APEX The Organ Systems

BIOLOGY
The Organ Systems

Table of Contents
Lesson 1 Living Organisms Levels of Organization...................................................................... 1

Lesson 2 Roots: The Plant Stabilizers ......................................................................................... 10
Lesson 3 The Supportive Stems ................................................................................................. 20
Lesson 4 Leaves: The Food Manufacturers ................................................................................ 32
Lesson 5 Flowers ........................................................................................................................ 40
Lesson 6 Fruits............................................................................................................................ 49
Lesson 7 Seeds ........................................................................................................................... 60
Lesson 8 Effects of Hormones on Plant Growth and Development .......................................... 71
Lesson 9 Body Parts and Organs ................................................................................................ 77
Lesson 10 What Happens When You Eat? ................................................................................. 84
Lesson 11 The Human Respiratory System ................................................................................ 90
Lesson 12 The Human Circulatory System ............................................................................... 101
Lesson 13 The Human Excretory System ................................................................................. 110
Lesson 14 The Human Nervous System ................................................................................... 116
Lesson 15 The Endocrine System: Ductless Glands ................................................................. 124
Lesson 16 Muscular and Skeletal Systems ............................................................................... 131
Lesson 17 Diagnosis and Treatment of Defective Organs ....................................................... 138
Biology: Unit IV - The Organ Systems
Lesson 1
LIVING ORGANISMS LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

describe the types of cells that make up every tissue;
classify the tissues as animal or plant tissue;
explain how cells interact to form tissues, tissues to organs and
organs to organ systems; and
recognize the importance of working together harmoniously.
PREREQUISITE
Before the activity, prepare drawings of cells, tissues and organs.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
In Unit II, we learned that all living things depend directly or indirectly
on plants for food and energy that the plant harnessed from the sun.
Plants use light energy to produce organic food from inorganic
substances: carbon dioxide and water. Humans and other animals
obtain food by eating plants or animals that eat plants in order to get
enough energy to live, perform their tasks and fulfill their mission on
earth.
But, how do man, plants and animals perform the life functions?
In this unit, we shall investigate the detailed parts of the body of a

living organism. Each part of the body is specifically designed to
perform a particular task or function.
1
All organisms such as plants and animals share a basic structural plan.
Their bodies are organized in the manner by which they perform their
daily life activities. As we all know, all living things are composed of
one or more cells. Cells are the basic units of structure and function of
an organism. These cells are organized to form tissues, which are
grouped together to form organs.
The structures that make up a cell are determined by the specific

functions carried out by the cell. Plants and animals may share a set of
common function, but the designs of their bodies may also reflect
some functional differences that keep them alive. Why?
Not all cells are alike. Even cells within the same organism show
enormous diversity in size, shape, and internal organization. Cells
from different organisms have even greater differences in structure.
Your body contains at least 200 different cell types. Can you mention
some differences between plants and animals?
Examples
Plants are stationary, while animals are mobile.
Plants may grow throughout their lives, while animals have
determinate growth.
Plants manufacture their food, while animals depend on other
organisms for food.
In this lesson, you will explore the detailed parts and functional roles of
organisms including the human body by studying their cells, tissues
and organs or organ systems. During the learning process, you will
develop skills in describing, classifying, explaining the key role of cells
in the overall structure and functioning of plants, animals and the
human body.
Main Activity
1. Post the drawings of different cells, tissues, organs, and organ

systems. Let the students identify each.
2. Distribute the activity sheets. Ask each group to perform the
activity.
3. After the activity, let the students present their work to the class.
4. Ask questions regarding the lesson.
2
Guide Questions
What cells are found in epithelial tissues? Connective tissues?
Supportive tissues? Muscle tissues? Nervous tissues?
What are the tissues found in plants? In animals?
How do cells form tissues?
Discussion Ideas
The family is a lot like a whole organ system whose members help
each other for the good of all the other family members. The father
takes care of the financial aspect, while the mother takes care of the
kids and helps the father raise the family. The children help their
mother in the household chores.
Similarly, cells do not function independently of each other, but are
instead organized into groups to perform certain vital functions in the
lives of the plants and animals. Such a group of cells performing a
specific function is called a tissue.
The physiological or functional differences between various kinds of
tissues are often accompanied by differences in physical appearance,
since the cells of the tissues are adapted to the tasks they perform.
Tissues do not function independently of each other either. Several
tissues are organized to work together as a group. Such a group of
tissues is called an organ.
Extension Ideas
Ask the students to draw or give an example showing the various

levels of organization of an organism and to describe each level. See
sample below:
3
Closing Activity
Explain why the activities of one cell affect the entire organ or the
entire body.
In most multicellular organisms, we find the following organizational
levels:
Cellular Level
The smallest unit of life capable of carrying out all the functions of
living things.
Tissue Level
Formed by a group of cells that performs a specific function in an
organism.
Organ Level
Several different types of tissue that are joined structurally and function
together for a specific.
Organ System Level
Several organs working together to perform a function. The different
organ systems in a multicellular organism interact to carry out the
processes of life.
ASSESSMENT
Choose the best answer:
1. Which group of cells perform similar functions?

a. organelles b. organs c. organ system d. tissues
2. Which of the tissues listed here are found in animals.

1. connective
2. sclerenchyma
3. collenchyma
4. epithelial
a. 1 and 4
b. 1, 2 and 3
c. 1, 2, 3 and 4
d. 4 only
3. What do you call the cells found in the nervous tissues?

a. collenchyma b. neurons c. osteoblast d. cartilage
4
4. Which tissues have coordinated functions?

a. organs b. organ system c. cells d. organism
5. Which cells are found in plants?

1. xylem
2. phloem
3. epithelial
4. collenchyma
a. 1, 2 and 4
b. 1, 2 and 3
c. 2, 3 and 4
d. 1, 3 and 4
HOMEWORK
What is the importance of each of the body systems in the overall

functioning of the organism?
REFERENCES
Capco,C. and G. Yang. Biology. 110117.

Science and Technology II Textbook
http://camillasenior1.homestead.com/Plant_Tissues.pdf
5
Teacher Notes
ANIMAL TISSUES
Tissues may be divided into 4 main groups:
uscular Tissue
There are three main varieties of muscle, but all are specialized for
contraction. Examine the prepared slides of skeletal, smooth and
cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are sometimes called striped
muscles. Can you see why?
pithelial Tissue
Cells are generally arranged into sheets which cover the surfaces of
the organs of our body. Glands are also derived from this tissue. With
a toothpick, scrape a small amount of tissue from the lining of your
cheek and suspend the scraping in a drop of water on a microscope
slide. Add a drop of iodine stain and put a cover-slip on top. Notice
the shape of the cells.
ervous Tissue
Cells are specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses.
Examine the prepared slide of a nerve cell. Note the long extension
to the cell called the axon.
onnective Tissue
Consists of several types of cell, usually embedded in a non-cellular
substance. It includes blood cells, cartilage, bone, and the cells of
proper connective tissue. Examine prepared slides of bone tissue
and blood. How many types of cell can you find in the blood? How
common is each type of cell?
Most organs, of course, consist of more than one type of tissue. For
instance, the walls of your digestive tract are lined with epithelial
cells. But there are also layers of muscle interfaced with connective
tissue, and many small blood vessels and nerves.
6
Three Major Types of Plant Cells
arenchyma have uniformly thin walls; comprise the photosynthetic tissue

of a leaf, the soft flesh of fruits; and the storage tissue of roots
and seeds.
clerenchymahave thick and rigid cell walls; they serve as strengthening

elements to support mature plant parts.
ollenchyma - have unevenly thickened cell walls; they form strands along
veins in leaves and beneath the epidermis in stems, providing
support and strength against strong winds and rains.
7
Student Activity
LOCATING CELLS, TISSUES AND ORGANS
Objective
In this activity, your group will identify the functions of cells, tissues and
organs.
Resources
Manila paper
marking pen
drawings of cells
tissues and organs
Procedure
Read and follow the instructions indicated below.
1. Make a table similar to the one below on Manila paper. Then

complete the table.
Type of Tissue Type of Cell Location Function

1. Animal/Epithelial Tissues
2. Connective and Supportive
Tissues
3. Muscular and Contractile
Tissues
4. Nervous Tissues
5. Plant Meristematic Tissues
a. apical meristem
b. lateral meristem
c. intercalary meristem
6. Permanent Tissues
a. Dermal/Surface
b. Fundamental
c. Vascular
8
Guide Questions
1. What cells are found in epithelial tissues? Connective tissues?
Supportive tissues? Muscle tissues? Nervous tissues?
Meristematic tissues? Permanent tissues?
2. What are the tissues found in animals?
3. How do cells form tissues?
4. How do tissues form an organ?
Conclusion
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9
Lesson 2
ROOTS: THE PLANT STABILIZERS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom or laboratory
OBJECTIVES
describe the structure and function of a plants roots;
compare and distinguish between:
a. monocot and dicot roots
b. specialized roots
c. fibrous roots and tap roots
recognize the importance of roots in solving some ecological
problems.
RESOURCES
For Activity # 1: The Root System and Its Parts

germinating radish seed chart or drawings of longitudinal
an uprooted plant cross-sections of a mature
a pandan root root and root hairs
singkamas slide of the cross-section
radish of a young root
lower portion of corn stalk hand lens
with roots
For Activity # 2: Types of Root Systems

carrot turnips
camote radish roots
santan root roots of mongo plant
grass roots young santol/tamarind
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For Activity # 3: The Structure of Root Hairs

radish
Petri dish
absorbent paper or tissue paper
plastic bag
microscope
glass slide
water
cover slip
medicine dropper
PREREQUISITE
Assign the students to bring some of the materials for the activity.
Provide the microscope as well as the other laboratory materials.
Distribute the activity sheets. Issue precautions on the use of the
microscope. The activity will depend on Roots.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
In the previous lesson, we learned that plants can make food

through photosynthesis. There are seven basic requirements that
plants need in order to grow properly: temperature, light, water, air,
nutrients, time, and room to grow. Plants can be grown both
indoors and outdoors for food, shelter, clothing, medicine, energy,
and pleasure.
Today, we will discuss how plants perform other life processes
aside from photosynthesis.
Plants are made up of different parts. Each part has a certain job.
These parts can also help us identify the plants. Unlike animal cells,
plant cells have organelles called chloroplasts where the food is
manufactured. The body of a flowering plant is made up of different
organs that allow it to perform basic life processes.
A typical plant structure (also called the vegetative organs)
normally consists of the roots, stems and leaves. Although these
plant organs are structurally and functionally different from one
another, they are able to work together to maintain and preserve
the living plant.
This lesson will deal with how the roots are structurally designed to
ensure the growth and development of a plant. Most roots are
found underground. They normally function to anchor the plant to
the soil and to absorb water and dissolved minerals for distribution
to the different parts of the plant.
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Opening Activity
1. Show pictures of roots. Then ask the students: Do you remember
the Ormoc tragedy? Can you tell the story behind the tragic
incident?
2. With the use of pictures, ask the students to describe the internal
and external parts of the root.
3. Let them discuss the factors and practices related to the functioning
of roots for the development and growth of plants.
4. Let them distinguish and compare:
Monocot and dicot roots
Specialized roots
Fibrous and tap roots
Main Activity: THE ROOT SYSTEM

