CHAPTER - I

Introduction

Human ears can respond to sound vibrations which have frequencies in the range of 20 Hz
to 20000 Hz. Frequencies below 20 Hz are inaudible and are known as infrasonic
frequencies and those above 2000 Hz, which are inaudible are known as Ultrasonic
Frequencies.

Though human audible range is very limited, it has its own advantage and disadvantages.
The most important advantage being that man cannot hear those shrilling high pitch noises
continuously emitted around him ; for e.g. Industrial Machinery. If he could hear them it
would have been unbearable for him.

Many animals respond to much larger range of frequencies. Dogs respond instantaneously
to Silent; dog whistle which have frequencies about 24000 Hz though the human ear
cannot respond to them.

One of the most interesting example is that of the bat which uses ultrasonic vibrations for
its survival. This night flying mammal has a very poor vision but it is well equipped with
a complete, very sensitive ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. By emitting ultrasonic
waves and listening to their reflections, it can gauge the distance and fly safely between
branches of trees or densely strung wires without colliding with them.

Even though man does not depend on ultrasonic waves of survival, he has used it very
effectively in a number of fields other than Non-Destructive Testing like Medical,
Navigational & Industrial. Before we go on to actual Ultrasonic NDT we shall study the
basic principles governing sound waves in general.

Energy Motion

When we touch vibrating object, we can feel the vibrations. Vibration is a back and forth
movement which is the result of energy being transmitted to different within the medium.

A B A C

FIG.1(a) FIG. 1 (b)

If we take a ball as shown in Fig. (1) and suspend it from a string as shown in (A) and
raise it to position (B), after release, the ball will swing beyond its natural resting point
(A) and will swing back and forth in an arc CAB & BAC.

When the ball in Fig (1) is raised from (A) to (B), the distance the ball moved from its
original position, is called displacement. As the ball swings back and forth, it is displaced
in both directions from the center rest position.

RUBBER BALL

FIG. (2)

If a rubber ball is hit with a hammer, the surface hit by the hammer will move inward and
due to the balls elasticity, it will return to its normal position. This inward movement of
the ball surface is a displacement. Fig (2)

THIN PLATE PLATE STRUCK

Fig. 3
In Fig. (3), a thin plate is positioned on two supports. If the plate is struck with a hammer,
it will start vibrating. If it is a thick plate, the vibration cannot be seen. But it can be felt
by touching the plate. This is also an example of displacement.

Every material consists of small particles similar to a row of balls as shown above (Each
particle is bound by the elastic forces between the particle and the particles surrounding
it ). If the ball on one side is struck with a hammer, the vibration by the ball on the left
hand side is successively transmitted to its immediate neighbor and the process repeats
until energy transfer is complete.

FIG. (4)
Similarly, a tuning fork struck with a mallet produces sound by compressing the air. By
transferring the energy to subsequent air particles, it is transferred to the ear drums of the
listener.

MALLET
TUNING FORK LISTENER

Fig. 5

As seen from the above examples we can conclude that sound travels in a medium
because of particle vibrations. Each particle vibrates and transfers part of the energy to its
immediate neighbor. This sets up a waveform. The most important point to be
remembered is that for propagation of sound a media is most essential because without a
medium like in a vacuum, there will be no particles and so no vibration and hence no
waveforms.
 CHAPTER - II

Wave Propagation Characteristics

Sound waves are propagations of mechanical vibrations. Each particle which vibrates due
to an applied excitation oscillates its immediate neighbor and this continues till total
energy transfer occurs. Several possible modes of vibration can exist in solids. In general,
the velocity of sound propagation in a material is constant and is dependent on the elastic
properties of the material and the density. The relationship between velocity of the sound
wave V (cm/s), frequency of ^ (cm) is as follows :
V=f

On the basis of particle displacement in the medium Ultrasonic Waves are classified as
Longitudinal Waves, Transverse Waves, Surface Waves or Rayleigh Waves and Lamb
Waves. Velocity V remains constant in a given medium but differs when the mode of
vibration changes.

Longitudinal (Compression) waves have particle vibrations in a back and forth motion in
the direction of wave propagation. They travel through material medium as a series of
alternate compression and rarefaction zones. Longitudinal waves are readily propagated in
liquids, gases and elastic solids.
MEDIUM

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

PARTICLE MOTION
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

FIG. (6)
Transverse (Shear) waves have particle vibrations perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion. Shear waves will not travel through liquids and gases because forces of attraction
between molecules are too small. Velocity of transverse waves is about 50% of the
velocity of Longitudinal waves for same medium.
MEDIUM

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

PARTICLE MOTION

SHEAR WAVES
FIG. 7.

Surface waves or Rayleigh waves travel along flat or curved surface of relatively thick
solid parts. For the propagation of surface wave, the wave must be traveling along an
interface bounded on one side by the strong elastic forces of solid and on the other side by
practically negligible elastic forces between gas molecules. Therefore, Surface waves are
non-existent in a solid immersed in liquid. These waves are subjected to lesser attenuation
than Longitudinal or Transverse Waves. Velocity of surface waves is about 90% of shear
wave velocity for the same material. Surface waves can follow the curved surface
contours as long as the counter does not sharply change and are reflected from sharp
edges. Vibration of particle follows an elliptical path for surfaces waves.

Surface waves can be almost completely absorbed by excess couplant or by touching a

finger to the surface in front of the probe. Surface waves are useful for detecting surface
cracks. These waves penetrate only one wave length and are generated by directing the
incident Longitudinal Waves as its 2nd critical angle.

MEDIUM 'S SURFACE

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

PARTICLE MOTION

TEST SPECIMEN TRANSDUCER WEDGE DISCONTINUITY

SURFACE WAVES

FIG. 8
Plate waves or Lab waves have the ability to propagate through thin plates in a variety of
modes depending on plate thickness, probe frequency and incident angle. Plate waves are
generated by using Longitudinal waves which develop either Symmetrical or
Asymmetrical waves. Plate waves occupy the entire thickness of the part and without
saturating the part, the waves cannot exist.

To generate plate waves, the incident beam angle is adjusted to receive maximum
reflection from a known reflector. It is not possible to generate shear or surface waves on
materials thinner than one-half wave length. These plate waves are useful as shown below
:

TRANSDUCERS

HOLLOW EXTRUSION

FIG. 9

Two basic forms of Plate waves are Symmetrical or Dilational and Asymmetrical or
Flexural waves. Each form is further sub-divided into several modes depending on
velocity which can be controlled by the angle of incidence. Theoretically, there are infinite
numbers of specific velocities at which plate waves can travel in a given material.

THIN SHEET OR PLATE THIN SHEET OR PLATE

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

PARTICLE MOTION PARTICLE MOTION

SYMMETRICAL ASYMMETRICAL
PLATE WAVES
FIG . 10
Reflection

The simple Snells law of reflection also apply to acoustics provided the dimensions of the
reflecting medium are large compared with wave length. These laws are :

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

A B C

i r

M O N
FIG. 11

MN - Reflecting Surface
O - Point of Incidence
AO - Incident Beam
OC - Reflected Beam
BO - Normal at the point of Incidence
i - AOB = Angle of Incidence
r - BOC = Angle of Reflection

Refraction

Sound waves crossing obliquely the boundary separating two media, where the velocities
of propagation are different undergo an abrupt change in direction. This is known as
Refraction.
The laws governing this phenomenon of sound refraction are the same as those applicable
to light waves.

1. The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence and the
refracted ray lie in the same plane.
The sine of the angle of incidence bears a constant ratio to the sine of the angle of
refraction.

MEDIUM I A B

M N
O

MEDIUM II r C

FIG. 12

AOB = Angle of Incidence

BOC = Angle of Refraction

Sin i
= Constant - V1/V2
Sin r

Where V1 = Velocity of sound in medium I

V2 = Velocity of sound in medium II

Reflection and Transmission at interfaces

Normally ultrasonic wave propagation requires a medium. Every substance has a

boundary and as the wave reaches the boundary, the sound wave gets reflected, scattered
or transmitted depending upon the surface condition of the boundary, the incident sound
beam condition etc.
Let us consider two materials separated by an interface as shown below with acoustic
impedance Z1 and Z2

Material 1 : Material 2

Z1 = P1 V1 : Z2 = P2 V2
Incident wave with sound intensity Io : Transmitted wave of sound intensity IT
Reflected wave with sound intensity IR : Interface

Where, Z1 = Impedance of material 1.

V1 = Velocity of sound in material 1.
P1 = Density of material 1.
Z2 = Impedance of material 2.
V2 = Velocity of sound in material 2.
P2 = Density of material 2.

IR
---- = Reflection Factor R.
Io

IT
---- = Transmission Factor T
Io

Then it can be shown that ,

2 2
Z2-Z1 P2V2 - P1V1
IR / Io = R = =
Z2+Z1 P2V2 + P1V1

and

4Z2 x Z1 4P2V2 x P1V1

IR / Io = T = 2 2
( Z2 + Z1) ( P2V2 + P1V1 )

As an example, let us consider the behavior of sound at Steel water interface. Consider
sound waves coming from Steel and striking water.

Here we have, Z for Steel = 46.7 x 10 in M.K.S. Units.

Z for Water = 1.48 x 10 in M.K.S. Units.
2 2
Z2-Z1 1.48 - 46.7 2
Now, R= = = ( - 0.9387 ) or 88%
Z2+Z1 1.48 + 46.7
The negative sign indicates the reversal of phase with respect to incident sound wave.

4Z2 x Z1
T= 2 = 0.0614 or 11.90 %
( Z2 + Z1)
From this, it is seen that at Steel water interface about 88% of energy is reflected and 12%
energy is transmitted.

Mode Conversion :

When a sound beam strikes an interface between two materials having different acoustic
impedance at an angle other than normal incidence some energy may be converted into
other modes of vibration. According to Huygens Principles, the interface will give rise to
a distribution of wave in both media.

In the solid, shear and compressional waves, due to differing velocities of propagation,
bear a ratio

Sin i V1
----- = ----
Sin r V2

In order to look more closely at the physical process involved at the boundary, consider
the direction of sound beam shown in the figure below :

Fp

LIQUID Fa

SOLID E

F
Fp

Fig. 13

F = Incident Compressive Force.

Fa} = Resolved components of F along and perpendicular to the boundary.
Fp}
Fp = Compressional force exerted by liquid medium.
E = Small element of the solid medium.
Suppose a small element E of the solid is temporarily isolated the compressive force F
acting on it by virtue of sound wave may be resolved into Fa and Fp respectively along
and perpendicular to the boundary. Now the normal component will be balanced partly by
the elastic reaction of the solid and partly by the compressional force FP of the liquid. On
the other hand Fa must be completely balanced by the shear elastic force in the solid.

Hence the element E will be subjected to both Compressional and Shear Waves.

At normal incidence, it will be obvious that shear wave will vanish because, it will have
no tangential component.
REFLECTED SHEAR WAVE
INCIDENT LONGITUDINAL
BEAM REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL
WAVE

MEDIUM I

MEDIUM II REFRACTED LONGITUDINAL

WAVE

REFRACTED SHEAR
WAVE

FIG . 14.

For any angle of incidence other than normal, for each longitudinal wave there will be
reflected and refracted components of both longitudinal and shear wave in Fig. 14. As the
angle of incidence increases , the angle of refraction also increases. When the refraction
angle of longitudinal wave reaches 90 deg. the wave emerges from second medium and
travels parallel to the interface. The angle of incidence at which this happens is called
Critical Angle of incidence for the longitudinal wave.

For greater angles of incidence, the longitudinal wave mode is totally reflected and no
longer exists in the medium II, Only the refracted shear wave exists. Further if the angle
of incidence is increased till the angle of refraction for the shear wave mode 90 deg., we
get what is called the Critical Angle of Incidence for the Shear Wave. If the angle of
incidence is further increased, we get total reflection for both longitudinal and shear wave
modes. The explanation is similar for shear wave incident on the interface.

Thus both shear and longitudinal waves are generated at the interface provided that the
angle of incident is less than critical value. It is also found that besides the reflected and
refracted compressional and shear waves, two other types may be formed, known as Lamb
Waves and Surface or Rayleigh Waves.
Diffraction and Attenuation

Diffraction refers to the modification of wave front in passing by edges of opaque bodies
through narrow slits or in being reflected or transmitted from surface. In the diffraction of
light at the edge of an opaque object, rays appear to be deflected producing fringes of light
and dark or coloured bands. A similar modification of other waves also occur, which
causes the bending of waves around objects in their path. Ultrasonic generators can be
regarded as an array of sound generating points and each such point will act as a source of
spherical sound waves. These waves travel in media in differing phase and amplitude and
then they over-lap at a particular point where the acoustic pressure will be maximum. So
to say, each point on the generator produces its own maxima and minima point and after
the said pressure maxima point, the sound waves will travel as a diverging beam.

NEAR ZONE TRANSITION ZONE FAR ZONE

2O

FIG. 15

Ultrasonic generators which are usually in the form of plates, transmit oscillation to the
particles of the contiguous material. The oscillations are transmitted with the same phase
and amplitude. The ratio of the oscillator diameter D to the wave length determines the
spread of the interference field and the number of maxima and minima. As can be
visualised in Fig. 15 just in front of the generator, there are plenty of maxima and minima
and hence this zone is known as the Zone of Confusion or Fresnel Zone, otherwise
known as Near Zone. The Near Zone for a crystal is given by :-

2 2
N= D- Where,= Wave Length
4 N = Length of Near Zone
D = Diameter of Crystal

For wave lengths which are short compared to the diameter of the crystal, it can be
rewritten as :-
2 2
N= D = R Where, R is radius.
4
For example :

For a 24mm dia 4 MHz probe and wave length 1.5mm in a material we have -

Number of maxima =D = 24 = 16
1.5 2
and length of near field ----------------- = 24 = 96mm
4 x 1.5

For some crystals, there will be a sharp end of near zone. But usually, the end of near zone
and start of far zone as transition zone.

The far field or the Fraunhoffer Zone is continuous and interference free. The step
maximum at the end of the near zone widens with increasing distance and at 3 N (ref. fig.
16) shows nearly smooth curve with zero point and secondary maxima whose peaks move
rapidly towards the outside.

