

IS
II
'i
3.89

I
1 nan
I

! an t e zero ..
I
I

"
,

'

I
 6)
c..J

3.90

i

where i is a cell in a detector.

particle energies more effectively. The Pb+ Pb correlation is shown in

Fig. 3.8.

0 )

serve

000

0

45000



0000
oa ~ e .

15000 I It 'l
4l "

. . . . " -~-
n n -
10000 r . . . . .
'
-
~

-
-
5000

........
I 8 0 ~ r.
;,.1._.. r"" :Ii
..... -.._-~"'-

,,~-:i0<
- - I
--
. . . . . . . . . . . -
L-L- '- L-L- - ~ ..._.___,_ '--1......l-'- -'-- I . -
0
0
20 40 60 so 100 120 140 160 1s'J zcc
ET GeV /

. -
- -

pernussion from Elsevier.

J

I
undetected. In heavy-ion collisions, on the other hand, the final stale

eter or for some number of nucleon participants also sometin1es called

 .r t

11 i . Jl J l0

.t . .
l parucipanu. bili 'd,,. . ,.
l Er Irorn _ p, rt at irnpa r o is t

P Er: - part ... P1,

x o Er-

The final ET distribution sums over the number of participaLt.... - .)~ - .

- -
Nmax
part

3.9

3.56 ,
... par

0
calculated using Eq. 3.59 . If
d d 1
(i)
exp -
I'd 3.95
where rd d 1 r ancl
then

part
r
.96

rove

I
 1

(ly Ya-1 1 y b-1

(l T fJ

Thu 2.'
'2
~d
p~:l.B . Ey; 2
f(d
(l
x exp - - ET

so that
2

Er 2d 1 3.99
ET .
3.
The last equality was obtained using E(1. '.3.98 . Finally, for JV part
I
! d . 3
II

1
'I I
fd
o Er- T T
x exp T T T
I
I
d 3
exp T T
rd (2) d-1
d 1 d 1
, Er T -Er

X T T
so that, using
T
let Y1
I
~

'
= --__.;;;;;..--
exp
rd r 2d
I

140

Er 3d 1
P-iB Er; 3 =----exp Er , 3.100
I' 3d Er

following Eq. 3. 96 .

tions between the nucleons i11 the nucleus, The nucleons are, however,

strong force. Correlations reduce the fluctuations relative to the Pois-

son statistics used above 52 . In principle, rescattering effects such as
ener b and 1110111e11tt1n1 degradation and the difference between mul-
tiple collisions of bound and free nucleons should also be taken into
I
account. Rescattering of the produced particles should only be pos-
sible after the secondary hadrons have a chance to form, called the
formation time, about 1 fm i11 the rest frame of' the hadron.
f
A Caussian distribution better incorporates the correlations. Bay111
~

j

data, asserting that

2
Er ET b
3.101
'I

l
'
I

variance respectively.

l
:

'
'j

'
I

co 3.102
w 3.103
'
I
 a
1

XI l llll 11 . 0 d in p incip ~
11 ll l c } li i 11 p (b i ind -nd
f . 1 I cifi s, 11 1 111 . 1 s 1 1 va ia ion. ifferer es c n

n n: l c i . , ti r ct fficier cies, c lib a ions an o er
cl tc i l .

1n(T
0

Eri

cla
)
,
cl Er

( 3. lfJ4 I
---;;:::=============== exp
-2
2n Er b Q b

I tion of hard processes is expected to grow as the nt1mber of collisions

l
so that the Drell-Yan cross section in a nucleus-nuclet1s collision as a
n1nction of Er is
l 3.105
d<Y
dEr
The Drell- Yan ET distribution is shown in Fig. 3.9. Since it is
large impact

1
3.106

d2bdEr

rare.
l ne Y . . .
~

'
t ese even

li
 0

- -.,,, </A..,
-,,,,..,,,.--... , ' - ~

' .......
-
- .( ,,. / .,,, - /
-

/
- ,/
/......
"
-
/
.,.,

/ ,,.,,,
-;'/

/ , / v / / //
>QJ 100 '1\ I
I._
\I
J
;
I V
/\ I
I\
\1
I
/ (/
/ II '
\
'' '
c..::> I I I '<I 11
t
I \ I A I //, \ \ '
11(
10-l 11 I I \1 I I I 11 \ \
I I I \ I /\ I I/ I I \ \
\ \
1
I I I I I ) I I I /\ 11 I \ \ \ \ \
I I \I 1I I I I I \f I \ \
~ f I I
11
I I I
I I
I I
I
I/\
/\
If
I
I IV \
\
I
\ \
\
\
\ \ \
\

\ \ \
I 11 I I / 11 I I I II I \ \ \ \ \ \
I 1 I I I ) I \1 II I I \ \ \ \ \
I I I II /I I ~ II I I I \ \ \ \
I 11 l I I I II II I \ I I
1 \
,-- f /I I I I I VI I I I I \
I I\ / I I It I N I I
\
I \ \
I I\ I I I ~ I lfl I I \

I I
/1
I f
/ 11
\/
II
I I I
I
II
II\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
' I
\
I / 11 f I II II I I I I \ \
I / 1, I\ I V 11 I I I I \ \
I f I I I II II I I I I I I
I 11 I I I 1111 I I I
--'-----
-
0 50 1 00 150
ET (GeV) ~

I
'

'

lJ
dominate. They become narrower at low Er.
At collider energies, where harcl processes become more important, I
I
transverse energy and multiplicity are no longer expected to be solely
' I

as well. The hard contribution to particle production at the CERN

I
1
t
I

by the hard component.

0 I

easurements sue
en c ivi ec into
'
'

I
'I

'

' llllllllllll bias inc . part

b o ,1 ar a '
11s cross s . . .,

(3.101
0
where b ' , . .

is 56
3.108
(]'geo be

I geo
O'geo

1! In central collisio11.s, where

1
l

r 00 l

I
 - - ....., _..,, -
0 , - - - ... -

," ,, /

/
' I

I
'

I
I

I I

I
I
I
I I

0 I I
Q)
I
I
I


j I
' 0.5
I
' /
'

I

I
'



/
I

,,

I I

,,
/
I
'

'
,, /

I /

/
I

/
,

,.,



... /

. ". ,..

0.0
0 5 10 15 20

be f111

At1+At1 solid interactions.

the number of collisions so that in the same central interval, b < be,
the fraction of the hard cross section encon1passecl is

I

I
3.109 !
'

'

Figure 3.11 shows the increase of AB with be for the same systems as

in Fig. 3.10. Note that AA ~ 1 when be ~ 2RA. If the bin is the 10 o

most central events, AB O.l, then be 2.05 fm in Au+At1 collisions I
(

I
'

'

I
{

 1.0

'
c' ~

f
0.5

5 10 15

'

Table 3.2 gives the total geometric cross section and the value of
'j
'
I
I
,
is on the order of barns for all systems, the nuclear overlap function
I

in a central collision can then be calcl1lated. First, be is

3.110
AB Q

J
 - -
- - - - . -. ... - , ..- ..,,,... .
- - - . ..
.. . .- .
,.,. -
,,,.,.
. . . . :
- . - .
.
. . .-

/
,,,,. ,,,,,,
, ,
,,
. .

,
.. . .

,, .

,, ."

I

;


.:

I

I .'

I


I


I

I .

0.0 -------- 1.0

0.0 0.5

f geo

O+O dot-dashed , C11+C11 dashed , and Au+Au solid interactions.

Table 3.2: Values of the geometric cross section and nuclear overlap
integral at b 0 for several colliding systems.

mb 1
A+B TAB '
o.

o+o 1.18 0.79 l

Ca+Ca 2.45 2.92

Cu+Cu 3.46 5.77

I
At1+At1 6.88 29.32
Pb+Pb 7.39 30.42

over ,

O (]'AB
c 3.111
(]' gee geo

e spec1 . .


147

181011 lS

-
cc
0 . 3.112

geo

-
ace
pp
AB ,4..8 3.113

O"geo 0.1

o 11.1.0St

central events.
 1.

B and the st1111.

2. Estimate the nuclear 0 for the sarns

systems as above.

3. Using Eq. 3.76 evaluate D(n) x., for ti - 4 and 5.

'
4. If a

projectile.

5.
as above.
I
I
I


6. . . . . alculate PAB Er; part or
Il
I

ision at
11+ ll
pairs in a centra event.
 ~I
'

, ...

J

--
(fl

. ,...- -,,_
;.r -. .
,, ,,..'

c:,,..,,. ...... ,.. ,., -
. __ ,.,

-
-
- -. - ,..,.

-
- - -;

--

-
--

- -. . --
- - -
- -
.,....,.,.
-- -- --
~

- ,
--
i
-
.... & ...-! ~~
~ -

-
 '
I
I
I

-
I
vaponz (1011 I - en ucal point I
'

I I
5

co e11sat1011

100 \
I

'

I
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
I

I

e vo urns is ow ever
exp an mg, as s ' ' I

'I
I I

I
 -

--
-
-
- --
c --
'- --
-
-

transition.

transitions.

zero
transition is secon
 c

r z

described much later than those at high temperatt1re and . . o~~"

. . . 1e exper1-
. . . 11s en po111t
. . an w et e1. t

Ill SS
 . 1.

'
.

170 ---- - - --

Hadronic

High
Density Phase
Nuclear Matte

1 GeV

ax1s .

In

'


-
-
-- .

lv ami tell u that is -

r
'c TI be a eel i11 a Dl1 bei , . .,I e
tha -
n r i r a e when a con traint in ernal 1

... 1 cl ' r 8111 holds con t ant all e_ .t r

t 1 ce 11 e111 u 1 a ene1~g:.. v l l 1e

'

I
'

~. l
: - ss i 1 l .
1 su m -
. . t. 11 l i: ll t
ut 18.S ~ l le

I
I
 1 I
l l
1

r
..

o -l E -.).E-E -
-'"' j -

' 1

l

w ie t. .-11 + 2

ene1gy, ,
l )

N1-
1

4.
156

4.6

4.7
S N,E

I
I I

4.8
Il
the volume
. fine the tern-

4.9

Il
sat
volume.

entropy either remains constant or increases when a constraint interna

a arge reservoir
1as ener
, t e nurn er I
 I

,,

p E' e.,.p E' T )

. ~ -
p E'' exp E'' T ,

- E' T
SE E' == S . E') -

8E VN
)

and sub-
tracting, the S E terms cancel, leaving us with exp S E E' S E E'' ~ -

exp E' E'' T . Ec1uation 4.12 then follows.

value so that if the change applied to the systen1 is reversed.

' '

-i.14
 c:01npr8SSJ.0r1;

I

11 l

1

I
4.1.S; I
I

' T/
i s

as as
dS E, V clE + clV . 4.16)
av E

At 6V s
Thus it follows that as VE Il
I
-P or I

P== ( 4 .1 ' J

I
I'
l'

i

dE TdS PdV . '4.1

-PdV, the wor

I
'I

ener sot at I

' ' I
I

!

quation ' 4.. te s us t

' I ?
t ,
 '2.

--

. l l
l

... 1 tl u, which or

. ... ~- -
J

-
cle. , tl1ev are said o be i11 clifft1sive contact c nd , -il c 14 e cl

at fixed temperature,
F1 ?'J
d 1 + 4 . --J

. . __ ince d_N -
rium condition,
) 1
1

.- .....

T,V

E, and V,

e
~.26
+ +

E,N E,V
V,N .

Tan
term is
us '
T '

4.27
T
r+
T E
N
 T
\ -e di N
with 6E T ind
e 111 1ltipl.,
4.28
+T I
E

4.25
'

4.29

4.26 nitions o
I
4.17
l

4.30

moving

l
' 4.31
'
I

I
le to iscuss t 1e t rerrno-

'
Now that we have introduced the c

fl N1, E E1 and t er o states

p I El
' I
I
p II 11
' II
II

exp I
I

exp '
II
,,

exp I
I
,, I
I

'
 2.

I
I s

' .J

T 1e liffer -'t .
E E'' T.
Tl1tl

p ;. I' E' exp - 'E' -

,
P ~V'',E'' '

~
in thermal and diffusive contact with a heat reservoir and cant us e.:-

canonical ensemble. The Boltzmann factor in Eq. 4.12 is for s~5terr1s

'
CX)

-N T , ~.35

I
j

1 4.36
E'- T
gen

an

lS,
.,. . . . tor 18 t e c ass1 c .
'

_,. 1t1ons. or ' .

. . c1 le an or c . . . .

'
zero erm1ons o
1 4.3 {
l - ~l +1
I
I
exp


. Thermodynamics
162

l
'
1
BE E, fl
4.38
exp E fl T - 1
'

bosons.
The Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein distributions can be derived from their
Gibbs st1ms the grand partition function . The distribution function is
defined as the average number of particles that can occupy the system.
e start with fermions. Since only one particle can occupy a state,
starting at a state with N 0 and thus E 0, we have

ZFD _ 1 + exp E T . 4.39

'

N , is defined as
I
I
N FD

exp 'E _ T
"

1 +exp E _ T
'
.10
!

I
R J.-l T , we fincl I

FD E, 1
N FD == -~-~:---~~-
exp E T +1 4.41 '

If I

00
00 I
I
ZBE exp N E T

exp E T N
N 0 4.42
N 0 I
I
00
Since N 1 1 I

1
'
4.43
I
I


-
l l
I

J.1
( t: /1 - 1

c..11 qually '. 11 . i
l .ha n < }1 '
1 a. .

versi J 11 r f
fe1111i '=' ls' Li J.)() ) c 11r l 4 .'-iJ;-
1
'

E ~l T +1 . -
_:)

where the - Then

E- T )
4. ~6,
I

l ' b

1 exp E T

VVe bring the expone11t i11 the numerator into the denominato1 and
factor out 1 from the i;lenomi11ator for bosons so that the or t in
+ for bosons
I

II
1

tri ution unc 1 ' c

I is t en
L..-1 , ; :~ exp
MB
 4. Therrr1,odyn,arr1,ics 1

'
i

I
i

2. 0 ,-----r---...--- .------.--- -.....---r--- ....---- ....--- ,-----

I

I

I

I
'
I

1.5 - I
'
I
'
I
'
I
'
I
'
I

' ,,,
1.0 - - -- ---- I
I
'
I
..... '
..... I

''
I
'' I

I\
'' I

I !
0.5 ~
'' I

\
I
'
I
'' '.
'' . \

' \.
r
' ' I

0
5 I
E T I

I
E-

er o:

(5

111

13 1~ XI>

'l I' . .
flt Ll Il C .

!C fJ r I , <, o
l\l I \ f-'lL l'CJ '

d. ubi
lS

-
')

n2x + ' ) ')

?l..,!) + Tt. -z 0:)
(4
I

.
L
' '0 111vo ves tl . . .
I

00 00 t;2 2
I /, I[
dnzexp - ---- n2 \ n2 ,
2A1 L2T x I y .
0 0 0
3/2
1',JT
i v
27fn2

I
'
I
EX_4. 4.52 .
I
I
I Let t2 ==
I
l n2 + n2 .

I
product of exponentials so that
'

I

l 0

I t and recalling that the integral
I
Changing variables to z tri with d1i dz z2 7r 2, we obtain
I 3 3/2
I
I
3
00

2t
I
0
l

4.53
 '

16A
Substi t ll ting I
. 1 a sing
wh re 1r1 thi case, the box c I
'

I
J r == N == J\nQ V

wjth n . T I'
I
. . . the c 1e1n1
II
I
4 .. 54 r
tl T 111 n 1iQ . . I

we can

JV '

==NT Inn nQ - 1 . 4.5.5

I
0 I

N
F T dN lnN ln V1iQ .
0 '

Recall that dN In N N Jn N N. ith this result for the first part of I

the integral and noting that the second part is inclependent of N, we find I

F T NlnN N Nl11 VnQ

- 1 .

'
I

'

'
I

PV NT, I
'
4.56 I
the ideal gas equation of state.
I
I
I
I
I

!
 T"/- J

2.

b., c 11.C er
lllllil
e11 111 ter ' r: '

A A
4.09)
z a exp - ~LN Cl

a
4.60
Tr exp

Asst11ning the system can be described by a grand canonical en-

11t1mber fit1ctt1ate arot111dtheir average valt1es, E and N . The energy

exp 4.61

n Tr exp
4.62

I '
I T
exp '
4.63

T
E Tr exp ' '
4.64

'
 4.65

I
I
CJS' -- . 4.66 I

as E, V - clV == --
8E v 8V E

free energy is

dF dE TclS SdT . 4.67 I

I

clF == -PdV SclT . 4.68

free energy with respect to temperature and volume, respectively,

''
'
8F l
s
i.69

p 8F
,
(1 . 70
Using Eq. 4.69
as
F==
v ' 4.71 l

4.72
I

I
8FT l
18F F 1

8T T 8T T2
II
 .2. R

D1:i
8T '
q. 4. 71

== (J 0.
tJ-"
'PS
I ..._

F
- == -111 z /')
T 4 . I J J

4.65 . F1~0111 this it follows that

p aTl11Z Tl11 Z F
4. (4
av T v V'
fJ Tl11 Z
s . 4. r .5)
I
BT
I

we replace dE above by TdS - PdV, as i11 Eq. 4.18. Dividing VdP

I
I by dE, we obtain .
I 1

I V dP clP iv d'l d ln T ?
I == == -- == = c; 4. r6
dE tie TdS cl ln S

i

'

J
i

I
4. r7
I
I
a so
IS

+ + VdP. 4.78
 I 'lC,'J

170 '
0.

4.79 J

dG

)
/

ave

dG f-idN SdT+ VdP

oc G
d + r : P. 4.80
oN T p )
T,V N,V N,T

we identi

fJG
-S == 4.81
oN ' T '

N,V / NT
'
un- I
. ecause
'"11 cl

or ional to

' .
1

' , IS
'
-PV

or I

)
t:
- I,-_;
 . '3. Ph

re 1i 1

1
efn iti n

+ uri

r2a111 z Tlr1 Z
\1'" 8T == v
)

ase ransi ions

1
I

p an e . , . . Q ' . . .
1 QGP > HG' . . . .
mo ynam1c quc . .
previous sec ion, .
 -

~ J l

v I

'

I
T v

I
e two p le e
ecorne llS t le i erentia i11
I
clP I l
dT 1

T e n rm rat or is t
rorn p iaso 1 to J)
ase 2 w 1i e t 1e c eno1ninator is t 1 incr ase in t ao
I
I

4 1 -')
)

1 S''l.
-
l i '2

that the system could be characterized by a single variable, : called

the order parameter. In thermal oquilibrium, 0 T , the value of ~
that minimizes the free energy. The11, limiting ourselves to 0, t.he
Landau free energy, FL, is

-
hen
FT, or
4.94
FT 'T .

L I

1 6 + . .. . 4.95
6
 4.

174

-To 4.96

18

4.97
T

4.97

t2
A
Simin == -- T - J.Q
rri .

11 Ill t l<
!

Yo 2

F 2

T o-

')
....

J' anr
0
 -

l
I (

1
l

,,,... '

.- -

0.0
I
I I I

l. 0 1.5 2.0
0.0 05

')
.J .

ere as -
transition w en .9Ll: is ne
ree oner is t 1e11
anc all
c2 -
4.101
0 ~


1
~f.
hermor. ynarrtzc.s

king h
eolti11
aFL 4.1 2
T To

g i11 011e root is found at

-'4 T - T0 94 T
I

) 1
-== -----
2A T To

equal minima, I
I

.l 4
nite 2
' 0.

. . . c 1ere 1s a 1s-
I

. e eg111 .

. _ q.
' ecomes
+ +
int

 ....,-
(

1 -

...... J

T T I

0 1- c I
I
!

T c >T/T 0

-1 -

0 2 4 6 8
2

4.55 . Here VvdW is the avail-

a e vo lime an
t e as.

'
VO llll18 , t en a volume is

e VO lllTI8 . lS nown as 'exclu e

e van c er aa s VO lllTI8 is
vo ume. '

-aw
.iavc 110 size anc
' oint
 1

etc rons, <:1,toms

... . l 1 I ..
1ze. c -

00

00

-2na
4.1 (

two is inc ll ec
as

etween
1nce t . to

o wou e

tainec

FvclW - -
b
+1
2 .

 r u

\- - 2

11 t
) - t 11 u1- l 1
Rec11c111)1110 ,. .

V 1Vb 4._._l:.

PvdW o. 4.112
UV av2 T
T
== Tc, there is 110 separation bet- -eer_
greater than c.

a 4.113
c 27b2 ' 4.114
c 3 ' 4.115
8a

c 27

obtain --1.116
vdW 3
b 2
T ~.117
b 3
2
T


LJ.117 ' W

the critical volume,

4.118

4.116 '

8 (l 4.119

27 b

NT~ (l 4.120

27b2

into t 1e van I
'

A 3 A 1 8 A

P+,.., V- == T. 121
v 3 3
"
Then p is written as
"
A 8T 3
P== --,,---
"
3 v 1 3 v2 .122

as a
c
va ues o
c . . , t e
e

c
 l
r

I
I
I


I

I
2 '

I

\

I
... ...
...


I .. ..


I - - --



I - - - - - -

(.)





I -

0... '
I
<,
\

0...

'
\
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
\
- - -



\
- - -

\
-

-
'

0 '
' -

'

''

''

'












'

2

1
v vc

See also Ref. 63 .

Recall that we had three criteria for a phase transitio11: constant

aals case. The Gibbs free energy of the van der aals gas is

FvclW + PvclvV V
.._,' T, V,
-NT ln Nb N + 1

i
-Nb V2
-Nb +1
2 2a NTV 4.123

b
v
 1 ( .
l J

J J
l
l

j f'
\

ll Cl ..
11 l I 11
1 al

I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
l
: phase


I
I

'I coexistence
















I
I

.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


II

. .

. . . . .. .....
I
. .
.. ................... ...'....
.
..

.
.. .. '. . .. . . .. . ... . .






. .
,-------

I


.

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

.

. .

I
....
.. .
. .
. . . ' . . . . . . .

. .

. .
.. I
I . . . . . .
I
I .,..
. . . . . . . .

'

. .
. . . . . . . . . . ' . .