1. Explain the series of activities to be performed. See student activity
sheets.
2. Facilitate the presentation of the students outputs to the class.
3. Allow the class to evaluate the outputs. Ask some questions such
as:
a. What is the difference between a tap root and a fibrous root?
b. Why do roots need a constant supply of oxygen?
c. What is the importance of root hairs in the absorption of water
and nutrients?
d. Why is it important that the root epidermis permits only a one-
way passage for materials?
Discussion Ideas
Why are trees being uprooted in some parts of the developed cities or
urban areas? Do you think this will minimize the traffic congestion
problem in the area?
Extension Ideas
Some plants have taproots, while others have fibrous root systems.
What advantages do tap roots and fibrous roots provide a plant? Under
what environmental conditions might each root type be most beneficial
to a plants survival?
12
To anchor the plant and the soil, roots branch out and aggregate in a
certain manner. In the taproot system, the primary root may become
fleshy for storing food and water, or may grow very long and penetrate
deep into the ground. If this first root becomes the largest root it is
called a TAPROOT. Examples include beets and carrots that are
eaten.
In a fibrous system, the primary root dies and is replaced by many

roots arising from the base of the stem. Each one eventually develops
branch roots. Although fibrous roots are short, they spread over a large
area, forming thick masses of roots over the soil surface. Examples
include turnips, carrots, radishes. These roots grow near the surface
and can collect water in a wide area. Because of the numerous
branches of the roots these plants are excellent for preventing erosion
(e.g. grass).
Closing Activity
Ask the students to name the contribution of the root structure to plant
health and survival.
Roots are one of the main ways plants have to get water from the
environment. These are the parts of the plant that grow deep into the
ground searching for water. The roots expand and spread in fine
threads so that water can be absorbed more easily and in different
places at the same time. The more threads a plant has, the easier it
can reach farther places, to obtain more water and a variety of
minerals.
Sum up the key functions of the roots, as follows:
NCHORAGE- roots anchor plants firmly to the ground and keep soil
particles in place, thereby preventing soil erosion.
BSORPTION - roots absorb water and a variety of minerals (as
ions), and are often adapted to store carbohydrates and
water. The roots of some plants store large amounts of
water, which helps the plant survive during dry periods.
OURCE OF FOOD/MEDICINE
rootcrops such as sweet potatoes (kamote), cassava
(balinghoy),carrots, turnips (singkamas), radishes,
yams, sugar beets
spices such as ginger, sarsaparilla, and medicines
13
ASSESSMENT
a. Identify the following:

1. Outer covering of the roots
2. Inner tissue of the root
3. Inner covering that controls the passage of materials
4. Parts where the xylem and phloem are located
5. Conduct materials from the roots up to the leaves
b. Classify the type of root system found in the following plants:

1. potatoes
2. carrots
3. radish
4. turnips
5. grass
HOMEWORK
Explain why growth occurs only in certain regions of the roots and
stems rather than throughout the plant body.
REFERENCES
Bernardo, Ma.Elena and M. Gatapia. Laboratory Manual for Science

and Technology II
Campbell, Neil. Biology. 670671.
Essenfeld, Gontang, Moore. Biology. 403404.
Miller, Levine. Biology. 494498.
Pacifico, Biology et al. 250251.
Velasquez, C. and C. Asis. Modern Biology pp. 327332.
14
Teacher Notes
PARTS OF A ROOT
Primary or taproot gives rise to
secondary roots from which tertiary roots
of smaller diameters arise.
The root tip is covered by a protective

root cap, which covers the apical
meristem. The root cap produces a
slimy substance that functions like
lubricating oil, allowing the root to move
more easily through the soil as it grows.
Roots do not absorb water and minerals

through a smooth epidermis. They do so
through tiny, hairlike projections called
root hairs.
ROOT STRUCTURE
on the epidermis absorb water and dissolved
Epidermis minerals from the soil. Root Hairs also
Vascular INCREASE the Surface Area of the Plant
Roots. Major Tissues
Tissues
Vascular Tissue
The core of a root consists of a
vascular cylinder. The vascular
cylinder contains Xylem for water
transport and Phloem, which
carries carbohydrates made in the
Cortex
leaves to the roots.
Pith
Monocot root Dicot root Ground Tissue
Surrounding the vascular cylinder
is a band of ground tissue called
the CORTEX, which stores food
The arrangement of Xylem and Phloem
DIFFERS in the roots of Monocots and and water.
Dicots:
A. DICOTS - the Vascular Tissue
Dermal Tissue
forms a solid core at the center of Outside the cortex is the
the root. EPIDERMIS which has thin walls
B. MONOCOTS - the Vascular Tissue and root hairs for the absorption of
from a ring that surrounds a central water and minerals from the soil.
region of Cells known as PITH www.sirinet.net/ ~jgjohnso/plants.html
15
Student Activity-1
THE ROOT SYSTEM
Objective
In this activity, you will describe the parts of a root and its branches.
Resources
germinating radish seeds
hand lens
an uprooted plant
pandan root
chart or diagrammatic drawings or longitudinal and cross-sections
of a mature root and root hairs
singkamas
radish
lower portion of corn stalk with roots
slides of the cross-section of a young root
Procedure
1. With the aid of a hand lens, examine the germinating radish seeds
and locate the root hairs.
2. Examine the branching of the roots of the plant.
3. Identify the different parts of the section of a root.
4. Examine the tip of the pandan root.
5. Locate the different parts of the section of a young root.
6. Draw and label the parts of the roots. See sample below:
Adapted from Online botany module. Oregon State University.www.atmosphere.mpg.de/ enid/151.html
16
Observations
1. Characterize the following:

primary root
secondary root
tertiary root
rootlets
rootcap
2. Characterize the following regions of a root:

region of multiplication
region of elongation
region of maturation
3. Describe the following parts of roots

epidermis
cortex
central cylinder or stele
4. What are root hairs? Where are they found? Of what use are root hairs
to the young plant?
5. Give the characteristics of the following roots you have observed:

pandan root
germinating radish seed
singkamas
corn stalk with roots
6. Describe and give examples of the following:

fibrous roots
taproots
prop roots
Generalization
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17
Student Activity-2
TYPES OF ROOTS
Objective
In this activity, you will describe the types of root systems and its
contributions in maintaining the health and survival of plants.
Resources
carrots root of mongo plants
grass roots young santol/tamarind
camote turnips
radish roots santol root
Procedure
1. Examine your specimen.
2. Observe the types of root systems.
3. Fill up the table below.
Observations
1. Draw the root system of the young plant.
2. Identify the type of root system.
3. Fill up the table below.
NAME OF PLANT TYPE OF ROOT FUNCTION

SYSTEM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Guide Questions
1. Which is easier to uproot, plants with fleshy taproots, or plants with

fibrous root systems?
2. Aside from absorption and anchorage, what else is the function of
the fleshy taproot?
3. Cite other plants having fleshy taproots and fibrous root systems.
18
Student Activity-3
THE STRUCTURE OF ROOT HAIRS
Objective
In this activity, you will examine the germinating radish seeds and
locate the root hairs, with the aid of a hand lens.
Resources
radish Petri dish
tissue paper plastic bag
microscope glass slide
coverslip medicine dropper
water
Procedure: Instruct the students to read and follow the instructions below.
Growing root hairs
1. Moisten the tissue paper.

2. Fit in the moistened paper into the Petri dish.
3. Put some radish seeds on top of the tissue paper.
4. Set aside the Petri dish in a corner of the classroom or laboratory.
5. Observe the radish daily and record the changes seen.
6. On the third day, measure the outgrowth of roots.
7. Describe the root hairs.
Structure of root hairs

1. Mount a portion of the root where root hairs are found.
2. Put a drop of water on the slide and cover it with a coverslip.
3. Focus it under the LPO.
4. Draw what you saw under the microscope.
Observation
1. Draw the root hairs as seen through the microscope.
2. How do root hairs look?
3. On what region do you see root hairs growing?
Conclusion
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19
Lesson 3
THE SUPPORTIVE STEMS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom or laboratory
OBJECTIVES

describe the structure and functions of stems;
identify the transport tissues in plants;
explain how food and water materials move through a plant;
compare and distinguish between:
monocot and dicot stems
herbaceous and woody stems
specialized stems
enumerate the factors and practices related to the functioning of the
stem for the growth and development of plants.
RESOURCES
slides of monocot and dicot stems
razor blade
glass slide
water lily stem
mayana stem
iodine solution
compound microscope
20
PREREQUISITE
Provide prepared slides of monocot and dicot stems and some

laboratory materials like a microscope, glass slides, coverslips and
iodine solution. Ask the students to bring the other assigned materials
before the activity.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
We have examined the plant roots. Another vegetative organ is the

stem. Stems connect the roots and the leaves of plants. Stems are also
the continuation of the vascular system pipeline that starts in the roots.
They usually grow above the ground and support the leaves, fruits and
flowers. They may be either herbaceous or woody. They act as
passageways for food and water, and also produce new living tissues.
Today, you will learn the importance of stems to plants as well as to
humans. You will also describe and compare the structure and
functions of stems.
Opening Activity: MONOCOT AND DICOT STEMS
1. Ask the students to describe the structure and functions of the

stem. Let them identify the transport tissue in plants.
2. Put the prepared slides under the microscope and let the students
compare the two stems.
3. Let each group examine and differentiate a monocot stem from a
dicot stem. See attached activity sheet for details.
4. Students will present their findings to the class.
5. Let the class evaluate the outputs. Encourage class participation by
asking some questions:
a. What are the functions of plant stems?
b. How does the vascular tissue contribute to the strength of
the plant stem?
c. What are tree rings? What important information do the rings
provide?
d. How do rhizomes and corms contribute to a plants survival?
21
Main Activity: WATER TRANSPORT IN PECHAY PLANT
1. You may introduce this activity by saying:
You may think of plants as being motionless, particularly when

you compare them to animals. Yet plants have a transport
system where there is constant motion. In this activity, we will
demonstrate how water moves through a plant.
2. Ask students to perform the main activity and present their outputs
to the class.
3. Facilitate class discussion using the following guide questions:

What role do cohesion and adhesion of water molecules play
in the movement of water in the xylem tissue?
Describe the process of transpiration.
Explain how the phloem functions.
Discussion Ideas
1. In Japan, the art of growing miniature trees (bonsai) is highly

valued. Cutting the roots and tips of the branches lets the trees
remain small. The trunk of the tree however, continues to grow in
diameter. How would you explain the ever-increasing diameter of
the trunk?
Bonsai trees are usually woody and tough and are long-lasting.
Trees with dicot stems have a vascular cambium situated
between the xylem and the phloem. By repeated cell division,
this lateral meristem produces secondary phloem and xylem.
The epidermis is shed off, and is replaced by a periderm
produced by the cork cambium. Due to secondary growth, the
diameter of the dicot system increases as the plant grows older.
2. A cook who is about to make vegetable salad found out that the
lettuce he was going to use had badly shrunken leaves. What do
you think the cook should do: soak the lettuce in water to have a
better head of lettuce?
22
Extension Ideas
1. Suppose you put a plastic bag over a leaf attached to a plant and
tie the bag close. Later you observe the presence of water in the
bag. Explain your observation.
2. Making a cut through the bark of the tree in a complete circle

around the trunk often results in the death of the tree. Using your
knowledge of vascular tissue, explain why this might happen.
By removing the entire ring of phloem, the tree will eventually die
because the sugar (food) produced by photosynthesis cannot be
transported from the leaves to the roots.
3. If a stem is girdled with a tie or rope, the plant will not survive. Why?
It is important to understand what happens when the phloem is

blocked, as when the tree is girdled with a tie or rope. The stem
often enlarges just above the blockage due to the sugars moving
down from the leaves. Tissues below the blockage slowly starve.
Roots die, eventually leading to death of the plant.
Closing Activity
Ask the students to create a diagram or concept map to describe the

structure and functions of a stem. They can use the following key
words or ideas:
Stems provide a framework for leaves, flowers and seeds.
They are a continuation of the vascular system carrying water and
minerals from the soil, and sugars manufactured in leaves
throughout the plant.
Green stems also manufacture food (photosynthesis).
Stems provide food storage.
They also have horticultural uses including:
aesthetic (winter interest in the landscape, appealing bark, etc.)
feeds and food
fuel
plant identification
propagation (cuttings and layering),
wildlife habitat, and
wood industry and construction.
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ASSESSMENT: Multiple Choice
1. What is the primary function of the stem?

a. absorption b. conduction c. support d. storage
2. The pericycle gives rise to:

a. cortex and pith c. epidermis and vascular cambium
b. branch root and d. none of the above
cork cambium
3. Lateral buds develop into:

a. bark b. leaves c. branches d. roots
4. The gaseous interchange between air and internal tissues in the

stem takes place in:
a. sieve plates b. lenticels c. pith d. stomata
HOMEWORK
a. Imagine you work in a plant nursery that grows and sells roses.
Suggest three reasons why you might want to graft the roots of one
variety of roses onto the stems and leaves of another variety.
b. Borrow a library book on desert plants. Read how special kinds of

roots, stems, and leaves enable some plants to live in a desert.
REFERENCES

Essenfeld, Gontang, Moore, Biology. 408409.
Miller, Levine. Biology. 405406, 504508.
Payawal, Biology et al. 250253.
Velasquez, C. Biology. 333.
24
Opening Activity
INVESTIGATING MONOCOT AND DICOT STEMS
Objective
In this activity, you will compare the monocot stem with a dicot stem.
Resources
water lily stem
prepared slides of monocot
mayana stem
and dicot stems
iodine solution
razor blade
compound microscope
glass slide
coverslip
Procedure
1. Examine the prepared slides under the microscope using LPO.
2. Draw what you have observed.
3. Get the water lily stem and cut a very thin cross section. Put the
sliced portion on a glass slide. Apply a drop of iodine solution on
the specimen and cover it with a coverslip.
4. Do the same with the mayana stem.
5. Look at the specimens you prepared under the microscope using
LPO.
6. Compare your work with the prepared slides.
7. Draw your specimens.
CROSS-SECTION OF
MONOCOT STEM
CROSS-SECTION OF
DICOT STEM
Guide Questions
1. What are the tissues found in both specimens?
2. Compare the arrangement of vascular tissues in monocot and dicot
stems.
3. How would you compare the two stems?
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Main Activity
WATER TRANSPORT IN PECHAY PLANTS
Objectives
In this activity, your group will:
explain how water moves through a plant;
describe the importance and the mechanism of phloem transport;
explain the theory of water movement in xylem; and
explain the hypothesis of sugar movement in phloem.
Resources
glass tube or dextrose tube 2 glass containers
pechay plant cutter
microscope scotch tape
glass slides clear nail polish
coverslips leaves from other plants
food coloring
Procedure
1. Mix several drops of blue food coloring with water in the glass
container. Place the pechay stalks in the container 4 days prior to
the date of the activity.
2. After mixing food coloring and water in a second container, insert
the glass tube (the water should rise up the tube without reaching
the top). Collect leaf samples from around the campus.
3. Observe the water in the tube.
4. View a very thin section of pechay under the microscope to
discover the location of the xylem, which will not have a blue stain.
5. Paint a small section of the underside of a leaf with clear nail polish.
Let it dry completely.
6. When dry, peel the polish off the leaf by pressing scotch tape to it.
7. If done carefully, the polish should stay attached to the tape as you
peel it away from the leaf.
8. Affix the tape to a slide and look for the imprint of stomata in the
polish. (Practice this procedure ahead of time).
26
Guide Questions
1. Why does the water rise up the glass tubing?

2. Why did the water rise so high in the leaves but not in the glass
tube?
3. Compare how many stomata are located on the underside of the
leaf versus the top of the leaf.
4. What may happen to a plant if all of its stomata are plugged by
substances that prevent the passage of matter into and out of the
leaves? Explain your answer.
27
Teacher Notes
STEMS: AERIAL PART OF THE PLANT AXIS

Monocot and Dicot stems differ in the arrangement of the vascular system. In
monocot stems, the xylem and phloem are paired in bundles. These bundles are
dispersed throughout the throughout the ground tissue such that there is no pith.
Dicots have one ring of vascular bundles in the outer region of the stem.
Consequently, there is a distinct pith.
Cross-Section of a Typical Dicot Stem Cross-Section of Corn which is

Example: sunflower a Typical Monocot
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/webb/BOT201/Angiosperm/MagnoliophytaLab99/MagnoliosidaLab.htm
In herbaceous dicot stems, the vascular system makes a ring, with the phloem
to the exterior and with the xylem to the interior.
In woody dicot plants, the rings grow to make a complete ring around the stem.
Xylem growth makes the annual rings which are used to tell a trees age. In
woody dicot plants, water and mineral movements occur in the more recent years
of xylem rings (approximately 5 years). Drought reduces the size of the annual
rings (size of xylem tubes) and thus the potential for water and nutrient
movement. Multi-year droughts, with their corresponding reduction in xylem size,
have a long-term impact on plant growth potential.
28
Herbaceous dicot stem (left) Woody dicot stem (right)
Woody dicot stems are used in tree and shrub identification. Features to look at
include the cross-section shape of the pith (rounded, star, or triangular) and
whether the pith is solid, hollow, or chambered.
Cross-section of the pith of a woody dicot stem.

Specialized Stem
Stems are usually long, cylindrical, upright and above ground organs for support
of aerial plant parts and the conduction of food and water. Some are enlarged
and develop underground for storing food and water. Examples are tubers of
potato, rhizomes, ginger, corms of gabi. Others, like stolons in strawberries, grow
horizontally and produce roots at the nodes for asexual reproduction
Adapted from: http://www.biosci.uga.edu/almanac/bio_104/notes/apr_10.html.
29
THREE MAJOR TISSUES OF THE STEM
Dermal Tissue
the epidermis covered with waxy material called cutin for protection
against mechanical injury and excessive water loss
Ground Tissues
cortex and pith for food and water storage
Vascular Tissues
xylem for water transport and phloem for food transport
The Vascular Bundle
ylem tissues distribute water and minerals from the roots up through the plant;
water rises up the stem through the xylem vessels (pipeline) and tracheids by capillary
action (the smaller the diameter of the vessel, the higher the rise of water) and
transpiration (as the water escapes from the leaves, water below moves up to replace
it). Xylem provides the structural support in plants, and becomes the woody tissue
(fiber).
ambium tissues the single-celled layer of meristematic (dividing) tissues that

continually divide to form phloem tissues toward the outside and xylem tissues towards
the inside. Cell division of the cambium adds width to the stem.
hloem tissues distribute sugars (sucrose) from the leaves down the stems to the
roots by simple diffusion. They contain the following cells: sieve tube, companion cell,
phloem fiber and parenchyma
ith center of dicot plant stems. In some plants the pith breaks down, forming a hollow
stem. In older woody plants, the pith is filled with rigid xylem wood fiber.
30
MOVEMENT OF WATER MOVEMENT OF FOOD THROUGH THE STEM
31
Lesson 4
LEAVES: THE FOOD MANUFACTURERS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom or Laboratory (if available)
OBJECTIVES

describe the structure of a leaf;
describe how leaves trap energy and produce sugar;
identify the three specialized leaf tissues; and
explain how gas exchange and water conservation are balanced in
a leaf.
RESOURCES
4 glass slides scarlet or razor blade