On doubling the distance, width of the curve doubles while height is halved. This shows
that it opens at a definite angle which is obtained by connecting the first zero point to the
center of the crystal.
a = 3N a = 6N
a=N

CRYSTAL

FIG. 16

The angle that this line makes with the axis of the crystal is called the Angle of
Divergence. The pressure amplitude decreases from the vertical line through the midpoint
of the crystal towards the sides in such a way that pressure amplitude at an angle is given
by :-
Sin 0 = k
d DIVERGING BEAM

PROBE
o

ANGLE OF DIVERGENCE
FIG. 17
Where C is the constant which assumes the following values at various pressure points.
The axis through the center of crystal is taken as 100% pressure point,

C = 0.5 for 50% (6dB)

1.22 for Nil Pressure.

Note : The above formula is valid for small values of / D i.e., small divergence and or
circular crystals only. When the crystal is not circular, the angle of divergence cannot be
assessed accurately by the above equation. In such cases, beam spread is found accurately
by experiment.

Acoustic pressure (sound intensity) decreases continuously along the axis in the far field.
Let us investigate the pattern of acoustic pressure along axis.

a Po= 1

a
0 N/2 N
FIG. 18
4
D 2
The pressure is given by, P = P o x 2 Sin + a - a
4

2
D 1
P = Po x 2 Sin x
8 a
At large distance this can be written as :-
2 2
D 1 a D
P Po x where,
4 a 4
2
Now we have seen - N D / 4 , we get : P = Po N / a.

This is the acoustic pressure of spherical wave which is dependent on 1/a. In short, these
results can be summarised as :-
(One) Characteristic of an acoustic beam is determined by the ratio of the diameter of the
crystal to wave length. If this value is large, we get a sharply defined far extending
beam with long near zone.

(b) The magnitude of the acoustic pressure at a given distance is given by the ratio of
area of the crystal surface to the wave length.
(c) At a sufficiently great distance, the sound field follows the distance law of
spherical wave, in other words acoustic pressure decreases inversely with distance.

Diffraction phenomenon should be taken into account during development of Ultrasonic

Inspection Procedures. It may be noted that diffraction prevents full utilization of wave
front or brining of the wave front into focus. However, it is not possible to provide
quantitative guidelines, only qualitative guidelines can be provided. Entry surface
roughness, type of machined surface and machining direction influence inspection
procedure. Also the roughness of a flaw surface affects echo pattern and must be
considered. When a beam strikes a smooth interface, the reflected and refracted beams
maintain phase coherence. A rough surface however, modifies boundary conditions and
part of the beam is diffracted. The influence on the beam depends upon the roughness,
size and contour of the interface. Near field and far field effects also occur when
ultrasonic waves are reflected from interface.

Attenuation :

Attenuation of ultrasonic energy apart from spreading of waves is affected by scattering

and absorption. The loss of energy due to the combined effects is called attenuation.
Scattering of sound results from non-homogenates of the material like inclusion, porosity
and coarse grain. In-homogeneous materials like cast iron contain elastically different
ferrite and graphite grains. In other materials like brass and steel , crystals of different
structure and composition are mixed. Even when a single type of crystal is present,
random orientation of crystals makes the material in-homogeneous for ultrasonic waves.
In materials with very coarse grin compared with wave length at an opaque boundary the
wave is split into various reflected and transmitted wave types. This process repeats itself
for each wave at the next boundary. Gradually the energy is converted into heat.

For grain size smaller than the wave length scattering is practically negligible (grain size
1/1000 to 1/100 of the wave length) but, increases rapidly approximately as the 3rd
power of grain size to make itself felt at size from 1/10 to the full value of wave length.

The second cause of attenuation is absorption which is a direct conversion of sound

energy into heat. Absorption can be visualised as a sort of breaking of the oscillation of
the particle. Absorption usually increases with frequency.

Both these losses set limitation to the testing of materials but, in slightly different ways,
Pure absorption weakens the transmitted energy. To counteract this effect, the transmitter
voltage and the lower absorption at lower frequencies can be exploited for this purpose.
But scattering effects cannot be counteracted in the former way because the noise also
increases. The only remedy is to use lower frequency which sets a limit for the
detectability for the small flaws.

The total attenuation of sound energy can be calculated from the relationship :

I = Io - d

Where Io = Initial sound intensity.

I = Final sound intensity.
d = Section length through which the sound travels
and
= Coefficient of attenuation.

When expressed in decibels d = 20 (log Io I) dB

Unit of electric or sound power is called bel and is expressed by the common logarithm of
two power ratios. If any device increases the power from P1 to P2 then the device is said
to have a gain of Log 10

or gain = 10 log 10 P2 P1 decibels

In case of attenuation the output power is less than the input power. It is a case of energy
or power loss in the system.

Attenuation - - 10 log P1 P2 dBs.

Normally, in ultrasonic or in any electrical systems, signal amplitude is measured as

electrical voltages and since acoustic/electric power is proportional to the square of
voltage.
2 2
Attenuation - - 10 log V 1 V 2 dBs.

= - 20 log V 1 V 2 dBs.

Where V1 & V2 are the input & output voltages respectively.

Beam Intensity Characteristics :

The intensity of an ultrasonic beam is related to the amplitude of the particle vibration.
Acoustic pressure is the term most often used to denote amplitude of alternating stresses
exterted on a material by a propagating ultrasonic wave. Acoustic pressure is directly
proportional to the product of acoustic impedance and amplitude of particle motion. The
acoustic pressure exerted by a given particle varies in the same direction and with the
same frequency as the position of that particle changes with time. Intensity, which is the
energy transmitted through a unit cross sectional area of the beam is proportional to the
square of the acoustic pressure.

Ultrasonic system does not measure intensity directly. Transducer elements sense the
acoustic pressure and receiver amplifier circuits of most of the ultrasonic systems and are
designed to produce an output voltage. Thus intensity of sound that is displayed on CRT is
proportional to true intensity of ultrasonic beam. The laws of reflection and refraction give
information regarding the direction of propagation of reflected and refracted waves only
and say nothing about acoustic pressure in reflected or refracted waves. When ultrasonic
wave is partitioned among the various reflected and refracted waves, the relationship
among acoustic energies in the resultant waves is complex and depends both on angle of
incidence and on acoustic properties of the matter on opposite sides of the interface.

The intensity of an ultrasonic beam that is sensed by a receiving transducer is

considerably less than the intensity of the initial transmission. The factors that are
primarily responsible for the loss in beam intensity can be classified as transmission losses
including absorption, scattering acoustic impedance effects at the interface.

Interference effects include diffraction and other effects that create wave fringes, phase
shift and frequency shift. Beam spreading involves mainly transition from plan waves to
either spherical or cylindrical waves depending on the shape of the transducer element
face.
 CHAPTER - III

Methods for Ultrasonic Testing of Materials

1) Resonance Method:

Basic principles : If a thin plate can oscillate freely on both faces , it is possible to excite
it to resonance in the direction of the thickness. The fundamental or first characteristic
oscillation thus has one half wave length per plate thickness and nth characteristic
oscillation has n half wave lengths . Expressed as frequencies, the n th charactristics
frequency of the plate is n times the fundamental frequency - fn - fo.

The thickness of the plate is determined by d= 1/2 x v/fo.

V is the velocity of the sound , fo the first characteristics frequency and d is the
thickness of the plate. As it is difficult to ascertain which characteristics frequency has
been excited , the exciting frequency is increased from one resonance point to the next
i.e. from fn to fn+1 , then the difference fn+1 - fn = fo
and the thickness of plate measured is d = V / 2 fo.

FUNDAMENTAL RASONANT

FREQUENCY 1 MEGHAHERTZ

THICKNESS WAVELENGTH

SECOND HARMONIC
2 MHz

THICKNESS 1 WAVELENGTH

THIRD HARMONIC
3 MHz

THICKNESS 1 WAVELENGTH

FOURTH HARMONIC
4MHz

THICKNESS 2 WAVELENGTH

FIG. 19
2) Through Transmission Method

PULSE * DUAL

DELAY

RANGE

RECEIVED SIGNAL AT LESS AMPLITUDE

TRANSMISSION SIGNAL

REFERACTED SOUND

TRANSDUCER
DISCONTINUITY SOUND WAVES
COUPLANT RECEIVED AT
REDUCED STRENGTH
FIG.20(A)

Above method is used to locate defect by measuring amplitude or energy gain at another
end . probes are aligned together to transmit and receive at opposite sides of the specimen
.fig. 20 (a).

Also disturbances by interference are avoided by separating the waves arriving at the
receiver with their transit time.
C R tube

High
frequency Amplifier
pulse generator

Through Transmission Method Transit time

FIG. 20 (b)
Intensity
The advantages of this method are :

i) Detects defects near the surface - defects that are only a few microns below the
surface can be detected effectively.
ii) Capability of testing thicker test specimens with less attenuation.

3) Pulse Echo Method

High
Frequency Amplifier
Pulse generator

Receiver

Transmitter

FIG. 21

The sound pulse coming from the transmitter is radiated in a beam and encounters a flaw
in its path. When the flaw is smaller than the cross-section of the sound beam, part of the
beam by-passes the flaw and strikes at the back-wall. The flaw in turn transmits an echo
wave which depending on its form and size is more or less specifically directed of which a
portion reaches the receiver. Receiver and Transmitter may be separate probes placed at
different points on the test piece or can be combined in a single probe. The echo wave
coming from the flaw is indicated according to its transit time from the transmitter to the
flaw and back to the receiver. Later the wave reflected from the ball-wall arrives after a
correspondingly longer delay. When the velocity of sound in the test medium is known,
the transit time of the flaw echo gives the distance to the flaw.
6
In steel with velocity of sound V = 6 x 10 mm/s the pulse travels in a time, t = 1 U S the
distance , s = Vt = 6mm. The flaw distance is half of this, 3 mm. The delay scale can be
calibrated in flaw distances instead of time but this would apply only to a definite wave
mode.

The height of the echo is determined by the size of the flaw but in addition is influenced
by the position and form of the flaw and the instrument/probe characteristics.

Orientation of the flaws reflecting surface should be such that the reflected sound reaches
the receiver for detecting the flaw. Detection of the flaw is not possible when the flaw
surface reflects the sound beam away from the receiver.
Techniques of Ultrasonic Test using Pulse-Echo Method :

Two basic testing techniques using the Pulse-Echo Method are

(I) Contact Testing and (ii) Immersion Testing.

(i) Contact Testing

In contact testing, the probe is brought in contact with the test specimen through a
thin layer of couplant and the energy reflected from a flaw is picked up by the
transducer and is presented on the CRT as a pip. Normal probes using longitudinal waves
incident at 0 deg. to the normal of test surface or angle probes using longitudinal waves
incident at a selected angle in the test medium or using transverse waves incident at a
selected angle in the medium are used. Surface waves and plate waves can be utilized
using this technique.

(ii) Immersion Testing

Instead of placing the probe in direct contact with the test specimen through a
thin layer of couplant, the probe is immersed in a liquid (water or oil). The sound
waves enter the specimen after traveling a distance in the liquid medium.
Depending on the angle of incidence of longitudinal waves on the liquid/test
specimen interface, refracted waves are generated. For best resolution, higher
frequencies are to be used and these require thinner crystals. As the crystal is not
coming in direct contact with the test specimen it is possible to use frequencies
upto 25 MHz. Also using a suitable sound lens, the sound beam can be focused
inside the test part at a pre-determined depth. Bubbler or Squirter technique can be
used for testing specimens which cannot be immersed in a tank.

Typical Straight Beam Immersion Technique :

The water path from the transducer to the front surface of the test part is generally set to
be larger in time than the metal path time from the front to rear of the test part. If the
probe is too close to the front surface of the test part, the 2nd front reflection will appear
on the CRT between the first front and back surface reflections. This reflection may
appear as a flaw. The velocity of sound in water is about that of steel. One inch of water
will appear on the CRT in the same time span on the sweep as 4 of steel. Therefore, a
rule-of-thumb is to use atleast one inch of water for each 4 of metal path plus 1/2.
 Water 0
0

Test surface

Discontinuity

Transducer
Back wall ( Thickness )
FIG. 22

Typical Angle Beam Immersion Testing

With angle beam testing, only a small indication from the surface will be present as most
of the sound beam will be reflected away from the probe.

Initial Echo

1 Water 0
0

2 Test surface

Discontinuity

Transducer
Back wall ( Beam Path )

where, 1 is angle of incidence & 2 is angle of refraction

FIG. 23
Although shear waves and plate waves will not propagate in liquids, both modes can be
used in immersion testing because sound energy is transmitted through the water as
longitudinal waves which are mode converted to shear or plate waves upon entering the
solid part and then the reflected shear or plate wave is mode converted back to
longitudinal waves which then propagate to the transducer through the liquid couplant.
Immersion test techniques are commonly used for inspection of thin and thick wall tubing
and pipes as shown below :

Water

Seam Weld
Discontinuity
Front Surface
Back Surface

FIG. 24
 CHAPTER - IV

Piezo-Electric Effect

Ultrasonic transducers work on the principle of Piezo-Electricity. A material exhibits

Piezo-Electricity if its crystal structure does not have center of symmetry. Piezo-Electric
ceramics, which are generally used as ultrasonic transducers, have the property that above
a certain temperature (curie-temperature) they do have a center of symmetry. Below this
temperature, however, it undergoes a phase change to a non-centro-symmetric structure.
In this phase, the crystal has a built-in dipole which may be switched in any required
direction to the application of a sufficiently high electric field.
+

- + - - - -
+ - - +

- + + - + + + +

(a) - (b)
FIG.25

Electric Dipole arrangement below curie point before and after polarization is whoen in
the above Fig. 25, (a) & (b) Fig. respectively.

If a single crystal is cooled below the curie temperature in the presence of an electric field
dipoles tend to align themselves in the direction nearest to the applied electric field. After
cooling and removal of the electric field the dipoles can not return to their original
position and the crystal becomes permanently Piezo-Electric i.e. if this crystal is now
subjected to mechanical stress lattice becomes distorted and the total dipole moment of the
crystal will change, so that a voltage appears between the electrodes. If the mechanical
stress is reversed, the voltage obtained is also reversed . This conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical energy is termed as the Direct Piezo-Electric Effect and is used in
ultrasonic receivers.

Within a certain range of stress, which depends on the material used, this variation of
dipole moment is linear and reversible. If a voltage of similar polarity to the poling
voltage is applied to the crystal, the material expands and if a voltage of opposite polarity
is applied, the material contracts. The application of an alternating voltage results in
alternate expansion and contraction of the crystal. This is the reverse Piezo-Electric Effect
& it is used in ultrasonic transmitters. A short voltage pulse of less than 10 micro sec. and
voltage of 300-1000 V can oscillate the crystal to its natural frequency, which depends on
the thickness and material of the crystal.
Material for Probes :

The three most common Piezo-Electric materials used in ultrasonic probes are Quartz,
Lithium Sulfate and Polarized Ceramics. The most common ceramics are Barium
Titanate, Lead Metaniobate and Lead Zirconate Titanate.