'

I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
gas
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
\ I

. : The van cler

as a
r11per(ttt1re T < Tc. <

dia I

ee a so I

I

 )
'J
t)

. ., gre :.') o ree r -

111a Y we take , . .
111 e par ticle mass.

either bosons
or er1111011s, 1s 65 ,

gV co elk k4
3E
1
x 4.1 ?4)
T =t= 1

the

ln Z T, g

+ 111 Z E; T, - ~l 4.125

1 s angu ar 1 ' . '.3 .

4.126
.9 ln
n 27f2 .
 7
l

n
kl.
J.l) .31 E )
i

I t
l

.arr bl 0 k, F:naJ .. '.

rik/ 1
)
J

nl .,, r r l e in
. . l and
'
.124 .

i with the par ti ti on fl111ct ion calculated as in Eq. 4. 12 '5 o t a-

F -TlnZ T,
gVT .,
- 2 dJ k 111 Z E; T, It
27r i l ' ''."'1 I
'-'% - '-' ;
'

t .s lll_

n111ctiu11,

. E; T, fl -1

exp -1

-!.13

1
l
fl
 185

g VT
F == - '
(-l.132;
27r2 [L J

Tl1e ressure i-. . . - .,. .

p == -

00
dk k4 03
E; T, ~l + E; T, -~l 4 1
. J. )
3E

BF
l ti =
O~L
,~ fi1
exp .E T
gT dE
. ' fC .A I
'
-
T = 1
T exp 'E
'

g dEkE
2n2
g 4.134
dk k2 E 'T ' .
2n2

To calct1late t e o a . .
t1ons rom q. . . .
. e 110 e, o '

E; T, ~l
4.135
g E; T, ~t

2n2
 -
-

l

11 1.- 1 ... 1

I I V. ' \.
1
ui. n Il

T , ., E:T. .

9 I ~
: 7 . jI

r I

I

/l '

' /l

r I
/l LI
/I

 l

111

ions

fermions and for bosons with zero chemical potential. 11 0. To

rhe calculations, we bring the temperature factor i11 the denominate of

case. we have
I

gV
Tln Z T, , V dkk

1 1
x
exp k-

== 0 for bosons since t l a e . ,

-1.1~3

00
9l1V 4.14-1
TlnZ = -1

 l

-n -
I / d

..,
7 z . ') d .I.} Y .) .-~1
~)(- I
II -
ri-0 0

co
111 z
67r n + 1 o
ri 0

. tt '):
cl.i;y e. pt- ti
fl 0
TL+ 1

1
17, + 1 -I .
n 0

1 w l1~1vc~ r 1)1;-t ' l . 2 1 lv -

1
r.11 I> I fi 11 l i 11 1111 ~ f t l 1 r.)
t a fun .ri, n.

1 1
1lI --
l
t:
17 + 1 ,.

If I II Q
 (

I z
'Tr~
( 2
I
1)1
( l - ..... -

\ e \ i 11 find 1 c 0 . . . r

to tl e eq1_1at1on of st :l r

va t .,

We now turn to the case of massless fer. mions. Here we can onlv...
count the quark and antiquark contributions since there is 110 thermal
scenario where we can consider the ligh .est baryon fermion ~ the 11t1-

00

Tl11
1
4.154
x
....
exp
ind

77r2
4.155
n 9J 60
 111
g11 l
I IT
-q
I j.tq. -r in
I e i e r,,. L5.
T l tne
1n _ .) a J

- r

0
(--1.156)
T 0 exp y + 1

. .: k + l so .
T ancl k Y ttq ow .
II

00
dk k3

0 !
I
t
oo yT-
T '
0 exp y + 1 0 exp y + 1

I
l

like the quark integrals. To do this, note that, by adding and subtracting

IS

00
cly yT -
T
. 0 exp y + 1
(,/T

0
0 exp -y + 1 4.158

- -
l r
0

u l

-
0

cancel

0 exp ,y + 1

0 4

-q/T 4T .

00

4.162)
2T

o exp y + 1
e treat the 1 exp y + 1 term similarly to the expansion in Eq, -1.1-11
except that now we have an expansion .ith an alte nating sign with every
other term is multipliecl by 1, giving instead
00
1 -1 n exp n+ 1 y .
exp y + 1 n 0

00
exp n+ly. c.164
-1 n
0
 -

r
11
( l)n 11
J 1

1 1 2
)1l = 1 - 1
re + 1) 1:

ev lu ... the nun . For x 4, the result is (1 -

for x 3 l 1 4)((:3) 3( 3) 4 and for x =
'
II
Tl1 11 Er1. 4.164) becomes
00 co
n 1
----
!
2
2 6T4 1 - - 1 - ---::-

4.166 6}
I I
I

4.155 .
'
l
'

'

f
er
I
T < ms, then only the up and down flavors are active. However, if
if
T > m.: the strange quark could also be counted as massless. Thus g f
depends on n1, the number of active quark flavors. In addition, there I

are two spin states for fermions and three colors. e clo not count
- 1t
quarks and antiquarks as separate degrees of freedom here beca11se the
partition function, Eq. 4.155 , already includes both contrib itions.
I

'
less fermions and bosons,
)"

4.167

 Ul

.16

rrnodyr a .nic I

1 e net quar k

(4.169)

9g elk k2
ng ==
4.170
21T"2 -1

3 CX)
gg T - n + 1' y .
ng ==
27T2
n 0 I

CX)
1 '3 . 4.172
n + 13
n 0

16,

4.173

0
cly
r.1 /T
'2
00 l+, 4.174
+ y

'
exp y +1
0
 I
I

4.

'

-q/T 3T I

The second term,

I
2 I
I 0 exp y +l '
'
I .

00
-1 n oo 1 n
2I' 3 T2

n 0
n+l3 q n+l
n 0

quarks and antiquarks is

I
4.1'(5 I
''I

and gl uons ill

'

4.17

-Cl. 4.64 , g1v1ng

r2
I
Eqgp
v

4
+2
q

I
'
 -

1 1 1 l ll h
11

iI 11 . li 111 I 1
r ell i l al OC

Ii I 1
-
fJ'
c, ' .

. l .
n r l))' l .. 11 i

lI 11 ,J t1 oJ

den sities is
7 4 rr-1
== ----- == 3.92 .
45. 34 3

give different ratios, we can write, for a 1nassless gas v,ith ~1 0.

(4.18:..
I n.

I
In this case, 3.92. 111L1mber den:it'-- ~

On the hadron side,

and entropy density are


. Thermodynamic.'3

a plasma is

. that the cr1ter1a

II ' . ded

I
bag model' 66 .

constituents of the hadron do not come too near the walls of the bag, 1

'confinement'.

. . e vact1u1n.
. . . Y res r1c ec 1ns1 e a

e ree e .
e e uatio

e c
 v
11 l1 ~ f ll

1 l \,

1 z 1 l id

l1 r l . 1

Ii 1 f t l1 i11 ide }1e 01111 ie \1' ar d n l e urface J f . __

== 0 4. =-~~

specific that

== 0 . 1.189

The
contributions and the clerivative of the theta function at the surface.

4.190
I

EXANIPLE: Show that the iirs: term i11 Ee. ('1.190/ ranishes.

i .- -.191
2

field is

.v - g1-iv Lo

i
4.192

 I
j
. T'herrnodynamzcs I

. e nation,
Lo on rib i 11 o 0 is eq 1 er art '

1. 1 = I
I
J

a r,v z
0 I
2 I
I
I
i
. (/; () v ljJ + zj) av,l/J fJV re '(/;
( 4.193
2 I

I
'

other two terms are also zero using the Dirac equation after the substitution I
I
av av is made. Finally, since B is a constant, 8B 0.

I
the interior covariant unit vector normal to the surface of V and b"v I

is zero away from the surface. Finally, to satis energy-momentum 1

conservation, we need '

!
n .lo rpv gvB
-
4.194

the boundary co11ditio11 011 the st1rface becomes 4.192 '

' i

i I
r

2
4.195

l
i
I
r

I
4.1~6 I
67

4.197

. . Is ex ZO:'
an 1commt1
I

4.197
,

f
 .. Ph

11
- 1 e p
l 'f l I j 11 . ( 1 7 ->
wn

1 .....t"
r 1 -

s th l f -h . ( .1 - Th

l .
1 I
I
-/5 + ... I (Y.
L ,..I~ ~ ...

as in Eq. 4 .19 1 .

for fermion fields

'
(4.198
I
'
i11 general and

'
J bag . l\J
I
Bv rl.199}
I

'
I

-.200

erivative of Eq. 4.198 is zero, '

J
+ 4.201

y 1 so that
'

-.2 ')
z

0 i11

'

I 4.20


. Therrriodynamic.c;

Ll.196 , gives 11s

'l

==exp ia1s 2 4.204

using Eq. 4.204 , we find

1 .
- n 8 ' exp 'lCT'"'f s 2 == B . 4.205
2

value of o. The set of solutions is over-complete if a is arbitrary but,

by choosing a value of a, we violate chiral symmetry which says that

'l
l
)
4.206
- n. () B. '
2 I
4.2 7

l
l 1 11 l' l
1 11
gy, 11 z l -

. eac1 acro1 .
. . roy, as we have . .
is a anced b ~

47r
E vac Ev== BR .3
3 .
 T r t Jl

l l l; l
11 11 [l l , 11
l 11 l 1 f 11 .., ll 111
1 1 b I 1
,
1 IH 7r Jl
I l Bil +
. 2(J9)
0

I cl g rcl( li is i. oudi .ior

fJ Eh ,,. - '"'. t)

0 4.21()

4.205
face.

'
Cs 4.211
4nB

i
into Eq. 4. 209 to fix the hadron mass.
e have spent some time on the discl1ssio11 of the bag model be-
' ca11se the quark-gluon plasma must satisfy asymptotic freedom and,

4.212
Tln vac

4.213

vac

QGP

4.214
 _]

- Pl
-
I .

0 .P . -- .......

11 luc e :1 .he chemical potential in this case

lC
-
l rn chen ical potential ~ ould al o ha -e to be zer
c e.
can c, le ilate the critical temper aturo for a gi -en B

2
B
90 c

l/i.1
90B

4. LI

pion
 t

I 1
1 c 1 11 fo
Bl/

B
B11 -1.222

' ,,,

0 _,,_ -l

0 200 400

1/4 T MeV

order phase transition with Tc 104 IVIe V.

'

as a nction of temperature y-axis for T0 104 MeV with B114 ==

0.145 0

'

0 e

4. T'fierrnodyna'mic.s

rC
n r
3.
l >}' Ii ) .

l

The energy density in a given phase is

E Ts+ llN P. . ')'2

(4 ' 2 ~J l
I

this case, the chemical potential is zero on both sicles of the transition
I11
I
while the temperature and pressure remain fixed. Thus I

I
l
' l
EQGP Err T .sqcp s; , 4.224

energy densities of the two phases:

I
37r2
L CQGP - --T4 I
30 c . I
l

I
for a two-flavor
Eq.

L B+B
I

-1.226

0.0124
== 0.00176 Gey~1 === I
'

c er -g llOil las
. . . 1e 111terior c,

tire ow
 4

l
)

Jl
rr2
/LI
p ?-- -
rr2
'l./ l(;'
71 p ') -
I
')
-
.
--
.,., 4.230

0 since Eq. 4.1 ~r),

temperature independent component

nucleon 011ly since there are 110 antibaryons in the system. Thus ve
I keep only the particle term in Ec1. 4.124 . Since the nucleon 1n2~..,~-- I. ,
'I is much larger than the temperature, we cannot, neglect the mass ar.c

00
dkk4 1
.
. 4.231
o k2 + M? expl]

') 5 r2
Tl11Z r r~
1
N 2
67T2 4
3 4.23'2
+ ln r + r2 1
2

where r ==

To do t e in egr a ' 2 2
Then k z
I

')''3
'-1 ...... .)

TlnZ N 0

 l

l f
l Jf )
( 1
J.
... df {Tr 4 . ')')
- ) )
f l - ,

.).....,
~j (J dz z-

_2 . _ r;te
4. 23-!) --;4
J

he 1 1; 1 bound on z must be /1.1 tr) obtain a result. Tf-1 13

v -.Q ')
I ?0-
T 111 Zr .. = 6 ) dz z: - -.-J0 '
I

iT ~ . 1\ [

\Ve can already see that, i11 this case, the nucleon chemical potential must
be relatively large.
The indefinite integral of z2 lvf2 3 12 ca11 be found i11 any standard
table of integrals. The result is

3 1 2 1
dz z2 - Jvi2 -3lv'I2 z z2 - l.VI2 + 2z z2 - 1112 312
Al 8

+ 3Jl/!4 111 z + z2 -M2 . 4.236
AI ' ,

limit, z M, leaving

l I

8 - M? + 21-l 2 M2 3/2

M
4.237 I

l
I

in t e rst two

' we are left with

,5 2 1/2

2 -1
JvJ2

3 J-l2 Jvf2
2 ]VJ

4.238
I
 -

I l

1 f
' (
.. I r.d
:=: 2 [Jill x - i{ e

Tl is fac JI. of f J r ca eels
11 111r1 r f 1
.,.
Cc 11 110\V alculate he therrnod 11a1ni

f. v = 0. The pres: t re ...

-o .,-
,... I
r- - 1
;J
I 2
I
-

I T 8111 z N 2~AI 3
111v == == r2 1 3/2 . -l.2~0)
V Dti 3n2

I
I
J6

The clerivative of T ln Z 1v with respect to 1, gives

NJ3 5 ')
7,~ 1 1/2 + 2r2 7,2 1 1/2
II nN
1,2

6n2 2
1 1/2
5 r2 31+ 7' 12
-l .~'1-l''-
+ r2 r2 1 -1/2 +

2 1' + r2 11/2

2

Note that we have one less power of M in nN due to the /l,J i11 the de-
nominator of the derivative with respect to r i11 Eq. 4,241 . Removing a

and combining, we have

')1")
1
4 . ..... -0
8r2 + 4 .
r2 - 1

 I'

'
I

l

I
2 ( 4.244; '

.3 rr 2

I
The e11e1g1 densi ty is

T2 a In z JV
ii\/ == 4.245 I
!
I
I

y

density becomes
I
EN nrv- PN
'

z.: I
J\,f2 .3/2
4.246
'

3Jr2
PN. I
i
l
We now turn to the transition between the quark-gluon plasma and
I

I
I
.s
I
I

3 4
I

L QGP EN=
I
2K2 4.24r J

Since the pressure 111t1st be equal across the transition, vv-e can replace
1
P.rv in Eq. 4.247 with PQGP to obtain

2 4
L 2
B
3n2 2n2
2
NI2 3/2 .
7r2 3n2 4.248
Note that the
-

. . . y. e can

. . . po en 1a s y
' a m1xe p ase,
'
 r

or

(
I-.
4 )-0
-J

decreases the net quark number by .3. From Eq. 4.'r9 . we ow that
the derivative of the Gibbs free energy- with respect to particle ll nbcr
is the chemical potential. Thus we have
I

4.251)
q

- 0.
q b

4. 250 in for cl

')
-.J-- - 0.
q b

or, t1s111g '

4.25-J
 I -

-
Jl

I I l p l I L> - ' f l hl! r 11 1 1 tc p o- (

I 11 1< . l Iimi fur JJ. IllU b_ }1.., nu 0

I l

ll
-V) j 11 plie 11 UJ p r limi on c of

q.

2
ltc 1\/2
- 3/2 >0 . 4.256)

3) we have
') .

2
9 c
- lv! .

31'7! I
:-r.:: > c .
2 2 4.257

The range on c, I

l
l
' -!.2.)8 I

puts a rather narrow limit on the chemical potential across the tran-
-

write Poop
, i11 terms of re c M,

I
'

4.'.259 I
I
I
'
 ui I
211

I 1r fr c is
...
B - - ,. ~ '1 2 - _ ,,
r: - l l/r;..
.._,7r2 2'( I_ C
2
:3
-
)
rc 1 1/2

1.'
gives t l1e lower limit 011 B
'

1 4.261;
B ==

2n2 4

8 or Tc == 9 8, gives the upper limit on

B,
I

I
1114 3 4.262
I B == - ln 2 .
2
81T 4
I
The possible range of B is thus
4
J\14 3 1 NI 4.263
II -1112 > B > -

8n2 4 2n2 4

! If we take JV! 0.938 GeV, the proton mass, then

4.264

l 0.145 GeV.

of the nucleon and the Delta resonance NI 6. 1. 232 Ge V , A1

1.11

-4.265

1
 .i. TJ ermc dynamics

mass


I b }1 11 f 1-1e s em 0.
l 1 l 11

l I
.his I~ el, the
I }1 I '

11 n

c f 1111 .i 11, ins '""::-'~' Jf. < quar -gl 1 ;11 plasma t e
I
n 1 1 1 i11 e Tc "-' 1. ~3rrlrr wh n Tc 170 !VIc V auc the nncleons are l

11 ady 1 .ent l11ri11~ the initial collisions. Other mesons and baryons,
11 vi 11 111 . . s greater than Tc will be produced i11 abl_111dances relative
to their statistical weights, Their contribu tions will l)e negligible in this
I

ca e. Howev er. hadronization of a quark-gluon plasma, where vve still I

I

as .ume massless partons, will produce a range of particles containing '

tip, down ancl strange quarks. Thus we take the more general case here.
I
We begin with the meson contribution, with J.,lmes 0 for bosons,
l
9ines V
00
dk k4 1 \
T ln Z mes=
4.266
67f2 0
-1 I
''
i
'I

j 1

1 nm
T In Z mes == -----
67f2 n T

n 1 I
!
I
'I
l
defi11i11g y !
I

4.147
' I'
00 I
1 '
exp n+ 1 y . 4.268
exp .Y - 1 n 0
I

4.266 , we are left with

\

00 co
gmes VT4 m2 3/2
TI n z mes== exp - 'n+l_y \
67f2 y2 4.269
n 0 m/T


'l r l

} Ito . lll( I' . rr c t 1> r Il t

'ltgg stl l r . - t!ll ' WC -~lll mal "' r:

ti 11 s f t lI .., 0 '- c 1
111 t 1 n r11 i 11 0
. .

' It .{.; .

2l z 1. l
oo
exp -t) . 4.270)

ie 3 2 ower
0
. , pr ession 1 2 2 3 2 .
l
I

dt t2 -t 4.271
T 111 Z 111es 2
6 1f n+l Ll
n 0 x

where
(X)

dt t2
x
n+lm
i

. 4.272
\
T
I
I
Finally,

n+lm 4.273


n-~12 2 T
n 0

' After shifting the first te1m of the sum from n 0 to n 1 wii.h the
I 4.267 .

1
1 nm 4.274

ti T
ti 1
== 0. The energy

m 3 4.275
91nes

I
 \

\
21 I
I
'
Ir-, -r-.
(,J .
E~ .._ - 1 IPLE: Prove Ec1. j,L,
I
Tl1 .nergy d 11 it~ is I
nn (4.276)
T '

I
'
I

since

~t111cs 0. vVe have
I

T \

1 81<2 nm T 4.277
91nesm2T3 oo

+ 27r2 n2 BT I
'It l

The first term is the same as the meso11 contribt1tion to tl1e pressure in n
1
Eq, 4. 27 4 . We concentrate now on the second term, the derivative of K 2 . I
I

\Ve change variables to x nm Tso that 1 OT x2 nm Ox and

I

8l(-2 11111 T 8 I<2 x

1i11i 4.278
I

8T T2 Bx

4.279 I
I<[ x = =K; 1 x
x x '
I
I

Eq. 4.278 becomes I

BK2 nm T) ' 4.280

8T

4.277 , vve fincl

I
run I
Emes
T
'
I
00 1 tun
I

+ -Ki 4.281 I
ti 1 n T 'I
I

'I
This is then Eq. 4.275 4.281

is simply twice II

the rneson pressure. I

I

I
'I
 21G

cc uld write th i cc ntributi 11 f1011

I
4.287 I

'

leads to three terllls

l
I
'
I

-1 n 1
nl\11 I
1

n 1
n T
I
x

-1 ri 1
n!l!J
2
Tl 1
n T

+
11a ex-
I
" I

00

bar nM
27T2 1
n 1
exp n
4.2 '
 n s l rt n u c L eo. r }J fly.<;l cs 217
e . . a11 al (Te ., . r-.

c .., 11S. 111a 1 , v

-1 n-1
---K1
ri
n l
-n T . (4.29();

convenient to retain
This is most easily
k

lS

1
9bar V N/4 1
I 67r2
I
I 0 exp 1 1l2 T + 1
I 1
+ ., I
I exp ' NJ 1- T + 1
1
9bar V N/4 d1t u4
67r2 0 1 u
l

and antibaryons negative . The baryon pressure is just Eq. 4.291

i

l4 divided by the volume, V .

1

EXA PLE: Derive the integral reletions similar to Eq. 4.291 for the
)

The number density is equal to

1 9barT dk k2 FD E; T' FD E;T, 4.292

3 l d1tu2
FD 'l.L; T, f.l FD it; T, . 4.293
0 1 -


l 111 ~

lk k I

2;rr2

I FD ) '
3 1 du u2 1 .

_,/I ')
')-rr~ 0 1 "l2 .5/2
I,

4.29.S

I
I

gas. on

I
I

I
'

4.296 !
'

I

with latent heat

I

I
I
i

fmes + fbar I

4.29 { I

I
II

I
I
I
I
!

j
I
.1
I
I l
'
I

I
),

II
 r
1
l l ll .

I
I

I I

I
I
I

I
 220

._xerc1ses

1. . lorn in a quark-gluon
luded.

2. indar between I

1 4 200 e
and 0 Case I .
I
I
3. Calculato B114 in units of Ivie V for Tc = I
4.
I

Assume that the hadron side is a massless pion gas with 0 II

Case I . Calculate the latent heat of transition in each case i11

units of IVIe V4 and IVIe V 3.

5. Fill i11 the details to clerive Eqs. 4.286 , 4.288 , 4.289 and
I
4.290 for baryons i11 Case III, as done for mesons in Eqs. 4.274 , I

4.275 and 4.282 .

I
I

6.
I
I
I

massive 111 sons
and baryons at finite temperatt1re Case III .