3 coverslips scissors
compound microscope iodine solution
forceps leaves of elodea and mayana
2 medicine droppers
PREREQUISITE
Prepare the microscope. Tell the students to read the assigned
materials and notes about leaves before the activity.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
You have learned that the roots and stems are important sources of
food, medicine and industrial products. The roots help anchor soil
particles in place and absorb water and minerals that have moved
down to the ground. Strategically positioned between the roots and the
leaves, the stems are the part of a plant that bear and support the
leaves and the flowers.
32
Today, we will study the structure of a leaf, identify the leaf tissues and
explain how gas exchange and the transport of water occur in a leaf.
The leaves of green plants are considered as the oxygen and food
suppliers of all organisms and the worlds oldest solar energy
collectors. They are also the worlds most important manufacturers of
food. Sugars, starches and oils manufactured by plants are sources of
food of all land animals. Even animals that do not eat plants must eat
other animals that do.
In this lesson, we will investigate the following: What structures do

leaves have that permit them to manufacture food?
Opening Activity
Show pictures of leaves to students. Let them classify the leaves

according to:
a. form
b. phyllotaxy
c. leaf margin
d. leaf venation
Main Activity: EXPLORING THE LEAF STRUCTURE
1. Instruct the students to perform the activity and present their

findings to the class. See student activity sheet.
2. Ask questions to test for mastery of the topic.
a. Compare simple leaves and compound leaves. How are their
shapes related to solar energy collection?
b. What are the functions of the epidermis and cuticle layer?
c. What is the function of the openings in this layer?
d. Describe the structure and function of the mesophyl layer.
e. Describe how vascular plants control gas exchange and water
loss.
Discussion Ideas
1. Imagine that you are riding on water molecules that are about to
travel inside a plant. Write a story describing the stages in your
journey from the time you enter the roots up till the time you leave
the leaf.
33
Extension Ideas
1. Have you ever noticed how much cooler it is under the shade of a
tree in the summer than under the shade of a building?
This is partly because of transpiration (loss of water from the plant

in the form of vapor). Though you cant see it, the plant is releasing
water molecules into the air, which cools the air around it.
As discussed, plants can act as giant pumps, pumping water up

from the soil into the leaves. Some of the water is used during
photosynthesis, and a great deal of it escapes through the
stomata. Water that escapes goes back into the atmosphere.
Much of the water released by the plants will eventually form clouds
and become rain, which falls back to the soil and begins the
process all over again. If plants did not do this, much of the rain
that falls would stay on the ground and never be put back into the
atmosphere to become rain again. Thus the planet would be much
hotter with a lot less rainfall, as in a desert.
2. Plants need to take in CO2 from the atmosphere in order to

photosynthesize. How does the CO2 get into the leaf?
Leaves have pores called stomata on their epidermal layer.

Stomata are the openings through which plants respire. The
stomata are flanked by two guard cells, which control the size of
stomatal openings.
Guard cells regulate the flow of gas and water between the leaf and
its environment. Plants typically close their stomata at night to
avoid too much water loss.
Stomata are usually found on the underside of the leaf in terrestrial

plants. Some floating aquatic plants, like water lilies, have stomata
located on the upper side of the leaf. Submerged aquatic plants do
not have stomata.
3. In cold northern climates, many trees lose their leaves in autumn.

How does this adaptation help the trees survive in the cold of
winter?
34
Closing Activity
Using a diagram, or concept map, ask students to describe how the

leaves are structured to manufacture food.
The leaf functions for manufacture through the processes of

photosynthesis, gas exchange and transpiration. It usually grows
above the ground, supported and elevated to an aerial position by the
stem, thereby permitting access to sunlight from the sun and carbon
dioxide from the air. Light, water and carbon dioxide are needed by the
leaves to make food through photosynthesis.
The epidermis is provided with stomata that allow the exchange of

carbon dioxide and oxygen, and the loss of water by transpiration.
The mesophyll contains chloroplasts (with chlorophyll) that absorb light

energy from the sun. The vascular tissues have specialized xylem
tissue for the transport of water.
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer:

1. The organ of a plant that traps energy from sunlight and conducts
the food making process
a. flower b. leaf c. root d. stem
2. The gaseous by-product released from the leaves
a. CO2 b. Oxygen c. CO2 and Oxygen d. Nitrogen
3. It functions as a protective barrier to reduce dessication and
prevents the entry of harmful bacteria and fungi
a. spongy mesophyll b. palisade mesophyll c. upper epidermis
d. lower epidermis
4. Which of the following allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen, and the loss of water by transpiration?
a. mesophyll b. stomata c. xylem d. phloem
5. The leaf functions for food manufacture through the processes of:
a. photosynthesis, gas exchange and transpiration
b. photosynthesis, structural modification and transpiration
c. absorption, transpiration and food transport
35
HOMEWORK
Make a chart comparing the structures and functions of roots, stems
and leaves. Include illustrations in your chart.
REFERENCES

Essenfeld, Gontang and Moore. Biology. 405406.
Payawal, P. Biology et al. 254257.
Velasquez, C. Modern Biology. 314325.
36
Teacher Notes
THE THREE MAJOR TISSUES OF A LEAF
http://www.fairchildgarden.org/EduProfDev/Images/leaf_cross_section_labled.jpg
The cross section of a very thin leaf has several cell layers, namely:
pper Epidermis - the top-most layer of a leaf that protects it. It may be covered by a
waxy cuticle. It functions as a protective barrier to reduce dessication and prevent the
entry of harmful bacteria and fungi.
alisade Mesophyll - the next layer consisting of closely packed cells that perform
photosynthesis. It contains numerous chloroplasts.
pongy Mesophyll - the third layer composed of loosely packed photosynthetic cells
which facilitate the movement of gases and store water.
ower Epidermis - the bottom layer that contains the guard cells with stomatal openings
through which plants respire. Guard cells regulate the flow of gas and water between
the leaf and its environment. It functions as a protective barrier to reduce dessication
and bacteria.
37
Student Activity
EXPLORING THE LEAF STRUCTURE
Objective
In this activity, you will investigate how leaves are suited to their
function.
Resources
4 glass slides 2 medicine droppers
scalpel or razor blade mayana and elodea leaves
microscope scissors
forceps iodine solution
3 coverslips
Procedure
Part A
1. Using a medicine dropper, put a drop of water at the center of a
slide.
2. Pull a small leaf from the tip of a spring of elodea and put it in
the drop of water.
3. Cover the leaf with a coverslip.
4. Place the slide on your microscope.
5. Focus using the LPO on the elodea leaf.
6. Observe the leaf.
7. Switch to HPO.
8. Focus using the fine adjustment.
9. Look for pigmented structures in the cells. Note their shapes
and colors.
10. Remove the slide.
Part B
1. Place another slide on a flat surface.
2. Put a mayana leaf on the slide.
3. Cut the tip of the leaf by pressing straight down with a scalpel or
blade about 1 mm from the end of the leaf.
4. Discard the tip of the leaf.
38
5. Shave off 6 thin slices or cross sections from the cut end of the
leaf.
6. Make the slices as thin as possible by pressing the blade
straight down, as close to the cut end of the leaf as allowable.
7. Place the slide on a microscope.
8. Focus the LPO on the thinnest cross section on the slide.
9. Switch to the medium-power objective.
10. Draw a diagram of the leafs cross section.
11. Locate the following structures and label them on your drawing:
epidermis, palisade layer, spongy layer, vein.
12. Remove the slide.
Diagram
Observations
1. What are the shapes and colors of the pigmented structures in the
elodea leaf?
2. Describe the appearance of the mayana leafs cross sections. What
are the shapes and colors of the cells?
Guide Questions
1. What are the pigmented structures in the elodea leaf? What is the
function of these structures?
2. What is the function of each labeled structure in the mayana leaf?
3. Which part of the leaf helps in food production? In delivering water?
4. How do the shapes, structures and positions of the structures you
observed contribute to the functioning of a leaf?
39
Lesson 5
FLOWERS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES
identify the parts and functions of a flower;
differentiate between self-pollination and cross-pollination; and
classify flowers according to their structure.
RESOURCES
gumamela flower 3 glass slides
daisy flower 2 coverslips
razor blade medicine dropper
scissors hard lens
forceps microscope
PREREQUISITE
Divide the class into groups. Assign the students to read information
about flowers. Ask them to bring some flowers for the activity. Provide
the microscope, glass slides and coverslips for the actual observation
of the specimen.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
Propagating plants from leaves, stems and roots is known as

vegetative reproduction. This is possible due to the active division
of parenchyma cells in the leaves and of meristematic cells in the
stems and roots. You may not think of a flower as anything but a
decorative object, but flowers are visible evidence of the
angiosperm (flowering plant) success. Each flower represents proof
of the plants survival and offers the assurance that a plant species
will produce more of its own kind.
40
Flowering plants have an immense variety in habitat, structure and

function and are found everywhere. Why? Flowering plants have
well-developed roots, stems and leaves. Their vascular tissues are
well-adapted to terrestrial habitats. Their reproductive organs are
usually protected within. You will realize that, where flowers are
concerned, it is not only their looks that matter since to begin with,
beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.
In this lesson, you will identify, differentiate and classify flowers

according to their structure.
Opening Activity
1. Show pictures of flowers and ask the students to label their parts,
give the functions of each part; and classify flowers according to
their structure.
2. Ask them to identify the different agents of pollination.
Main Activity
1. Have each group perform the activity and present its outputs.
2. Ask questions to test for mastery of the topic:
a. What is the function of the male cone in a gymnosperm? In the
female cones?
b. What is pollination? What are its two types?
c. How does the formation of seeds contribute to the survival of a
plant species?
Discussion Ideas
What benefits do people get from flowers?
Most people who love flowers benefit from them. Together with other
photosynthetic plants, flowering plants keep the carbon dioxide level in
the air down to 0.04 percent. At the same time, they provide the living
world with a sufficient supply of oxygen.
Flowering plants are good sources of timber, food, medicines, fiber,

and other economically important products such as dyes, oils, gums
and spices.
41
Flowers can be a source of livelihood. Take sampaguita garlands

which Filipinos usually buy from peddlers and put on altars. Or take a
bouquet of roses carried by the bride during the wedding ceremony or
the 18 roses carried by a young lass on her debut. Or take a bunch of
daisies usually given to our mothers on Mothers Day.
Extension Ideas
Have you ever wondered what part of the banana plant bears the fruit?
Closing Activity
Ask students to describe the structure and key role of flowers in the
Plant Kingdom and its benefits to people. They may adopt a poem,
song/jingle or any creative presentation. They may include the
following ideas:
Flowering plants come in a variety of shapes, colors and scents

and look best when they are in bloom.
All plants produce flowers for the same reason: to make seeds so
another plant can grow.
A flower is a visible sign that the plant intends to reproduce by

sexual means. Flowers have organs that are essential for sexual
reproduction.
A flower is composed of four sets of organs namely: stamens and

pistils which assume the key roles in sexual reproduction while, and
sepals and petals that help protect the reproductive parts and
facilitate the reproductive process.
Flowers need to be pollinated in order to make seeds.
Flowers attract insects and animals that aid in the pollination

process.
Plant structures can be used to start new plants.
42
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer:
1. It is the main reproductive organ of the plant.

a. flower b. leaf c. root d. stem
2. Which does not belong to the group?
a. ovary b. stigma c. pistil d. style
3. A type of flower that has all the four basic parts is:
a. complete c. incomplete
b. imperfect d. perfect
4. An imperfect flower is one that lacks either
a. sepals or petals c. stamen or pistil
b. petals or stamen d. pistil or sepal
5. What are the agents of pollination?
a. Bees c. birds
b. Butterflies d. bat
HOMEWORK
Does an orange develop from the ovary of one ovule or more than one
ovule? Explain your answer.
REFERENCES
Capco, C. and G. Yang. Biology. 207209.