(i) Quartz : In the past, quartz were used alomost exclusively but with the
development of new materials its use is becming limited. quartz has
excellent chemical, thermal and electrical stability. It is insoluble in
most liquids and is very hard and wear resistant. Quartz is the least
efficient generator of acoustic energy. It also suffers from mode
conversion interference and requires high voltage to drive it at low
frequencies.

(ii) Ceramic : Polarized ceramic probes are the most efficient generators of
ultrasonic energy, they operate well on low voltage, are practically
unaffected by moisture and are usable up to about 300 deg. C. They
are limited by relatively low mechanical strength, some mode
conversion interference and have a tendency to age.

(iii) Lithium : Lithium Sulfate probes are the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic
energy and are Sulphate intermediate as a generator of Ultrasonic energy. They do not
age and are affected very little by mode conversion interference. Lithium Sulfate is very
fragile, soluble in water and are limited to use up to 165 deg. F (73.8 deg.).

Characteristics of Ultrasonic Probes :

(i) Sensitivity :

Sensitivity of an ultrasonic test system is the ability to detect the smallest

discontinuity. Sensitivity refers to the amplitude of the electrical voltage generated by
the probes depending on the magnitude of ultrasonic signal impinging on its surface.
Hence, it determines how small a defect can be detected. Sensitivity of a probe is
measured by the amplitude of its response to the energy reflected from a standard
discontinuity (e.g. flat bottom hole in a standard reference block).
 On account of various factors involved, not all probes (of a given type and make)
have similar sensitivity (Fig. 26). Probe No. 2 is said to have more sensitivity than
Probe no. 1 because the height of the echo indication from the same reflector (flat
bottom hole) at same distance and gain setting of the instrument is more than that of
Probe no. 1.

Probe No.1

FLAT BOTTOM HOLE 0 2 4 6 8 10

Probe No.2

FLAT BOTTOM HOLE 0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 26

(ii) Resolution :

Resolution refers to the ability to separate echoes from two or more discontinuities
located close together in depth. A long pulse has poor resolving power. Very short
pulses are desirable for high resolution. This requires broad band width, loq Q
probes.

Band width

Amplitude

f1 fo f2 Frequency

FIG.27
(Mechanical Quality Factor) Q = f o where f o - central resonant frequency, f2
f2 - f 1
frequency above f o where sonic amplitude is 70% of that at f o, f 1 - the frequency
below f o where sonic amplitude is 70% of that at f o and f 2 - f 1 is the band width.
A wide band width probe will have a sharpest and well defined pressure changes
within the nearest zone. Resolving power of broad band width probes decreases
depending on the attenuation characteristics of the material. This is due to higher
frequencies (lower wave lengths), are attenuated more rapidly than the lower
frequencies and this attenuation tends to reduce the band width and lower center
frequency of the pulse thus causing loss in resolving power.

When the probe is placed on the IIW Block as shown in the figure, the reflecting
surfaces are at a distance of 85 mm, 91 mm and 100 mm. Good resolution is
indicated in (a) and poor resolution is indicated in (b). Due consideration should be
given when checking resolutions of probes of different frequencies as a 1 MHz probe
will not resolve this distances as good as a 4 MHz probe.

0 2 4 6 8 10

(a) GOOD RESOLUTION

0 2 4 6 8 10

(b) POOR RESOLUTION

FIG. 28
(iii) Near Field Effects :

Amplitude of waves reflected from defects located within the near is affected by
the diffraction pattern and the location of the defect within the near zone. The
amplitude of the reflected wave may experience at least one maxima and one
minima as the distance from the probe increases the near field. Therefore it is
difficult to determine the size of the defects located in the near field by the
amplitude of reflected waves. Length of this near field is given by
Near zone N = D x D / 4
D = probe diameter,
= wave length.

(iv) Dead Zone :

The crystal of the probe is energised by short, electrical pulses of a particular

pulse duration and pulse repetition frequency. When the probe is acting as a
transmitter and receiver, the transmission continues until the pulse dies out and then
only it can act as a receiver. By the time the pulse dies out, the sonic energy travels
into the material and the distance traveled by the sound energy within the pulse
duration period is known as Dead Zone. When a flaw lies within this zone signal
from this will not be received and hence, cannot be detected. To minimize dead-
zone short pulse can be used and delay block (or water column in immersion
testing) can be brought in front of the probe.

Construction of Probes :

(i) Construction of a Normal Probe

Body
Connector

Damping Material

Crystal
Electrodes Protecting
Mamberane

NORMAL PROBE

FIG. 29
 Electrodes are fitted on both faces of the crystal and wires from these electrodes lead
to the connector socket of the probe. Sometimes damping material is also applied on
the innerface of the crystal. Usually a wear-plate made from material of known
acoustic properties is attached to the outerface of the crystal which protects the crystal
from wear and tear. Probes for immersion testing will be fitted in a water tight body
(Hosing).

(ii) Construction of an Angle Probe :

For an angle probe, the crystal is mounted on a perspex wedge as shown in the figure
so that the beam of sound reaches the bottom flat surface of the probe at an angle that
will produce the desired angle of refraction in the material tested. The longitudinal
wave after refraction from the interface changes its mode into transverse wave. The
reflected sound beam in the perspex wedge is damped with a suitable damping
material. The angle marked on the prove is the refracted beam angle in steel. For
other materials, correction of this angle is to be made accordingly.

BODY
CONNECTOR

ELECTRODES DAMPING MATERIAL

CRYSTAL
PERSPEX WEDGE

ANGLE PROBE
FIG. 30

(iii) Construction of a TR Probe :

Long delay blocks and separate probes for transmission and reception are used in TR
probe to avoid the undesirable effects of dead zone.

The crystals are placed on the perspex wedges so that the sound beam from the
transmitter enters the receiver after reflection in the material. An acoustical barrier
is provided between the two sections of the probe to avoid any cross-talk. Testing
and wall thickness measurement of very thin sections can be done with this type of
probe with very high accuracy. (Better near surface resolution).
BODY

CRYSTAL CONNECTORS
ELECTRODES

ACOUSTIC BARRIER

PERSPEX WEDGE

TR PROBE
FIG. 31
(iv) Probes with Protective Membrane :

To reduce wear and tear of normal probes a protective cover is provided for some
probes. These probes provide better contact on rough surfaces, are more adaptable to
the surface and consequently give more uniform coupling at less pressure. One
drawback in some cases is the fact that the transmitted pulse and the echoes are
somewhat broader and defects near the surface are difficult to detect. Also there will
be slight loss of sensitivity.

(v) Resoling of Angle Probes :

Due to wear and tear of the sole of an angle probe, the beam exit point and the
refracted beam may change. In order to avoid this change and possible damage to the
crystal the probe can be fitted with a new sole. The bottom surface of the worn-out
probe is ground flat and cleaned thoroughly. The sole must be free from oil. After
grinding, it is advisable to warm the ground surface and the sole to about 50 deg. and
then to cool it slowly for about 15 minutes, to avoid subsequent cracks arising from
internal stresses. The thin sheet of perspex is fitted on to the bottom of the probe
using a special adhesive. Great care is taken to ensure that no air bubbles
remain/entrapped between the probe and the new sole.

(vi) Focused Beam Probes :

Spherically and Cylindrically ground acoustical lenses are commonly added to

immersion type probes as shown below :

CYLINDRICAL LENSE

SPHERICAL LENSE

FIG. 32
 Cylindrically ground lenses focus the sound beam to a line and Spherically ground
lenses focus the beam to a point. Sensitivity from a focused beam increases resulting
from increase in sensitivity.

Probes come in many shapes, sizes and physical characteristics. Single element
probes act as transmitter and receiver or only as transmitter/receiver. In a double
element probe one is a transmitter and the other is a receiver, both mounted in the
same casing.

(vii) Probes with Contour Corrected Soles :

When testing specimens with small diameter (like rods, pipes etc) ordinary probes
do not provide adequate contact. To ensure that sufficient sound energy is
transmitted into the specimen the probes are fitted with a sole of suitable shape. The
matching sole is permanently fixed into the probe.

PERSPEX SOLE
TO MATCH THE
SPECIMEN CONTOUR

ORDINARY PROBE POOR GOOD CONTACT

CONTACT RESULT IN RESULT IN GOOD
POOR SOUND TRANSMISSION SOUND TRANSMISSION

FIG. 33
 CHAPTER - V

Couplants

The purpose of a couplant is to provide a suitable thin sound path between the transducer
and the test surface.

An ideal couplant effectively wets and totally contacts both surfaces of the transducer and
test part. It also fills and smoothes out irregularities on the surface of the test part and aids
in the movement of the transducer over the surface. Oil or Water are commonly used as
couplants.

Grease or Heavy Oil can be used on rough and vertical surfaces. Excessive couplant on
the test surface is not desirable.

Special types of couplants for high temperature use and also non-toxic, non-inflammable
and non-corrosive couplants are available.
 CHAPTER - VI
Ultrasonic Test Parameters

(a) Selection of Test Frequencies :

When setting up an ultrasonic test program, one of the first considerations is the choice
of frequency. It is usually desirable to test at the lowest frequency that will locate
specified minimum sizes and types of discontinuity consistently. The minimum size of
defect which can be detected will be of the order of ^/2 (where ^ = wave length).

When testing for forging bursts flaking piping etc., a 10 MHz frequency is usually
selected to locate small or microscopic inclusions and segregation. Large medium
carbon steel castings are inspected at 1-5 MHz penetrating 10 ft. or more. Small
forging are inspected at 5-10 MHz. High carbon steel may require a lower frequency
such as 500 kHz to penetrate any distance over a few feet, depending upon material
heat treatment. This is also true of cast iron, where flake like graphite structure causes
scattering of the beam and lack of penetration even at low frequencies.

(b) Selection of Probes :

The most desirable probe for a given application is usually determined by experience.
However, a few rules can
be applied to narrow the selection for initial trials.

1. Maximum beam coverage and minimum number of scanning passes can be

attained with large size probes. The difficulty in defining a small flaw in a large
beam is also important. Limiting factors are test surface flatness and the minimum
size of flaw to be detected and located.

2. A large diameter probe is usually indicated for testing through greater distances.

3. Small diameter probe is usually used for close to surface testing.

4. Beam spread is often desirable to pick up randomly oriented flaws. On the other
hand, a straight beam can minimize reflections from sides, has got better accuracy
in tracing out the edges of a large flaw, and can pinpoint a small flaw. For a given
frequency beam spread is decreased with an increase of crystal dia. For a given
diameter of crystal, beam spread is decreased with an increase in frequency.

5. Sensitivity of a probe should be tested by actual evaluation of signal amplitude,

shape of pulse indication, pulse distortion and beam spread on a block containing
known flaws. When defects are situated at an angle to the test surface, angle probes
are used. Flaw delectability is better with angle probes because (usually) angle
 probes utilize transverse wave. A TR probe (transmitter -receiver probe) is ideal to
test very thin sections as the use of long delay blocks and separate crystals for
transmission and reception reduces the dead zone considerably.

(C) Ultrasonic Test Parameters :

To test materials ultrasonically, the following parameters should be taken in

consideration :

1. Velocity of Sound
2. Surface Contour of Test Material
3. Surface Roughness
4. Acoustic Attenuation (dealt earlier in Chapter - II)
5. Acoustic Impedance (dealt earlier in Chapter - II)

Acoustic impedance of a material is the product of the density of the material and
the velocity of sound in that material.

MATERIAL ACOUSTIC IMPENDANCE SOUND VELOCITY DENSITY

(GRAM/CM /SEC) (CM. / SEC.) (GRAM / CM)

AIR 0.000033 X 10 (6) * 0.33 X 10 (5)* 0.001

WATER 0.149 X 10 (6)* 1.49 X 10 (5) * 1.00
ALUMINUM 1.72 X 10 (6) * 6.35 X 10 (5) * 2.71
STEEL 4.56 X 10 (6)* 5.85 X 10 (5)* 7.8

* ( ) POWER

The impedance ratio of the materials established the proportion of power transmitted into
one material from another material of different acoustic impedance i.e. the amount of
energy transmitted into the second material is the function of impedance ratio Z2/Z1. The
impedance ratio when sound beam enters from water to steel is about 30 and from water
to aluminum is 12. The proportion of sound energy which enters from water is about
0.117 of the incident energy for steel and 0.267 for aluminum. Therefore, if identical
artificial defects are introduced in steel and aluminum, the echo amplitude from the steel
specimen would be 0.44 (0.117/0.267) times the amplitude from the aluminum specimen
when all other acoustical factors remain same.
(C) 1. Velocity of Sound :

A fairly good knowledge of the velocity of sound in the test material is

important. In combination with the material density, it establishes the impedance of the
material and the angle of refraction which the sound beam will take inside the material
when it enters at an angle to the normal at the test surface. The table on the following page
gives velocity, acoustic impedance and wave length for various materials.

VELOCITY, ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE AND WAVELENGTH

MATERIAL VELOCITY 5 ACOUSTIC 6 WAVELENGTH

CM /SEC X 1O IMPEDANCE X 10 - CM FOR 1 MHz
VL VT VR GM /CM X CM X SEC

Aluminum 250 6.35 3.10 2.90 1.72 0.635

Brass -Navali 4.43 2.12 1.95 3.61 0.443

Copper 4.66 2.26 1.93 4.18 0.446

Lead pure 2.16 0.70 0.61 2.46 0.216

Steel 5.85 3.23 2.79 4.56 0.585

SS 302 5.66 3.12 2.69 4.55 0.566

SS 410 7.39 2.99 2.16 5.67 0.739

Plastic 2.67 1.12 0.32 0.264

Oil -Transformer 1.38 0.127 0.138

Water 1.49 0.149 0.149

VL = Longitudinal Wave Velocity

VT = Transverse (Shear) Wave Velocity

VR = Rayleigh (Surface) Wave Velocity

(C) 2. Surface Contour :

Disturbances caused by the reflection and refraction due to the surface contour of
the test object can cause great difficulty in interpretation of test results.

INITIAL PULSE 1st BACK WALL ECHO

SPUROUS ECHO
FIG. 34

As shown above, while testing a long cylindrical bar from end face (when the dia of
the bar is narrow compared with the sound beam) the longitudinal wave after
reflection from the back-wall as well as the sides of the cylindrical bar can get back
to the probe. As a result, an echo will appear behind the first back-wall echo. This
can be experienced when calibrating 100 mm side using 24 mm diameter probe.