'

II

'
'

I
I

I11 this
'I
I
'

I or gas rather than a collection of individual particles. These particles

I must be interacting with each other to reach equilibrium, The question I
'

is whether their interactions are frequent enough for equilibrium to be

established.
'
I

I
One way to quanti the frequency of collisions is by comparing
the mean-free path, A, the average clistance a particle travels between

as
I

I 1
5.1
pa-

221
 I
'
'I
{

5.

I
'
I
'

. anc t1se II
t

::::::: 40 mb ::::: I
' t
1
nucleon inelastic cross sectio11 at
then I
5.2 I
1 I
I
== ---- r-: 1.6 fin . I

0.16 x 4
I

I
I
scattering models.
t 11 on:
of ener To l ~ 1i1) 11~
I
l I l i I l
I

chapter. The initial conditions are er icial t 11 r l i l 11

1~11 i i l
hi l l
'
111
i i i l
111 11 . . . l I
- '

E
E == ----- -
4 3 n R3 .

b ~ te111 111a ~ 11 i re 10 l
o t .ia t .ie

b e11s1 ., is ien

ii
; 2 '
 223

ll es con

5 ensity 18
2E2
E == -;--:-;-:--:---- 5.5
4 3 7r R31n .

EXA PLE .

Since E is the .
or 10 and 100 G . ' '

2x
Epp == ____:__ 5.6
4 3 7rr3pm.,...P

2
2 x A SNN 2 5.7

Note that now we have to include ;_ 11 apj r pr .te ors of A, both for the
total energy in the numerator and for the radius and mass in the denomi-
nator. These powers of A cancel each lier leaving us with
2
2x S1vN 2 5.8

E~4A 3
11r0m1v
4 3
5.6

and pp sners
qs. . are

ac ronic matter. we ac cons1 -

co isions at t 1e J\l 1V > 5.5

cs

-o
- ]....,... d
B -L _HI._
a real ~ y

.: . r . , -

rp rv

. . -1 and morner . . -

are acce erated with a well-clefined 1nome11tl1n1.

momentum. as we saw in Chapter 2. For low momentt1m part.ons,

the boo t is rather irrelevant and these co11stituents of the ha on or

principle,

!:ix '6.p r-: lie . 5.9

I
l

!
't
I
I
I

I
I

y 5.10
I
I

.11
 ?').;
-- ._,
y-mo 0

-,J. 1/-

== To~ 1
hen he en erg~ densi ~ ~
5.10 Encl 5 .12 , is
E my dJV
ToAeff dy

I I

I
!
system. Thus there are no temperature gradients.

I
I
I

ner ens or

!
j

5.14
 )
v

l 1
11


r 1

lJ p LJ . t :0. 1rJ J
R

ht in the fl i l re t frame

0 0 0
0 p 0 0
.S.17
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p

e now boost into the moving system. e Lorentz boost the "T1e-
locities using the form,
'

(5.18
I
'

1,0,0,0 ' .S.19

I
I
frame defines the v 0 component of the transformation, !
I

5.20 I
I
I

we use

'
I
5. ?,1
Since the off-diagonal

5.22 l
1

"

 -

- )

-
l

p
u: T':"
v R
p
f

The ener -rnomentum tensor can also be deri Ted from kinet: c - -_~ -
ory. For a cl et ailed discussion of fluid mechanics and kinetic rneor - -.

. ~
-
. . . L--

can only depend on relativistic invariants, i.e. product of fo ir- -e-.:-c_s

T'" x
I

I
I

00 x x,q . 5.~6)

o etter see that

Qo
 -,"). ?
-

1

lC
r 1

l



-

drcdyuarnic equations of 111otio11 for a per e

 lf

,.

1
.i i l {

fll > c

0 bt ainin o:
b
- ) ......
.J. J

- ..3"""
.J

Expanding, we have
I v
0
II

== 0. The derivative is zero since u~ 1.

reduces to

- u; av p.
'

5.36 .

lll

I
.s + ~lnbar ,
I
 J

.5.

'
I
I
I
I

I

1
I
5.40 !
l

I
n.bar, Eq. .S.36 becomes I

.5.41 i
0 ==
I

0
'
5.4? I-
'I
5.42 I
I

T Ov .su" 0 , .5.43
'
entropy current conservation. I

equation will be a four-vector equation. e will find

0 == I

5.44

EXA PLE: Derive Eq. 5.44 .

We begin with I
I

5.45
Expanding the terms gives l'
l
'
I

5.46
l
I

0 I
. . . ' c 1e ter1ns with

wit Eq. 5.44 .

I
 -

...
).
-

11

'

\ e r "\ r . .s ar.d n . _,. ,, - e-

eparately so that

::::: -x1 C
( '._; :J

I
I

easier to hanclle.
alone,

l 5.50

'

I
Returning to the more differential form of Ec1. t 5.52 ,

0 == 5.51

I
5.52

I The

4. 76 , the speed of sound in the
Ill
me

1

c2
8
 I

1
+ 2 u'' EJ 111 T .
cs
. namic e .uations in
tit e o er !
I
I

I
II
I

.5.44 .
I

accelerated toward each other in the center-of-mass frame of the sys-

I
I
I

direction. Thus the longitudinal coordinate is taken to be along the z

'

axis. Some radial component is to be expected. Th11s we discuss the

'
I
.

'

I
1 - v2T - v2Z I

'
I
I
I
I
'

5.55 t

5.56
 2.33
1

.., sh (J sinh B-

at az ,
ofJ DB
sinh e + cosh e-
Dt oz .
5.36 becomes
8E OE
0 cosh e + sinh e-
at az
. ae ae (5.57
s111h () + cosh e-
at az
5 .44 becomes
I
0

I
5.58

I
!
There are actually two ec1t1atio11s that arise from Eq. 5.44 , both leading to

I
r the same result, as we now show. The first comes from setting ,\ 0 while
the second arises from ,.\ 1. Note that u A o cosh () and u .A. 1 sinh e.
hen A 0, we have
I
0

+ c+P

5.59


'I
'

0 j
'

'
I

I
sinh ' () + 1

+ E+P 5.60
Ir
i

variables of rapidity, y, and proper time, T,

l



l
y

( 5.61
I

2 t z '
T t2 - z2 .
5.62

I
I

I
t T cosh y ,
5.63
z T sinh y .
5.64

t a11cl z in terms of T ancl



I
I / / /
I I / /
I
I I /
I /
I I
/
I
/
I I
I / ?
/
\ I /
\ I /
I I /
\
\ I / /
\ I

-,
-, -,
<,
/ / <,
\ ......
/ / I \ -,
-, -, <,
/ /
/ I \ '\ -, <,
/ /
I I \ '\ -, <,
I
'

1 stant T while the light dashed lines are contours of constant rapidity.
The axes rotated 45 are the light-cone axes where y oo.

e begin with

a 8T8 fJyfJ
5.65
at
a 8T8 OyO 5.66
az
5.61 and 5.62 , we have

OT t 5.67
cosh y ,
8t T
z t z t+z z 1
y 1t sinh y , 5.68
z 2 T2 T
t 2t + z t

T z 5.69
sinh y ,
z T
t z+t+z t 1
y 1 t z coshy 5.70
z 2 72 T
2t + z t
z
 In 1 i11 110
fit ll ' h r

a a 1
[) 5.71)
)

at T y
o . 8 1 8 (5. 72)

'

oz T y
I

I
'
I
I
vVe begin with Eq. .5.57 . Substituting Eqs.
8 az, we have l

1 OE
0 coshB
T y
OE 1 OE
+ sinhB
T T y
oe 1 oe
I T y
I
I
I
i

+ cosh e' 5.73 I

I

Regrouping terms to collect the derivatives with respect to T and y, we

obtain

I
I
OE
0 cosh e cosh y - sinh e sinh y -
OT
OE
- cosh e sinh y -
T By
+ e-i- P sinh fJ cosh y -

l
+ cosh fJ cosh y - sin sin y -
T By
5.74

Recall the subtraction rules for hyperbolic ft1nctions

)

cosh () y == cash () cosh y -

5.75
sinh e y == sinh () cosh y -
5.76


lj ' +- Ill
fT T

+ E + F) i11l1 0 - .IJ

Finall ~. Y an l multi] lying by T: we are ieft wit

8t.
0 y-
fJy

+ e s- P

BT By

8P 1 . BP
0 sinh () cosh y s111h y-
I BT T By
. BP 1 BP

+ cosh () sinh y + cosh y-
BT T By
'
ae 1 ae
coshB T y
. Be 1 ae
+ sinh () T T 8y /

BP 1 BP
sinh fJ - + cosh e \_
T y
ae 1 ae
cosh fJ - + sinh () - y
T By
I
I
' 8P oP
+ tanh fJ -
E)()
88 5.78
- + tanh () -

i11clt1cled baryon number conservation which

5.79
 I

0
I

5.8() I

.5.57

81ibar } g y
8nbar
I
0 T + tanh !
OT 8y '

ae ae 5.81
+ nbai T tanh g
l

l

I

IC l
II
I

ile we have three equations, we have four unknowns: energy density,

, pressure, P, fluid velocity, e, and baryon density, nbar Thus, to solve

ll
gluons,
1
p == f.
3 5.82

s
5.83

c s par re es In
s xe constant
 -

...
)

l r

. .) ' . k d - .)

-
sto I mz P \V '1' of h colli: ion. Ther i 11 S<Jl t io _ J the ~ d

of the initial nuclei J

e t Q

~T == 0 .

This 1 known as the Landau initial conclition 71- . It is the i11~:1a . .

Landau's model 71 built on Fermi's idea 72 to llSe 11 -clrod rnarnic

p ..4 collisions . Fermi assumed that, when two hadrons collide. t- e cc_-
lision energy is releasecl into a very small volume in the center of 1 ass.
The ener distribution i11 a small volume can be treatecl statisticall - ~

without actually owing the nuclear interaction. The .olume is con-

'
j tracted in the direction of motion, as discussed in the introduction.
I

y t re 1e ativis-


As the
' Llf a}
rn 11 11 1 c . cieases tin 1

. :;) een 1e r:

Ill

" . . cl Ll ct 1o11 ,
the ass1tn1 . .
. tren1e, especi .
ed. ie c . .
. ilar to 1e

a-ht e rapic I

that t e 1n1 1a I

s of the ra idity, II

5.85
() y' To i

I
assumption followed from the empirical evidence of experiments at the

. . . . . . eavy-1on
. . e ragmen a-
. . . . e1r 1111 1a


y ITl.

targ cm ptOJ

The

also holds at later times so that ae 8y :=::

1, 0. Then E({S. 5.77,, -, 5.78 and 5.81
reduce to
I
0 5.86

5. 8 ,.
0 '

nbar
Q T + n bar 5. 8 8
T

have
To 5.89
nbar 'T
T


.5. Hydrod:lJnamics

\1PLE: Inte ttit Eq.

t rrns i z q. ( 5. )
we obtain

or. bar OT
)
nb r r
81r1nb r 8l11r.

\\e integrate the nzht-hand sicle from ro to a er rm

ni)~\1 ( r) r
In77.,bar -111 r
nbar(ro) ro
'
I
I
nbar r T
In -In I

nbar "o
We exponentiate both sides to remove the logarithms and invert the T ratio
due to the negative sign, leaving tis with Eq. 5.89 .
I

The entropy density equation, the same form as the baryon densi ty
equation, thus has the solution

1'

S T
To

I

T 5.90

I11 the

T, y . coordinate system, Eq. 5. 53 is

2 8lnT
0 == C8 + T--- .
OT 5.91

5.92

?
c;
To
TT
T
5.93
 0

l n

Il .J I

:~. ,j4
tqgp + B .
- r -
p -B
;.J. ::) J

( )- . cf"
':JJJ

then

p -B -B
(S.97

5.98
E>

If c2 1 3 and B114 280 T\Ie V /Im".

s

Inserting Eq, 5.97 into Eq. 5.86 , we obtain

0 -B

- B . 5.99
T

111 T ,
ln E - s ')
l+c~
To .
5.10
ET
E To -B


mies

1 I ' 1 ' L lI . I -
. c
(I
' . c . b ll t10ns ' I
'

}1 wn
. r: -anti uar k

ftavo1s are 1 portional to each other,

s ~n 5.101)

coordinates where

5.102

I
1,y l

t 1 cash y , z 1 sinh y . (:5.103

cosh y T sinh y I
)

di dz==
sinh y 1 cash y 5.104 I

4.182
we have
d 2 TJ

dy
5.106

 245

di (.5.107)
-x -c S To, y, I .
dy <

V\.-Te can mtegrato over cl2~r. to obtain

.s .108

s To T To E To + P To E To 5.109

sity at time To from Eq. 5.109 .
Equation 4.216 tells us that for 0, the difference between the energy
= E To here, and the vacuum en-
ergy density, B, is proportional to T To 4. e represent the proportio11ality

E To 5.110
T To

5.109 . I

the entropy density is

E TO 5.111

.S TO

density, we find
l+c;
S TO
E r0
')

5.112
dy
 ) 5.
-

. . . . . can be in i

~ 11er ies sue .

. 1n11n11m PT
. . se re a 1

. 1bt1t1011s o
ntt1m ac ion, '

r.

RHIC results in Ref. 78 with those listed i11 Ref. 79 .

this minijet production is that, for Pr 2 Ge V at the LHC, the initial

r-..J

parton may scatter more than once as it passes through the nucleus

. . 1 s a owing
. . . em o se ting
cc 1 e sea e is
 249

l
l
~- e . 1 n he e

1
fi al-s r r 1 i-
l

a. .....-ti -CY
b

, assuming ==

S To To . 5.114

an active degree of freedom, it can also be included. From the initial

time and temperature, the system expands and cools down. en the
system has cooled to Tc, it is no longer in the quark-gluon plasma phase
but is entering the mixed phase. The time at which this occurs; 1 rn i

3
5.115

5.116
 C'i
. Hy

a a fl zl uons
l
n
l l
5.11 (

when 1 1 H

he ~ ixe
0
..,.,.. ?
(.5.118
H I H 90 c .
. und from the
The
relation
(5.119;

'"'O that
Sqgp Tm
TH== l tri
t

SH TH '

'hen the ratio of the degrees of freedom is large, as that betwee11 an

is close to unity, the mixed phase will be short.

. . p ase,
. -g t1011 an

.'3 T 1-
5.1?1
 2.51

1 n ,\ TH . To const ct the time

epen ence of v e rely n entropy c 1r1e11 conserva ion. notmg
that

.$ I 'T =:: sriorio==s Q TT

.).122;
m rn 5H ( TH TJ-f .

-o .121 _ ) vve have

I

, - i ~ '

s 'T SH TH _S ,T SH TJ-f, 1
AT

,
( .s .123)
SQ Tm
'
.SH TH 9qgp g1f 1

5.120 To introduce T explic-

-
' - -
To T . - s ,To. SH ' TH 1 5.124

AT

9qgp g1f 1

lf
i
II

AT 5.125
I

'

I EXA PLE: Find A T for a two-flavor qtiark-g.luon plasma and a mass-

I--
l
I
less pion gas.
For a two-flavor quark-gluon plasma, the effective number of degrees of
freedom are

I == 37 .
9qgp

3
3 5.126
'
AT 34
l
'

I
 252

hes s em

. m 1s no on
. . . a rom eac
when e as 1c sea -

tering stops. The time at which this occurs is
3

5.127

I
1

I I
quark-giuon plasma to freezeout. Such evolution should be typical of
'

' I
RHIC collisions where the initial temperat11re should be well above Tc. '

in a hadron gas,
I
I
s To To
'

90 ' 5.128
T 3 I
To
Tfo To
T Tfo 5.129

. . axis o ma e t e I

. . . em spe11 s rv 36 j

. a 011g 1 et1me 1s

I
I
'

I
 -

' '
,,,

100 0
10

gluon plasma phase with T To 250 IVIeV.

10 an

on 1 u ma sea m so u ions

'

y, as in


5.
254

170------

160 -

150

140 -

130 L-------
1.0 1.1 1.2 I

I
T ffi

gas phase with T To 150 l\lleV. I

'

Eq. 5.85 , we consicler

B y,T == Y + e' . 5.1:30 I

5.77 and
5.78 become
'
I
De 10E
0
' 5.131 l
8P 8P
0
5.13?

is unchanged while Eq. 5.87 is

p
- == - E + p 81.
5.133
 0

plasma with T To 250 Me V. The contours for To 1 _ and the

beginning of the mixed phase at Tm 3.2 fm are indistinguishable. The
intermediate contour shows the end of the mixed phase at TH 39. 2
'
I
fm while the top contour is at system freezeout, ''fo 70.2 fin. Only
the t > 0 half plane is shown .
I
'

e can rewrite the derivative of the pressure with respect to the fluid
rapidi as
I

fJP fJP OE 2 f) E B
== = c ____:___ ....:_ .
I 5.134
I fJy

5.135
5.133 , we obtain
I
I
8ln E B 5.136 I

'

'I
 Fi

T 1e solution is

E ' B == E To B exp - S.13

'

but is limited in its extent in rapidity space.

tions J. 77 and .s. 78 be orne

aE ae
0 tanh 0 - I
y y 5.13 .
rJP ae
0

'

I
I
I
 tran.s1Jerse radial
257

BP 5.140
y -
By By
Rep lac-
since tl .

5.141

5.142
y .

5.143
== Y Ys

-~ the density of the medium.

rans verse

. -.
f

i
'1

our-vector as

1 5.144

I
'

e solve either at z == 0 or r == 0 ancl

to
ST s To To ' t e ooste in t 1e z irection .
. . . orentz
t e motion at z :::::
 - ')

entro v
..;
curr 11t c 1 rvation is then
.5.14.5

The temperature equation will become

o - . 5.146
-Ot TrvI v + V7 T'I == iJ x V7 x Trrii . '

'I
I
. . . . ' . rt of u and a)... l

'

I
Taking ti I 1, v , we can write !
'

[) _. I
5.147
I

giving us

0= 5.148 '
II
I

I
The middle term can be rewritten using the property of vector algebra, ['

_, -
axbxc us .: as .

so that

l
I
_.
v x \7 x Tryv
(5.149
Inserting Eq. ,5 .149

.... 8 ....
I
5.150
Note that I

{
I

5.151
- 1 so that

5.152

I
i

l
 -

- 1 - .. -.>
- T..J- T ="'V X:
J
-
it the fir e rt
1 111 E q. .J.104
- - as
l -
- -T -y~ .
'")
-

weh~ .
1 ? 2 1 _,
-TV ,~v - 12 == == 0 .
2
\Ve are left with
_, -J.1io--
== 1iJ x \J x T 1v .

Finally, we drop the extra factor of 1in Eq. 5.157 to obtain Eq. <5.1_6.
I' We note that in the case of symmetric motion, as studied here. the er ss
terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 5.146 will vanish.

e now turn to the specific case where the velocit . .,~ four-vector is

l
then
I
s1vz . 5.15~\

== 0 and drop terms linear i11

z 0 since : is fixed. Equa-
Vz Thus Vz t 1
tion 5.158 becomes
1 1
s1vr + s1v,,. s1 + ii, _,,
S"y
sry +
~

0 r r .v

1
Vr 1 5.159
sry + S{Vr

t r


mies

Il C Ill

~ .160
Vr + ,. 1"""
I .

::::: tc 11 ll - l
Ur
(6.161;

so that

== cosh a , (.S.162

I
a a
0 rts sinh a .5 .163 I
at '
a a
0 Tsinh a Tcosh a
at 5.164

5.159 and
I
5.160 . '
l
We start with the entropy equation. Using the values for Vr and "( in II
Eq . 5.162 , we have

1
I
s sinh a +- s sinh n .

I
I

r 5.165 I
l

We now multiply both sides by r and t so that

I

s sinh a + ts sirih a . 5.166

Note, e.g. that

a 8t rts cosh a == rt8 Ot s COS}1 a + l

1'S cosh Ct I
5.16 {
== r. I
I

Equation 5.164 ts obtained simply by st1bst1tt1tio11.

!
I
 . ,5. 261

e: rmc
rt

IB more
v l u c t -, t fl
l1e111 in .h
'Ur 5.168
0 - + - '
r

0 rs cos 1a+ rts sinha +rt cosh o-

at at
Ba Bs 5.170

r ar
s as a ln s to obtain

1 . Ba a ln s
0 - cosh a+ sinh a + cosh a--
t at at
Ba Blns 1 5.171
I r r r
Finally, both sides are divided by cosh a and tanh a is replaced by Vr to
obtain Eq. 5.168 .
The derivation of the temperature result is simpler but follows the same
lines. e first expancl all the derivat,ives to find

5.1 (2

we are left with Eq. 5.169 .

and 5.169

that
be intro
1 1 5.173
ln T .
I

1
I
t r
t
-
.5.110;
0

f) . +a o
0 1 I t T' c
at or
1 1 Ur .s .176)
+cs -,- -
t r
w hile ubtracting Eq.

----+ Vr - Cs

1 Vr
+cs +- .s.17,
t r
vv-e now change variables to

ln a+ == a
l
so that
Ba+ I
fJlna == --

.' 5.1 r9
i
I
After dividing both sides of Eqs. 5.17 4 and 5.175 by 1 u.c, and
t
'

8a u; C8 8a Cs
1 Vr
0==--+ +--- -+-
fJt 1 VrCs Or 1 VrC8 t r

5.180 l

while, instead, a > 0. The potential Ij

be defined in terms of a as l
I
I
1
In a+a ,
2

5.181 I

l
a+ - a exp a +exp -a
--- == ---:-'-:-----..:_' --:.. ::::::: t l I

I
a+ - a
exp a exp - an 1 a . ,
5.18')
I
'
I

 1

r
l


1

n
t

== 0

I waves exist in multi-valued solutions. If the characteristics do not

cover the full domain of the PDE, rarefactions reductions in de1IB tv
and pressure due to the passage of a sound wave through the medium
may develop.
The wave eql1ation
'

OU OU 5.184
! ==C +-

I

I

1

I
5.185
u x, t '
Then
I ing u an in
x 1L t u 5.186
'1.l
+

r x r t
I r
l
'
 1
1 I Q.