Villamil, A. Science and Technology II. 9395.
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/plants/printouts/floweranatomy.s
html
43
Teacher Notes
FLOWER ANATOMY
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/plants/printouts/floweranatomy.shtml
Four Sets of Organs

Stamens (male) and Pistils (female) are the organs that are directly
involved in sexual reproduction. They are considered the essential parts.
The pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s).
Sepals and Petals simply help the essential parts achieve reproduction.
They are considered accessory parts.
Classifications
A complete flower has all four sets of organs, sepals, petals, stamens and
pistils.
An incomplete flower lacks any one of the four organs.
A perfect flower has both essential parts
An imperfect flower lacks stamens or pistils.
44
A pistillate flower is an imperfect flower that has pistils only.

A staminate flower is an imperfect flower that has a stamen only.
A regular flower has petals that are of the same size and shape.
(e.g.,gumamela)
An irregular flower has parts in the same whorl or series that differ in size
and shape (e.g.,orchid).
Fertilization
Pollen must fertilize an ovule to produce a viable seed. This process is called
pollination, and is often aided by the wind, animals like bees, insects,
hummingbirds, etc. which fly from flower to flower collecting sweet nectar. As
they visit flowers, they spread pollen around, depositing it on some stigmas.
After a male's pollen grains have landed on the stigma during fertilization, pollen
tubes develop within the style, burrowing down to the ovary where the sperm
fertilizes an ovum (an egg cell) in the ovule. After fertilization, the ovule develops
into a seed in the ovary.
45
Student Activity
THE SECRET OF FLOWERS
Objective
In this lesson, you will compare two different types of flowers.
Resources
gumamela flower 3 glass slides
daisy flower 2 coverslips
razor blade medicine dropper
scissors hand lens
forceps microscope
Procedure
1. Examine a gumamela blossom. Count the number of petals. Look

inside the blossom. The structure at the center of the flower is the
pistil. Find the stamens and count them.
2. On a separate sheet of paper, draw the gumamela flower. Label the

parts.
3. Peel the petals off the gumamela blossom. Carefully remove the
stamens. Tap one of the stamens on a clean glass slide. Note
what happens.
4. Put the remainder of the flower on a clean glass slide. Using the
razor, cut across the ovary at the base of the pistil, about one-fourth
of the way up from the bottom.
5. With the cut portion of the pistil still on the glass slide, shave off
several thin cross-sections by pressing straight down with a razor
as close as you can on the cut edge of the pistil. Lay the cross-
section. Cover the cross-section with a coverslip.
6. Examine the cross-section of the pistil under the LPO of the

microscope.
7. Examine the daisy flower. Try to locate the same structures you
found in the gumamela. The yellow central portion of a daisy is
called a disk. Petal-like structures surround the disk.
46
8. Look closely at the disk of the daisy. It is also composed of many

separate flowers. Rub your thumb over the center of the disk to
remove a few disk flowers. Examine a single disk flower with a
hand lens. Use forceps to remove the pistil. Use scissors to cut
straight down through the disk flower in order to open it up.
9. Put the opened disk flower on a clean glass slide. Place a drop of
water over the flower. Cover with a coverslip.
10. Examine the slides under the LPO of the microscope. Draw your
observation.
11. Read the definitions then label the diagram below.
ilament is the part of the flower that holds the anther (and part of the
stamen, the male reproductive organ of the plant).
nther is the tip of a flower's stamen ( the male reproductive organ of

the plant). It contains the pollen.
etal is one of the leafy structures that comprise a flower. Petals are
often brightly-colored and have many different shapes.
sepals are small leaves located directly under a flower. They are the outermost part
of a flower.
stem (also called the peduncle) - supports the plant.
stigma is uppermost part of the pistil, the female reproductive tissue of a flower. The
stigma receives the male pollen grains during fertilization, when they travel through
the style to the ovary.
style is part of the pistil, the female reproductive tissue of a flower. The style is a
long tube on top of the ovary, and below the stigma.
vary is a female reproductive organ in plants that produces ovules. It

is at the base of the pistil.
47
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/plants/glossary/indexp.shtml#perfectflower
Guide Questions
1. How many petals and stamens does a gumamela have?
2. What happens when you tap a gumamela stamen on a clean glass

slide?
3. What did you observe inside the pistil of a gumamela flower?
4. Describe the appearance of a daisy flower and the individual flower

that composes it.
5. Based on your observations, is the gumamela a monocot or a

dicot? Explain your answer.
6. What is the function of a flower? What structure of the flower

carries out this function?
7. Despite their differences in form, how are flowers of a gumamela

and a daisy suited to their function?
48
Lesson 6
FRUITS
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom or Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

name and describe the external parts of a fruit;
identify the different types of fruits; and
give ways on how fruits can be maximized for everybodys
needs/use.
RESOURCES
unripe banana hot plate test tube holder

ripe banana ruler test tube rack
balance beam scalpel/razor blade hand lens
400-ml beaker 4 test tubes marking pen
Benedicts solution sugar (dextrose cylinders
2 100-ml graduated solution)
cylinder
PREREQUISITE
Assign the students to bring fruits. Instruct the students to read the
materials on the fruits beforehand. Prepare the laboratory materials
and if these are not available, improvise.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
Recall the previous lesson on flowering plants. Introduce the new
lesson by asking: Why is plant reproduction important to man?
49
Plant reproduction is important to man because the fruits produced

through the process constitute more than 50 percent of human
nutrition. Fruits contain seeds, which are responsible for the
multiplication of the species. These produce new plants under
favorable conditions. Any child or adult would consider the fruit as the
best part of the plant. The most valuable gift a tree can give are the
ripe fruits hanging from its branches. Fruits are not only used as a food
source but also as sources of medicine and industrial materials.
In this lesson, you will identify and describe the different structures of
fruits.
Main Activity
1. Discuss the procedure of the activity.

2. Instruct the students to perform the activity in groups and to present
their outputs later.
3. Ask the following questions to test for lesson mastery.
a. Name and describe the external/internal parts of fruits.
b. Give examples of false fruits. Why are they so considered?
c. Give examples of dehiscent and indehiscent fruits.
Discussion Ideas
Ask students: What must be the reason monkeys are so happy all the
time? Read the following excerpts and see why you should eat
bananas everyday including other fruits and vegetables.
A BANANA A DAY KEEPS THE DOCTOR AWAY!
Two hundred (200) students at a Twickenham (Middlesex) school were

helped through their exams by eating bananas at breakfast, at
breaktime, and lunch in a bid to boost their brainpower. Research has
shown that the potassium-packed fruit can assist learning by making
pupils more alert.
Containing three natural sugarssucrose, fructose and glucose

combined with fiber, a banana gives an instant, sustained and
substantial boost of energy. Research has proven that just two
bananas provide enough energy for a strenuous 90-minute workout.
50
Relative to an apple, a banana has four times the protein, twice the
carbohydrates, three times the phosphorus, five times the vitamin A
and iron, and twice the other vitamins and minerals. It is also rich in
potassium and is one of the best-value foods. It can overcome or
prevent a substantial number of illnesses and conditions such as:
Depression
Bananas contain tryptophan, a type of protein that the body converts
into serotonin, known to make you relax, improve your mood and
generally make you feel happier.
Stress
When we are stressed, our metabolic rate rises, thereby reducing our
potassium levels. These can be rebalanced with the help of a high-
potassium banana snack. It helps normalize the heartbeat, sends
oxygen to the brain and regulates your body's water balance.
Blood Pressure
Since banana is low in salt, the fruit has the ability to reduce the risk of
blood pressure and stroke. Also high in vitamin B 6, bananas can help
calm the nervous system.
PMS and Anemia

If you have PMS, the vitamin B6 it contains regulates blood glucose
levels, which can affect your mood. High in iron, bananas can stimulate
the production of hemoglobin in the blood and so helps in cases of
anemia.
Heartburn
Bananas offer soothing relief for people with heartburn because it has
a natural antacid effect in the body.
Strokes
A regular diet of bananas can cut the risk of death by strokes by as
much as 40 percent according to The New England Journal of
Medicine.
Constipation
High in fiber, bananas can help restore normal bowel action, helping to
overcome the problem without resorting to laxatives.
51
Ulcers
Banana is used as a dietary food against intestinal disorders because
of its soft texture and smoothness. It also neutralizes over-acidity and
reduces irritation by coating the lining of the stomach
Morning Sickness
Snacking on bananas between meals helps to keep blood sugar levels
up and avoid morning sickness.
Hangovers
One way to cure hangovers is to make a banana milkshake sweetened
with honey. The banana calms the stomach and, with the help of the
honey, builds up depleted blood sugar levels, while the milk soothes
and re-hydrates your system.
Mosquito bites
Before reaching for the insect bite cream, try rubbing the affected area
with the inside of a banana skin. Many people find it amazingly
successful at reducing swelling and irritation.
Warts
Those keen on natural alternatives swear that if you want to kill off a
wart, take a piece of banana skin and place it on the wart, with the
yellow side out. Carefully hold the skin in place with a plaster or
surgical tape!
Temperature control
Bananas can lower both the physical and emotional temperature of
expectant mothers. In Thailand, pregnant women eat bananas to
ensure their baby is born with a cool temperature.
Smoking control
The B6, B12 as well as the potassium and magnesium in banana can
help smokers recover from the effects of nicotine withdrawal.
Extension Ideas
Gather as many kinds of fresh fruits as you can. Get wax models
of fruits that are not in season. To what group does each belong?
Discuss the importance of vegetative propagation in the
commercial growing of cultivated varieties of fruit trees, ornamental
trees and shrubs.
52
Closing Statement
Ask students what they learned from this lesson. Summarize their
responses and emphasize the following:
The fruit is the ripened ovary of a plant containing the seeds. After
fertilization, the ovary swells and becomes either fleshy or hard and dry
to protect the developing seeds. Many fruits help seeds spread (maple
seeds). Many things we call vegetables are really fruits (tomato,
cucumber, beans).
The changes in color as a fruit ripens is considered a signal to potential

eaters of the fruit that it is ripe. This is important for plants that rely on
their fruits being eaten and the seeds being transported by the
predator to a different place. When a fruit's seeds are ready for
germination, they need to be dispersed away from the parent plant. A
color change could signal animals that the fruit is ready to be eaten,
which will help in dispersion. Often a developing fruit will be hard and
bitter or sour, or toxic, these do not stop predators from eating fruits
with undeveloped seeds.
ASSESSMENT
Explain your answer to the following:

1. What is the biological meaning of the term fruit?
2. Describe several ways of dispersing fruits.
HOMEWORK
Why do botanists consider a tomato and a squash fruits? Explain.
REFERENCES

Practical Biology for Philippine High Schools. 182143.
Velasquez, C. Modern Biology. 372376.
http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/botany/fruit
http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/tfplab/reproch.htm
http://www.botany.wisc.edu/courses/botany_100/Bot100Lecture02/DISPERSA
L_BIOLOGY.htm
53
Teacher Notes
THE FRUIT
The fruit is a fertilized ovary. Hence, all fruit parts come from the parts of the
ovary. The following summarizes the development of ovary parts into fruit parts.
The embryo undergoes partial

differentiation to produce one or
two cotyledons, an epicotyl and
hypocotyls.
The fruit is composed of two parts, the pericarp or fruit wall and one or many
seeds. Seeds are the fertilized and mature ovules. The seed is made up of seed
coat, endosperm and embryo. The embryo consists of three parts, namely, the
cotyledon, the epicotyl and the hypocotyls. The fruit or ovary wall, may be fleshy,
as in the apple, or dry and hard as in a maple fruit.
Some fruits have seeds enclosed within the ovary (ex: apples, peaches, oranges,
squash, cucumbers). Others have seeds that are situated on the periphery of the
fruit tissue (ex: corn, strawberry). As the fruit ripens and the seed matures, the
other parts of the flower dry up.
Fruit Types (ie., simple, aggregate multiple and accessory)
1) SIMPLE FRUITS consists of one matured ovary
a. Dry Fruits
54
a. 1) Dehiscent fruits are split open along definite seams when mature
Follicle
From one simple pistil, dehisces along one suture
Legume
From a simple pistil, dehisces along two sutures
Capsule
Usually from a compound pistil, dehisces into the locules or between
them, usually many-seeded.
Silique or silicle
Special capsule with two halves which fall away from a central false
septum (replum) to which the seeds are attached. Found in the mustard
family (Brassicaceae). Siliques are long and thin; silicles are short and fat.
Schizocarp
From a compound pistil, splits into mericarps (pieces) which enclose one
or more seeds and resemble fruits themselves. The link shows a maple
fruit, which will split into two samara-like mericarps.)
a.2) Dry, indehiscent fruits which do not split open when mature
Nut
One seeded by abortion (only one ovule matures), usually hard-shelled
Caryopsis or Grain
One seed which has the seedcoat fused to the pericarp
Achene
One seed which is free of the pericarp (fruit wall)
Samara
An achene with a wing for wind dispersal
55
b) Fleshy Fruits
Berry
from a compound pistil, few to many seeds.
Pepo
a berry with a hard, leathery rind, usually applied to fruits in the
squash family (Cucurbitaceae).
Pome
from an inferior ovary with the hypanthium/receptacle tissue
swollen and juicy e.g., in an apple, the part one eats is the
hypanthium/receptacle--the mature ovary is actually just the core.
Apples and pears have several seed chambers and an outer fleshy
part largely derived from the hypanthium.
Hesperidum
a berry with an aromatic leathery rind; its inside divided into
segments; a citrus fruit (Rutaceae).
Drupe
from a simple pistil, one seed within a stony endocarp.
Hip
mature hypanthium containing achenes derived from multiple
simple pistils, e.g. a rose fruit.
56
2) AGGREGATE FRUIT
is composed of mature ovaries from the separate pistils of ONE flower.

Can be an aggregate of achenes, drupelets, samaras, etc.
3) MULTIPLE FRUIT
is composed of mature ovaries from separate pistils from SEVERAL

flowers. Can be a multiple of follicles, drupelets, etc. A pineapple is a
multiple of berries.
4) AN ACCESSORY FRUIT
also called false fruit, pseudocarp. A fruit that develops from a ripened
ovary or ovaries but includes a significant portion derived from non-
ovarian tissue.
Examples
A strawberry is a swollen receptacle; the "seeds" on the surface are the true
fruits, achenes. Some put hips and pomes in this category.
57
Student Activity
RIPE AND UNRIPE FRUITS
Objective
In this activity, your group will find out why fruits ripen.
Resources
unripe banana hot plate
riper banana ruler
balance razor blade or cutter
400-ml beaker 4 test tubes
Benedicts solution test tube holder
sugar solution test tube rack
2 100-ml graduated cylinders
marking pen
Procedure
1. Fill a 400-ml beaker halfway with water. Place the beaker on a hot
plate. Turn the hot plate to high.
2. Use a marking pen to label 4 test tubes. Label the first tube C, for
control; the second S for sugar, the third R for ripe banana; and the
fourth U for unripe banana.
3. Use a graduated cylinder to measure 5 ml of water into the test
tubes labeled C, R, and U. Place 5 ml of the sugar solution into the
test tube labeled S.
4. Using a clean graduated cylinder, add 5 ml of Benedicts solution to
each of the test tubes.
5. Observe the color and appearance of the unripe banana. Peel it.
Use a cutter to cut a slice or cross-section 5 mm thick.
6. Cut the sliced banana halfway along its diameter. Then make a cut
parallel to its diameter about 5 mm thick.
7. Measure the mass of the cut piece. It should have a mass of about
1 g. Put this piece of banana into the test tube marked U.
8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 with the ripe banana. Make sure the mass of
the ripe banana is the same as the unripe banana. Place this piece
in the test tube marked R.
9. Place the test tube in the beaker of boiling water on the hot plate.
58
10. Use the 4 test tube holders to remove the test tubes from the
beaker.
11. Place the test tubes in the test tube rack. Turn off the hot plate
and allow the beaker to cool.
12. Cut several more slices of the ripe banana. Use a hand lens to
examine the region near the center of each slice.
Guide Questions
1. What did the peel of the unripe banana look like? The ripe banana?
2. In which test tube did the greatest change occur?
3. Describe the structure you observed at the center of the banana
slices.
4. What do the results of the tests using Benedicts solution show?
5. How do animals help disperse banana seeds?
6. What changes occur when a banana ripens?
7. Why would animals be more likely to find and eat ripe bananas than
unripe bananas?
59
Lesson 7
SEEDS
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom
OBJECTIVES

discuss the structure and functions of seeds in gymnosperms and
angiosperms; and
explain the importance of seeds.
RESOURCES
soaked bean seeds

soaked corn kernels
soaked corn kernels cut through the middle of the embryo
hand lens
moist paper towels
plastic wrap or sandwich bags
PREREQUISITE
Tell the students to read the assigned materials about seeds and to
prepare the materials required for the activity entitled Seeds.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Begin the session by saying:

Plants are found just about everywhere on Earth. Many plants
make seeds. Do you know that within every seed lives a tiny plant
or embryo? You can hold in your hand 500 radishes, many
thousands of petunias, or an entire meadow if you remember that
each seed is a plant!
60
Have you ever planted a seed and watched it grow into a tiny
plant? Sometimes people plant seeds. But what if there were no
people? Would a plant's seeds just fall on the ground right next to
the plant? In this lesson, you will learn about seeds and how they
grow in their environment.
2. Show the seed of a certain plant and let the student identify the
external and internal parts.
3. Let them trace the germination of a seed.
Main Activity
1. Ask them to perform the activity and present their group output to
the class.
2. Ask questions regarding the lesson:
a. What is a seed? Why are seeds important to plant life on land?
A seed is the ripened (fertilized) ovule of gymnosperms (non-

flowering) or angiosperms (flowering plant) that typically
contains the embryo with its protective coat and stored food. It
will develop into a new plant if sown.
A seed constitutes the main propagule or agent for plant growth,

reproduction and dispersal. Proper conservation and utilization
of plant seeds is important to increasing agricultural productivity,
which is the key to over all economic growth.
b. What are the different forms of adaptations undertaken by

seeds dispersed by wind? Water? Animals?
Some seeds just get blown in the wind that carried it away from
the parent tree to a suitable place for it to grow. The seeds that
travel by wind must be lightweight.
Some of these seeds have wings, like the maple seed. Some of
these seeds have gone 32 miles on a windy day. Another flying
seed is the dandelion which gets planted because ants carry the
seeds down into their hole.
61
Others float in water to get to land. The water travelers float

away from their parent trees. The seed drops into the water and
floats until the water pushes it to the shore. Then the seed
sprouts into a plant or tree. Coconuts may drift for several
months and travel for up to 1,200 miles (2,000 km) before
reaching dry land. The coconuts are able to float because of
special fibers around their seeds.
Others hitchike on animals. The hitchhikers are built with

spikes. They get stuck to the fur of an animal and eventually fall
off and grow. These seeds are commonly known as burs.
Some seeds have a sticky substance that makes them stick to

animals. Then they travel to another place to grow. In some
fruits, the seed is in the middle of a fruit. When an animal (e.g.
bird) eats the fruit it cannot digest the seed and the seed is
expelled. Some animals bury the seeds to store them and they
sprout into new plant/trees.
The fourth type is discharge dispersal. Some trees spit their
seeds to the ground surrounding the parent tree. Some tree
seeds drop directly below the parent and die because there is
not enough light or food for them to grow.
Some plants have sacks that explode. The squirting cucumber
bursts open and shoots its seeds up to 27 feet (8m) away from
the parent plant. The seeds zoom off and may travel as fast as
62 miles (100km) per hour.
Seeds can also grow in a flower and drop to the ground. When
the seed leaves the flower or whatever it was in, the process is
called dissemination.
c. What is germination?
Seed germination is defined as the emergence of the radicle

through the seed coat. How does it happen?
Having been taken away from the parent, after dispersal, it is

time for the seeds to sprout or germinate. Seeds remain
dormant or inactive until conditions are right for germination. All
seeds need water, oxygen, and proper temperature in order to
germinate. Some seeds require proper light also. When a seed
is exposed to the proper conditions, water and oxygen are taken
in through the seed coat. The embryo's cells start to enlarge.
62
Then the seed coat breaks open and a root or radicle emerges
first, followed by the shoot or plumule that contains the leaves
and stem.
The hypocotyl of the embryo grows towards the soil and

develops into the primary root of the plant. The epicotyl grows
towards the light and develops into the shoot made up of stems
and leaves.
d. What is a seedling?
A seedling is a young tree grown from a seed, from the

germination to the sapling stage. Sapling is a general term for a
tree that is no longer a seedling but not yet a pole, usually
referring to trees at least 4.5 feet tall and 2 to 4 inches in
diameter. The seedling grows into a mature plant and eventually
flowers. And the germination cycle is repeated.
Discussion Ideas
What do beans, tomatoes, cucumbers and okra have in common? A

seed is a kind of package that contains everything.
Extension Ideas
1. Try these different experiments:

Find out if seeds need light to germinate.
Will lima bean seeds germinate in the refrigerator?
Do seeds need moisture to germinate?
2. Try this project:
a) Collect different kinds of seeds. Let these dry and segregate

those with identical shapes or colors.
b) Put the first set of seeds inside a clear bottle made of glass. Put
another set of seeds. This serves as the second layer.
c) Put another set of seeds to serve as the third layer, followed by
the next set and so forth until the bottle is full.
d) You may add some accessories (i.e. ribbon) to enhance the
presentation of the bottle, or use a good-shaped bottle.
63
e) You have just created a decorative bottle with seeds of different

shapes/color as the main material.
f) Label each layer of seeds on the surface of the bottle and
display these in the laboratory or science center or as a house
dcor or as gift to a friend or loved one.
3. Try to answer this: Seeds--To Eat or Not to Eat?

Many seeds are both delicious and nutritious. Name five seeds
that you like and five that you don't like.
Soybeans are the most widely used seeds in the world. How
many uses of soybeans can you name?
Closing Activity
Provide the summary of the lesson as shown below. Ask students to

give their insights on why seed germination is likened to the story of a
mother and her child. They may consider the seed as the mother and
the new sprout as the baby. They can draw a diagram to show the
image they have in mind.
You discovered that the seed of a plant allows it to reproduce or to

create more plants like it. Seeds come in hundreds of shapes and
sizes. Seeds are as diverse as the plants they produce. Some seeds,
such as mango and watermelon seeds, grow inside the fleshly fruits.
Others, such as bean seeds grow in pods. Seeds of gymnosperms
grow on the scales of cones.
The purpose of all seeds is reproduction. Seeds usually have a

covering that protects the baby plant before it sprouts. Seeds also
contain food for the plant as it starts to grow. The baby plant uses the
stored food until it can produce its own food.
Sometimes people plant seeds while at other times the seeds get
planted on their own. The seeds are carried away from the mother
plant by dispersers such as wind, animals, water and gravity. This
assures that seeds end up far away from the "mother" plant, where
they can develop without competition from "mom." Having been taken
away from the parent, it is time for the seeds to sprout or germinate.
64
During germination, a seed has everything it needs to produce new

plants. No seed can grow with the fruit around it. A seed has to have
enough water, good soil, and sunlight. People also put seeds in
gardens or fields, and water and fertilize the seeds to make them grow
and live.
ASSESSMENT (Matching type)
A B
1. hypocotyl i. innermost part of the hypocotyls
2. hilum ii. food storage tissue
3. epicotyl iii. part of embryo above the point of the
attachment of the cotyledon
4. endosperm
iv. seed scar
5. radicle
v. part of the embryo below the point of
the attachment
I. Identify how seeds below are transported. Match each seed to its
method of travel.
1. Dandelion a. Floating on Water

2. Coconut b. Gliding
3. Burs c. Hitchhiking
II. Choose the best answer to each of the following questions:
a. Which of the following types of plants would most likely have seeds
that travel by gliding?
1. Grasses
2. Shrubs
3. Tall trees
4. Vines
b. Where would you most likely find plants whose seeds travel by
floating on water?
1. Islands
2. Deserts
3. Rainforests
4. Prairies
65
HOMEWORK
Suppose you want to produce a citrus tree that will bear two different
kinds of citrus fruits: kalamansi and pomelo.
Which method of artificial propagation would you choose? Why would

other methods of artificial propagation not be suitable?
REFERENCES
Essenfeld, Gontang and Moore. Biology . 417421.

Payawal, P. Biology. 237.
Practical Biology for Philippine High Schools. 186188.
http://www.sfscience.com/english/grade_3/unit_A/chap_1/act_3/1.htm
http://www.teachervision.fen.com/page/115.html
http://www.units.muohio.edu/dragonfly/itb/seed_intro.htmlx
http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/gpe/case3/c3a.html
www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/ssfor11.htm
66
Teacher Notes
SEED STRUCTURE
http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/plants_human/seeds.gif
The outer covering of a seed is called the seed coat. Seed coats help protect the
embryo from injury and also from drying out. Seed coats can be thin and soft as
in beans or thick and hard as in locust or coconut seeds. Endosperm, a
temporary food supply, is packed around the embryo in the form of special
leaves called cotyledons or seed leaves. These generally are the first parts
visible when the seed germinates. Plants are classified based upon the number
of seed leaves (cotyledons) in the seed.
http://www.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/art0001.jpg
67
Corn Bean
DICOTS
Dicots are seeds that have two cotyledons, such as a bean seed. A bean seed
that has soaked in water for a day or two has a soft outside covering. This is the
seed coat, which would probably slip off the seed easily.
The bean seed has a slit going down the middle of the seed. Inside is a tiny plant
called an embryo.
The two large parts of the seeds are called cotyledons. They supply the food for
the young plant when it's growing. As the bean seed has two parts, it is a
dicotyledon, or dicot for short.
MONOCOTS
Monocots are seeds that have only one cotyledon, e.g. grasses and corn.
''Mono'' comes from the Greek word monos, meaning ''one''.
The corn seed has a seed coat, but it does not slip off as easily as the bean
seeds. The corn seed will not split like the bean seed. It stays in one piece. One
cotyledon surrounds the embryo. It is a lighter color than the rest of the seed and
is called the endosperm. It provides food for the growing plant.
68
Student Activity
GERMINATING MONOCOT AND DICOT SEEDS
Objective
In this activity, your group will learn about the structures of monocot
seeds and dicot seeds and to observe their germination.
Resources
soaked bean seeds
soaked corn kernels
soaked corn kernels cut through the middle of the embryo
hand lens
moist paper towel
plastic wrap or sandwich bags
Procedure
1. Remove the seed coat of a soaked bean seed. Observe the two
cotyledons.
2. Carefully pull the cotyledon apart. Find the embryonic root.
3. Draw a picture of your seed in the data table like the one shown
below. Label the seed coat, cotyledons, embryonic shoot and
embryonic root.
DataTable
Bean seed Corn seed
Bean germination Corn germination
Date: Date:
69
4. Examine a soaked corn kernel. On one side you will see a light
colored structure that may bulge out a little. This structure is the
embryo.
5. Use a hand lens to look at a cut kernel. Find the yellowish stored
food toward the wide end of the kernel. Below the stored food is the
cotyledon.
6. Observe the embryonic shoot and embryonic root with the hand
lens. Draw a picture of your corn kernel. Label the stored food,
cotyledon, embryonic shoot and root.
7. Place several uncut corn kernels between moist paper towels and
wrap them loosely in plastic, allowing air to get in. Leave them in a
warm place until they sprout or germinate.
8. After four days, observe the seed coats, cotyledons, and embryonic
shoots and roots as germination continues. Record and date your
observations.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 using bean seeds.
Guide Questions
1. Are corn plants monocots or dicots? Are bean plants monocots or

dicots? Explain your answer.
2. During germination, which part of the seed is the first to grow out of
the seed?
3. When a seed is planted, where does the young plant get energy
until it can undergo photosynthesis?
70
Lesson 8
EFFECTS OF HORMONES ON
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom
OBJECTIVES

describe the effects and importance of hormones on
plant growth;
identify several plant tropisms; and
compare long day, short day and day neutral plants.
RESOURCES
seeds bulbs
potting soil sandwich bags
water 2-liter bottles
scissors
PREREQUISITE
Ask the students to bring plants. Prepare the other materials

beforehand.
PROCEDURE
Opening Statement
1. Ask the students to recall the previous lesson on seed germination.

Connect the new lesson by saying:
71
Seeds grow into mature plants in response to important

environmental factors such as light, moisture, temperature and
gravity. But how do cells decide whether to divide anew or
differentiate into permanent tissue? How do roots know how to
grow down and stems know how to grow up toward light? How
can plants tell if they are old enough to die?
The answer to these questions involves the actions of special

chemical substances that direct or control the growth and
development of a plant. In this lesson, we will try to discover,
describe, identify and compare the effect of plant regulators, known
as hormones, on plant growth.
2. Provide a short lecture on how plants grow and develop.
Plant growth involves measurable changes in the plant resulting

mainly from increases in cell number. Meristematic tissues are
made of actively dividing cells (called mitosis) that are responsible
for growth resulting from increases in cell number. The enlargement
of the stem and the elongation of the root contribute to growth
resulting from increase in individual cell size.
After increasing to normal size, plants develop due to qualitative

changes resulting from the production of new tissues and organs.
Cells produced from the shoot apical meristems may develop into
permanent tissues of new stems, leaves or flowers. Plants may
also exhibit changes as seeds become seedlings or from the
vegetative to the reproductive stage.
Main Activity
1. Let the students perform the activity on Indoor Gardening or