To summarise, testing solid cylindrical or spherical components with normal

probe, additional echoes may generate due to (1) the longitudinal wave after
reflection at one side reaches the other side and is reflected back to the probe as
longitudinal wave as shown earlier in Fig. 34. (2) The longitudinal wave after 1st
reflection gets mode-converted as transverse wave again gets converted to
longitudinal wave on 2nd reflection and reaches the probe as shown in Fig. 35
and 36.

L L L
T F
M
T

FIG. 35

0 F M
FIG. 36
Whenever a cylindrical part with a threaded hole is scanned from end-on face, slant
beam falling on the side wall, after reflection reaches the threaded rough surface
and produces multi peaked indication as shown below.

61 DEG. FIG. 37

L L

A
T L

FIG. 38

Mode conversion or right angle reflection can happen in a board component as

shown above. When a normal probe is placed at A, the angle of incidence is such
that after reflection, it goes to the right angle face and retraces the path (produce
echoes as shown in A). When the probe is at B, such that the angle of incidence is
61 deg. (Steel), the longitudinal wave gets mode converted and travel to the right
angle face as transverse wave and back to the bore, after reflection gets mode
converted to longitudinal wave (Produce echoes as shown in B).

(C) 3. Surface Roughness :

In ultrasonic testing, several undesirable effects are caused by rough surfaces.

Depending on the surface roughness, these are (1) loss of flaw echo and reduction
of back-wall echo. (2) increased width of transmission echo resulting in loss of
resolving power. (3) distortion of the wave directivity properties. (4) generation of
surface waves and spurious indications.
When ultrasonic waves are passing from liquid to metal in a short distance at the
surface of the part (due to roughness), the sound which passes through liquid lags
the sound which travels through the metal. In this case, the sound wave re-
combines inside the material so as to accommodate the difference in travel time.
When this difference in travel time is equal to one half the period of sound wave, a
pressure wave combines with a rarefaction wave and the resultant energy is nearly
zero in the metal. The average peak to valley roughness of the surface which will
cause this destructive interference is called the critical roughness and is given by :

Ro = 2 V1 = 1 V2
2(V2-V1) 2(V2-V!)

Where Ro is the critical roughness, 1 is the wave length of sound in liquid, 2 is

the wave length of sound in material, V1 & V2 are the respective velocities.

Widening of front surface echo and consequent loss in resolving power is caused by
the combination of
(1)mode conversion resulting from angular incidence of sound wave at the surface
(2) difference in travel time through peak to valley distance in coupling medium
and
(3) reflection of the side lobe energy from the surface.
 CHAPTER - VII
Ultrasonic Display, Equipment and Controls

There are 3 basic types of visual displays which are commonly used to evaluate the
soundness of a material being tested : A-Scan, B-Scan and C-Scan.

A-Scan :

A-Scan is a time versus amplitude display which reveals a discontinuity using a

pip on a CRT. Relative flaw size can be obtained by comparing the height of an
actual flaw and one artificially produced of known dimensions. Distance of the
discontinuity from the test surface can be read on the horizontal trace of CRT.

AMPLITUDE HORIZONTAL SWEEP

INITIAL PULSE DISCONTINUITY BACK WALL ECHO

A-SCAN PRESENTATION

FIG.39

(B-Scan & C-Scan displays are usually used in automated test systems).
B-Scan
A B

Discontinuities t

FIG. 40 (A) FIG. 40 (B)

 B-SCAN REPRESENTATION

The probe travels along the test surface as shown in Fig. 40 (A). In the display systems as
shown in Fig. 40 (B) the height of the vertical lines correspond to the material thickness.
The probe is positioned on the front surface and travels as shown in the Fig. 40 (A). The
display exhibits a vertical line touching the front & back surfaces when there is a full back
wall echo (like at position B) the vertical line starts from the front surface and extends
only upto the depth of the discontinuity from the front surface. Thus when the probe
travels along the length of the material we get a cross section of the material showing
depth and width of the discontinuity.

C-Scan DISCONTINUITIES

t T

PROBE MOVEMENT
FIG. 41 (A) FIG. 41 (B)

C-SCAN PRESENTATION
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector :

The following figure shows the controls of A-Scan Ultrasonic Flaw Detector,
Model ESM 2MT. Different controls and their functions are detailed in the
following pages.

(A) FRONT VIEW

4a 5 4 13 13a 13b 8a 3 3a 8

dB

off

BATTERY

14 1b 2 1a 12 6 7

(B) BACK VIEW

UNIQUE

9 10 11 15
(A) Connector Sockets (1a) & (1b) :

The probe cables are connected to these sockets. While using a dual crysta; probe or
transmitter-receiver separate probes, socket 1 (a) is for receiver and socket 1(b) is for
transmitter. However, while using a single crystal probe both the sockets are
connected in parallel and any of them can be used.

(B) On-Off/Mode Switch (2) :

The instrument is switched On by means of this control. At its anticlockwise extreme,

the equipment is Off. The first position is selected when two probes are used in
pulse-transmission or pulse reflection modes or TR probes.

The second and third positions are used only when using a single normal beam or
angle beam probe.

The second position is used when lower power and higher resolution is desired.

The third position a large transmission power is used for higher penetration at the
cost of some resolution. This position should be used only if the gain reserve is
insufficient.

(C) Test Range Control (3) and (3a) :

Control 3 is the coarse range selector. This control is calibrated for longitudinal waves
in steel having velocity of 5920 M/Sec. with the four steps viz. 10 mm, 50 mm, 250
mm & 1 M, can be selected to spread over the entire width of the CRT with the
continuous variable range control (3a) fully anticlockwise. This control is used to
select intermediate ranges between the four coarse steps. In the 1 M sterp, 3 (a) can be
turned fully clockwise for the maximum range i.e. 5 M.

(D) Gain Control (4) & (4a) :

Control (4) is a high precision 20-step gain switch. By increasing or decreasing the
gain control, amplitude of echo indication on CRT is increased or decreased.

Each step is of 2 dB (tolerance +/- 0.1 dB). The control (4a) is a 3 step gain switch in
steps of 0, 20 and 40 dB. In conjuction with the 20-step switch this can give any
desired gain setting in steps of 2 dB, from 0 to 80 dB.

(E) Suppression Control (5) :

This control makes the gain threshold continuously variable. The threshold rises
higher as the suppression increases with clockwise rotation. In short, this removes
noise and insignificant flaws to give smooth base line. At fully clockwise position,
 only those echoes remain on the screen which were originally higher than 80% of the
screen height.

(F) Delay Control (6) :

This is a multiturn control which can be locked in any desired position to prevent
accidentally disturbing the setting. With this control, the display can be removed
laterally along the width of the screen. It does not change the distance between any
two points along the trace. The maximum shift possible is 500 mm (steel) (this can be
changed carrying out certain modifications).

(G) Focus (7) :

This control enables you to focus the CRT trace to optimum clarity.

(H) Monitor Gate Start & Width Control (only in ESM-2M & ESM-2MT) (8) &
(8a) :

The location of the monitor gate is controlled by a start control (8). This shifts the gate
to the right or to the left along the base of the CRT screen. The width control (8a)
adjusts the gate width continuously in two ranges , as follows :

Switch Pulled : Gate width from 2 mm to 40 mm (steel).

Switch Pushed : Gate width from 30 mm to 800 mm (steel).

The monitor responds (the buzzer sounds) as soon as any flaw indication within the
gate exceeds 1/5th the height of the CRT screen.

In cases where the gate control is not required, the start control should be turned full
clockwise to push the gate out of the screen to the right of the viewer.

(J) The Monitor Switch and Sockets (only in ESM-2M & ESM-2MT) (9) & (10) :

This switch (9) enables the monitor output signal to be fed to either the built-in buzzer
or the optional earphone. When the ambient noise of the working place is too high the
earphone may be used by plugging it into socket (10). In the middle position of the
switch, both the built-in buzzer and the earphone are inoperative. Also a finger
attached light can be used instead of the earphone.

(K) Battery Check Indicator (12) :

This is an LED indicator. As along as the LED is On, the battery may be taken to be
sufficiently charged. When the LED starts blinking, it denotes that battery is partially
discharged and will allow only about half an hour of continuous operation. When the
voltage falls below a certain specified limit, the equipment turns itself Off.
(L) Swept Gain Controls (13), (13a) & (13b) :

When the distance between the transducer and the reflector increases, the amplitude of
echo from the reflector decreases. This decrease can be compensated electronically
using controls 13, 13a & 13bg enabling echo indications appearing at different
distances to have the same amplitude.

(M) The Carrying Handle (14) :

This can be set to any desired position from amoung 11 positions available. It also acts
as a stand for the equipment.

(N) Fasteners for the Battery Pack/Power Pack-cum-Charger (15) :

These retain the battery pack/power pack-cum charger securely within the equipment
and should be in the position shown in the Fig. 42 (b) even when the battery
pack/power pack-cum charger is installed in the equipment.

(O) Recorder Output Socket (11) :

Socket (11) is used as the input for the recorder. The strip chart recorder is controlled
by the output from this socket.

Recorder Attachments :

One main drawback in the documentation of ultrasonic test is the absence of

permanent records.

A Polaroid camera which gives a photograph in a very short time can be attached to
the flaw detector to give a clear picture of the CRT screen trace. This method of
recording the trace is the best by way of economy and ease of operation.

Also available are strip chart recorders : Basically it operates by the movement of a
heated stylus on an heat sensitive paper chart.

These heat sensitive paper charts are made of ordinary graduated paper which are wax
coated. As the heated stylus touches this paper, the wax burns off leaving a permanent
record. The movement of the stylus is controlled by the pulses receives from the
instrument. In short it records all the events seen on the CRT. The system is so
sensitive that it can record small grass indications also.

The EEC-UTR recorder has separate control for paper speed thus giving a expanded or
a contracted view of the CRT screen.

Chart recorders can also be attached to the flaw detector for a C scan record or to
reproduce the CRT screen presentation in real time. In automatic scanning,
attachments can be fixed to the flaw detector to mark defective material and to
separate them.

CABLES AND ADAPTORS

Suitably matched cables and adapters of different types are offered with the EEC-
ESM2 series instruments. These include :

Lemo - Lemo (Male) - PKLL-2

Lemo - Mini Lemo (Male) - PKLML-2
Lemo - (Male) - Lemo (Female) - PKLFL-2
Lemo - (Male) - Mini Lemo (Female) - PKLFML-2

Lemo - BNC (Male) - PKLB-2

Lemo - Mini BNC (Male) - PKLMB-2
Lemo - Microdot - PKLDT-2

Connectors with any other combinations are also provided.

 CHAPTER - V I I I
Standard Reference Blocks

In ultrasonic testing ,discontinuities are usually compared to a reference standard. The

standard may be one of many references block or sets of blocks specified for a test . A
flat bottom hole (FBH) , which can be used as a reference block as shown below:

C A FBH

FIG. 43

A = DIAMETER OF FBH

B = METAL DISTANCE FROM TEST SURFACE TO FBH

C = METAL DISTANCE FROM TEST SURFACE TO BOTTOM OF BLOCK

Most reference blocks are made from carefully selected defect free material. A flat
bottom hole provides a known area of reflection perpendicular to the sound beam.

Three commonly used sets of standard FBH reference blocks are :

(1) Area Amplitude Blocks.

(2) Distance Amplitude Blocks.
(3) ASTM basic set of area and distance amplitude blocks.

Area amplitude blocks provides standards for discontinuities of different sizes at the
same depths. Distance amplitude blocks provides for discontinuities of the same size
at different depths.

(a) The ASTM basic set (shown in figure) consists of ten 2 dia blocks that have 3/4
deep, flat bottomed holes drilled in the center at one end. One block has a 3/66 dia.
FBH and a metal distance of 3 from the test surface to the flat bottomed hole. The
next seven blocks have a 5/64 FBH, but metal distances are 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 3 and
6 inches from the test surface to the FBH. The two remaining blocks each have an
8/64 FBH and metal distances of 3 and 6. In this basic set, the three blocks (No. 3,
5 & 8) with 3 metal distance provide the area amplitude relationship and the seven
 blocks with the 5/64 dia. FBH and varying distances provide the distance-amplitude
relationship.

INCH
TEST
TARGET FBH DIA.

SURFACE

METAL DISTANCE

METAL
DISTANCE
INCHES 1/8 1 3 3 3 6 6

FBH DIA.
INCHES 5/64 5/64 5/64 5/64 5/64 3/64 5/64 8/64 5/64 864

ASTM BASIC SET OF REFERENCE BLOCKS

FIG. 44.

(b) ALCOA SERIES A REFERENCE BLOCKS

1 INCH

3 INCH
No 5 No 6 No 7 No 8

INCH
5/64 6/64 7/64 8/64
ENLARGED VIEW OF HOLES
1 TO 4 NOT SHOWN
FIG. 45.

The Alcoa series A, area amplitude blocks shown in figure 45 consists of eight
blocks 3.3/4 long and 1 , 15 /16 square.

The hole diameters vary from 1/64 to 8/64 inches. These blocks are numbered to
correspond with the diameter of the holes i.e. No. 1 block - 1/64 inch dia. hole, No. 2
block - 2/64 inch dia. hole etc. upto No. 8 block - 8/64 dia hole.
(c) ALCOA SERIES B REFERENCE BLOCKS
2 DIMENSION A DIMENSION B
1/16 1.3/4 3/64
1/8 2.1/4 5/64
A 2.3/4 8/64
3/8 3.1/4
B 3.3/4
5/8 4.1/4
4.3/4
7/8 5.1/4
1.0 5.3/4
FIG. 46 1.1/4 6.3/4

The Alcoa series B or Hit distance amplitude blocks consists of 19, 2 dia. blocks. All
the blocks have 3/4 deep flat bottom hole drilled at the centre of the bottom surface.
The hole diameter is the same for blocks in one set. Sets of blocks with 3/64 or 5/64
or 8/64 dia. hole are available.
The metal distances in each set are 1.1/4 through 5.3/4 in half inch increaments.

(d) Another type of calibration block is the IIW block (International Institute of
Welding). It provides the following :
Verifications of known distances and angular relationships, verifies transducer angle
and beam exit point, checks resolution sensitivity and beam penetration power in short
it may be called as System Evaluation Block.

200 mm

35 15 2
40 50 60
91
1.5 dia. 85
100 50 dia. 100

10
60 70 75 25
5

300 mm
100 mm
3 mm

prespex = 50 mm of steel 25mm

FIG. 47 I I W - V1 BLOCK
(e) A miniature calibration block as shown below also can be used for range and
sensitivity calibration for normal and angle probes.