I
1 r} el

... 11 11-1 i 111 gen

1 v,. (.).181)
-+-

t 'r
J
an inho- I

expan .ion in the transverse clirection with transverse coordinate x

of a semi-infinite slab of matter from x oo to x == R > 0. The

l
.5.43 r
I

--==0. 5.188
at, 1 VxCs Bx
I
'
l

I

I
I
{)
0
8t 5.189
{)
0
fJt
5.190
I

entropy equation is

a a
0
5.191
. 8fJ 8s

5.192

ox ax 5.193
 l

1 l
ot c J;

+
-.1

l c::J. 1 rr-:
r J ,
b .
we o a11 j

- r-
0 :j .J I

t ax 8.c
8 ae 8 ae -- ""r'J:-(-
0 J,~.J.....,,,
' t 8x ax .

( 5.199

result in Eqs. 5.188 .

e can now recast Eq. 5.188 in terms of Eq. 5.186 to find the
solution for a and the temperature dependence of the expansion. In
the case of longitudinal expansion alone, the expansion is govemed by a
I

in more than one dimension, the characteristic equations are coupled

I

1 + Vx
5.')00

1 Vx

- . 5.186 ' ot 07" 1 while

x
5.?.01

Vi: Cs 5. ?.O?.
---t+xo.
X t, Xo 1 - VxCs
 266

Tho function a i
i

5.203
==a_ x -
1 VxCs

rv ln T. The

= V
__x
-c
__ s_t + R. 5.204
:r T
1 - VxCs

limit on x when Vx 1 + Cs we obtain '

5.205
l
I

I'

'

I
-R I

a == - 5.206
2 1 Cs t X + R .
I
I

T I
a, '
To 5.207

grvmg us

I
1 + C8 t+ X R 5.208

or
 S.S.
26r

i111... l 1 1 d 1 ~ of h J e 1 ) r
1k n s c l i n 0er 7
.,
Ti c:

T

Bay111 et al ? . .
tions 1n one . .

namic equations are invariant under scale transformations so that the

times, t R < 1 Cs, the system can be described by the solutions found
using the method of characteristics as discussed above. At later times.

== 4

Cs/2
1 Cs
5.210
1 +Cs

Note that it is

t rv
' curves o constant temper-
 2

l l
-

II

1 1

R

-.
-
I l I l
11 n _, l 1
r

in

-
t
j . li l


l
>f } I r 11

- l
1 11 1)l' l

I 1
l 11
f l l

l
l 11

l l l
11 I J, l I

11
'

' l l

I l l l
1

I I 1 I l l
I
ll
 2

I
0.

6 -

4 0.6 _,
I

0 -- '---------
2 4-----~---!
6 8 10-.-----12
0
r/R

I
I
Fig. 5.10. The horizontal portions of the isotherm indicate ll iorrn
cooling .

I. 0 -----'- ..-----
I

o.e-

25 I
r ( fm)

!
I
'

of the evolution, The initial time here is assumed to be to 1 frn .

within the participant matter develop into an azimuthally anisotropic 1(

flow pattern which is discernible in the final state.

l

1r

lI
 I

0.

ll

- 9-
E
.,
'

7 ....
0.55

0.7

l::----
0 2::--------.......l 8 10
4 6
r(fm)

5.211
-TJ T '

 5. Hydrodynarnics

tt ..::l , . effects o 1e 1 '

. . Ofl.S a re ere1
. a idity range, .
o., , reference sp
r>
ertur a 1ve 1-

curately, 111a in
non.
ne

d<7,4A dpy 5. ?12

R.4.4 PT .

is the average

AA collisionsassuming that the AA result, in addition to pp-like pro- '

o-

y.'
'

. . . . . 1g er PT , e per
S(
. e wo cases. e rig 1 -
. . . . 1111g e ratio o t e wo
w a e ratio wou c e
 5. 6. con . eq 'l.lence.s
273
10-l
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
2
10-2
' \
\
..I
........... \
\

>Q) \
\
\

,,,,0 ,
\
\
10-3
...
~
~

"d
<, 1
z
-e
10-4

2
1 2

Pr (GeV) Pr (GeV)

namic e ects alone.

I
if
ter 7,
way.

I
 en-
rmal
r

,., ,., P, This cer ra to

. . , al anG P is for

. . . ' .

In the the

l
equation of state of the system through the dependence of the press ire
or ener per particle on temperature and density. The phe: omen n

for a review of the data prior to the startup of RHIC. l

l
I

using
the Fourier expansion,

5.?1
 2r5

I..; 1g 1e1' or

en11ss1on .

1c ow corres . .
emission at
ow 1s oriented i . . . .
and 7r 85 . A

but still have significant overlap, see Fig. 5.12. The shaded overlap

region formed by the participants is initially an ellipsoid shaped some-
-
what like an almond with maximum compression along the broad fiat

and


x
.









. . ..

. .. .....
'

. . . . . . . . .
.

o 0 o o 0. I

. . . .
~

-

Fig ire 5.12: A emi-central collision of two equal size nuclei is shown
in the transver e plane. The x and y unit vectors are labeled. The z
a_ ~ the beam axis goes into the page. The shaded overlap region
indicates the nucleon participants i11 the collision.
(

y I

-
. .

. .


.

.

.


. . .

. . .
. . - . . .
. . .

.. .. .. .. .. -.

. . .
. . .

- . . . . .

. .

.

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . -

. . . . . . . -
- . . . . .

. .
.

. . .

. . .

er e ehind at
. . 1e arrows
. . vec ors ar

I
I.

 r

ll (

r
l '

p

r-
lClp r i ~ c Jl i-
11 s re co 11) ed 11[ u h he ecc Jn rici of
r

he a icipan s. Tl e
defined s

(5.214

or negative, depending on the orie11tatio11 of the ellipse. The definitio11

However orient.ations where a2x > er~y are due to fiuctuatiGJ.1-s ir, the
'

 ,... ....

is neecled. Lattice gauge theory 89, 90, 91 has proven to be a usef

-
method for cloing these calculations, especially as computing po -e... ias
continued to improve. In lattice CD, the thermodynamic part it n

ow t e invariance o
'f\"e t en


r ll ar L e r S ar
l ill
. eratt1re lattice
1 cl th

1a

ite temperature
this connection.
-

~> 0
and an lar momentum d.J, dt 0 conservation. uantum mec ani-

'
6.1

e conservation aw is t
commutes wit t e ami tonian,

'

'



I I J J
l
l

fJL
6.4
EJx. l

6.5

is a four-vector in space-time. Then

6.6

f 6. '
'
f
'
'
'

'
f

e in instea or fe1~111io11s,
we ta ea
6.9
i
 . derive the Dirac
from the
'
Lagrangia11.

I respect to the fermion field, 'ljJ. We have

-m
'

'

adjoint field,
I
6.10

The Lagrange equation of motion for the field is found by taking the
~

derivatives with respect to the adjoint field, . The derivative with respect
to is rather trivial,
'

8.c

= -1n 6.11
8' I
I
To take the derivative with respect to 8 , we need to move the derivative
. . The
~ .
Since 8j 0, the Lagrange density becomes

-m
6.12
where now
8
i1
8 8 '
8
i18
 283

(6.13

v
J (6.14)

A 6.15
-J '

-
grange density as

-J A ,

-J A , . 6.16

The derivative of .C with respect to the field A is

8 6.17

8
4
1
4

6.18

'


1 v

'

r r1
r g
0

T l the curren jv is conservecl.

If we add a ma s term
Eq. 6.15 .

6.?2

is then
v
== J .

e can rewrite the derivative term as

6. 2-11

mations,
I

)

6.25\

I
6. ')6)
'

e massless,
 I
l

r ce

fi .,
-

d 6.29
dt
>
----!> 0 at x , > oc so that
.,
6 .0

f .31
i x
i .x

'

matrices satis yin

. tc
' ::::::::: i Cabe

'

I
 c eo

l l
I 1
1

.I
.). J-t.

cs elobell ga uee

1 1 'a11 a11 t. .
. . . ince o: i con tant. we have

v\~e also have to obtain the transformation of the adjoint field .

) exp ia

-ia
exp -ia

. 96
6 ...>

Finally,

~) ' i?j) exp - - msb exp zo exp za i:

')
61. 01....

-iu+--- -in
. 6.39

 the

8 oc
---1J;

(6.4)
a a .

so that

8 8 8
0 ia

+ia.8
8 8 8
8 8 8
ia 8 ia.8 . (6.41
8 8 8 8 8

0 6.42

6.43

where
-,

() -, 8 '

---1/J --ip ---:=::-:'"" )

6.44
2 aa

an electron.

2 6.45
* - 2 *



and * 1 2 1 i 2 Show that,
1 2 1 + i 2

where

1 transformat1ons,
un er
* *
6.46
ie
J

 .vritten in terms of the real
I

6.47)

1 A.,2 + A.,2
2 \f'l '-P2
I

Then
6.48)
I
l
'
l

)
2 sin a , I
l
6.49
2
) 1 sin a + 2 cos a .

II
vVe then have

Similarly, the

derivatives transform as
I
I
cos a 8 1 - sin a 8 2 , l '

6.51
sin a 8 1 + cos a 8 2 .

l
so that
-
6.52

If a<< 1, cos a~ 1 and sin o r- a. It is easy to see that the transformation

is equivalent to rotations in the 1, 2 plane since

1 2 '
6.53
1 .

This can be written more generally as

6.54 '

'
 6.2.
289
~ 1ere

0 i

l 0 (6 55)

us transforms as
I . 1 I
:::::::
1 + i~
2
1

2
1
2
exp ux .

a(Yran e
s a ove, to find ' '

* 8 8

0 +8 *
8 a, *
8 8 6.57
*
a a *

where
8 ac
*
i a a, *
J
6.58

I
1 and

..v2, we can show that

6.59

This is left as an exercise.

1sc11sse
e
 If N 1 k b k at} th ira a.grano '
I
11 , u 11. H re, with

6.60
-1.
-ia x
the mass term is invariant since

6.61 )
_, io x exp io x

1n1.f) , ' = mlj) exp

6.62
I
I
II
I

the derivative by a covariant derivative that remains invariant under

transf orn1ation,
6.63

is defined as II
6.64 I

ieA . I

1 6.65
A' '

e
I

I
I

m 6.66 I

c 1,
' l

.u 6.67

m 6.68
 6.2.
291

6.26) since such

11a 0 a 2 .
mass ess. ' '

1111s will .
The U o.

6.69

1 Since the SU 3 generators, Aa 2, do not commute,

!
Aa Ab . Ac 6.70 ,
== i
2 ' 2
1

I
the SU 3
I

l
I
a 6.71
'
I

trans arms as
a
6.72
a -

e
e
can coup e . .
cannot. e

a -m 6.73
v a
4


1 l li

Il
' ' J
} l 0
... J
.
l I 1 ! l 11 1

l 11 1



111 il 4 -

fl tl

I 11 l tl


\ . cli l

SICS 0 eor

Lat ice bzauae

0 theory

short distances r 0, may cause divergences i11 the momentum -11-

th electromagnetic spectrum. I11 perturbation theory, ultraviolet di-

l
I
-

nite. I
on t

I
 ili

ili
l
no

'

I

I
I
A --

I
I

'

-
l
I
I J

I
In the limit where the action is large, the path integral is dominated l
f
'

'

I
'

'I
'
I

I
 6.3.

,
-
t

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 (fJ. --
( {

I
0 0 1 0
I
' 0 0 0 1

space with a different metric tensor.

I.
I
I
I
---
I
I
starting at x A, t A and ending at x B, t B . Figure 6 .1 shows thre!-)
l.,
such possible paths .
I
j

sat is

n
I
path,

6. { 8
I
expiSM .
all paths
'

j
l
I
6.79
x8 ie exp
!
I
so that
exp iS1v1 . 6.80
I all patl1s
I

. over at s, . . . . .
1I var1a es.

ti

I
'
 296 6'. Lattice gauge theory

a11 integral instead of a st1111,

00

da , exp iSNr X1 6.81 ;J

-00
all paths

can be done for each intermediate point, giving

co -oo
li111 d1~1 ... dx., 1 exp iS Iv! X1, , x,ri 1 6.82
!:::i.t O,n . oo -()() -oo
n!:lt ta t.-l

The amplitude is then

r----------- . ---
B

t:.a-2: .



I


















-

... .. .... .... ----(x3, t3)

-; .,

. .. . ::,:::::.:;= - (
- X1,tz) I
..... . .. --- (XA, tA)
A

. . x A , t A an cl x The time
mes, e dots re
intermecliate

XB exp -i

00 n 1

X1 . X
00 ' ' 'ri 1
i 1 6.83
 l) -\-
- 'J (

1 'It si

l e pa i .ion func ior

-HT
x .-\

iH ( t B t .;\),

1 T
so that the in . .
lent to t .

is a summation over all states x .4. To remove this last distinction, the

l
I
l
an additio11al integral over x.n,
I n
I n 1

dx; exp iS1v1 t iT . 6.85
=-iT
z i 1
i 1

e
n
6.86

'
' so that 6.87

ir
'
 298

. in the imaginary
. inkowski space,
time formalism.
I
6.88
L l'vl x, 1:1

where x' dx dt. When t == =ir, dt ==

the kinetic energy term in the Lagrang1a11 is

2
1 I ? 1
dx 6.89
-m x -- == 'm - I
2 2 dT

and
2
dx
LNI t=-iT -Vx
dT
2
1 dx
-m +V x
2 dr
-Tx +Vx . 6.90
I



=-1,"T

-H. The action is then

"TB 1
SNI t=-iT == i dr +Vx 6.91
'
"T.fl

where the negative signs in L M t iT and the differential dt ulr

cancel. e have iS PvI t i-r in the partition function which we can
redefine as the Euclidean action 95 ,

TB 1
+Vx 6.92
T;l dT

x exp
6.93
 . latticP.

. . r1 te tl1e sirn , .

par ic r~ o unit mass, m = 1, is

1 '")

w l1ere x and "

"
xx ==xx "
xx'
)
PP ==pp ,
== <5 x x' l r I
' PP u p p )
dx x x (6.95)
' 1 == clp p p ,
xp exp ip . x ,

p' x' == exp ip' x' .

6.96

will eventually take E > 0. The time steps divide the spatial interval x into
ti equal steps, Xo, X1, X2, , Xn where Xn Xo X. VVe insert the Unit

operator, e.g., 1 dx1 x1 x1 at each step so that

z dx x exp~ eH ri x

n 1
dx x?"" . . . Xn 1 exp EH x


i 1

ti

f
i 1
6.97.

'

-E
x, 6.98

e 2 2 Xi 1 exp 6.99
- w x.i
2
 then intro uce the 1~111i

so th t

2 2
-EH exp - -W X
2 i

E ,.2 I
x dp dp' Xi 1 exp - PP I Xi . 6.100

Then exp E 2 p2 p -p' , we

have

2 2
-in exp - W X
2 '/,
E ?
x

Next we use the definitions of x p and p x to obtain

-EH exp
I
E 2

x c5 p - p' exp - 6.102 I

We use the delta function to do the integration over dp', leaving tis with

-EH ==exp dp exp -1 Xi 6.103

e then can complete the square in the exponent of the term inside the
integral,

2 2
Xi 1 - Xi . 1
-1 - Xi -----;:::.- +i ep Xi 1 - Xi
6.104
E 2 E

Then --

1
-EH exp
2 E

1 . 2
x dp exp 'l Xi Xi
Ep- ---;=--
2 E
6.105

i C'
l i i
'lie J 'J

11 nt (\ -l
J

f rlp
;.1
8r iti 1 f un t

l () he
ll l

n
1
2 2 ( 6 .. (J6)

2
+ (:W ;c I
t =l E

ne11.t can b - written

. cs t 1.ie sum l

n n
z 1 2 l 2 (6.107
Xi l Xo + 2 EW x20

1 2E
i 1
1
I /3 tlr 1 2 w2 x2 while, ir1 the first
== dr
0 2
dr so that the first ter111
becomes
l 71 2
1 dx 1 w2rr2

j
z ClT
+ 2
0 2 ..v

i 1
I 6.108
exp SE ,
l
i
paths
I

as expected.

to
t is case the inkowski action is

I
6.109

t .4.
1\/Iinkowski
x' t

grang1an is

1ves 6.110

6.111


-i
 6.

.he field

B ta +i H ta t.4
all paths

tjI l

t
I
'-------------- .. ---
B
::;:-===:::::::::= --- $ (XB, t E)
...'

- -----' ::---- --' :---- ~ <"n-lr tn-1)

I
tn-2


















$(xn-2r tn-21









l
I

t3
$(x3, t3)

I
t2
~(X2r t2)
I
- _-.:::::::;;;; - -- $ (X1, t 1) I
I
I

--- $ (XAr tA)

A j

'------------------ I

~ (x, t)
l
I
\
Figure 6.3: Several paths between xA, tA ancl xB, tB . The time I
I
intermediate
space-time points along a particular path.
\
j

I
6.113 l
I
I
to x1ix, we
I

6.114 I
i I
2 11 1

n. -1 n
-)

1e \ - Cctll g{) throuah _ .

I

ta

-V
2
1 8dJ 2
f' .1 -
I
-V<P.
2 at

6.117 generares
2.
the Klein-Gordon eqtzation vvhen V 1 2 1n2
Recall that the ec11.1ation of motion for the field is
6.113

In the case of Eq. 6.117 , 8 a 8,

the equation of motion is
6.1191

I

'

2
2
1 1 -V
6.120
T 2
2

 I ') ...
1 1
~

E l ')
-
r -

lrda:

(6.121

L xr t==-ir
(6.122;

otherw: . . e.

E_.;\..4iv!PLE: Sl1ow that .CE LJv1 t=-

grange density,
The CD Lagra11gia11 i11 l\1Iin1<:owski space, Eq. 6. 73 , is

4 v 6.123 '

while, i11 Eucliclean space we have,

4 v -
6.124
where D 8 igA.

In imaginary time coordinates, the zeroth or time component of the I

derivative is iOr instead of Ot. To factor an i out of Dr, we also need
I

of the field strength tensor, Ftx, is

I
I
6.125

Changing to imaginary time coorclinates, we have

I
I

'
I

'
I

6 .1 ?.6

iI
'

 305

p(l. FTX (1.

TX .
(fJ.127
The con
c 111ates

"','\Iv
I I
2 g
v
(6.128)

(6.129

6.130
,

for the time coordinate while the anticommutation relations for the spatial
gamma matrices tell us that
,

-1,
6.131
,
~.
._
. --.,
.,
1
~ ,

t , , 6.132
-,

Since
time. The11

a e . 1.
lll
 6. Lattice ga'u.ge tbeo ry

I -
~

'

' I
J

Cl
r-....)
O'~
~
Cz.) ~

C/)
l-
I
cO
,..... ' ,
~

I
r"'
t . . l..:J I II
. l- I
)
tr: .

r
' I 0I ) lI
-
'

'
I
......,

11 0 .,
~
r.d I 0 '
I )
cO
iJJ II ........
CJ <... C/)
~

.,
~
<l.)
I r:
1)
~

0 ~
11
I ) ~
)
t-..l ~
e-.> I
I
~

<l.) ii I
. .' + +
0 II
z ~

- < """ 1 . I
I~ !
I

11 ~

i I
I
l
I

II

II I
~

~ ,
I~ ~
I I r--i ,---. ~ N ~ ~

l'-1 ::i.. -
I c:'"') ,,_, ~ ;.., ' ~ --B- ~ I

II
I 'c3
I
- ..-4 I
y -+-> N 'N ~~ C'l II I I

I
VJ ~ l'-l . ._CC) ,,... (--,J>.,N '
CJCJo ~ H ~~ ,.,
~
0 '
~
'
l : I
.' J
::i.. ~ ca
:~ c-- c-- . _ _____.
~
CJ CJ CJ "----"' <c:> .... _, ' ' IN I ..-4

< I I
0

' I
bD I
I
ro
~ ~

VJ
<l) H
.. b.O
~

.. ro ro I
..-4
..
n
I C ~
I

'"d r1
~

cO i.-i
0
Cl 0t
;:::: 0
I
I -,
0 ()
C.)
ro
 307
6.3.2

d nd
n
'
'

-
-
.

'

6.135

l
'
,
,
, ., -~


111 the de e1r11ina11t of

l 11 1 y
(G.136 J

If U i 1c1 r 11t cl by XI) i I , it

I .: : : \ft , tra elcss matrix.

E_ -_41\ ! PLE: Sliow this.

1

If U is a 3 x 3 matrix M is also a 3 x 3 matrix, as is exp i!Vf , by extension.

From Eq. 6.135 , we 11<:1.ve

I

e: cp i!Yft exp i M 1 . 6.137

Multiplying both sicles of Eq. 6.137 gives
'
exp i!Yf exp iNJT ,
NI Mt. 6.138
\

demonstrating the herrniticity of NI. To show that M is traceless, we make

I'
use of the property of matrix multiplication that say that the determinant
of the product of two square n x ti matrices is equal to the product of the
I
determinants, I
I
{
I

det A det A' 6.139

Therefore, I
I

det U det 1 U det cc+u det CUC == 1

1 I
det C exp il\ll C 6.140
I

I

1
Cexp i c == c
n! 6.141
n 0

multiply it by NI directly,
00 I
iCNIC 1 ri,
I

C' exp i
n 0
6.142

I

l
liz r

I
I X[J l f 1\f 1-1
11 J
I 0 e: P i C M C - 1 )22 0
0

exp iTr C i\f C 1

Tl1e la - , .

0 g ll011S t .ie

x an e as .

Aa
Jiil
., 6.145
- ti
~
u e

2!,
..
~-

~

6.146

ti+ii 6.14 (

exp ig
 6. Lattice ga1J,ge tfteory

i11 time tl1<:111 tho: e on the right.

'

.. might be expected,

I
-1 6.148

E~XA!v1PLE: Show this using Eq. 6.147 . l

'
I
If we divide the path length from n to ti + into N segments of length
J.-l
E N with dx!' E, writing the integral as a sum, we have

'
P exp iqe A n + A n + E + A ti + 2E + ...
+A n+E N- l +A n+NE . 6.149

Since we are moving from ti to n + , the path ordering means that the final
step is the leftmost, reversing the order in Eq. 6.149 to give

N-1 E I
I
I

x ... exp igEA n 6.150

- n + ) as
I

ti

U n+ 6.151
. n+
'

where now dx" == -E and

I

U n+ Pexp N - 1 E .... I
I
I

N 1 E
x exp igEA n + NE . 6.152

lVlultiplying Eqs.