75 mm 45 60

12.5
25 mm mm

50 mm
70
Focal Point
1.5 0r 5 mm dia. hole

20 mm

I I W - V2 BLOCK

FIG. 48
 CHAPTER - I X
Calibration of instrument or CRT screen is a must to locate the depth hence calibrate
the time base into distance traveled by sound beam.

There are basically 3 methods of time base calibrations :

1. Delay Method
2. Multiple Echo Method
3. Partial Range Method

For calibrating the time base we need known thickness of metal. Minimum two back
wall echoes are required.

I BWE II BWE

Calibrating by delay method for example we take 25mm side of V1 block and set our
range as 25 mm on 10 division scale of CRT.

Keeping your probe set coarse range at 10. This setting shows that you can control
your range from 10 mm to 50 mm. Observe the screen.

When doing this, the first back wall echo would have changed its position at zero.
Using delay control, bring the 1st back wall echo back to zero. Again adjust the range
(fine) control to place the 2nd back wall echo at 10 division on horizontal scale.
Repeat this procedure until the 1st back wall echo is at zero and 2nd back wall echo at
10. Now using the delay control, bring the 1st back wall echo to 10 division on the
horizontal screen as shown in Fig. 49 (d). Now the horizontal scale from 0 - 10
corresponds to 25 mm of steel. Because the scale is divided into 50 small divisions,
each small division now corresponds to 25/50 = 0.5 mm.

INITIAL PULSE

I BWE 0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 49 (a) FIG. 49 (b)

 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

II BWE
FIG. 49 (c) FIG. 49 (d)
Using similar procedure, four echo indications can be brought within the screen
,starting with 1st back wall echo at zero and fifth back wall at 10 (Range switch at 50
mm) and then shifting the delay control to bring the fourth back wall echo at 10 as
shown in Fig. 49 (e). Now the 1st back walll echo reads 25 mm on the horizontal
scale, 2nd - 50 mm, 3rd - 100 mm and 4th - 100 mm. Now the range is calibrated for 0
- 100 mm of steel. This can also be counter checked by placing the probe so as to
transverse the 100 mm path as shown in Fig. 49 (f) & (g). As the velocity of waves
changes in a different material, calibration has to be done separately on a known
thickness of that different material. Only if the time base of the equipment is linear,
the multiple echoes (successive backwall echoes) will position at equal distance from
one another. Therefore, this is also a check for linearity of time base of the equipment.

INITIAL PULSE

4 BWE 0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 49 (e)

INITIAL PULSE

FIG. 49 ( f) FIG. 49 ( g)

0 2 4 6 8 10
(ii) Angle Probes

Beam Exit Point

Place the angle probe on the IIW block as shown in Fig. 50 (a) in such a way that the
beam is directed towards the curvature forming the 100 mm radius. Move the probe to
& fro & find out the position giving the maximum echo amplitude. Extend the vertical
mark at the center of 100 mm radius to the probe and this mark on the probe is the
beam point.

FIG. 50 ( a )

0 2 4 6 8 10

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE OF ECHO

BEAM EXIT POINT

Angle of Probe :

The angle of probe can be found by using the IIW V1 block. Place the probe on the
angle as marked on the block. The sound beam will be reflected back either from the
50 mm dia perspex insert or the 1/16 dia. Hole, depending upon the angle of the
probe. The probe is moved to & from on either side of the angle as marked on the
block, till a maximum echo amplitude is obtained, as shown in Fig. 50 (b). The angle
marked on the IIW block (corresponding to the beam exit point already marked on the
probe) is the angle of the refracted sound beam.

The angle can more accurately be found out using the 1/16 dia. (This hole is drilled at
a depth of 15 mm) corresponding beam path S (in mm) is read from the CRT where
a maximum echo amplitude is obtained.
15
Cos =
S

Where is the angle of the refracted beam. This technique is also used when the angle
of the probe is not known.
 65 55 45 35

BEAM ANGLE
FIG. 50(b)

Calibration of Range :

Using IIW V Block :

Place the probe on the IIW block (with vertical grooves starting at center of 100 mm
radius) to obtain a maximum echo amplitude from the curved surface. Bring this echo
indication to zero of the horizontal scale using the delay control to position the 2nd
echo at 10 of the horizontal scale. Bring back the 1st echo to zero using delay. (In the
previous adjustment this echo would have shifted its position). Repeat the procedure to
position the 1st echo to 10 on the horizontal scale as shown in Fig. 51 (a). Now the
distance between 0 - 10 on horizontal scale correponds to 0 - 100 mm in steel. Each
subdivision reads 2 mm.

IIW BLOCK WITH FIG. 51 ( a)

VERTICAL GROOVE

0 2 4 6 8 10

In some IIW blocks two grooves having radius of 25 mm is provided (in India this
block is Standardised). On such as block, range or 100 mm is calibrated as follows :

First the probe is positioned to direct the beam towards 25 mm radius. Echo of
maximum amplitude is obtained and positioned to read 2.5 on horizontal scale. Now
the probe is turned in the opposite direction and a maximum amplitude echo is
obtained from 100 mm radius. Delay control and range (fine) is also adjusted to make
these two echo indications position at 2.5 and 10 on horizontal scale. The scale from 0
- 10 on CRT now corresponds to 100 = 50 (divisions) = 2 mm.

Other ranges can also be calibrated using multiple echoes as reference. When the
probe is facing 25 mm radius side the 1st echo indication comes after the beam travel
of 25 mm and the 2nd and 3rd etec. after additional travel of 125 mm each i.e. the
echoes will be at 25, 150, 275 etc. When the probe is facing the 100 mm radius side,
the cho indications position at 100, 225, 350 etc.

In both the above positions the echoes will be displaced by 125 mm between them.
This is due to the probe crystal positioning i.e. it can only receive signals which are
normal to it.

0 2 4 6 8 10

IIW BLOCK WITH

RADIAL GROOVE
PROBE FACING 25 mm
RADIUS GROOVE RANGE 150 mm

FIG. 51 (b)

Using IIW V2 Block :

This block has two arcs of radius 25 mm and 50 mm. It is light in weight, facilitates
range calibration for normal and angle probes, determination of beam exit point and
angle for 45 deg. 60 deg. and 70 deg. probes and has a side drilled hole 5 mm or 1.6
mm dia.

When the probe is facing the 25 mm radius side the 1st echo indication comes after the
beam travels 25 mm and the 2nd and 3rd etc. after additional travel of 75 mm each i.e.
the echoes will be at 25, 100, 175, 250 etc. When the probe is facing the 50 mm radius
side, the echo indications position at 50, 125, 200 etc.
 0 2 4 6 8 10

PROBE FACING 25 mm RADIUS RANGE 100 mm

0 2 4 6 8 10

PROBE FACING 50 mm RADIUS RANGE 200 mm

FIG. 52

(iii)TR Probes :

Two normal probes, one acting as a transmitter and the other as a receiver are housed
in one casing. These probes are specially used to detect near surface detects as the
delay blocks used in these probes and individual functioning of probes practically
eliminate the undesirable effects of dead zone. For range calibration with TR probe,
two known thicknesses are necessary because of the angle of incident beam and beam
divergence causes multiple echoes less prominent. Also interference echoes from split
transverse waves (resulting from mode conversion at the reflecting back surface of the
specimen) can appear behind the 1st backwall echo as the velocity of transverse
waves is less than the velocity of longitudinal waves. Often it is not possible to
distinguish the 2nd backwall echo from the interference echo.

Set the instrument in the T-R mode (by using control 2 of Fig 42 a). If we have two
blocks of steel, thickness 5 mm & 10 mm, first the probe is placed on the 5 mm block
and the backwall echo is adjusted to the position at 5 on horizontal scale of CRT and
then on 10 mm block. The backwall echo from 10 mm block is adjusted to read 10 on
 the horizontal scale. Further adjustements in delay and range (fine) controls are
necessary till the CRT indications read 5 and 10 respectively when placed on 5 mm
& 10 mm thick blocks. Now the range of 0 - 10 on the horizontal scale is calibrated for
0 - 10 mm steel.
It may be noted that in the through transmission mode, the first indications occurs after
the beam travels the metal path in one direction and subsequent indications occur after
travelling double the distance.

(iv) Calibration for Surface Wave (90 Deg.) Probes :

Place the probe on the face of the IIW block as shown in Fig. 53. Obtain a full screen
height echo from the side of the IIW V1 block as shown in Fig. 53 (a). Now pull the
probe back till this echo begins to reduce in height. Extend the mark on the probe from
the edge of the block as shown in Fig. 53 (b). The probe is taken back further till the
echo disappears completely and again the probe is marked (correponding to the edge
of the block) (Fig. 53 c).

The centre point of these two marks will be the beam exit point Fig. 53 d. Now keep
the beam exit point of the probe at a distance of 100 mm from one edge. Adjust the
echo indication from the edge to be at 10 on the horizontal scale as scale as shown in
Fig. 54 (b). Repeated adjustments of delay and range control are necessary till the
echo indication reads 50 and 100 when placed at 50 mm and 100 mm from the edge.

FIG. 53 (a)
0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 53 (b)
0 2 4 6 8 10
 FIG.53 ( C )

0 2 4 6 8 10

Beam Exit Point

100 mm

FIG. 54 (a)
0 2 4 6 8 10

Range 100 mm

50 mm 50mm

FIG. 54 (b)
0 2 4 6 8 10

(b) Sensitivity Calibration :

The defects detected, located and probably identified by ultrasonic test should be
evaluated with respect to a known standard to have any meaning. Obviously
depending on the application of the part tested defects may be classified as acceptable
or rejectable. Because of the variety of materials, sizes, shapes. manufacturing
processes involved, it is difficult to have a uniform acceptance standard. Therefore,
sensitivity level at which ultrasonic tests are to be carried out differs accordingly.
To arrive at the sensitivity level of test, the following information is necessary :

Size and nature of defects expected.

Probable location of defects.
Orientation in the part tested.

The ideal method is to determine the sensitivity level at which testing is to be

carried out, is to have mock-ups of the parts to be made (preferably material of the
same metallurgical properties) with known defects(size, nature and orientation) to be
duplicated to the minimum acceptable level.

Size of defects should be such as to act as go/no-go test. Prior to ultrasonic test,
these defects should be evaluated by other methods like Radiography, Visual
Examination etc.

Usually flat bottom holes, side drilled holes, notches, U or V shaped and
buttress type are used for this purpose. Depending on the radius of the flat bottom
hole, it presents a known area of reflection perpendicular to the beam path . Side
drilled holes are usually preferred for angle beam testing because they present the
same area of reflection to any incident angle. The three types of notches mentioned
above can duplicate surface defects and the angle of the V notch can be selected to
match the probable orientation of the expected defect.

SENSITIVITY CALIBRATION BLOCKS

D

L
d
t

t d

X X

FIG 54 ( d )

BLOCK WITH FLAT BOTTOM HOLE BLOCK WITH SIDE DRILLED HOLE

D - Dia of block t - Thickness of the block

t - Thickness d - Depth of side drilled hole
d - Depth of flat bottom hole x - Dia of side drilled hole
x - Dia of flat bottom hole L - Length of side drilled hole
 W

t d d t

V NOTCH U NOTCH

t - Thickness of block t - Thickness of block

0 - Included angle of V notch d - Depth of U notch
d - Depth of V notch w - Width of U notch

d
t
w

BUTTRESS NOTCH

t - Thickness of block
d - Depth of Buttress notch
w - Width of Buttress notch FIG. 55

The sizes of these artificial defects essentially depends on the application of the
part being tested and are usually given by the relevant acceptance standards. However
when testing part, due consideration should be made for the echo amplitude
reduction with increasing distance. For this purpose, a Distance Amplitude Correction
Curve (DAC Curve)is made using the echo amplitude of the same reflector area at
different distances within the testing range and plotting them on the CRT screen itself
(Amplitude on Y axis and distance on X axis).
1 2

t 1
t
t 2

0 2 4 6 8 10

POINTS FOR DAC CURVE DAC CURVE

FIG. 56
 CHAPTER - X

(a) Variation of Echo Amplitude with Distance :

Echo amplitude from the same flaw varies when the distance between the transmitter
and the flaw changes. Uniform reduction in echo amplitude due to a flaw with a
distance R (ref. Fig. 57) will only occur in the far zone. In the near zone there may
even be an increase in echo amplitude with increase of distance. A near zone can be
assigned to a disc shaped flaw as for a transmitter and when the probe
Transmitter /Receiver) is in the near zone of the flaw, echo amplitude, H 1/r (r is the
distance from probe to flaw). When the probe is in the far zone, H 1/r(2) with the
swept gain control, this reduction of echo amplitude when distance increases can be
compensated.

FIG. 57

(b) Variation of Echo Amplitude with Flaw Size :

In the far zone of a probe, the height of echo, H depends not only on the strength of
impulse and amplification of the equipment but also on the following factors :

Diameter of Transmitter
Wave Length
Diameter of Flaw
Diameter of Flaw from Probe

This figure shows the variation of echo height with the ratio of flaw diameter to wave
length, . As shown in Fig. 58 four ranges of A/ can be distinguished, where A, is
the flaw diameter. In the first range A/ show any useful indication. When A/ =
1/2 a flaw of 1 mm dia. will give the maximum wave length, = 2 mm. This would
mean a frequency of 2.9 MHz - for steel. In the 2nd range the height of echo increases
approximately with the square of A/ in proportion to the surface area of the flaw. In
the 3rd range the height i.e. proportional to the dia. of flaw.

I II III r/D IV A/X

FIG. 58

Beam Divergence :

The variation of sound intensity across the beam axis in the far zone can be
determined experimentally. The following procedure will furnish value for angle (half
angle produced by the diverging cone of sound beam).

ANGLE OF DIVERGENCE

FIG. 59

For a 4 MHz, 10 mm dia. Normal probe, the near zone length

2
N =D 4 = 100 4 x 1.5 = 16.6 mm.

The variation of sound intensity across the central axis can be determined with 2 or
more distance amplitude blocks with metal distances more than 16.6 mm. For
example, calibration blocks 5-0150, 5-0300 and 5-0600 of the ASTM basic set furnish
same diameter flat bottom hole (5/64) at metal distances of 1.5, 3 and 6
respectively.
 a Y DIRECTION
PROBE MAXIMUM ECHO AMPLITUDE
X DIRECTION
b

X X

Y
X & Y DIRECTION TO BE
DESIGNATED ON PROBE

FLAT BOTTOM HOLE

FIG. 60

Obtain a maximum amplitude echo from the FBH. Move the probe in the X-
direction (see Fig. 60) and on either side of the center, find the places where the echo
height reduces by 50% of the initial maximum echo. Distance between two such
points located in the Y direction (at 90 deg. to the X-direction) is recorded as b.