N 1 E

x exp - I
I
1
6.153 I

'

I
I
 -

l ll i

li111 l , lS
. (I

c 1t r h . rv

l JV. 11 111 o f .
1r'

n+v n +I

Uv(n+)

U(n) n+
n

.I
. 6.155

rection .

'

'
 I

-
l l

l la ti ce

is
1_e
-
d

l I l la t . .-, 11erge 11 0 a la. a

-
I link v: ria Jl

11 lie e1 e1 are it te __ a

i .us how the Vi:11i u fielcl transf rm t. 1 r o

ce o show that the ~ CD Euclidean action 011 t P lattice -

f~rr1 i n
SE

-11 77., + I' 17 + /L - Lll'- 11 - /l

2 l
n., j.J.

IJ
+ 11 ui l 17 1/I 71
fl

J
,, rl r

2. Y"
'Tj//_l

.
.). . 1-. .
 ( ....

:313

v g 1 rt v cl 1 , , , . .

' 'J r1 11c . .

J S 10\V . . ' _,
,Q a .ions, 111 CO .
111 :tt11x G n
'

G ri
(6.157

I
~

s ace r: n in color
prod uct of two vectors
I
I
'

Gn . A _,
exp i xn 6.158
2
'I

' Cl. '

!
l
i
transformed as G n V.
i
l
'I
I
. sented by three-component column matrices
)
'

j
l
' n
> 1/J' n == G n 'ljJ n) , 6.159


1
1
n
> n n G n . 6.160

The interaction term in the Euclidean Lagrangian that couples the

'i
l

I' the CD interaction to find out how the gauge field transforms under
l
JJ color rotations.

~
6.159 and
1j
1
l

j
'
way as n or
1
D n 1. n n == G n D n n . 6.161

l1e11 I
I
A
8, - ig u. n ' ' ti
( 6.162

'

We act witl the derivative on both G n and 1 n ,

6.163

so that I

'

n . 6.164 I
I

The first terms on both the left-

cancel. Since there are no more clerivatives acting on ti , we can drop it,
I
leaving I

G ti igA, n 6.165 I

I
I

I
I

-ig, giving I

'l

I
n 1
A' n 1 - G n .

I
g

From this it follows that

n

1
6.167

I
since I

6.168
6.169
J n . 6.170
l
1
comes from
and 6.170
I

I
I n
v n 1,1
.171 I
I
I
 lc1,ttice
. . vl0

v o , ee ti .

o cova c nd the v

.rves in Ec1. 6.74 l

I g ( 6.172)
Tl1en

i
I F'v n
I

'

l
6.173
l
'
I

;

''
l i

l
l
r;
l

1
I ~ .
.

igA
i

I
I
,I i . '
i

'' g
J

'j

I'
I
I The double derivatives and the Ai8j terms cancel. Then

I
j
1
l
-ig Av,A . 6.175
~

I
'

'
! l

6.176 >
>

l 2 v .
l
I
I
'I
l

J.
1J
'

6.177

'
 316

The factor of two arises because

Fv r-:
2 ~lV 2

Tr 2 2 v

6.178
') v
~

Fv is
I

Fv
2 v

Aa
ig
2 2 ' 2 t

Aa Ab Ac II
ig Ab Ac G. l '1'9
2 2 ' 2 v

Using the SU 3
I

Ab Ac
2 ' 2
I
I

as in Eq. 6. f 4 , factoring out Aa 2, we have

I
l

2 v 2 v
I

La-
I

__, Tr F'v Fr'"

1 n n pv n
....... 1
i n
Tr ___ v .

 317

01111sas '

I
6.183

l
,

size E,
I

I exp igEA ti + NE exp igA ti + N 1 E

x ... exp igEA ti

6.184

=A k where
,
0 < k < N, the path-orderecl product i11 Eq. 6.184 is written as
I
I
I

exp igEA N exp igA N 1

x ... exp igEA 1 exp igEA 0 )
6.185

'
'

while the transformed link variables is expanded as

I
'I
U' n
I

6.186
'

-
Since E is small,
6.187

G 1
k
6.188 '

e expan
6.189 ' ,

Gj+l


I
'

riable with G j + 1

1
1 Gk G k
G k
1 k I
'
I
6.190

Ig1101i11g terms proportional to e2, we see that

1 + iqe 1 k

1 k

6.191

'
I
1
equivalent to Eq. 6.188 , above. Inserting G j + 1 and G k on either
I
side of each term in Ec1. 6.186 gives

-1G1N-1 I
I

I
1 0 I

II
-1
1
G 0
6.192

'

6.193

The plaquette then transforms as I

x
... v n+
x n

6.194
 6.3. B . ic.s

0
319

ti J~ Tr Po n; v .
. f6.195J

.v ti +
nG1n

x n+
' n+~l n+, 6.196
\

l1 ti
I
1n
4 1.fJnG

ti U n 1
n + . 6.197

Eq. 6.156 , is locally gauge invariant under SU .3) color rotations. vv-e
next show that, in the continuum limit, we get back the continuum
action with the Lagrangian as in Eq. 6.124 95 . e begin with the

imated as
n+ 6.198
,

n
 320
I

1_1si11g the trapezoidal rule. I

I
1i+
)
'11 P exp ig
n
a I
Pexp
2
a a
exp exp + . . . . 6.199
2 I
2

'
I

I
I

'

6.200 I'

I'

I
I
Thus the link variable ti IS
I
I

e exp

a I

exp ig 2 a3 6.201 I
'
2
I

Note that the na result for the link varia le contains terms inear an
I

I
van-
I

I

I

Ii
 r I

v J..L
f.l
I.I d
n
a a
p 1y I.I LI) p .g I.I
..I.-
2 2

n+ v -1
. n-t-v

- ig

exp exp v
I
l
I
U v n+v
n

Av dx v (6.204)
Pexp - ig X
n+v
I I
: u

I
6.200 , we ha re
I
I
l
6.205)
6.206)
I
I
l
I
6.200 , 6.205 and 6.206 .

I
I

I
I
\
1
exp
i

I
'
' '
I
'I
exp
I
I

lI 6.207

!
I
exp
1I
U v n+v

I
l

I
J

I
- -
I
'
t eir commutator:
1 6.208
Ij

l

exp x exp Y
',

1
'
I
l
I
~

J '


1 . 1 t r 1l l lc J

i11 r le1111 f ti p aqu , '

s 11 le 10s . e

ro uc o e
link v riables is I

-
- --- 2A n
2 4 v

I
I

6.209 l
I
I

I
The derivative terms in the commutator are dropped because they are I
I

I
I

6.210

I
j
l
 D .). B as ic
'"SO
r

')2')
J ...J

2A .
2 2
I
(6.211)
II

6.211 reduces to the sum of two com-

l
I
I
I

'
'
l

= 0 . 6.212
l
I' e change
I
J
utator tc

-
'
'I
J obtain
l I
l;
.,
'I
.
Po
l I

r . ')
1
j
'I exp 2
'la
D
gr v . 6.213

'
1
!

1
'

. 2 6.214
t
J

l
i
not important for the action. The
.,
1

l1 are traceless,
.,'
~

1
.!
6.215
Tr v 2
 6. La

I
v
v F I
2 2 2 v

ag
') ') ab v
- '-J

2
a g . a
- (6.216;
4

sgauge I
E
_g + h. c. I
n,,v
1
--- . 2.
2g2 6.217
n,,v

where the hermitian conjugate gives the factor 2. The sum over n is
converted to a space-time integral,

tU . -'''18
I
\
J1,
n,,v I
I
'

if all lattice spacings are equal. Th11s the final result for the contin1_111n1
limit of the gauge action is I

I
pa pva ==
v
,v
6.219 '

I
I
'I

the Euclidean action, i

I

I
'

a3 I

2 - n+ n+ I
'
n,
'

..... n n-
n n . 6.220 '

I
'

n
'

I
I

'
I
 1

on tern, . .

r1111011 . .

I
I 111c.e we alrea . . .
I expan t .ie l111k v '
spac1nrr a to r .

~ - n + /-l ~ exp ~ 1 igaA, ti ,

~ exp ~ 1 + igaA, n .
j
1

~

j '

l

6.?01 .


! The interaction term of the fermion contribution to the Euclidean
J,

-


action is then
1
I
j
. ' a3
1 l -igaA n n+
~
1
l
2 n,
I

.1

I 1 + iga.t\.~[, n. 1 ti
.

'
I a3 U

''
'
I

11' n re n+ n /l
I

2 n,
'

I

'
' n+ +'lfJ n
I

. 6.221
1
j

I
l

l n- n gives
''
I
J '
1

I n+ n '
I
'
n . 6.222
!

n
.j
1
6.221 is
II
I

J
I
n- n '
'
n+ 6.223
n .
., n-

.
~
-
1.. .

1 f 11 in. rac i ..JL er111 is

l d [- ,...
E a
a4

6.??6
n

tion is

6. ?.?.7

I
I

l
ey anti- I
I
,...., .

. . . rassrnann var1a es, see l

I

I
I


-
6 . '>"0 ")

so that.
ae fiJ. ')0~
1 -J .....

6.232
I e

f
I

where a is an ordinary complex number and b can be either an ordir a1~ -

I
number or a Grassmann variable. The rules for derivatives depends
- 01i.

the identity of b. For exa1nple, if a and b are both ordinary numbers .

6.233

However. if b
!

!
I 6.23J
i
I

'

since 'b
we stil have
2 6.235
;I
2
I '
I
 328 6. Lattice gauge theory

since

ob 6.236
0.

These last two results i11 Eqs.

0,

0. 6.237

mann variables is not really the inverse of their differentiation. Integra-

tion has to be clefined formally. The ''integration'' rules for Crassmann
variables are called Berezin integrals and are defined so that 1

dB 0 ,

dee 1 . 6.238

'

I
\
I
written as

6.240 I
 ~ ) ( .
- , 1e e . to be nonzero.
rezrn 111 e re: ls ar
J

dfJ.
' l 0 ,

. (6.2"11

c e over n101e

d8181 = -1 .6.242J

6.243
l

and w thus
I

I
II

0, 6.244
0, 6.245
0. 6.246

I Then ti ==

The same integration rules hold as for other Grassmann variables.

e can show this in the integral of the mass term with a single value
of n,

n exp -m ~ n 6.247
I nd 1 ti

-m
I
I
m n d n n 71,
I
I
I' 6.248
1 m.
I
I' _\
I
'
I
I

'
 330 6. Lattice gauge theory

trix in the ex orient,

6.249
I
n n/
'
I

where det M is the determinant of the matrix NI

I
I
I

EXANIPLE: Show that Eq.

Let
I

M= 6.250

I
I

so that
l

I
I
6.251 I

The expansion of exp

IS

!

exp 1 M M
I

1
iNiiJ

J kNikz l 6.252
2
I

where i k and j l for Eq. 6.252 to be nonzero. e drop the first

two terms since the integral of these over the two fermion fields and the two
antifermion fields would be zero. The expansion terminates with the third

I
exp

II
 l

I l

d -
I

~/11 122 cl 1u _ d t/J'J. I )2 / ~

I

I
I

M.122 ' 6 ._:J:)

9--
M ll

(6.256

)--
6 ...... :)

I
1 l 2M211/J1.1./J1lVI121~21

t
1Vl111Vl22 1Vl121'vl21
I

det JV! . 6.258

I
'

' Note that while we have chosen a 2 x 2 matrix for simplicity here this result
holds for an arbitrary number of fermion fields.

I "

6.259
N

I
n,n'

I
l

I

n

+ ni

6.260

dV exp -S'eff U
(6.261

The effective action is now only depenclent on the link . . -ariables.

Unfortunately, the N x N determinant generated by the integral o 'er
the fermion fields, det D U + m , is difficult to deal with, in olving an
N-fold multiple of the number of lattice sites. The sign of the terms in
the determinant changes from positive to 11egative, depending on t.he

calculation where the integral is done by choosing random valt1es over

the range of integration hence Monte Carlo . Many early calculation,
were done in the 'quenched' approximation, expanding the determinant

methocls.
 Chiral s
,, sponta11. ous sy1nrn ~tr1 breakinq
") ') ')
o-

1

ro uce tl1e ,
' a11 iscu . . . .

6.4.1

iI
c 1ra .iandedne --
avor s nmetr

ux,dx,sx
j
I
.I and tr ansform as
!
I
I

> 6.262
I

I I
rotate into a quark field of another flavor. We have added the subscript
F on the SU 3 flavor generators to better distingl1ish between flavor
I and color SU 3 . Note that here we work in Minkowski space.
Following the arguments for color SU 3 , it is easy to see that the

interaction term in the CD Lagrange density is invariant under flavor

i
I
I

SU 3 since

I
i
=

'

6.263 '
~

~
)
,_-.

'
6.264

1 Jva

6.265
3 O
Va
d XJva x
 -
define c n axial' transforrnati 111 as
......
1
== exp l Q ' /\F 2 /5 (6.268

where ,.ts ute

/.' 'YI/

tran forming the adjoint. Thus

'
Texp -
' 0
:v TI exp i a . AF 2 r5

exp i d . AF 2 f 5 . 6.269

Note that, in this case, the transforms of both and if_; 1a~1e
1
positive

The interaction term of the Lagrange density remains invariant tin-

der axial rotations,

6.270

because the covariant derivative is invariant tinder flavor transforrna-

_.
.v[
D l
I} I
exp i ii Ap
215

6.271
 l -
l
l I
'J
\
-

1

2 . - - - -
Si11ce 5
1 , tl l
1e axia con11nt1tator bzives back the vector charze.
Tb.
~s
~

and axial-vector cl1aro-es

b )

6.2' s
vVe can thus linearly combine the vector and axial-vector charges
into 'left-ha11ded' and 'right-handed' charges,

which do not mix,

6.2 rS)

La, Lb i abc Le ,

Ra, Rb i abc Re , 6.2 9 j

La1 Rb o. s.zso

e first oo ( a
,
1
Va ,4. Q, Vb
La, Lb
4 '
1
Va, Vb
' 4

. 4.c 6.281

.1
1
I
I

J

 -

h
calle hiral
the iark masse are not taken into account.
0

mass m.u rv md, so that, instead of an SU 3 flavor s metry, "\'. -e

could claim approximate SU 2 flavor symmetry. This SU 2, syrnrne-
try is referred to as isospin. In isospin, the proton and neutron form a
particle doublet for the 'nucleon'. Their masses would be degenerate if

-
In the axial case, the mass term transforms as
I
m
I

m exp i d Ap 15
6.?83

on aneous
Ill

. . . c a c 1ra s n1-
. . . . . . c e spo11 aneot1s
q uar masses. e
 g
m te m can be t .
ra sy111111etr .
rue a11 1lto11i . .,
er111 , . .
) 1)

6. 28.!)

symmetry is good.

an irreducible representation of the s metry group,

[TA B, 6.285

but leaves H0 invariant,

=Ho. 6.286

B Ho B are degenerate energy eigen-

A ut HoU!A) ~ 6.287
B HoB

6.286',
\V8 h8.'!8

-
6.288
'
A Ho A' '

I
! -
I ~


The states '

'

the groun
''
' 6.289 >

I --

1J with
1.
6.290
)

B
~

'
'
 l

th t . . . .5 to hold.

n l Ii.....

B
U. B 0 . (6.292;

'er, Eq. 6.290 say

d>s U.4ut
</>sU U .4 . 6.293

6.290

This is referred to as spontaneous symmetry breaking. Note, however,

operator is nonzero,

0 i 0 0 .
6.296

density

1
TV= -V
2 6.297
 339

4 .298

4 1 e11t1
. c l1r-po1nt v .

'

'
av
= 0. 6.299)
f)

= 0, we have two lower

rmrurna,

'J

-2 6.300 ,

x '

= o.
we have two degenerate ground states but, if we choose one of these, we

break reflection symmetry although V itself is reflection s etric.
e expand the soll1tion around one of these minima, e.g. v so

i that
6.301

'

x
'
I

'

back into .C, we have

I 1 2 1 .
i
I
1 -
2 2
'

I
'
1
I

I
I

2 2
I
1
I
6.302
'

'

'

l .)
~
1.

~ .c

l n - <

I
I
1 j..l
I

which now has

c ,.. a. ma s with -

-2tt 2 .

r f two bee. ll e we v -ant the 111a:-i

1 2 2
--rn

l1e11 l s l \' . 111 s

1I l XJ J, l l < l ri r IlL
I , 8 .a 1 l 11 i11i111l1111.
~I J I l ) k ( )I
f t 11 J 1 cl p I,

2 fl 2
,, + 1 .
2 '
 6.5.

0
111i11i a ircle of

2 == u, we can write the

co

1
(6.3()8)
2

1 and 2 respectively. The

6.309

of the quarks by aclding heat to the system, The added heat modifies

..
'

l'

'
l
, ere are m .
on y on e . . .
''
econ nemen , c .

I
I

are a nu

'
 . Lu tt ice ga ge heory

a
-

s r: l .

11 c 11 I - ale ti ec . 1 .. .

il '

Tr U ti l
6.310
c

i evaluated
i~ defined as

1
d d dUOexp SE. 6.311
z

dTV R
T,-1

TV R
6.312

where V R is constant in time and T ==

unction

.313

o time,

x- x .

 l

ig -
x- -
T

dr T Ft.) -

T 0
-ig

- . ' -:)
')

:r.' T P ane from o

6.316
c
with partition function
c1). ')1-
J
exp ig

T oo c

the parts of the lattice outside the contour described b - a ~

contour,
single li ..J.
variable give zero,
\ 6.31S

1 6.319
JV

6. Lattice ga'1J,ge theori)
I

I
(T,R)

(T, 0)
'


I

t I t f I I
I t I t t '

--
-- -- 'I

- I



--


--
-



- --





--
-- !
-

..'... ..... '

I

t t I I t I I t

I
I

cl c
n I
(0, 0) (O,R) I

'I
Figure 6. 7: The tiling of plaquettes

'Thus the quantity evaluat l l

I

trace of the path-ordered lin 1

,.
c
. l

Integration over the tiled area o

I l tll

1 a
vV c 1
g-

a2
I 6.5.
. . ,( . J IC
,

' - CJ te . . from Eq. fJ.. 010

J .J
t CJ that on the

I

ol)taininrJ0

RT (6.322;
I
TV R
I a-
or

(6.323)
VR
I The potential is then

separatio11. Since V R oo as R -
ilson loop a model of confinement .

i'

....ymmetry
l

~ econ nement an


est oration
'
l

'
'

the high temperature regime, the nature of the transition is controlled
t

1
' ral symmetry or m > oo pure gauge: the 'quenched' approximation .
I
l
masses is a question that must be addressed numerically. There are
'
'
' '

~

I

I
I

.
e
'

'

'
!
i
'' ernP . . . . .
'
unc 10 . .

t e emP . . . .

I 1ne,

\
 ,

lll
u)

We remark that the heavy quark potential ca11 also be ext1acted

r he c rreJation ftrnction of ilson lines, L R LT' 0) \, in the T
ir ction and ~eparate I by R. This fttnction is tl1e same as the \ \ il 11

T > l 2

 347
, or Iar

.. quantir that , .

are zoo
l
The sudd .
I

I
i
mass imit .
I
I

'I
I
I
I
'

I

I
I

I

'

I ken phase, the zero temperature world, has a finite value. Chiral
'I
' restoration at high temperature would give 0. On the lattice,

''
'!

'
1 8lnZ 6. 32' {
''
I
'
'I
'
''
I
- '

I
'I
I

'

I
I

'
' .

'
'
1
I

I'
'
2
i
1f2
'

I
3
6.328
I
I

'


Studies of
'

'

'
 130

11 al argurn n ,._
d b _ , hiz rer t.l an

st ceptibility Xm, related to ,

/ L
L 2
'
a
6.329

'
I

transition point. The deconfinement and chiral symmetry order param-

I

eters, as well as the corresponcling susceptibilities, are shown together

in Fig. 6.9 as functions of T Tc. Eve11 if the transition shown is not a
discontinuity, it still takes place rapidly over a small inter , al of tern- I
perature. I

''
I
'
'
I
I
'
I
I
'I

I
I
I
p'Tf 311"2 I
I
II
T4 90 I
j

T4 T > oo .

II

l
I

I
'I
I
 6. 5.
?
J

mqfr-0.08

'
I
I

I
I
'
I
0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1 .2 1 .25 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1 1 1 - 15 , .2 1 .25
' T!Tc TfTC
' -

I
I
. '
'
I
I
I
I
'
I
the chiral susceptibility, Xm 100 .
I

I
I
I
I
''
I
I
'
I
I

I
I
6.331

I
I
'
I
I

I
I

'
l p 6.332
!
I
' E 3P
I
I == T4
I

T4

lr
I 6.333
3P 3

l
,
.

'I

'
'
'
I
l
I
 0

rr 1
ano

nf =2 Td-270 MeV
. pure
Eirsc gauge
second order

order

crosS.over

first.

or:der
second




order

0
n =3
Ty r -155 MeV

Figure 6.11: The of various

masses. Following 102 with permission from Elsevier.

'

inite

'

I
I
I
\

'
I
I
I
!
I
I

I

I

I
I
'
l .....
 "'
C'D

Il ,

. r, clS Orr
a es , . ,
e oc s n .
I

ll 1- ar a1n ~ . . r -

I
I


1c contirma .
I
i
I

'
I
Z ,T dU exp - detM ,m 6.341
I
'

l
dU exp - det 1\11 0, m

x exp

'
I

I
Thus the integral is rewritten so that the
I I
I
I
'

'

'
1
I In the calculation, and T are changed together. hile this tech-
== 0
I
'

'
'
I

I
I

'

'
''
I
1
;

II
I
I

'
I
I

I
,
 - u l

transition
....
line
...
- -. best weight lines
'
hadroni c phase
'
u
r 6.12: The best
rere the
. The
o e line is the crossover region and the blob shows the criti e -
vnere fir t-order transitions begin. Above the transition line the

I
I

I
I
 E-
...