This procedure is repeated for 2 other blocks obtaining distance a and b for block
5-0300 and a and b for block 5-0600. In the following figure, metal distances are
marked on the X-axis. Probe diameter and the central axis of the sound beam is
marked as shown.

a a1 CENTRAL AXIS a2
10 mm DIA.
PROBE

0 1 3 6
DISTANCE OF FBH BEAM PROFILE ON X DIRECTION
FIG. 61

The set of three distances a, a1, a2 measured in the X-direction are marked
with the centers coinciding with the central axis at respective metal distances.
The line joining the edges of these points on either side of the central axis
constitute the cross-section of the conical beam and angle of divergence can be
measured now. If we project the diameter of the probe till it meets the cone, the
straight portion represents the near zone. Using the same procedure, beam
divergence of the probe in the Y direction can also be determined.

Note : Accuracy of this method is limited by the fact that the flat bottomed hole
reflects part of the energy away from the probe, when it lies away from the central
axis of the beam.
 CHAPTER - X I
Some Practical Applications of Ultrasonic Testing

(a) Thickness Gauging :

Ultrasonic is being widely used in thickness gauging involved in Chemical and

Fertilizer Plants, Ships, Pipelines, Storage Tanks etc. Although a digital read-out
thickness meter can be used for this purpose, using an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
can provide additional information which will avoid the possible errors while
using a thickness meter.

Whenever small (compared to beam size) defects are encountered, the presentation
on a flaw detector shows a defect indication and a back wall indication. Using a
thickness meter will only show the depth of the defect. Moreover, a heavily
corroded surface will show a broader indication on the CRT whereas this
information cannot be obtained with a thickness meter. Both the flaw detector and
the thickness meter uses the pulse echo method with single crystal probes as
transmitter and receiver or double crystal probes, one acting as transmitter and the
other as receiver.

The instrument is calibrated in the usual manner for the distance required. The
gain setting is adjusted to receive an echo of adequate height. Gain may be
required to be increased on the actual job, as in the case of badly pitted surface,
while calibrating the distance axis, care has to be taken to ensure that test block
has the same velocity as that of the test specimen.

(b) Testing for Laminations in Plates :

A normal probe is brought into contact with the face of the plate through a
couplant. The height of the back wall echo is kept at a fixed amplitude (50 % or
above S.H.).

Any drop in back wall echo is considered to be caused by defective area. Usually
the plate is scanned along grid lines only and wherever the back wall echo falls
beyond a set level or when a defect indication is present, the adjacent area is also
scanned to determine the area of defect. Sometimes angle beam technique is also
used to detect the presence of defects which are not oriented parallel to the surface.

When a number of plates are to be tested, a plate scanner can be used. Flaw
Detector, probe etc. is fitted on a trolley and the probe is coupled to the plate
through a water column. Testing can be done at a higher speed and wear & tear to
the probe can be eliminated by using a plate scanner.
 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

I BWE II BWE

NO DEFECT DEFECT INDICATION

LAMINATION

Fig. 62

Thin Sheet Testing (Steel) :

For thin sheets down to 6 mm, a 3 MHz probe would be suitable. If possible a 4 MHz
probe should be used for thickness upto 2 mm and below that a 6 MHz probe should
be used.

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 63 a FIG 63 b
 FIG. 63 ( C )

0 2 4 6 8 10

In testing sheets, the amplification is increased only to that point where a defect-free
part of the specimen produces a succession of clear multiple echoes as shown in Fig.
63 (a). Also it is much easier for the operator to recognize such a regular pattern of
multiple echoes than one single flaw echo.

The distance between each of two echoes in succession gives the sheet thickness in the
units of the scale. If there is a flaw at a spot under test, this regular pattern of trace will
not be obtained even though the coupling is good. The screen presentation will look
like Fig. 63 (b), depending on the type of flaw. Where a few regular echoes appear as
in Fig. 63 (b), but with less separation between echoes than in Fig. 63 (a), there is a
clear discontinuity revealing an open lamination. In Fig. 63 (c), only thin irregular
echoes resulting from laminations followed by slag which absorbs most of the
ultrasonic beam are observed.

Lamination can also be detected by oblique beaming when one edge is scanned at not
too large a distance. The edge will then become clearly visible if the sheet is sound. If
laminations or strong segregation are present between the probe and the edge, the echo
of the edge will disappear. Direct echoes of a flaw between the transmission pulse and
the bottom echo will appear when a steeper angle (70 deg. or 80 deg.) is used than
when a 45 deg. or 60 deg. probe is used. This method reaches its useful limit when
sheet thickness are down to 2 or 3 mm and even there, at 6 MHz probe on smooth
surface must be used. Sheets of these thickness and even smaller can be tested with a
larger travel distance under a liquid (Oil or Water).

SHEET

REFLECTOR

(d) FIG 63 (e)

In the testing arrangement shown in Fig. 63 (d), the sheet is drawn past the probe
which dips into the liquid. The probe is fixed and adjusted towards a reflector below
the sheet so that, a sharp echo R1 from this appears on the screen. The sheet surface
gives rise to that echo B1 and this in the case of thick sheets and high frequencies of
probe is closely accompanied by multiple echoes from the sheet.

The distance of sheet and reflector from the probe should be so adjusted that the
echoes B1, R1 and their multiples do not interfere with each other. When the sheet is
laminated the reflector echo R1 will vanish or its height will be reduced while echo B1
remains unchanged. The indications can be so adjusted that only R1 appears between
B1 & B2, (Fig. 63 e). The reflector can be thick block of hard rubber or lead or a thin
sheet placed upon an absorber like wood, cork or ebonite, which provides an echo
from its surface but not from its back wall. If the echo B1 and its multiples from the
sheet surface is too intense, the direction of the beam towards the sheet can be tilted.
Adequate wetting of the sheet surface is very essential.

The Surface Wave Method :

Ultrasonic testing with surface wave method is more suitable for the detection of
laminations in thin plates of 0.3 to 5 mm. Surface waves are produced when shear
waves are introduced from an angle probe at particular angles which must be chosen
to suit the sheet thickness. An angle probe with variable angle (universal angle probe)
is used for the purpose. In the Pulse-Echo method, a straight edge of the plate is
scanned. Any lamination which happens to be present will tend to reduce the edge
echo and generally adds a flaw echo. Because of the long and narrow shape in which
laminations generally occur, the best sensitivity is obtained by testing parallel to their
maximum length.

Intermediate Echoes from Plates :

When a steel plate is examined by the pulse reflection method some echoes may be
found in flawless specimen between the multiple echoes, if sufficiently large
sensitivity is employed. These echoes arise from the separation of shear waves where
the beam is reflected at the boundary surfaces.If the pates are of sufficient thickness,
they can easily by recognized amongst all the intermediate echoes which are
theoretically possible at 0.27d, 0.41d, 0.65 d and 0.82 d behind the 3rd and subsequent
multiple echoes, (d is the plate thickness).
L

Fig. 63 (f)
L - Longitudinal Wave

T - Transverse Wave
 The height of these intermediate echoes can increase so much in the course of the
multiple echo picture and therefore, render difficult the discovery of a small flaw.

In the Fig. 63 (f) , the intermediate echoes for steel plates are assembles according to
position and height.

(d) Bond Testing :

Ultrasonic test can be used to detect lack of bond when any two metals are bonded by
various methods including brazing. The plane where a lack of bond is expected is
known prior to the test. When two different materials are bonded, the interface itself
(even when there is a sound bond) may reflect some energy and in some cases flaw
detection is not at all feasible. (ref. Fig. 64).

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

INTER FACE ECHO BWE # 2

GOOD BOND LACK OF BOND

T R #1 T R

#2

FIG. 64
The reflectivity R of an interface depends on the acoustic impedance of the two media.
2
Z1 - Z2
Ra = x 100 %
Z1 + Z2

Where Z1 and Z2 are acoustic impendances of material 1 and material 2 respectively.

When the reflectivity is zero, a good bond does not give any reflection. Here detection
of lack-of-bond is similar to conventional flaw detection. When reflectivity is very
high, large reflections are obtained even from a place where there is good bond and it
becomes difficult to distinguish between good bond and lack-of-bond.

(e) Raw Material Rods, Axles :

Longitudinal and transverse flaws can be found out in round material (of dia. 30 mm
or more). Longitudinal scanning is carried out with normal probes. It should be noted
that both flaws and bottom echoes can be followed by stray echoes. Longitudinal
flaws such as core defects in steel rod are indirectly detected during longitudinal tests
by an attenuation of the bottom echo or by the stray echoes which follow it. This is the
case when such defects are present throughout most of the length of the specimen. The
stray echoes arise from zig-zag reflections of shear waves which cannot arose when a
core defect is present. The essential requirement of applying this method practically is
flat surfaces at ends. Transverse scanning gives the clearest indication of longitudinal
defects. When round material has a diameter of more than 60 mm, it is advisable to
use 4 MHz probes with a protective cover. It is frequently not possible to locate core
defects by transverse scanning in one direction only because they occur as narrow
smooth longitudinal piping. It is then necessary to scan in two or more directions. In
practice, zig-zag scanning between two surface lines making an angle of 90 deg. At
the axis has proved satisfactory.

Oblique Testing :

Longitudinal flaws may also occur eccentrically or on the surface as for instance
surface cracks. Such flaws cannot be located by longitudinal or transverse scanning.
To detect them, it is necessary to work Obliquely with angle of 35 deg. Or 45 deg.
Beam angle in zig-zag direction along two longitudinal surface lines making an angle
of 180 deg. At the axis.
CRACK

FIG. 65

Complete scanning round bar material will therefore require :

 (1) Longitudinal test from each end with 2 - 4 Mhz.
(2) Transverse test along and between two surface lines 90 apart with 3 - 4 MHz. If
there is a flaw in the core, the specimen may be scanned all round in order to
obtain a more accurate determination of position and size.
(3) Transverse testing for eccentric and surface flaws by means by 35 deg. 60 deg.
beam angle along 2 or 3 longitudinal lines and with zig-zag movement. For round
material this test should form a spiral whilst the material is rotated and moved
forward.

If for instance, the front face only for a locomotive axle is accessible, longitudinal
cracks can be detected by oblique beaming. The front face is scanned all round and
near the edge with a 45 deg. angle probe so that, the beam as a result of continuous
reflection from the surface travels along a helical path. The exact position of the crack
can only be determined by a test on a model.

When any of the end surfaces are not accessible for the detection of transverse flaws
or when they are too far away from such flaws, it is more convenient to operate with
oblique beaming in a longitudinal direction. This would apply for the case of thick
screw (Fig. 66) in which there are incipient cracks in the head, but where the top
surface is inaccessible or awkwardly placed.

Fig. 66

The same procedure must be used for the testing of axles when the front surface is not
accessible. The angle of the probe will depend on the position of the flaw and a direct
of multiple reflection beam must be applied. The reflections at the smooth cylindrical
surface will focus the ultrasonic beam and as a result, the latter will still show good
sensitivity even after reflection. If the axle diameter is less than 200 mm, grinding in
of the angle probes in the longitudinal direction is recommended. When the axle is
hollow, the most favorable scanning position will be from the inner side. It is
absolutely necessary to use a shaped wedge to suit the surface contour.

Testing of Wagon Axles :

Wagon axles are tested ultrasonically as part of a periodic maintenance inspection.

Here only two end faces of the axle are accessible for test. Normal probes of 25 mm, 1
- 2 MHz are ideal for testing of these axles.
A typical wagon axle is shown in the Fig. 67. When testing from one end, the steps
near the other end of the axle may give rise to echo indications. A back wall echo is
obtained, the height of which is kept at full screen height. While testing any reduction
in back wall echo height and defect indications are observed. Alternatively, sensitivity
calibration can be done on a saw-cut of approximately 3/4 depth, a few inches away
from the opposite end.

1 2 3 4

4
1 2 3 ECHOS FROM STEPS

FIG. 67

Sometimes longitudinal waves at an angle to the entry surface are also used for testing
specific areas of the axle. It should be considered that the presence of shear waves
may give rise to other echoes along with echoes from the longitudinal angle beam.

(f) Castings :

The lower range of testing frequencies is generally applied to castings. It is very

difficult to test may coarse-grained castings ultrasonically because of the extreme
scattering resulting from reflections at the grain boundaries. Some alloys of brass,
stainless steel, titanium and cast iron belong to this group. Brass alloys cast
under conditions that control the grain growth can be tested at 1 and 2.25 MHz,
because of the small uniform grain structure. Cast Lead can be tested at 1 MHz if it
contains 6 % Antimony. Pure Lead is a poor transmitter of ultrasonic vibrations and
even low frequencies are attenuated within a few inches. Occasionally, when
attenuation is too high, through transmission method can be used instead of the pulse-
echo method. Shrinkage cavities, blow holes, inclusions and cracks can be tested.
 (g) Forgings :

Most forgings of a uniform size and shape are good objects for ultrasonic testing.
This applies to brass alloys, carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium,
titanium and nickel alloys. Flaking, forging bursts or Moreover, in forged parts
discontinuities may be flattened out parallel to the test surface and thus present the
best orientation for reflecting ultrasonic beams.

(h) Gray Cast Iron :

Ultrasonic test can be carried out to detect piping, porosity etc. and for wall
thickness measurement. The permeability of gray cast-iron is much less. In specimens
of high rigidity exceeding 20 Kg/mm, it may still be possible to scan above 200 mm.
Spherulitic gray cast iron can also be tested in considerable depth. The methods
applied are the same as for steel castings but it must be noted that graphite inclusions
produce considerable stray echoes and therefore, in most cases the bottom echo only
can be used for estimation.

Angle probes are only used in exceptional cases. owing to changes in the modulus
of elasticity in gray cast iron, the velocity of sound differs from that of steel.

(I) Non-Ferrous Metals :

Ultrasonic testing in case of heavy metal castings is limited in detecting cavities

and porosities. Rolled or drawn heavy metal is easy to test and in case or rolled or
drawn light metal, testing is very easy. From cast non-ferrous metals Copper, Zinc and
Lead must be excluded. Brass and Bronze can be tested if the castings are cleaned and
compact, Bad permeability is frequently due to the bad quality of casting as such, than
to the material. When polished it may show a number of porosities and inclusions.
Scanning is very easy in case of compact castings of light metals such as
continuously cast ingots upto 10 mtrs long. When the condition of the surface is good
as in the case of sawn surfaces, it is possible to scan depths of several meters at 2
MHz.