B
howing tne re . . u_--:s o_ Fod ~~

. -
Reprinted : o __ - _ _ 3 -
--

permission from Elsevier.

I I

". 3--
I

I ln
n 1
'
I
'

I
'
I
'
'
'
'I

\
I
with.
'
'
I
'I'
'I
I
I
I
I
'

l
I
I
 6. Lattice ga1i_ge theory

2+ -1-. 1 for the real fields in L ==

2
-2 - ,,\ dJ

2. th, t -

3. U ing the characteristics of theCrassmann variables, check Eqs.

6.255 - 6.25 ( .

4. Derive the "rector and axial vector flavor currents, Eqs. 6.264

'

'
'

I
'
I

'I
'
I
I
''

II
I

'
I
 l

'

I
I
I

II

I
I

'

I




I

II
I

I
I
I

I
'

I'

at one e

ion,
 I

are important.

either 'correlated', arising from as single source, such as in the Drell-

I ass

c nsparen ' we rst ocus

pro uce per time an
 361

tV

'

'
2
Clgqp

2
while the
t

''

'

'

I
''
e have not included the delta function here since it is introduced

'

om low mass pairs since the temperature is low, between the criti-

'

2
2

7.3
'
i 2

 7, Thermal dileptons
I

lepton pair production in the mixed phase as

7.4

ties also include the degeneracy factors, g. The degeneracy factor is

six in the quark-gluon plasma: three colors and two active flavors. In
the hadron gas the factor is unity: the pions must be of equal and
opposite charge. Spin is not included in the degeneracy factor of p1
and P2 because the cross section includes an average over spin. Then
replacing dt dV dt d3x by d4x, we have
I

dN d3p1 1 1
g
d4x 1 ( E') T ..L 1
' - ,-
X VrelCT r l . 7.5 ;

2 2 4m2 2
Vrel = -------- '

2E1E2 7.6

when the lepton mass, m, is ignored. Here s == 2

i
'
~

I
''
II
!

'

'.
I. I
I ' '
i

i
I

I
I
i

l

I

?C')
JlJJ
I

n l()n 111
. r. v

l cl1\'"
?
g~

I x
7.7

I

( .8
l
P1 P2

The
I'
differential rate is then
I

I

'
d 2

----- ==g
I
!
dM2d3pd4x '21f

3 21f 3

2 . (. 9
I
1
'

I

l
'

I
I

'''
-
l

'
I

I
I

I
)

i
I
6 Nl2 - s . 7.10

f I

Given that
l
I

s in
7.11
2_
I 1
 7. r 'he mat dileptons

x ( !v[2 -

integr
r10
argument of the delta function be

I
I

c5 M? - 7.13

I'
r
l

The rate then becomes

6E 2
' 1
-

I

l'vf2 a r: l
~l . I

I
' -
2
x 6 Mr p-p2
j -

. 7.14 I
I
I
I

elta func-
tion be
I

cose
I
I

I
i

cos Bo
cose
/

2 -'I I 2 cos
P P2 .17
 'l. 2.

d ..

. 5 sB- J
~if 2pp2
12 a I J.. l
1
x exp - T ::--:-:=----~

')
g~

'
I

imi s on cos () o
'
'

7.19 , we need
2
T p '
I 7.20
I

min

.I . 91
"""'

cancels the factor

l
l

7.22

IS e also

l
l

1 a
l

a he dile - lll

0 e . b n e r a. ~ in et1 exp _ _ _n a .._, J- ':J

- 1r cosh Y: PT: l 1r sinh y . ?

. --:t

Fo . a longitr dina11y expanding medium

u (co h 77, 0, sinh 77 } :::::
I 'J

s ead of the cylindrical coordinates used in Chapter 5 to be cor patible

with the momentum four- vector. Then
P : u == r cash y cosh 77 sinh y sinh 71
and

.,
27T .J
... . '

( .2~

clear ra ius, we can write t e

i epton rate as a
2 2 y
00
---al+
327r3 PTPT
-Y 0
x exp ''7
.2
 'l.2.

lll J

,

I
l } d d
I

00

lvl
00
I 1
+-

I
1VI a !vI
1 00
M
exp Nla '>exp Nlya
a a- !vi
(

JV! 1 7.31
+ exp -

Then y i\!IT
1
dT/ cosh y T])
-- -Y
y2 ( .3~
exp NI cosh y 77 T .
+-----

a2
=== --F I .33'
81f4

plasma
where 2
q eq mixed phase 7. 3 4
Q
+G NI2 1 T
e2 'f
NI q q hadron gas
Nl2
H
 'l. Thermal dileptons

a
h

he mi ,

'
we change integration variables from T to T. Recall that for a system

7.35
where the subscripts 1 and 2 label different times. If
3 I
T T1 I
' I
TT
then

7.3 {
and

7.38

e now let x cosh y r; T ancl dx == -

that T cosh y r; x ancl dT == -

dxx5

7.39

I
 7.2.

2
1

Y-

0 -

11

x
Xf
I .- ~

x i

so that
Xj
dx x4 + x3 exp -x
Xf Xf

I x +5 -x .
'

- 0
Xf -x ,
( .-0
-x
Xi

Xf
is then ,_
+ E . I .44
 7. I
n l


Ill

T SJ-J 7.4.5
I
I

Solv-

gives 7.45

T
To s To Ss .

7.46

From this result, we also obtain hadron contribution to the mixed

phase,
I
1- I
T

7.47

It is left as an exercise to show that '

IH
T.2
dTT T m I
l11i 2 7.48
IH I

T.2 I
dTT 1 T m
'Tm 2 or 1 or 2+2
7.49

where r
S To
sQ sH using
and 7.49
'
I

I

I
I
 I
, J 'l
ition.s
I

clN
I

a2R2

y
l

4n-2 8 Si - C!
:JQ e i dry
q Jvf4 f'

q

x
30 exp( x
xo
+ 8 S'/,
or -1 2
~ eq o + r - 2

q
I y
x dry
-Y cosh y -

x exp -

2 y
3 THT3 TH d'T]
I +e S .,, Sfo G 1\1!2
]\lf4
YJ
Xfo

x ( x4 5x3 15x2 30x 30 exp x 7.50

- rJ T To .
T] T Tfo .
i

'

Ill
'
'

I
'
l

7. )1

7.52

nH a7r Tc3 7 . OJ
~')
90 c ' I
I
71,fo
90 fo .
7.54

These densities are, respectively, the beginning of the mixed phase I'
where the degrees of freedom are only quarks, antiquarks and gluons,
Eq. 7.,52 , the end of the mixed phase when only hadronic degrees of
freedom remain Eq. 7.53 , both at T Tc, and the density at freezeout
when T Tfo Thus, if the final-state multiplicity is such that
I
dN 2

(7.55

I
2 d!V 2
7.56
I
I

the system begins in the mixed phase with T ==

7.57

I

after thermalization, for fixed To, we can write

dN
' 7.58

I To 7i . I 0 0 rv J~ ~

.0 as
I dN
dy an R2 . . .,. {=:(:

1/2
T To 7.61
dy anR2

I
I

I
I

dN dN 7.62
I == 0exp -
I d77 dTJ
I
'

Gal1ssian. e write T/ here for the rapidity of the produced fluid and
identi dN dT/ o with dN dy at rnidrapidity. In Ref. 111 , before
RHIC data were available, dN dT/ o 2000 and 5000 were assumed
for RHIC and the LHC respectively. Experience from RHIC has shown

'
'

I
I
I
''
:
'
pairs might be competitive with thermal dilepton production 113 .
011ce- the initial time ancl temperature are ed by dN dy, the

'

'

'
 I 7.
ttrnerical
re.sult.s
37,5
a ::::::

r111 111 arid wit

es er o L111cl
'

I
e 1nasses
I
_, . c e s111ce w .
I er 111al dile ot . .
'

I

I
I

I
'

' I

I 10 3 - I
.\ (a) RHIC
I
I
(c) LHC

I I I

I

> Q)
I

I
I
C.!) '' \
. - .
\
I
I
____j 10-3 > Q)
' I
- ' ' ,,. \
\
\
'
\
. d
I ,, ' \
I '. .... ' \

::21
\ ....
.... .... __,10-4 ~
\
.... .... . ..... .....
\ z
' \
'"d
\
10 5 \

\
\
...... ......
I
I '
\

I ......
- 10-5
\

\

\
-
' \
10 6 u___ ___.__ ~- _ _.___..i_; 10
......_ 6
1 2 3 4 5 2.5 - ') 7.5 10.0
I
I
M (GeV) M GeV)

e
ot

I
I

rmpor a11 .
air ro 11c 1 . . .
I tion, e num . .

7.63
 'l. Thermal dileptons I
'

makes it possible t fix

not just at y 0. I

MeV at RHIC and 810 IVIeV at the LHC with corresponding initial

1
At such high initial temperatures, some thermal charm production may
also be possible 112 . Because charm is produced by strong interactions
and the strong coupling constant is much great than the electromag-
I
I

pairs might be competitive with thermal dilepton procluction 113 .

- . 3
subsequent values of Tm, TH and Tfo follow since Tm To T To Tc , I

quark-gluon plasma phase. If the initial temperature is not high enough

I
for a quark-gluon plasma to be formed, then the system evolves t ough

Numerical calculations of d
 I r
]

111

101)
1 I I (J

I

I

I

- ', (a) RHIC '

I

I
LHC

I I

I

I
-
'' \
.
:--
\
I
. I
' \ . ,. --.,
- ' ' ,,
.
\
\ \
\
\
.
I
...

'\'. ' ' ' ,,. \
~

. ' .... ....

' /I :I

\ - 10-4 ~
\
"\ .,

\ <, I ' z
\ '"O
'
\

'
.... <,

\
' I
- 10-5
\
....
\
\
....

\

\
10 6
1 - _........__ ~ -"--'---- 10 6
2 3 4 5 2.5 ~ 'J 7.5 10.0
M (GeV) M GeV}

. . , and b the LH C. The s lid

an

i

m an

AB
 7. Thermal dileptons

11- 1 e ir pp lli io is c

n in r ig . 7. l a11 7. 2.
10- ------ -,
I
. -- --
. - . --. - - - - - - (b) - 10-6
-.
l

--

- 10-1
,,. '
_, -
.r '
(a) RHIC ... . ---.
-. .. . - 10-8 >

""
~'

2<M<3 GeV . ... . --1 10-9 ...o. II

' .....
' _,, 4<M<9 GeV ,. >.
i----- ,____ ~--+--- ' i--- 1 o-1 o "O
I

. - . - . -- z

- - . - - - 10-5 "O I
-.-.- --

-- - - ..... . ...- I

--- -- - -- - . ----.-. -.
- - -

- - -

(c ) LHC 2<M<3 GeV -

I
(d) 4<M<9 GeV - .....
'---- '----_,______. __ '------' 1 o :?
0 2 4
y y
I

Fig1ue 7.2: The thermal and Drell-Yan lepton pair distributions as a '

I
''
plots . On the left-hand side, the distributions are given in the mass
range 2 < < 3 GeV while on the right-hand side, 4 < M < 9 GeV ''



'
is shown. The solid ancl dot-dashed curves are the thermal rates for I

the upper bound on the temperature and a fixed formation time of

'
distributions in pp collisions.
'

!

t

1
Yan cross section is expected to be less accurate at such low masses.
i

'

'

'
J
:
l

I
I
'
'

I

 7

11-
11

lasma

rather long-lived mixed phase gives the largest contribution between 1

f
' to the increased multiplicity, the mixed phase never contributes more
than 50 o of the total.
The ratios for the upper bound on the temperature are similar
I
except that, in this case, due to the higher initial temperature t.he
quark-gluon plasma phase dominates at still lower masses. Interest-

I
I

I
I

plasma itself .

'

l
'
I

l
l

separable. . . . . .
I
 'l. Thermal dileptons I
I

'
1.00 I

0.75 0.75 ,

r " "
'
~

-
~

,,,, '

~
0.50 I I ' a RHIC
I

v b 0.50 p;:
\ I
I
\ \ \ \ I

\ \

\ l
\
0.25 \ \ 0.25
I
'' \

\
I
\
' ... .... ... -- \
...
' ' ...
0.00 - 0.00 l
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 I
GeV
I

I
I

I
I
I
'I
I

I
I

I
I
I

'
I
'
''

ially a consequenrs, of the maximum possible rapidity on. th nucleon- I

J '

I
I
I

'
I
I
I
I
I
j
I

'

I
I
I
I
I
I
'
I

'

'
I
I
I
'

I
'

'
 7

1
l
z

hil
. . . ~ .... r 'O r e
. _ . r J ps .) . . 1J ~ e. _

'

I
I

'
rapidity, the curves become further apart as the mass increases.
I

I
I
The contributions to the thermal dilepton rates as a ction of ra-
I
I
' pidity shown in Figs. 7.4 and 7.5 for the case To 1 frn reflect the shape
'
.
-
I
'
of the multiplicity distribution. hile the hadron gas contribution is

I always negligible ancl, in fact, almost invisible in Figs. 7.4 and 7.5, the
'
I' contribution from the mixed phase becomes larger as the pair rapidit. -
I
I increases. In the lower mass bin at RHIC, Fig. 7 .4 a , the crossover of
I

I
I the o contributions occurs at y 3, corresponding to the width of the
J
I

I

I
'
I
'

ir

I
'
I

I

I
I'
'
'I
I
'

'
I
'
'

'
 7 e

ecomes 47.5.

low masses

I
t

I
I
I
I
!I
I

I
l

'
I
 7

,. '
' ,
~ 0.5

2<M<3 r._v

----------- - ----

0.0 ------------
0 2 4
y

Increasing Tc from 170 MeV to 200 Me V increases the low mass rate
I

quark-gluon plasma initially with lower multiplicities.

I Changing the freezeout temperature from 100 MeV to 140 1Ie\l-
'
'' would decrease the low mass rate since it would reduce the already ~

small effect of the hadron gas on the total rate. Note that neither
I

'
l
l
''
I The thermal rate is most sensitive to d dn o. If dN dr; 0 is
I

l
I I

I
I
I
0
I o two wou

f
'
I
'
'
I

I
I
I

l
 -

vor hadron, H, yields are large at coliider energie a d c --

E
arze enough for multiple H H pairs to be produced. e~p c
-
LHC leading to both correlated and ltncorrelated contrib -
dilepton yield. e
If the average nt1mber of H H pairs

HH TAB 0 (}HH '

-.6
be correlated with

H-
,.., -
Bis I b

I
- )
l\-
.J'

7.66
I

!
I
i
II
I

I
 I

I
t
I
'

I
I

'
I I

II
I


l I l I n I mi: e:rl
l

con iition have been determined, use them to find Trn, ,, H and ~,-
_o
un1ing Tc 170 1\IeV ancl T Tfo 100 e V.

CalClllate Ncorr
ll

'
I

'
I
I
'I
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I


'

n ro UC Ion Ill


eav ion co rsrons

masses rather than a fixed value. uarkonium states bound states of

I

easy to see after subtraction of the like-sign pairs. A disadvantage of
the quarkonium states is the fact that they are hadrons. They will
' interact strongly with other hadrons in the medium. Their interac-
I
I

'I

tion cross sections are typically lower than those of normal mesons d ue

. to their smaller radii. This last statement is particularly true for the
I

'
I
a mass of 3. 097 Ge V ancl the Y a bb bound state with a mass of 9 .46
I
'
GeV.
I

I
I

I
I
,

I
I
385
,

I
,

1
 f.
J J

...,.,_ .

- .

_. 1

its subsequent interactions.

Since the J -nucleon cross section extracted from photopro ic io _
measurements was small, ~ 1-3 mb 121 , hadronic mechani . . . n or J
suppression were assumed to be negligible. However, this sm 11 cross
section is still large enough to make the A dependence nonlinear in

The J has been studied in nuclear collisions since the first mea-

e first
'
I

I
I

t

I
''
I

 11 l 111

l .

r:

r '

lated to the strong coupling constant with a color factor to account for
s .iation over color indices, O:c 4 3 0'.8 The shorter the distance

'
'
I

I tot

8.2

i

I
. . 2 12 . two n1ass ess qt1ar . . . .
I

. 7" r0 1n c ==
I I t, t e ve OCI y
 1
I
I

I

I
I

dr a
I
I

-;::==:::::;: . 8.3 I
I

o 1 v2
I

I


I
I
i11tegral becon1es 7r 2. Then the integral is I
I

I

rr/2 cos BdB
I
E == 2 a r 0 --;:=======;:= == 7r ar o . 8.4
0 1 sin2 e I
Likewise, the angular momentt1n1 is

ro draur
I
---;:::======: .
0 1 v2 8.5
'
I
Making the same substitt1tions as in Ec1. 8.4 , we have I
'

Replacing Eqs. 8.4 and 8.6 for E ancl J in Eq. 8.~), vvc find I

8.7

for a 1 GeV 2.
I


'

'

related to the quarkonjurn mass, M, by

I

8.8 I
I

I

'1
I
I
I

I
I
I

I
I
I

I
r I
 I

-
t nc < n

J l 1
1

1J'(4160)

1J'(4040)
, '

>Q) 1/1(3770)
DD threshol
'-
0 ,,,,
- - - - "''1.,, (2S)- - - - - - - - -----------

rn
rn -..- -
(lj
Xc0(lP

170(1S)

= 0 + 1 o++ 1++ 2++

transition lines inclicate hadronic feed-down decavs while the r i: _

I
'

l
I
I

I
I

mass o a pair o - open ea
'
II
l
 HH I ~T f

(
i 1 ol -
J I
ick r hile
r J h nn .,r line
i 1 in w a s: thr gh

real J decay width is 87 keV 3 while the width of the ' is 277 keV.
1
The quarkonium levels are reminiscent of the positronium e e
bound states spectrum. The rJc and J correspond to parapositro-

state respectively. In the positronium system, the "ortho" state t -

ically de-excites by photon emission to parapositronium which then

decays to two photons. Likewise, the J decays 1.3% of the time to

I
T/cr There is no hadronic J > T/c-LY decay channel since the mass

'

'

'
the other hand, the TJc width is 13.2 MeV, giving a lifetime of 15.2 fm
'

 8. 2. uarkonium level. at. T ==

T(l 1020)

T(10860}

-

T(4S)
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ BB threshold
-------- ---------
T 3S

..... ""'

'

j T(1S)

71b(lS)

'
= 0 + 1 o++ 1++
I

Figure 8.2: The bottomonium family with quantum numbers, The

I
I
I
thick transition lines indicate hadronic feed-down decays while the thin-

j
I
I
ner lines indicate radiative decays. Unconfirrned states are shown as
'
dashed lines. Speculative but unmeasured states are not shown. The
I
I
BB threshold is also shown.

'

I
I
I
I

I

I
I
I
'

lit .i 11 i11 PJJ 1._1,J11 ct J 1 .

lll ' 11 l r s ==
pr lu i 11 ft 111 th

c d

JI 'V --------d 7t

c '-------d -
7t
u

D
c c
'

t1pper figure .

I

 c
- .

'Th11s the q iark lines in the initial and final states are connected. Tr s

'"'

) 0
favored.
-
This OZI suppression for quarkonium states with masses below the
H H threshold leads to much larger branching ratios to lepton pairs
than states above the open heavy flavor thresholds. Thus these states
are readily visible as peaks i11 the t: l continuum while states abo-v-e
t eshold are not.

'
t e comover enhancement scenario

'

'
I
'

0

T

I I 1

l 1 1 1 JU .10

I I1

1 .n ap-
l ile di. c

stricted to be less than twice the mass of the lowest mass meson that

011 the cc pair mass is then 2m u-

The color evaporation model assumes that the quarkoniurn d __ 'Ilam-

ics are identical to low invariant mass pairs although the pairs
are t ica11y produced in different color, angular momentum. and spin
states than the final charrnonium states. The hadronization of the

color field "color evaporation''. The

and the either combine with

avore hadrons when the partonic center-o -rnass ener s is less

) '

cross
'
'

I
I
I
I
I

I
 ..9.

on um p oduci on
395
G i1
)
"' rr H
-
Fr.
- ds ?

1-,J

these nonperturbativo matrix elements are combined into the univer-

Xe, the model successfully predicts the ener and momentum depen-
dencies 138 . Note that e.g. F'ljJ includes both direct J 'ljJ production
and indirect production through racliative clecays of the Xe states and
ha onic ' decays.
Since Fc must be a constant for the model to have any predictive

'

I
da 1
i
I
I 0 0

x y
I
2 X2

1 2 8.14
flB Xo1, Xo2; '

I

I
I
 396 8. . uarkonium I

m S exp y and '

4 2 B 2 2 8.15

+ B 2 2

q u,d,s

The leading order partonic cross sections are 139

2
CTgg m 111
m m

8.16
'

2
CTqq m A, 8.17

where ,,\ == 1- The leading order strong cou pling constant

. .
IS

33- A2 8.18

the number of light flavors. The cross section can also be expressed as
a function of the fraction of the total longitudinal momentum carried I

by the pair, Xp x1 x2,

8.19 I

2mH I

8.20

I
 -

l l
l 1111 1i Il a
lie sa - ..
CIO i 1 7 .

f Fc f 1 l e indi /id l 11a ko s .. ~

c i . has J en rneasur -d i pp ar p, 1 .. era
0
5:3 GeV. The clata are of two types: the fo .:ar er s _E

a x F > 0 , , ncl the cross section at zero rapidit; < de I cl?J Y 0. _

cros section are inclusive with feed down from Xe and 1..:1 deco. -s..

norn1alization of Eq. 8.13 using the cc parameters in Ref. j127. T .E:

ratio of the direct production cross sections to the inclusive .J 1_ cross

section can be determined from data on inclusive cross sect on ra ios
and branching fractions. These clirect ratios Re, give11 i11 Table S. I. are
multiplied by the inclusive fitted F1;'1/J to obtain the direct production

Table 8.1: Direct quarkonium production ratios, Re==

C'' .] and T. From Ref. 142 .
, .
'lj, y Y' 1'' Xb ,lP \b ,2P.J
J Cf I
Xc1 Xc2
0.62 0.14 0.60 0.99 0.52 0.33 0.20 1.08 0.8-
Re

The same procedure, albeit somewhat more complicated due to

the larger number of bottomonium states below the BB threshold. is
followed for the bottomonium. For most data below S 100 Ge\,.,

section at y 0 for the three Y states. The extracted fit fraction

'
 -

8. uarkonium

i l

Y2 s

obtain the direct botto1nonitim cross sections.

'
'
10 3 -
- - - - -
- - ~

<,

l
-


<,
<, I
102
- -


-- <,

<, <,

# '
<,
'

<,
' , '
<,



<,

<,
. ,_ '


<, . '-
-,
-,
.. -,

' . '\
-,
\
\

.\
10 1
\ . ''
\ '

\

- !I

I

\
..\
''
I
0. 00

0.25
0.75

I'
I
eV in the E I
I
I

'

'

IC

I
I

I

I

 0 39.9

I l f I od ic i rans erse mo-

1 b g r l 1 l Q n well. Thi s he associa .ed
11 ch l s l au 01e, 1ric ~ 0.25 and c:, rru, ~ J
r . on 11 ight l101)e that it w ild be possible tr) calculate he
f 11 vy quark 11iLt111 pr ducti n and decay accurately ir. . per ur-
ti 1 the r r. However, there are clearly low momentum, nonpertur-
b tive effects c ssociatecl with the dynamics of the quarkonium bound
tate that make the direct application of perturbation theory question-
able.
I11 order to make use of perturbative methods, one must first fac-
torize the short distance high momentum, perturbative effects from
the long distance low momentum, nonperturbative effects. One conve-
nient way to carry out this separation is through the use of the effective
field theory Nonrelativistic CD NR CD 134, 144, 145 . NR CD
reproduces full CD accurately at momentum scales of order mqv
and smaller, where v is hea quark velocity i11 the bound state in
the center-of-mass frame, v2 ~ 0.3 for charn1011it1111, and v2 ~ 0.1 for
bottomonium. Virtual processes involving momentum scales of order

are taken into account through the short distance coefficients of the
operators that appear in the NR CD action.
Int approach, the partonic quarkonium production cross section -
f

can be written as a sum of the products of NR CD matrix elements

and short-distance coefficients:

'

o c 0 . 8.21

'

I
I

'
j'

c eterminec
l

to
I

I
'
'
i
I

I'

'
'
i


l l

1
dx1dx26 XF - X1 : X2)
t)

n 0

A 2
]. X2, -d-.
-1 n
m n
Q

- -

I
l
I
I
I
!
I
 0

I .J J
l
I
J1

cl J
J J

+B
I
.]
~ 20
J
dxp

11 Fig. .5 we .how a11 example of the relative . inglet and octet co -

1
'ribution to total .] , direct .] , and the sum of the three Xe
contribution to J production at Plab 920 GeV. For predictions of
the ~ R CD PT di tributions at nuclear collider energies; see Ref. 127- .

uar ressron a

In this section, J break up in a quark-gluon plasma is discussed.

The mechanism of plasma screening is first introduced, followed by the
characteristics of the suppression as a function of quarkonium PT and
plasma ener density, E, for initial conditions similar to those expected
at the CERN SPS.

The T 0 potential in Eq. 8.1 is modified at finite temperature due

I

II and are unable to form a bound state.

i
I
 ,,..
'

'
... ,

103
r
toZ 102 ..0'

... '
~
,,,,,,
~
J

ra. 101 101 rz.
:>< -
"'O "O
~

10 10 <,
b
"O '

b
(c) t \
(d) Xo "O
10-1 1
\
10

0.00 0.25 0.50 0. 75 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75

XF XF

-
a.n .-
.--!

distribl1tions are shown. The distributions are all symmetric around

Xp 0.

'
I

I

I

I
I
I
'

correlatio11 function, I' r, T , is expressecl as

I

'
I
I

r r, T rv exp r rD T I'
i
8.24

I
II
I
 I

I
-

ifi

ro T - exp 10 T

ll fi11ite-ternperat l1e po ential is the

CJ'T'D T 1 - exp
ac
- -exp r TD T

r
cc . the T 0 result is obtained.
EX~t\1vIPLE: Show that when TD - '

V\ hen TD co, T TD > 0. The confining term can be expanded. :eeping

only the first two terms,

== ar .
8.29
ar o T 1-

The Cot1lomb-like term is

I
ac --
--exp r rn T )
r

r
I
I
Thus Eq. 8.1 is regained.

It is generally more convenient to write the potential in terms of

the screening mass since it is linearly proportional to the temperature

In this case 128
i
ac -(T)r S.31
1 - e (T)r - --e

I V r,T
T

I
'

I
 . Ouarkonium
..

li

po
I

'

- - -
- - - '
- - -
,,,. '
- - - - - - - - -
'

> - - - - - - - - - - - -
~ 1 .._
- - - - .- - - - -
.- . . - .
- .-.-
..,, - - - - .. - - ..... . - - - - - - - - -
.. - . . - ---------- - - - -
..,,
. -
.,,,,,.
.. - - - - -
. --- -
-
:;;.-"'
/_

..

. - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
.
------------------
------- --------- --------- -----
- -. ------- - - _ . . . . . . .------
------- I

-1 I
0.0 0.5
1.0 1.5 2.0
2.5 3.0
r(f111)
Fig1_1re 8. 6:
I
for e with :::;:: 0.05,
"te temperatur
0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 and 1.6 Ge V
respectively.

I
I

I
I
The temperature at which the bound state radius, re, is equal to tl1e
screening len h r is the dissociation temperature, TD. The value of
TD is very sensitive to the ft1nctional form of T , as we will discuss i11
more detail soon. hen re > ro T at T >Tc, the bound state will not

at lower temperatures than otl1ers. The lowest mass S states are more
 l l h1

l
I
.
'
I
<
. l .
l l l rk

1 <:)
~

I tl

a
}1 1 . fl 1 11 . 111 l

ko1 i I e. I e1 end f t e 0

l

l .elocity f le pair

TF == tc r=":

PQQ

-
quarkonit1m state does not interact with its environment un 1 after

plasma formation time is less than Tp.

The binding energy for a given state is

E r,T

== c ;:::: 0 1

I
I
128 . Minimizing E r, T gives the radius of the bound state at each
T. For T above the critical value, {LD, there is no longer a minimum
I and the screening has become strong e11ol1gl1 to prevent the formation

mass, radius and formation time of the state. Note that this radius
I

I
 l

IJ
D
DJ
2 2 2
-
IP
cm&a s

J I
(lP 7
' ' '
'
'

1 .0)
'
-
7

l. - ') -
. Iu 1.9
- '

.JC7 .342 1 ..)65 0.6'"'"1

trb - .
ex gT l 1.50_.
T T
8.35

., T
g"'
T~ 33- :.36

hea quark potential in the high ten1perature limit, T >> Tc, yields
the constant ~ 33.8 1.51 . Depending on the form of K T Tc and
the number of light quark flavors, only some or all of the charmo11iun1

break seq t1entia11y while the J will not.

atsui a11cl atz 120 used

154
--rv4 .
I

I
'
I
l
 . . .- . . - -. ~ ' . . . . . . ... . J 11/1
- - - . . . . . - . . .. . .. .. .
- - - - - - ...

- - - - - -- -- -- -- -- -- T(2S;
0.5 - -- -- -- -- -- - - - -
. - - . -- - ...--- . ----
----- - . - - . - - . - - . - _:. -- . . . - . - - -
- -- ----- -- --

0.0 '------L._---L----1 _
2
4 6

8 ..3.5 . "-"---~-

states.

e ver re-

su ts a ong t re same mes, a so 111c Ll stat s,
 m

i h
/.L 1 )

c lig!

.} t L!OG 26()
,, 1 g 2GO
178 260
I C

Y IS 994 391
Y 2S' 386 260
314 260

I
J 'ljJ until T > 2Tc and the Y IS until T > 4Tc.
I

I

I

be more susceptible to the surrounding medium and may

r survive I

their trip through the medium, Instead they may break 11p in inte a..c-
tions with thermalized quarks and gluons,

'

I
l
ansverse momentu enst
I
I

I
e en ence '

Total J I

l
I

'
'I

\
J
''
 I 11
1
111
u
he '/ T a
ell. su] p cl. 11 h quark-gl J pl"
a

(8.39)

3
T To
8.40
Tn

suppressed. The. maximum PT at which suppression is possible can be

determined from the inversion of Ec1. 8.38 ,

8.41

EXA PLE: Calculate t o end PTm for the charrnonium states at the

== 406,
189 and 178 MeV respectively. If the initial temperature is T To 300

4.8 fin.
 I

.-2_1 I
PT h will h 1 J
hile vi; 7. 1

11 fi11ite c lfl 1 .
I
' . f the systern. c

2 1/4
8.42 I

so to 0 R '
. r resonances I
I
I
I

'I

at the transverse radius rs given by t o rs t, Ij

1//3 1/2
t
rs== R 1 -

tn 0

8.43 I
'

In general, if the pair is created with transverse posi tion x!' == I

I'
I

will form a bound state at xi" Tp 1 + Pr 2, r' + Tp'flr 'M; O,. If

I
T' + rppy > rs, the pair escapes and forms the bound state. I

I
I

!
I
of a plasma, I
I

R
S' PT I
R I
' 8.44 I

!
1-
I

'
I

z < 1 '
I
I

(} r, Pr 1
cos z z < 1
' 8.45
I

I
0 z > 1

'
'
I

I
I

'
II
'
'
I
'
'
 p

n z- ,.,,. 1

1.0
7 1.0
I I
I
I I I
I
I I I I
I
I I I
I ' I
I
I I \
I r ...
I I
l \.Ii,;
I I
'I I -

I
'
I
I
' \
0.5 v:
I I \
\
I
' I
\ \
/
/

I
/
/ a
b \

\
\

/

,, / \
\
/ / \

,,, .
.,,.
/ ;'
;'
'
'...
., '
0.0 0.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 0 2 4 5

GeV fm3
I

I
Fi re 8.8:

for T To 300 Me V, t0 1 fm and R Rs. The solid curves show

the result for the J , the 'dashed for the J1 and the dot-dashed the
Xe == 1 there is no suppression.
'
I
I
)
'

I
The survival probability, S PT , for the charmonium resonances as-
,
suming T0 300 MeV, t0 1 fin and a quark-gluon plasma with
transverse radius equal to the radius of a sulfur nucleus A 32 is
I
'
I
'I
,
shown in Fig. 8.8 a . The suppression, when it occurs, is nearly total

at Pr ~ 0. No details of the collision geometry are included which
'I
would tend to reduce the overall suppression near PT 0. The J is
I
'
I
not suppressed because the initial temperature is not high enough.
I
'

i
'

'
E, can be calculated analogously to Eq. 8.44 . Since the entropy is
'I

'
''
I
I

I
'
I
I
'
'

'f
'

'
I
'
 I

412

the plasma, 'Yqgp,

'

T 3
E T. 8.47
lie

. the critica energy

Me V t e en ica ,

I
I

I
I

I
I'

I
Xe states are stippressed. I

At the CERN SPS, quarko11it1m prodt1ction is truly rare. For SNN ==

I

20 Ge V, the total cc cross section is on the order of a few micro barns I

while the J prodt1ction cross section is about a factor of 50 smaller.

A cc pair will be produced in one out of about 10 Pb+Pb collisions I
I

I
I
I
I
I

'

I
I
,
 r 1

-
a IL .J.. ah ~v .
11 Ct
-1 - .. ~

while i11 .4.B colli .ion

. -x

t -

grated A dependence, a is t ically Jess than unitv. It decre se _

creases with A, an effect known as py-broadening. Similar tren :. have

'
been observecl for both Drell-Ya11 dileptons and 1 production -' :.... .

I
'

and references.
l

I
I

'

,
'I
 414
'
I

? ro ortion . .
spa e 111 . A 11t1c
su ere 160
I

8.50

2 - I .
8.51 I

2 ro ortiona o I

. en1enta 1ncrea
sub-collision, T e 1 erenc ' -'4 ' I

I I
8.52 I
I

I
I
I

I I
'
I J
'
I I
I

8.53 I
I
If there are no nuclear effects, a 1, as deter111i11 I
I
I
I
!I
I
I

I
I
I I
I I

I
'
'

I I
I

I
'
I

I
I
nucleus do not e ave li e t
I
a function o x an scale. I
I

I
J
'
I
I '
 -C)

~ J - .
l

interaction occurs. However, the quarkonium states can also interac

with hadrons in the final state, either the nucleons already in the s -s-

nium and comoving with it, 'comovers'. Here we will show one sim-

I
I Ref. 163 .

'

I
'''
I 8.5~
I
I'
I
'
'
b is

thee
00
00

eff b 8.55
I A
I
'I
-oo z

I
I

I
I
 8. Quarkonium
41" I
'
I
I

'
I
I
For illustrative

I
r
over impact parameter. Let I
I
I
8.56

so that
I

8.57 I
z j

I
I
I
I

I
Zrn Zrr.1 I
2
O'C1VP0 d2b dz dz'
Z111
I
Zm z
d2b dz km z I
'
Zm

ZmZ

I
I

I '

8.60 I

l
 0

n
1611 r2
ac r ::::::; --~ 1 -
9 Q .

Tht1

o t 1en1 obvious. p . . . . . ~
necessaril sm
ex a11s1011 of . . 1 ') ~

O"h,4. c rs.63
== exp ucN PoL ,
O"h1V . C

I
has

l

I
charge density distributions, tabulated in Table 3.1 of Chapter 3 di-
I
I
rectly i11 Eq. 8. 55 and integrate it nnmcricelly .
'

calculation with Aa is linear. The exponential form in Eq. 8.63 has

!I
II

I
'l
I

'I
'
'
I
I
I
In a

I
I

I
'''
 I
.o---o
0

e "' dependence of J w production ~

1

0 he formula exp ac1 p0L dashed er r

1 ymbols . All re ults are for ac. 4.

0
o zn on he y axi .

ha a univer: al value of a constant cross section can fit all the at as

fu ctions of A and S'. Instead, in such a11 analv i ... , all other e e -
~'

are included in this 'effective' cross section.

T, ere ar also clifferent models of quarkonium f 1'111ati >11 ,-Iii --11 -
is pro cl uced i11 a col 1 ctet 01 c l 1 si 1..__l
st t or some adi ixt ur f the tw , as i11 th

pro uction n n1s111 a
tion or e h st at ' as a11~
'11a -st e al 11)t1i 11. st 111

l
 0

1 J I

l n


1

1 l
1 1B p-
IC 1 l
S~ J
l l

1 l 1 Jt ) :,' J 0 ') . - 1-
11}' tl

l
1 fJ, fJ - 1 n as ed . h [..>- ;,~
ior

roruc comovers

The A dependence due to comovers alone is determined from

8.6-

where the probability that the bound state survives its interac ions
with comovers is 164
I
'

Sb ~exp 8.65

' The

I

'

l
'



armcs
f
'
'

f
i
i
'
I
J
j
1 TJ
I

r n T, ~ n 8.66
'
I
7r R2 To y
l
I

I ity
,
I

l
e num er o participant nuc e-
I

,
nan e
',
I
I
'I

. Q uar otiustri

r
h
1 r () t e ra-
J p p . .

grow with center-of-mass ener 166 .

may be recast as

dJV TJ
Sb ~exp O"wcoV
8. 6'(
'
'
To

Fallowing the expansion and re-exponentiation

needed to arrive at
Eq. 8.60 , the cornover A dependence is

ahA .c 9 dN TJ
A1/3
~ exp =oln
AahN -c To I

exp (8.68
' I

suggesting that quarkonium-comover interactions have a11 depen-

uc eons an I

I
I

I
II

I
l
b . 8.69 I
'I

l
f
or eac I

1/3 I
~exp TJ+
f""'-.J
f""'-.J
I\

'
,
i
'
l
 a t

l
l h c c.L 11
i 1 l n l l l a
ntri u ion l ue .J C l or ::iCI' ~ l i n g - 1 (j 7 .

transverse energy, Er. Rather than presenting the J '!/J Er dependenc-

alone, it was given relative to Drell-Yan prodt1ction in the same IL3"5

region to eliminate systematic unCertainties. The Drell-Yan ra e under

the J peak in the dirnuon invariant mass distributio11s was obtained
by measuring the Drell-Yan yield above the J mass and extrapo-
lating to the lower mass region by calculation. assuming a linear _4.

The RHIC . 1 data have so far been presented as a function of

s
-


l f .:r gi .en 10

- . (2

. ,. e the Cl

011 the part n cli tri bu tion .

alone is included. If all the charmonium states share the same nuclear

states. If the asymptotic absorption cross sections are all different, the
inclusive effective nuclear profile function for J production would be

yeff S 8. { 3
AJ/1/:inc

In addition, the survival probabilities for interactions with hadronic

secondaries and for color screening is included. Thus 164

dEr
x SAB Er; b, s p Er; b , 8.74

shown in Fig. 8.10. Results are shown for no nuclear effects solid

curves for S+ U ancl Pb+ Pb collisions. Absorption tends to flatten the

Er distribution. l

movers and color screening can be clirectly compared to data after n1t11-

'


 -

\ I
----'--'--_.:.,._..!.-~-~:.!...! 1 ... -4
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

ET (GeV) ET (GeV)

,. I

ns. ! uclear absorption alone is shown in the dashed curves for

t1r
ab orption cross section of 4.8 mb.

-
.:..il
'~
~-

sistency. The left-hand side of Fig. 8.11 compares the S l- data co

calculations with absorption cross sections of 4.8 mb rith a sm i
I
contribution from hadronic comovers and 1 .3 mb with 110 cor 1) -er
contribution . The clata are not able to distinguish between - e t ro
results and are, in fact, able to accommodate other, smaller values of

ever, the Pb+ Pb clata, shown on the right-hancl side of Fig. 8.11 could
not be fit without recol1rse to either larger comover densities dashed
! curve or inclusion of a quark-gluon plasma co11tribl1tion dot-dashed
I

I
I

I
 0

I;. s

. ... c-
> 30 30 'lJ
0 v
p -

l.()
I.()
4 .u f
~

I '\
O'l -- - ' \.
20
C)

C\l .
20
' ca
... .
... I
I
+:::i. -+:::i.
:t ::t
b b
~~ !--- .... <,
b 10
! 10 b
~

co co
a s+u b Pb+Pb

0 L_____.____.__ _
0
0 25 50 75 0 50 100
ET GeV ET GeV

and a
- 3 dot-dashed .

c an c co-
owever,
t e o -
serve 's wi e

's wi '
meson c ecays. ese
 l
l

')
.....

tc in Eq. 8 ..5.J for cL h rcl-sp.f18re r uclei .

ho :v hat L == b
voh me.
-0.
== 0.97 and 0.91. Cse the

plot it with Aa as in Fig. 8.9.

'

I

I
I
I
'
I

In thi

suggested by the factorization theorem 19 .

using the angular coverage of the BRAHl\lIS experiment at RHIC to

describe the changes in the final-state hadron distributions in pp co -
lisions over the broad rapidity range measured by BR ..L\.HI\IS. v\'"e rill

Ill

'

427
'

'

 I l l J l l
I l
- . II

I
l 1 11 l 1 l I r

- -I l l l 11

l l 11 I' 0 1 ~. 111

. ~

e - (f (J
-

"/
...,
i g

e - -(J -
e -

-,.> qqg

function of z is

dCJ e+ e t h
-,.> qq
(f
9. .

Note t

represe11tst e
na -state

carri s a 1~action .,., o t e initia

I

i
I

I
 {)
o

I
l (
1 J - -
r

11
I l~ _ ) e

l
1 1

J ~

'li .0 - _r
h I rgi

f 11

rons las d p J e
l 1k

== 1 . (9.3 ,

1
9.4
q
I

1 Z n
I
9.5
z

where and ti are constants specific to a gi ven h.

'
I
' EXA PLE: Show that the multiplicity grows as tbe log of the center-
l
of-mass ener
To determine the approximate energy clepenclence of the multiplicity, we can

the same form for both the quark ancl antiquark fragmentation functions,

I
Eq. 9.4 becomes
I
'
1 9.6

Zrn i11
z Zmin
I
or
 430

'"' tions at lea 1ng I

I
adinz order,
two ets o

I
I

looking at different final states separately.

'

I
j
I

mentation functions of u, u, d and d to charged pions would be

I
o::u ,..,,
-
n:d
-
tr; ,..,,
9.7 l
,..., D.~ ,.,.,
?' "Y
,:.,
d
,,:.;
' I
- -
,.,, ,.,, ,..,,
9.8
o:u ~
"Y
tr:u ,.,., tr:d ,...,.,

o:d
,:.,

The first set of equalities are for charged partons that become valence
quarks of the final-state pions while the second set are for those that

expect
-

s ,<.,; == D"s z 9.9

as

' '
9.10
 -

longitudinal momentum equal ancl opposite t.he lo11gitudinal mornen-

tt1111 along the thrust axis ancl momentt1n1 transverse to the thrust axis.
py, so that
I

9.11

I
Ener conservation tells us that the quark, antiquark and gllion ener-

I
the momentum fractions gives
9.12
''

I
I
I
'

9.13
q Xq '
9.1--1
I

q Xq,Xy,XL ,
9.15
g Xg, Xy,Xq XL
I
I
I

I
''
I

I
'

- . .
 L

? ? ? ') )
4x--q - x-q
1

inz Eq. . .12 , the first term i11 Ec1. 9.21 become

X. r1 + x-r1 2
2- 2 2
g .:..._
wl il the second becomes
.2
1"r -
-r1

l
I

I
 , .
"'n I ,I o-2

b K - 1 -
10 ..., '10-4
1 o-5 '-----"'- - ..____
o.oo o.as o.so _o__..7_5_ 1.000.00 ------- 10-5
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
z z
101

- .
..... ......

10-1
, ' ..... .
..... .
N
... ,, 10-2 ..... .
...... .

I ..... .
0 .......
. . ...,.
10-3 c p ,.

.... .
....
10-4

10-5
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
z

I.