Slag inclusions and honey combing are shown by the flaw echoes whilst porosity
absorbs the bottom echo.
Cracks in light metal billets can be measured with angle probes.

It is not correct as it frequently thought that the permeability of a coarse grain

texture is bad. Steel castings with a grain which are coarse than that of gray cast-iron
frequently has better permeability, while light metal castings with coarse grained
section measurable in square cms, very good permeability.

Absorption & Scattering seems to depend largely on the internal damping due to
the material and on the condition of grain boundaries especially as regards to
dimensions of the same. All metals are considerably more permeable and suitable for
test when they are pressed or rolled than when they are cast.

(j) Testing of Porcelain :

The mechanical constants of porcelain differs from those of steel and the same
applied to velocity of sound.
The velocity of sound in porcelain varies about a mean value of 5600 m/sec. The
degree of vitrification affects the velocity of sound. The velocity of sound is
smaller in porous specimens which are under or over vitrified than in compact ones.
Here the limit between usable and unusable specimens from the same raw material
occurs at roughly 350 m/sec. below the maximum velocity of sound. Extensive tests
are required before absolute judgment on the quality of porcelain can be given, either
from the velocity of sound or from differences in the speed in various directions. The
practical test for porosity can be by the measurement of velocity of sound and for
this purpose, the time and length of travel of sound can be obtained in three ways :

(a) By using the scale of the flaw detector after is has been calibrated with known
times of travel. These can be obtained from work pieces for which the velocity of
sound and their length is known. The attainable accuracy is about 2 %.

(b) By simultaneous comparative measurement of time of travel in the specimen

under test and in a water column of variable length placed in parallel by means of a
second cable and probe. The two echoes can be made to coincide on the screen. The
velocity of sound in water is known and from the length of water column, the time of
travel can be obtained which is the same for the porcelain test piece.

(c) Where multiple echoes can be obtained from the specimen the time of travel
can be determined on a wall thickness meter suitably calibrated. The maximum
velocity of sound for a particular raw material can be quickly established from a large
number of tests. For setting the limit between usable and unusable specimens, other
known methods of test must be used. Variations of the velocity of sound resulting
from changes in compactness may take place even within one specimen.

Another method for measuring the degree of vitrification is by the way of

absorption. Porous and other vitrified specimens show higher absorption than
correctly vitrified ones. With the flaw detector adjusted in one setting, the maximum
number of multiple echoes is determined when a small number of multiple echoes
appear. It should be noted that uneven surface will alter the number of multiple
echoes present. High frequencies are more sensitive to absorption than lower ones.
Porcelain insulators are tested longitudinally for porosity in the spindly. Cavities and
cracks can be detected at the same time provided they are located at right angles to
longitudinal axis. the caps and umbrellas of insulators will cause stray echoes when
shear waves are produced.
Transverse tests between the caps and at 90 deg. separation are necessary in order to
detect slit shaped internal cracks in a longitudinal direction. Angle probes can reveal
surface cracks in bushing insulators.

(k) Testing of Welds on Plates :

For testing a weld satisfactorily, the following information should be available :

(a) Material, (ii) Details of weld preparation, (iii) Welding process and probable
defects expected, (iv) Application of the part and (v) Acceptance criteria.

Let us consider testing of a single V butt joint welded only from one side using
transverse waves. Selection of probe frequency depends on the minimum size of
flaw to be detected and attenuation in thematerial. The effects of near zone and
beam spread which varies with frequency should be considered.
For mild steel welds usually a frequency in the range of 1 MHz to 4 MHz will be
satisfactory.

Probe Angle : A rule-of thumb, for determining the angle of probe to be used is 0 =
90 - t, where 0 = is the angle of probe, and t = tht thickness of material to be tested
in mm. However, the important factor to be considered is the probable plans of
orientation of defects. The beam should have such an angle so as to strike the defect
normally. To accommodate the variation of echo amplitude with respect to distance, a
(Distance Amplitude Correction) curve should be drawn with a known reflector. The
first point of the DAC should be taken preferably after the beam undergoes one
reflection from the bottom surface.

Scanning is done from both sides of the weld with sufficient overlap to ensure
complete coverage and with a swivel motion to the probe. The distance (minimum and
maximum) the probe should travel from the weld axis should be such that entire
volume of the weld in adequately scanned.

The flaws can be located with respect to the probe position and depth from the
scanning surface can be determined using the following equations :-
 S2 S1

t d t

S2 = t Tan = HALF SKIP If BP = V PATH

BP = t Sec S1 = BP Sin
BP1 = DISCONTINUITY BEAM PATH d = BP1 Cos

S S2
BP2 BP1

t d t

S = 2 t Tan FULL SKIP If BP V PATH

BP = 2 t Sec = BEAM PATH S2 = BP Sin
V PATH d = 2 t - BP Cos
BP = BP1 = BP2

FIG. 68

However an echo must not, at once be taken as evidence of a flaw. On the contrary,
the origin of the echo should be sought by a number of tests from as many different
directions as possible. A simple flaw locating rule can be made and tedious
calculations can be avoided. On a piece of semi-transparent paper (tracing paper can
be used) two parallel lines are drawn, the distance between these two being the
thickness of the part being tested as shown in Fig. 69 (a). On the L.H. side, a point on
the top surface is marked as zero. Distance (5 mm marks would do) are marked on
the top line increasing towards R.H. side. From zero a line is drawn representing the
axis of the sound beam till it touches the bottom surface and returns to the top.
Distances are marked at 5 mm intervals along this line.
 EDGE OF WELD BEVEL ANGLE
0 SCANNING SIDE

t t

FLAW LOCATING RULE (A) WELD CROSS SECTION (B)

FIG. 69

Now on another paper, a sketch is drawn to scale 1 : 1 showing the cross section of
the weld as shown in Fig. 69 (b). While scanning, when a defect echo appears on the
screen, the beam path at which the echo appears and the distance of the probe to the
nearest edge of the weld are noted.

PROBE TO WELD DISTANCE

FIG. 70

Now the semi-transparent paper is placed on the sketch of the weld cross-
section in such a way that the distance between zero on the top horizontal line and the
weld edge, is the same as the measured distance between probe centre to the edge of weld
as shown in Fig. 70. The position of the flaw can be ascertained by following the slanted
line (beam path) to the distance as measured on the CRT.

(1) Testing of Pipes & Tubes :

When a pipe is scanned circumferentially, sound propagates around the wall in a

zig-zag pattern. Because of the interference by shear waves when longitudinal waves are
used, most testing of tubular shape is done with shear waves. When using shear waves, if
the ratio of thickness (d), to diameter (D) is over 0.2 or 20%, the sound beam will not
touch the inner diameter (for 40 deg. , 60 deg. & 70 deg.).

Also the beam path at half skip distance and the half skip distance, increases
compared to that of a flat plate. Depending on the curvature, the angle of reflection from
bottom surface also changes. This increase of skip distance, fs and beam path, fB against
the ratio d/D is plotted in the graphs shown above. The numerical value thus found is
multiplied by respective skip distance and beam path of a flat plate of same thickness.

(m) Ultrasonic Testing of Austenitic Stainless Steel :

Austenitic stainless steel castings and welds cannot be tested ultrasonically

using conventional techniques due to the heavy scattering of sound and consequent
reduction in signal to noise ratio. Sometimes pseudo indications are also present which
cannot be distinguished from defect indications. To reduce the effects of high scattering
and attenuation, low frequency probes can be used. However, this will in turn, affect the
sensitivity. In the casting or weld material, sometimes large variations in acoustic
velocity, attenuation and scattering are present which results in faulty interpretation and
location of defects.

By reducing the volume of material being scanned, signal to noise ratio can be improved.
For this purpose, small focused probes and double crystal probes can be utilised. Low
frequency probes should be used depending on the grain size and flaw size. In the
scattered beam, longitudinal wave component is much less than the shear wave
component and hence, use of longitudinal wave (Angle) probes is recommended.

As grain resonance are frequency sensitive, change in grain resonance can be observed
with a change in frequency where as the flaw indications will remain unaffected. When
the probe is moved along the surface, defect indications remain more or less stable against
a background of varying noise.

As the amplitude alone of the signal may not be sufficient for identifying defects, the
signal can be further processed and characterised b observing its various other parameters.
Fabrication procedure may be modified to control grain structure and orientation to suit
ultrasonic testing.

(n) Testing of T, K & Y weld joints of offshore drilling platforms :

Tubular bracings are joined by full penetration welds in the construction of off-shore
drilling platforms. Due to the typical configuration of these joints, ultrasonic is the only
reliable and practical method of testing.
 BRANCH MEMBER

T - JOINT K - JOINT
MAIN MEMBER

DETAIL A OR B DETAIL C DETAIL C OR D

Y - JOINT

FIG. 71

The name T, K & Y joint originates from the apparent similarity of these joints to the
alphabets T, K & Y. As a Y joint is more complex then a T joint and a K joint can be
considered as a basic form of Y joint, testing of a Y joint is dealt with below (Fig. 72
& 73). The unique feature of this joint is that the weld level preparation and the scanning
surface configuration changes from point to point.
 BUILD UP TOMAINTAIN T LOCAL DIHEDRAL ANGLE
t

135 -180

R L

DETAIL A

t 150-190

90-50
ROOT FACE
0 to 1/16
R R

t t

DETAIL B FIG. 72
 t

ROOT FACE /INSIDE

BEVEL OPTION

BACK WELD
MADE FROM W
OUT SIDE
T

DETAIL C

AND
40 - 15

BACK UP WELD W
MADE FROM
OUT SIDE

T
THEROTICAL WELD
DETAIL D
FIG. 73

Typical weld cross-sections (details Fig. 72 & 73 in A, C, C, & D), are given in the
sketch. Scanning at short point and long point using angle probes is similar to scanning a
flat plate. Depending on the position of the probe, a back wall echo may be present on the
screen. Beam path at half skip distance at long point and short point is the same as can be
calculated for a flat plates of same thickness. As the scanning proceeds from the long
point to short point, the curvature effect brings considerable changes in the half skip
distance beam path distance.
 12 mm 70
B1 1 1

5 mm

FIG. 74

Whenever a defect echo is encountered, a profile of the corresponding area is taken using
a profile gauge (this can also be done by using a solder wire of 1 mm, which when
pressed on the surface matches the profile and can be reproduced on paper). Assuming the
same curved profile for the ID of the bracing (for large OD, thin walled pipes) a cross-
section can be reproduced on the paper (Fig. 74).

Probe to weld distance and beam path (from CRT) is noted. From the probe exit point, a
line is extended, angle of which corresponds to the angle of the beam till it touches the
bottom surface. Because of the curvature, angle of reflection from this curved surface
changes and the beam path is extended till the point as given by the CRT reading.

Usually scanning is done from 1/2 skip to 1.1/2 skip distance as testing can be done
practically only from one side. Joints which have to take up more stresses and which are
accessible from inside of the main pipe are also tested using a normal probe. Because of
the changes in level angle, testing by more than one angle may be necessary.
 CHAPTER - X II
Interpretation of Ultrasonic Flaw-Echo Indications

(a) General :

Although many of the specifications and codes do not require the nature and identification
of the defects detected by ultrasonic testing, when the acceptance or rejection of a critical
component depends on the ultrasonic test result, it is better to have the nature and
identification of a defect. The interpretation of flaw- echo indications require essentially
the following information : (I) the nature of defects which are likely to be inherent with
the process of fabrication (casting, forging, rolling, welding etc.), (ii) the probable
orientation of these defects and the areas where they are likely to be found.

1 2

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
1

PLANER FLAW

FIG. 75
 Planar defects like cracks, lack of fusion and penetration, etc. tend to
produce a higher amplitude echo Fig. 75. When the beam is striking perpendicular to
these defects, the echo indication is sharp. For lack of fusion and cracks, when the angle
of approach is changed, there will be considerable difference in echo height.

A B

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

SPHERICAL FLAW SHOW ECHO AT IRREGULAR FLAW

SAME HEIGHT IN ALL PROBE POSITIONS
FIG. 76

Spherical defects like porosity (Fig. 76 A), reflect only a small amount of sound. Hence
echo height would be small and remain unchanged when the angle of approach is
changed. Inclusions of an irregular shape will give rise to an echo which is broad
with may peaks of comparatively low height and changes the pattern when the approach is
changed (Fig. 76).

The interpretation of ultrasonic test indications require good experience and this
experience can be gained only when the defect echo pattern is recorded and later co-
related to the actual defects by destructive or other methods of confirmative tests.
(b) Interpretation of Ultrasonic Indications in Weld Testing :

A thorough knowledge of the weld geometry, welding procedure and probable nature and
orientation of defects which may be present, is required before ultrasonic testing of
welds is done.A few examples of echo, indications which may not be caused by actual
defects are shown below along with echo indications from a weld with lack of penetration
(single V butt joint).

1 2

LACK OF PENETRATION 1 & 2 SAME

0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG. 77

Fig. 77 : Lack of penetration can be identified by a sharp echo while scanning from both
sides of the weld the beam path of corresponds to the thickness and angle involved. When
the probe is moved along the length of weld, this indication remains at the same
position on the screen.

1 2

EXCESS PENETRATION 1 & 2 SAME

0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG.78

Fig. 78 : When there is an excess penetration, depending on the shape of the root surface
a strong echo may be present. Similar effect can occur when there is excess reinforcement
on the outer surface also.
 1 2

MIS MATCH SHOWS ONLY FROM 2

FIG.79
0 2 4 6 8 10

Fig. 79 : When there is a mis-match between the plates welded, a strong echo indication
may be present when scanned from the lower side of the joint and no indication, when
scanned from upper side.

1 2

ROOT CAVITY 1 & 2 SAME

0 2 4 6 8 10
FIG.80

Fig. 80 : A concave root may also produce sharp echo indication on the screen.

1 2

WITH BACKING STRIP 1 & 2 SAME

0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG.81

Fig. 81 : When a backing strip is used, the sound beam may enter the backing strip
through the fused root and will get reflected at the edge of the backing strip as shown and
produce an echo indication on the screen.
 ECHO INDICATION FROM SOUND ROOT
0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG.82

Fig. 82 : If the backing strip is inclined, an echo indication may be present when the
sound beam gets reflected from the surface of weld between the backing strip and the
plate.