'
'
'I
I
I
'

I
I
i
I

I
I
II
I
I
I

I
I

!I
I

I
 I

. . . . . r, he tc" and rr
. , . . . . lobal charge
. _ ~. . se arates I

'

flavor mesons, D 175 and B 176 . '

I

GeV, a typical value for RHIC. The hadron production by produced

'

the charged pions from u and u are identical, as anticipated in Eq. 9.7. '

tion by quarks and antiquarks soon dominates, particularly for kaons

I
'
I
I'
'

I
'
'

I
I

da ep > h
------ex
z 9.24
q

I
I
I

''
 -

r11 . -
q. h rs
.-. -
Iv

- -

-
1-. 16

da pp hX () 11 ax de
cm
2pr --- dx1
dpy .
e min sin ecm

--

The momentum of the other producer pa1 ~011 11 lie _ _ 'C --e -_

Eq. 9.33 . Tl1e integral over center-of-mass u atr.erinz nzle . , ain

ax

The 2 > 2 harcl scattering partonic cross sections i11 Eqs. ~ .:...5 - . ._

'

'
I
I

7 1/ -
l 17 l
7
DO cl (:8Ilter-
r.J
-,.
,,/ {j / ._)_).
> JJ
cm -
II
0
< < 1 . ( 11

( 9. 3-1
T] = - 111 tan B m 2 .

From this vre can infer that

(9.35;

TJ 1.2 gives Bern 33.5.

1
.... 11e

'), i11

b
e ragrnen-
llt o pre ict

ue to

Ill lVI ua

centra r; 111, g uons are proc ucec a most eql1a gg a11 t

qg ) qg c anne s. 1e q,g c ranne is somew at arger or PT > 5 e .
 -
~
0- z: s;;r

I
-
..c
e
.. . -
.... 10-
c, -
10-7

b .... ..,
10-
...
'"d ....
... -

0 10 0 5 1

Pt GeV Pt Ge
, ... 10-t
>Q)
'\ I
10-2
(!)
10-3
c g
I \
,.0
10-4 \

I s
'
" 10-5
J

E-< '
o, 10-6 '
..... ....
'"d
10-7

....
....
e-,
--
<, ....
.. ..
b 10-8

..

'"d

..

I 0 5 10
PT GeV
I

I
l

'

I

!

II

I
I
are gg

lI

I
!

I
I
I
'''
'
 0

1 1
P.
l l
l ] l
1 . -- .
1 l
fj j
l 11

I l 19 l 1

in 2 1 ( . l .., . cl , , 11'1' J ,\' .

111 1
n de
11
h

ction, 1.4 Ge V. The distributions steepen as 77 increases since -e

at lower PT

>

1
, .. 10

o l 0 -5

-
10-6 -
.....
,. .,, 10-7 -7
E-
0-.. 10- l I r -

\
--
- -
10-2 ' 2
b
c 1] 2.2 d 7]
'.J
...)

I '"V 10-3
'I . '-;: ---

-
,_


.... - "':
10-4

--
~ -

-
1 r. -._,
.
' 3 - .J

--....




c

10-0


.
. .
. .....
....... '.....
~
-_,-

.





.....
.....
. .....
' ~.___-~____.::::-
~J lQ-?

'
10 0 5 10
0 5

Pt GeV pT GeV

dashed .
1

and t e
charged kaons
3. 2 .
total solid in a

win ow. Thus the actual x1 and x2 fer a given interaction can be '--

il et ere is some variation with nal-state hadron, it is rather small

I

)
2


I n t e centra TJ 111, X1
'
' c ecreases.
increases wit 7J w 1 e X2 x1 an

I ecreases more s ow y.
I
increases, t .ie va ence quar ~ c istri ll-

''
 0

-- - --
-- - --
- -- -
,
,
- -
,

0 5 10
Pr (GeV)

olicl 17 1 dashed . 'Tl ==

and 77 3. 2 clottecl .

tions become more important. Above x r-: 0.05 the valence quar are
the largest contribution to the u and d quark densities. TI1us the a-
lence quarks will play a dominant role in quark-initiated scatterings,
increasing the importance of quark production relative to antiquarks
and gluons at high PT, especially when combined with high 77. In the
bin with 77 3.2, X1 1 at PT ~ 10 Ge V.
r-;

The increase of x1 with PT is rather smooth and the results i11

the 77 bins are almost parallel to each other. This is not the case for
I x2 . The slope of x2 as a function of PT changes slightly. 111 the most

room or x2 to remain small while x1 is close to unit r.

e have notecl that these average x1 and x2 valu s are in nsitive t
rnost details o - the calculation. However, 11e 3. tor the r are sensiti re

I
I

I
 I\
- - -r- -
- - - -
- -- - - - . . - -

... - - - .
.- - .
. .
- . - - . -
... ... ... . _, ,,. .
... ... - . - . - . .
... - -

- - - - -
,,

- -





. . .
~

0 5 10

PT (GeV)

rJ 3.2 dotted .

Thus the average x values are biased more toward the behavior of the .

large nucleus, neutrons outnumber protons, making more valence d

are smaller in nucle11s-nl1clet1s collisions than in pp collisions.

I

loses less than half of its momentum to the produced hadron. Since
I
I

!
j
442

1.00

- ..
-

.. .. .. -

.. .. ..

0.75


...

.. ..
-

.. ..

- - - -

.. - - - -

/\


.. ,
- - - -


N
v

.. .. - - -

,,, - - -

..
.. - - - - -

-
-

0.50
-

0.25

0 5 10

pT GeV

as a
dot-
I
I

or z < 0.6.

w ere pion pro-
 l

0
,
2 '

c
0 -
------
0 0 ,____.__
------
--'----------_ --- -- ----- --
,::: 10 ------
0
- - - -
- I

/ I

I I

/
I
2.2 ( d ) r;
I
I

/

-

0. 0
- - -
'--------_ - - - - - - - - -
0 5 10 0 5 lC

' PT GeV p., GeV

solid in a TJ < 0.2.

== 3.2 .

duction by quarks becomes larger. From Figs. 9.3 and 9.8. we see tr at
this occurs at the point where the quark frag1nentation function to
I

I
I

I
I

i
I

I
I

9. H adronization

1.0

c:
0
--
.., - - -

- - -

..c
:1
- - -

--
s... - -

>
,,
,, -

~
,,
0 ,,

c..> ,..

0.5 ,,
,,
' ,;

~
,;

0
......
.., ,;

o
' - - ------- -
s... - - - - ------ --
~
--

0.0 10
0

PT r-; 3.5 e .

an a 0

o-vv Pr
an proton pro uction.
 r
-J

-
--
-
~

0
u
o.~ ,
,
a:l
c
,,
/

0 ,
-' )
/

o \
. -. ,

(0

"""
Pr..

0.0 :------1. __ ---L .__ _

0 5 10
Pr (GeV)

antiproton product: on fror

and gluons solid in 17 <
0.2 .

cific circumstances of the BRAHlVIS detector because the resu..s are

not necessarily intuitive. 111 addition, the data show that nuclear ef-
'I fects are important. Already in d +Au collisions at S1v 200 Ce V. 1
-

nucleus collisions in Chapter 5. The clepletion increases at, more 01-

I
I

I
 I

I I

1
1 11 -

1 J

l .
'-

~-
0

1 Pr c J 111 I re _ .
)I.
pio 1 r1- tio in lJ : irn ac parame e_ - - -~- -
l - .

1 r ntation function or the PJJ 1i1e8. ureme .its can .c

r e o the pp level a the impact parameter mere e ....

c der tood in term of the e ' e fr agrnentat ion run -

icle t effects that may be pre ent in heavy-ion colli

eco ination

n in with om ving par tons to f 1111 111e 011... and

f th arvons I~
'

tl l1a1ed \ .it l
~. It Il
l r f 1 Il , t ::)
I I' j . . t iI e ' t't 1 ... -
11 < 1 sl l l .Y . '< t int 1 nous wit 1
1 t.c J:g'--' .
11 11111 111
 9. 'J.
447

Tl1e dorninam 0.
. . c

The general.

1
ex -=----
I

'

I
n i Ii2 J\f2 9.36

'

I
quarks 183 .
l . l

:.-
ri 1 a11 cl ti 0
I
where n is the number of partons i11 the state. Assu111i11g it is s cient
I
I

I
dPrc
'

n m2- 9 .3 r
dx, dx; h.
I

'
j
'

I
I
when
I
I
I dPrc
C Xe x1 dxc~~~~~~
I dx, dx; Xe

Xe
2
'
+ 2Xc 1 +Xe ll Xe 9.38

e seconc 5 an
 9. H adroniza.tion

Ill

l l 1 11

l
fr 1

11

11

D: and J\: distributions peak at Xp 0.4 and 0.6 respectively. Thus r-;

the intrinsic charm contribution to the total cross section naturally pro-

projectile at forward Xp, see Ref. 21 for more details and references.
-

,,,-..... ....
,,"' .
/ ' " '
' ."
\ '.
I
I
.( '.
I
I
.' \
\
\

I \

I
. I \
\ \

I
I
I
. I
\
\
\

\
I
I \
I \

1-
I . I \
\ \

I
I
. I
\

\

I I
.' \
\

I

I \
I \

\ \

\ \
\
\ \

o~~~~--~----~-- '' \

' '
o.oo 0.25 0.50 0.75
1.00
XF
 I

l
It l l
- ..
~

1 l
1 . l i 11 i, I
l il l
- )

bination

-I
-- .

'

I oss .ons
I
In this section, we briefly discuss a mechanism that col ld ca ise tr
f
'

I
.

!
uce
I

I
l

sions t rat trans ers some its

I
j,
I

I
 450

<<iI ' fragmentation

:::::.. Z<1

recombination

In the 2 > 2 scattering kinematics, two partons are prod LlC back

 ~l

n Y ra el
r: J 1r:., .ow . o 1 1a y 0

, o 11 e 1 s t 11. r J

1 e t eel into it r . r
- 1 ec at the CPr

. a. a neith- r-

'

a c

oss scenarios. In a and b
'
pro uce at t e sur ace o t e me
I
tangentia to t e me ium an

I
I t
I

I
I
i

1s ener y oss mec . .
at wor <
a AA
1
at o

IS oun
I

111 ot

t ou ......
n
ener oss can e t1a11 1 ec r
 452

. . . , inter actions a
. . 0 osite side ac ron as
' . . . r to that of the t1n-
.. ress1on 1s absent

the uark Matter conferences.

is arge

g uon
ener argest
qg > qg, at

e nuc eus- nuc eus resu ts

. '
w

ener res,

t e me rum
'
OCllS
 n
l 1

I
I

I
I

I!
''
'
'
I
I
I
I

l
I
i

I
I
I
II
I I

I
I
I
 9. Hadrunization

1.

2. f ~v 1 == do e]J rr 1Y ,
Ec1. . 9. r . 8 to calc ila c

..,, - ,..,,
..., N17 ,.._,
9.39)
,.,,
;..;
N7r- -
.v
p

if the proton and neutron consist 011ly of valence quarks.

3. The CJ\tIS experiment covers the largest part of full phase space
of all the LHC detectors. It has coverage for muons i11 the re-
gion r; < 2.4, hadronic calorimeter coverage for r; < 5 and I

specialized calorimeters at 5 < 77 < 7 and 77 > 8. Calculate the

corresponding Bern covered by the various detector components.
I
I

4. Calculate the charm quark distribution frorn the intrinsic charm

model to derive Eq. 9.38 . I
I
I

I
I

I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
I

lI

I

I

I
I

I
'
I

I
'


.,

5 may be found on web. COl_ITt E:5"'" -

'J

I
of '""NIPAS F\,.L~-

sia

J
I
in the Particle Data Book, S. Eidelman et al., Phys. Lett. B 592
I
I

2004 1.
I
l
'

I
I
6

I
'

mos
I
1992 ?.433.
I
I
7

2 e1 e
I '
I
I ev. Lett .. 86 0001
I
I

c er et a .
''
I
-

. . . aar
I 1 ar iv.nuc -ex 4 1026 ; ams.I

I
I
4 5
It

l
t
I
'

I

I
l

-

i et al .
- . P. c:_,, .
. I

10 11 ] cJ -

train . on 11ew physics.

11
antiproton. html

- 12

and L. N. Lipatov, Sov. Nucl. Phys. 15 1972; 6r5: G. _ tarelli

and G. Parisi, Nucl. Phys. B 126 1977 298.

13 F. Abe et al. CDF Collaboration , Phys. Re c~

-
2418.

14 A. Bodek CDF Collaboration , 'Presented at ~ ih I ertui-

tional Con erence on High-energy Physics ICHEP 96 r aui.
Poland1 25-31Jul1996, edited by Z. Ajduk and A. I~. \\.roble\\ ki. 0

orld Scientific 1997 p. 1438.

1.5 Rev. Lett. 7 4 19951

8.50 arXiv:hep-ex 9501008 .

16 R. D. Fielcl, Applications o Perturbatioe

1989.

1
17 'terman et al. CTE
199.5 1.57 .

18 . Drell ancl T.
'

I
I
I
'
 .J. _;. lli . ..
(
19. 101 r '
1 .l. Pry . B 261
ti - l b ~3'.3 ; P ~ rt u r ba i 1., r; rD
1 "S .... r . D ' '.J ~ ' J ..J ~

a11c . l tern1. 11 .,

. 1 13 t .
'JQ
P~ev. Lett. 80

)1
2000 Sl05 ar Xiv.hep-
p11 00112g 8 .

2?1J

23

?.4 J\I.
arXiv:hep-ph 9806404 .

25 J. F. 1979 150.

26 7 1999

ucl.

27
ein, Eur. hys .. -; 10 1999

. . . ev1n an

1
'

ys.

c erran, argese
..... ancu,
,....,
ers ectives on ot an atter,
lummer . . .

ll


1 r1 LV. p-r: 1 - ) , .

<.l 0c - -
' (. .
-

34
Part. Sci. 55 2005 271 ar Xiv.nucl-ex 0502005 .

3.5

36

3'r' K. Hencken and G. Baur, private communication.

38 , Phys. Rev. C 66 ?002

044906 arXiv:hep-ph 0206220 .

39 M. Stri ev. ett. 96. 082001

2006 arXiv:hep-ph 0508296 . I

40 D. ri ths, T
1987, 1 ey,
New York.

41
I
l

1 I
42 . e ager, . e I
tomic __ ata an I
I
ata Ta les 14 1974 485.

arzeev, evin an

I

, '
u t en an c I
. agawara, m
I

'
ys, 21
I


I


21. ' I
I

usza anc
I

'
I
 -

I
I 1
1 .,

l z. .

I )

49
-

so J. Ftac:11ik
188 198 ( 2 r9 .

.51
einer Phys. Rev. D 37 198: :3~3R.
r-

53
20.s.

,54 ... . orensen et al. A80 olla oration), Z. Phvs. C 38 '19 -- ~

: .
I
I

I 5,5 arzeev ett. B 507 2001 1 '._

J
iv.nuc -t
'

l


ogt, eavy on 39.
I

I

a ., nt.

I
I 4114

iI
' i z c, ar 1 v: e p- I 1
I
I


P. J tv 11i
v. 7 2005

61

1980,
63

64

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I
I

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I
I
I
1

192
I
I
'

'

I_; o t o 111 6 1 ) ~j - fJ . 3 . , 2 . ~1 ., . 0 2 .
412
bottomonrum 38() 387. 3B~ . 3rJ: -
392. 397. 399
BRAH .. 1IS s 427. 435 436. 4--15-
ALICE 6 446
Breit- igner .54; 361
201, ?92 Brookhaven N atiorial Laborator- v

.LL\TL .LL\ S 6 3 4, 117 12'(' 224; 385

axial-vector
center-of-mass frame 9 17 18.
charge 335
42 44, 49, '(7) 98, 223-
current 335
224, 240
centrality ll'f, 128 129, 13-. 14?.
bag constant, B 201, 210, 218, 273, 276
243, 245 246, 255 Er: see transverse energy
bag moclel 196, 199 201, 211, 246 Eznc: see zero degree en-
Berezin integrals 328 329 ergy
-241, multiplicity: see multiplic-
371, 409 ity

ber of
coll: see collisions, number
of
363 stopping: see stopping
187, ERN 3 4, 6, 20, 61, 117, 12'/,
oson

 J 1 2)
"7 7 { - 11
11 1 1 1 l 1
2 ') =

[l l 11a r ni _; 7.J
.5~ 11 .
120 122, 129. 1-13
emic 1 p entis I, J-L 101, 1.-9-
160 1 .3 164 16 . 1 1-
1 2. 1 5 } . , I , } 9 202
204, 206. 20 210, 216-
284 287' 289' .34?
21 230 232 245, 352-
354
cl iral ymmetrv 154, 200, 333, deconfinement 341, 345, 34 f 349
336, 341, 345, 347 349 9.
chiral eusceptibility 348 349 60, 65 66, 72. 91
C 1S 6 dileptons 72, 360
collisions, number of, 117,
Neall as backgrot1nd 360
119, 122 123, 126, 144, thermal 272, 370 3 1' 1 1

272 other sources 382, 386

color evaporation model CE

394 398
color-glass condensate 91, 248,
446 ' '
86
color octet 399 401, 418 I
color screening 386, 401, 405-
410, 413, 421422,424-
425
382 I

uctio11 I
I

comover en ancement scenario

g cross section I

comovers 41 , 419 42 actor 1 I

I

con nement , 2, 1
I
4 '42
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baryon 216 21'""

an der
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182
me 011s 213 214
Ey: see trans .. erse ener J 1f .
;, v

229 232 245

319
lattice 349
Eznc: see zero-dezree
0 enerzv
C.J

205, 246 factorization 73. 42 f

_1 p;;. . ..
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zero temperature nucleon gas
208 164, 217, 362 363
ener 0 , kinetic: see kinetic en-
199, 329
er 0
cnerg loss 415, 427, 449, 451- ferrni statistics 161 162
452
319, 324 326, 331 333
197' 22.5) 227 229 345, 347, 353
partition function for 189\ 19~.
' 195
I 172

I
II 411 flow 274 276

nite temperature, massive

J... nite temperature, massive -406,408-
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mesons 215 409, 419
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nzian 1 6. .... m an-field t 17. - ,_

2( ' ... 9 . 301 :J04, 338 mean-free pat 221 2 2-2

:340 341, ;34 7 method of cnaracteris ics 263. 2f -

Dirac 2 1 282 mixed phase 2-!9 25~ 2-32 25~3.
255j 361 362. 3~~-37f
quantum chromodynamics 291, 372, 3r4. 377 38~
307, 319, 333 Minkowski space 29.S. 298. ~ ~~-
scalar field 303 306. 333 I

Landau initial condition 239

multiplicity 60; 240. 2, 0. . . ... 9.
429
204, 208, 210, 218
measure of centrali - 1 :_ =.. _._ 4:..
~

223, 246, 248, 361, 373- relation to hvdrodvnamic i11-

~ ~

379, 381 382, 386, 412, tial conditions ~.2-. 244-

42.5 248, 3713r3,311 382

Ncoll:see collisions, , number of

322, 325 326, 332, 342- N aether's theorem 285
345 nonrelativistic CD NR. CDI
I

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398 401, 418
I
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I 252 253, 256, 265' 267-
I

269, 371, 420 of

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nuclear absorption 415, 417, 4:20-
I
I 226 227 423

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B

-ijn .in 1

re n . ,1 e
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- 1) 2 {
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rela ion to pa
ro 'narnic eq11ations
2. 0 202, 2.37 2.38, 242, ?9 301
2 24~5 zero ten1pe_ l
le- pion gas 19.5 20.5
t 1 .5 parton 26
prodt1ction
-19,5
434 435

449 45 .
2 7 part on

e11s1 ties: see p 1~ 1

S-
.._
n 1rI r of partic es in gar,; 163, tri titian uncti 1 ...
16~5 167 pa1ton istri!

176, 347- '

4? .
' '
I n
''-'"", , (1
p 1 se coe.L ist nc
1 -
- ( ' 1)
' ' '
P 1as le g1~a111
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11L1 . ea1, 111atte1~
 J1VDE ..X:

475

C~D 352, 354 355 finit

water 150
' mesons 213 2J 4
pl1ase space L!3, 7 4, 11 O in 11 . .
phase transition 149 151 1
153 '

174, 176, 181, 196, 204, 276 ) '

I
208

first order 151, 173, 176 177,

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202 204, 249
from lattice CD 345, 34 t ,
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354 207 208
I
second order 175
PHENIX 5 343 344
I

I PHOBOS 5, 276 proper

l
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-100

I protons 25, 271

I

70 71, 86 447
I

total cross sections 5 7 60

I
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446
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I
I
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total cross sections 5 7 60

'
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f
349

I at transition 202, 204, 218 313

I I

201 93
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in t 1e neutron 70

111te temperature, massive
aryons 215, 217
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9 ? 2 _j
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T~t\R .5
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17 trong cou pling co

r i n .e 1 77, r9 1
l i 2 structure ft1nction _
l i Il 2t 6 447., 449- SU 3 291, 30 r. 30 3

319, 323, 0

flavor 333 33.J.
li 1
~

-. ' 1 1. ' l .J.- 1. 6) 1 2 - 01110\rer 419 4 .,

J, }. , 22L!, 2 Q 2

' 111
"'7'
-

,.. '
) lllJ)l:L'
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17 ' 1 . 1 1 :.. ~
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I l -
:-;,_) l ?6
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.l 11, ti l c 1 -)').....)- ' )4..., ) ' 1

'J 3
. 0 ( '
r)-4
J '
j
- ( - " '
3 I 6 . J (9 3 Q
t1a11 verse energy Er 117: 128- ~C2 74. j(l 78. - , ,_ ~::_. -_-. ~
129, 136 142 13~ -x-tl. ~
XF 75. 396 39:=,_ -x)O-~ __ 3
J w 412, 421 424
tra11sverse expansion 257, 26L1. -11-l, 4-J:G
269 271
y: see rapidity
transverse n1omentunl. broaden-
-
I ing 413, 415, 449 zero-clegree energ~ . E - - -
129, 1:35. l~O. 1-1-

u 1 286 287, 291

I t1ltra-peripheral collisio11.s upcs
I 96 97, 101
l 61, 63 64, 88, 386, 392, 397-
398
' regeneration 412
I st1ppression 404, 408, 425
I

transverse mo1nentu111 broacl-

ening 413

94, 378

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