1 2

DIFFERENT THICKNESS
ECHO ONLY FROM SIDE 1

0 2 4 6 8 10

FIG.83

Fig. 83 : When plates of different thickness are welded together as shown, echo indication
will be present when scanning from the thick side of the weld and no echo indication will
be present when scanned from the other side.
 CHAPTER - X I I I

Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

Material can be tested ultrasonically only when ultrasound can be transmitted into the
material and the changes produced by the in homogenates can be clearly observed. Size of
the test object (very thin sheets), its permeability (coarse grained material) and shape can
sometimes make it difficult to be tested by ultrasonic.

Orientation of the defects with respect to the sound beam, size, nature and distribution od
defects within the test material can affects the delectability.

Compared to other NDT methods, ultrasonic testing requires a qualified, highly trained
and experienced person to utilize the full capabilities of the test method.
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Amplitude, Echo - The total vertical or pulse height of the received signal, wither base-to
peak or peak -to peak , when indicated by A scan type presentation.

Angle of Incidence - The angle defined by the direction of propagation of the refracted
wave and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence.

Angle of Reflection - The angle defined by the direction of the propagation of the
refracted wave and the normal to the inter-face at the point of incidence.

Angle Testing - An ultrasonic testing method in which angle of incidence is greater than
zero.

Angle Transducer - A transducer used in angle testing in which the sound beam is set to
some predetermined angle to achieve special effect, e.g. setting up shear or surface
waves in the tested piece.

A - Scan - A data presentation method by which intelligence signal from a single object
located are displayed. As generally applied to pulse echo ultrasonic, the horizontal and
vertical sweeps are proportional to time or distance and amplitude or magnitude
respectively. Thus the location and the magnitude of the acoustical interface are indicated
as to depth below the transducer.

Attenuation (Ultrasonic) - The loss of ultrasonic energy as a wave is propagated through

medium.

Background Noise - Extraneous signals caused by electronic noise within the ultrasonic
system.

Barium Titanate Transducer - (Polycrystalline Barium Titanate BaTiO3). A ceramic

metal composed of many individual crystal fired together, and polarized by the
application of a DC (direct current) field for use as a transducer.

Beam - A directed flow of energy into space matter.

Billet - A solid semi-finished round or square product that has been hot worked by
forging, rolling or extrusion.

Blister - A defect in the metal, on or near the surface, resulting from expansion of gas in a
subsurface zone. Very small blisters are called Pinheads or Pepper Blisters.

Blowhole - A hole in a casting or a weld caused by gas entrapped during solidification.

Boundary Echo - A reflection of an ultrasonic wave from an interface.

B - Scan - A data presentation method generally applied to pulse echo techniques which
yields a two dimensional view of a cross-sectional plant through the test piece. The
horizontal sweep is proportional to the test piece, with the vertical sweep proportional to
distance, showing the front and back surfaces and discontinuities in between.

Calibration - The standardization of the instrument, prior to test, to a known reference

value.

Casting - (1) An object at or near furnished shape obtained by solidification of a

substance in a mold ; (2) Pouring molten metal into a mold to produce an object of desired
shape.

Casting Shrinkage - (1) Liquid Shrinkage - the reduction in volume of liquid metal as
it cools to the liquid stage ; (2) Solidification Shrinkage - the reduction in volume of
metal from the beginning to ending of solidification ; (3) Solid Shrinkage - the
reduction in volume of metal from the solid stage to room temperature ; (4) Total
Shrinkage - the sum of the shrinkage in parts (1), (2) and (3).

Casting Strains - Strains in a casting caused by casting stresses that develop as the
casting cools.

Casting Stresses - Stresses set up in a casting because of geometry and casting shrinkage.

Cathode Ray - A stream of electrons emitted by a heated structure (or by a cold structure
under the influence of an electric field of high intensity) and projected in a somewhat
confined beam by means of an electric field or a changing magnetic field.

Cleavage Fracture - A fracture, usually of a polycrystalline metal, in which most of the

grains have failed by cleave, resulting in bright reflecting facets. It is one type of
crystalline fracture. Contrast with Shear Fracture.

Cold Shut - (1) A discontinuity that appears on the surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite ; (2) A portion of the surface of a forging
that is separated, in part from the main body of metal by oxide.

Collimating Nozzle - A transducer assembly attachment designed to reduce the ultrasonic

beam spread.

Compressional Wave - Waves in which the particle motion or vibration is in the same
direction as a propagated wave. Same as longitudinal wave.

Contact Testing - Testing with transducer assembly in direct contact with material
through a thin layer of couplant.
Couplant - A substance used between the face of the transducer and the test surface to
permit or improve transmission of ultrasonic energy across this boundary or interface.

Crack - A discontinuity which has a relatively large cross-section in one direction and a
small or negligible cross-section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.

Cracks - (Transverse, Longitudinal and Base Metal) - Discontinuity resulting from a

very narrow separation of metal.

Crystals (X-Cut) - Section cut so that its thickness is parallel to the X-axis of the crystal.
A thickness extensional mode of vibration occurs when excited.

Crystals (Y-Cut) - Section cut so that its thickness is parallel to the Y-axis of the crystal.
A thickness shear mode of vibration occurs when excited.

Crystals (Z-Cut) - Section cut so that its thickness is parallel to the Z-axis of the crystal.
Piezoelectric effect is restricted to the X and Y axis, therefore mode of vibration is width-
extenstional.

C - Scan - A data presentation method generally applied to pulse echo techniques yielding
a two-dimensional plan view of the scanned surface of the part. Through gating, only
echoes arising from the interior of the test object are indicated. In the C-Scan no
indication is given of the echo depth.

Damping - Hindering or decreasing the time of vibrations or oscillations in the motion of

a body or in an electrical system subjected to influences which are capable of
causing vibration or oscillation. Compare with attenuation.

Damping (Ultrasonic) - Decrease or decay of ultrasonic wave amplitude with respect to

time.

Defect - A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it

detrimental to the useful service of the part in which it occurs.

Delayed Sweep - A means of eliminating any specific part of the pattern on the viewing
screen from the initial pulse towards the track reflection by delaying the beginning of the
sweep.

Die Casting - (1) A casting made in a die ; (2) A casting process where molten metal is
forced under high pressure into the cavity of a metal mold.

Die Forging - A forging whose shape is determined by impressions in specially prepared

dies.
Discontinuity - Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a
part, such as cracks, laps, seams, inclusions of porosity. A discontinuity may or may not
affect the usefulness of a part.

Dispersion Sound - Scattering of rays of an ultrasonic beam as a result of reflection from

a highly irregular incident surface about that normally associated with a particular
transducer.

Divergence - Spreading of ultrasonic waves after leaving search unit.

Double Crystal Method - The method of ultrasonic testing, using two transducers with
one acting as the sending unit and one as the receiving unit.

Expanded Sweep - An expansion of the horizontal sweep line or time axis on the viewing
screen of the ultrasonic instrument. This permits, when used in conjuction with the
sweep delay, to more closely scrutinize any portion of the pattern.

False Indication - In Non-Destructive Inspection, an indication that may be interpreted

erroneously as a discontinuity.

Fatigue - The phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses

having a maximum value less than the tensile strength of the material . Fatigue fractures
are progressive, beginning as minute cracks that grow under the action of the fluctuating
stress.

Filled Crack - A crack-like discontinuity, open to the surface, but filled with some
foreign material - oxide,grease etc., which tends to prevent penetrants from entering.

Forging - Plastically deforming metal, usually hot into with compressive force, with or
without dies.

Frequency - Number of complete cycles of a wave motion passing a point in a unit time
(1 second) : number of times a vibration is repeated at the same point in the same direction
per unit time (usually per second).

Ghost - An indication which has no direct relation to the reflected pulses from the
materials being tested.

Harmonic - Those vibrations differing in frequency from the fundamental vibration by

integral multiple.

Heat Treatment - Heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy in such a way so to obtain
desired conditions or properties. Heating for the sole purpose of not working is excluded
from the meaning of this definition.
Heat Affected Zone - That portion of the base metal which has not welted during brazing,
cutting or welding, but those microstructure and physical properties were altered by the
heat.

Hot Tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification because of hindered

contraction.

Immersion Testing - The use of a liquid as an ultrasonic couplant in which the specimen
tested and the transducer are completely immersed, and the transducer is not in direct
contact with the specimen.

Inclusion - Any foreign matter contained in welds or castings.

Incomplete Fusion - Fusion which is less than complete. Failure of weld metal to fuse
completely with the base metal or proceeding bead.

Incomplete Penetration - Root penetration which is less than complete or failure of a

root pass and a backing pass to fuse with each other.

Lack of Fusion - Two dimensional defect due to lack of union between weld metal and
parent metal.

Lamb Wave - A group of modes of ultrasonic vibrations capable of propagation.

Laminations - Metal defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the
worked surface of the metal. May be the result of pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions or
segregation elongated and made directional by working. Lamination defects may also
occur in metal-powder compacts.

Longitudinal Wave - See Compressional Wave.

Longitudinal Wave Velocity - Rate of propagation of a wave parallel to the direction of

motion of the particles.

Loss of Back Reflection - Absence of an indication of the far surface of the article being
inspected.

Manipulator - A device used for orientation of the transducer assembly. As generally

applied to immersion techniques, provides either angular or normal longitudinal,
transverse and surface.

Near Field Effects - Poor ultrasonic resolution arising from complex wave front
characteristics. Also known as the Fresnel Field.

Node - A point in a standing wave where some characteristic of the wave field has
essentially zero amplitude.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) - Testing to detect internal and concealed defects in
materials using techniques that do not damage or destroy the items being tested.

Orientation - Position of a discontinuity or part or surface in relation to the test surface of

the article or ultrasonic beam.

Particle Motion - Movement of particles in a material brought about by the action of a

transducer.

Penetration (Ultrasonic) - Transmission of ultrasonic energy through an article.

Piezoelectric Effect - The characteristics of certain crystals to generate electrical charges

when subjected to mechanical vibrations and conversely to generate mechanical vibrations
when subjected to electrical pulses.

Probe - Transducer or search unit.

Propagation - Advancement of a wave through a medium.

Pulse (Echo Method) - Ultrasonic test method that employs reflected pulses as
distinguished from the through transmission method.

Pulse Length - Use of ultrasonic equipment that generates a series of pulses which are
separated from each other by a constant period of time i.e. energy is not sent out
continuously.

Pulse Rate - Number of pulses that are transmitted is a unit time (also called pulse
repetition rate).

Rarefaction - The thinning out or moving apart of the particles in a material as an

ultrasonic wave is propagated. Opposite in its effect to compression. The sound wave is
composed of alternate compression and rarefaction of the material.

Rayleigh Wave - A wave that travels on or close to the surface and readily follows the
curvature of the part being examined. Reflections occur only at sharp changes of
direction of the surface.

Reference Blocks - A block or series of blocks of material containing artificial or actual

discontinuities of one or more reflecting areas at one or more distances from the test
surface, which are used for reference in defining the size and distance of the defective
areas in materials.
Refracted Ray - A refracted ray is one which has been changed both in velocity and
direction as a result of its having crossed an interface between two media and having
initially been directed at an angle to that interface.

Refracted Index - The ratio of the velocity of the wave in one medium to the velocity of
the wave in a second medium is the refractive index of the second medium with respect
to the first.

Reinforcement of Weld - (1) In a butt joint weld metal on the face of the weld that
extends out beyond a surface plan common to the members being welded ; (2) In a fillet
weld, weld metal that contributes to convexity ; (3) In a flash, upset or gas pressure
weld, the original diameter or thickness.

Resonance - The condition in which the frequency of the forced vibration (ultrasonic
wave) is the same as the natural frequency of the body (test piece), which results in
abnormally large amplitudes of vibration.

Resonance Method - A method employing the resonance principle for the measurement
of dimensions and other frequency dependent qualities.

Resonant Frequency - The frequency at which a body will vibrate freely after being set
in motion by some outside force.

Root Crack - A crack in either the weld or heat-affected zone at the root of a weld.

Root of a Joint - The location of closest approach between parts of a joint to be welded.

Root Penetration - The depth to which weld metal extends into the root of a joint.

Scanning (Manual & Automatic) - The moving of the search unit or units along a test
surface to obtain complete testing of a material.

Scattering (Ultrasonic) - Dispersion of ultrasonic waves in a medium due to causes

other than absorption.

Search Unit - See Transducer.

Sensitivity - The smallest quantitative increment detectable in using a measuring

instrument.

Sensitivity (Ultrasonic) - The level of amplification at which the receiving circuit in an

ultrasonic instrument is set. Also, the ability to detect small discontinuity.

Shear - That type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of the
same body to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
Shear Wave - A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Signal-To-Noise-Ratio - The ratio of amplitudes of indication from the smallest defect

considered significant and those caused by random factors, such as heterogeneity in grain
size etc.

Slag - A non-metallic product resulting from the mutual dissolution of flux and non-
metallic impurities in smelting or refining operations.

Slag Inclusions - Non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
metal and base metal.

Slag Lines - Elongated cavities containing slag or other foreign matter.

Specific Acoustic Impedance - A factor which determines the amount of reflection which
occurs at an interface and represents the product of the density of the medium in which
the wave is propagating and the wave velocity.

Standing Wave - A wave in which the energy flux is zero at all points. Such waves in
elastic bodies from the interaction of similar trains of waves running in the opposite
direction and are usually due to reflected waves meeting those which are advancing.

Surface Finish - (1)Condition of a surface as a result of a final treatment ; (2) Measured

surface profile characteristics, the preferred term being roughness.

Surface Wave - See Rayleigh Wave.

Test Frequency - The frequency of vibration of the ultrasonic transducer employed for
ultrasonic testing.

Transducer - Any device which is capable of converting energy from one form to
another.

Transmission Angle - The incident angle of the transmitted ultrasonic beam. It is zero
degree when the ultrasonic beam is perpendicular to the test surface.

Transverse - Literally across, usually signifying a direction or plane perpendicular to

the direction of working.

Transverse Wave - Same as Shear Wave.

Ultrasonic - Mechanical vibrations having a frequency above the range of audible sound,
ultrasonic, therefore refers to frequency above 20,000 cycles per second.
Ultrasonic Absorption - A damping of ultrasonic vibrations that occurs when the wave
transverses a medium.

Ultrasonic Spectrum - The frequency span associated with elastic waves greater than the
highest audible frequency, generally regarded as being higher than 2.0 x 10 cycles per
second to approximately 10 CPS.

Ultrasonic Testing - A Non-Destructive method of testing materials by transmitting high

frequency sound waves through them.

Under bead Crack - A sub-surface crack in the base metal near the weld.

Wavelength - The actual instantaneous linear distance in the direction of propagation of a

wave that it takes for a wave to go through a complete cycle.