Plant Viewer and present their group work to the class.
2. Ask some questions to trigger and facilitate class participation and
active interaction:
What are plant hormones?
Plant hormones are chemical substances that the body produces in
very small amounts. Hormones are produced in specific sites,
particularly in actively dividing tissues of the plant body, in response
to environmental and internal plant signals. They are transported to
other parts of the plant where they promote or inhibit growth and
development.
72
Where are most plant hormones produced?
Plant hormones, called auxins, are mainly produced in the root and
shoot apical meristems.
Cytokinins are plant regulators that work in combination with auxin

to stimulate cell division, cell maturation and organ differentiation.
Gibberelins are plant regulators produced in seeds and juvenile

plants. They promote seed germination, flowering and stem
elongation.
Abscisins or abscisic acid are synthesized mainly in the root cap,

mature leaves and fruits. They promote bud dormancy and affect
the closing of the stomata in the leaf.
Ethylene is a gaseous plant regulator that inhibits stem and root

elongation; promotes the ripening of fruits, the wilting of flowers and
the aging of leaves.
What is the role of auxin in plant growth?
Auxins diffuse from the apical meristems to the base of the root and
the stem. They affect growth by stimulating the cells to divide and
elongate. Auxin is sensitive to light and tends to move away from it.
When one side of the stem is exposed to light, auxin moves toward the
unlit side. Because the shaded side has more auxin than the lighted
side, the cells of the dark side elongate faster than those on the lighted
side. This explains the bending of stems towards the light. Auxins also
induce fruit development but inhibit the formation of lateral buds.
What is tropism?
The growth movement of a plant or plant part in response to an

external stimulus, such as light, gravity or contact is called tropism.
The bending of the stem of the plant toward light is called
phototropism. On the other hand, the growth response of plants to
gravity is called gravitropism.
Discussion Ideas
Here in the Philippines, some banana planters use kalboro to help

bananas ripen faster. Why?
73
Extension Ideas
What environmental cue do plants use to time their flowering?
Closing Activity
End the session by asking the students to give the relevance of
hormones in overall plant growth and development, and its effect on
human beings.
Plants respond to changes in the environment. As day becomes night,
as seasons change, they produce hormones that can either promote or
prevent growth, induce or inhibit development. Plant growth and
development are influenced by light, water availability and
temperature, among others. We need to study the environmental
factors and hormones that affect how plants grow and develop
because we need to know how best to grow our crops to increase
agricultural productivity. Our economic survival as human beings is
greatly dependent on the quality of food our farmer and farm workers
produce. We depend on various herbal plants for medicine and trees
for industrial products. Hence, we have to continuously find ways to
sustain the production of quality grains and fruits, leafier vegetables,
larger root crops and better established ornamental plants.
ASSESSMENT
Word relationships:
In each of the following sets of terms, three are related. One term does
not belong. Underline the terms that are related to each other.
1. xylem, auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins
2. light, water, temperature, gravity, (O2, CO2), chlorophyll
3. marigold, corn, mongo, peas
4. summer, long days, short nights, long nights
5. phototropism, thigmotropism, gravitotropism, hormones
HOMEWORK
People grow houseplants on windowsills. Many authors advise giving
houseplants a quarter turn every week. Why is this good advice to
follow if you want to grow attractive plants?
REFERENCES
74
Student Activity-A
INDOOR GARDENING
Objective
In this activity, your group will test your theories about seeds and
identify the requirements for growing a plant.
Resources
seeds bulbs
potting soil sandwich bags
water 2-liter bottles
scissors
Procedure: Option 1
1. Fill a plastic bag (or pot) with three-fourths of good moist soil
2. Select seeds.
3. Plant the seeds about 1/6 of an inch deep.
4. Water the plants with a light spray. Set in sunny window.
5. Draw the plants as they grow.
6. Measure the stem and root growth each day.
7. Make a graph of the growth each day.
Guide Questions
1. Identify the different seeds.

2. What are the changes that take place in the plant over time?
3. What are the seven requirements for growing plants indoors?
4. List each of the plant hormones and briefly describe their effects.
75
Student Activity-B
SEED VIEWER
Objective
In this activity, your group will test your theories about seeds and identify
the requirements for growing a plant.
Resources
a clear plastic cup

paper towels
seeds
black construction paper
water
Procedure: Option 2
1. Label your viewer
Write your name, the type of seed and the date of planting on the side
of the cup.
2. Make the viewer
Line the inside of the cup with black construction paper. Crumple up
some paper towels, one at a time, and fill the cup inside the
construction paper with them. Cut the top edge of the construction
paper so it is even with the top of the cup.
3. Plant the seeds
Slip each seed between the cup and the construction paper until it is an
inch to an inch and one-half below the top edge of the cup. Pour water
into the center of the paper towels until the construction paper is wet.
4. Watch the miracle!
Set the seed viewer on a sunny windowsill. Check at the same time
each day to see what is happening. Chart the growth and development
of the plant. You must keep your paper towel moist for the seeds to
germinate and grow properly!
76
Lesson 9
BODY PARTS AND ORGANS
TIME
One session
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

describe the parts of the different systems;
put together the body structures of a human being using a diagram;
identify the functions and locations of the different organs within the
body structure; and
appreciate the relationship existing between the body and its
different organs that make human beings live.
RESOURCES
model or chart of human anatomy with organ names
puzzles of body parts
unlabeled diagrams of the body
manila paper or cartolina
glue or tape
PREREQUISITE
Arrange the students in groups of six or eight.
Give each group a package containing the different parts of the
body, and cards with the name and picture of each organ in the
body.
Let the students put the body parts together, as well as organs in
the correct locations within the body.
There will be a diagram enclosed in the package, but the diagram
will have no labels.
77
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Review the past lesson on how do plants and animals perform life
functions up to the structural organization of human beings. Say
something like:
Plants and animal perform common basic functions. They acquire

energy, exchange gases, grow respond to the environment and
reproduce. To carry on these functions, they must share a
particular structural design or body plan. In this aspect, all plants
and animals have cells that are organized into tissues and organs.
However, they differ too in certain structures as adaptations to their

respective roles. Plants as producers possess a structure for food-
making.
Animals as consumers have a different structure for food-getting.

Animal organs are usually composed of more than one cell type.
Organs perform a certain function. Most organs have functions in
only one organ system.
In this lesson, you will explore how organ systems work together to
keep animals alive. Eleven major organ systems are present in
animals, although some animals lack one or more of them.
Bodies of vertebrates have two cavities: the thoracic, which

contains the heart and lungs; and the abdominal, which contains
the digestive organs. The head or cephalic region contains four of
the five senses as well as the brain, which is encased in a bony
skull.
Main Activity
1. Divide the students into groups of six or eight. Give each group a
package which includes organ cards and the body parts.
2. Let the students work under a time limit.
3. Instruct them to put the parts of the body together using the
diagram as guide.
4. Tell them to put the organ cards in the correct locations on the body
structure.
78
5. Once they have placed all the organ cards in the correct locations,
instruct them to write down the exact function of each organ they
are given (each group will be given a different set of organs).
6. Once they have completed all the steps listed above, direct the
groups to present what they have done to the class.
7. Remind them that during the presentation, they should explain how
they put together their structure and what the functions of the
organs they labeled are.
8. After the presentations, facilitate class discussion. Ask questions
based on the presentation of each group.
Discussion Ideas
In a functional group, members should work together to achieve a
common set of objectives. To be effective, they have to relate very well
with each other and to function as a whole, such that the total effect is
greater than the sum of the individual effects. The combined action or
efforts of the group members result to synergy.
These same principles hold true for our organ systems. All body
system: work in harmony for total health and well-being.
Extension Ideas
While watching Meteor Garden or any other TV show, what

organs do you use?
What organ responds when you touch a hot flat iron or object?
Jack and Jill went up the hill while carrying a pail of water. What are
the different body organs involved in carrying the water up the hill?
ASSESSMENT
The assessment of students can be done through the class evaluation

of their group presentations.
Rubrics
5 points exceptionally presented contains accurate/detailed
Information
4 points presented accurately, contains detailed information
3 points partially complete information
2 points lack of details, not so accurate
1 point incomplete
79
HOMEWORK
Answer the following questions:

1. There are various systems in a human body. Can you live without
the digestive system/other systems? Explain.
2. A man is hungry; what organ system in the body is affected in this
case? How are the other organ systems affected?
REFERENCES
Rabago et al. Science and Technology II. 268269.

Science and Technology II SEDP Series. 315 and 328.
Trace, Humphrey and Don Descy. Mankato State University (March 3,
1998)
http://www.askeric.org/Virtual/Lesson/Science/Anatomy/ANA0007.html(July3
0, 2003)
80
Teacher Notes
HUMAN ANATOMY
Esophagus Larynx
Trachea
Lung
Spinal Cord
Sternum
Heart
Spinal Column
Diaphragm
Liver
Kidney
Gallbladder
Stomach
Ascending colon Transverse colon
Coils of small intestine
Rectum
http://www.amazon-herbs.org/human-anatomy-sm.gif
Circulatory System Support
Heart, Blood Vessels and Blood

Transports nutrients, gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones, and wastes
throughout the body.
Digestive System Support
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Gall Bladder, Pancreas, Small and

Large Intestines
Converts air, food and water into building materials for living tissue. Breaks down
food, absorbs nutrients and eliminates wastes.
81
Lymphatic System Support
Spleen, Lymph Nodes and Vessels, White Blood Cells, T and B Cells
Destroys and removes invading microbes and viruses. Removes fat and excess
fluids from the blood.
Muscular/Skeletal System Support
Skeletal Structure (Bones and Cartilage) and Muscles

Provides structure and mobility, and even controls the movement of materials
through some organs.
Nervous System Support
Brain, Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves

Relays electrical signals, directs behavior and movement, and helps control
physiological processes such as digestion, circulation, respiration, etc.
Reproductive/Endocrine System Support
Reproductive Organs and Endocrine Glands such as the Hypothalamus,

Pineal, Thyroid, Pancreas and Adrenals
Manufactures cells that create and support new life. Regulates hormones and
relays chemical messages throughout the body.
Respiratory System Support
Nose, Trachea, Lungs and Skin

Provides oxygen and gas exchange between the blood and the environment.
Urinary System Support
Kidney, Bladder, Ureters and Urethra

Filters wastes, toxins, excess water and nutrients from the circulatory system.
82
Student Activity
THE HUMAN STRUCTURE
Objectives
In this activity, you will:

put together the body structure of a human being using a diagram;
identify the functions and locations of the different organs within the
body structure.
Resources
model or chart of human anatomy displayed in front of the class

body parts packages
unlabeled diagrams of the body
manila paper or cartolina, or large and long sheets of white paper
glue or tape
Procedure
a) Your group leader shall get the materials from the teacher.
b) All members of your group shall work cooperatively in putting the
body parts of a human being together.
c) Be aware of the correct placement of each body part within the
body.
d) Study the various organs and write down the exact functions of
each after completing the body structure.
e) Once all the steps listed above have been completed, post your
work on the board. Explain to the class how you were able to
accomplish your tasks. Explain the functions of each organ.
Guide Questions
a. How would you describe the parts of the different organ systems?
b. What are the main functions of each organ system?
c. How do the different organs and organ systems of the body do their
work harmoniously?
83
Lesson 10
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU EAT?
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

identify the major organs of the digestive system;
describe the functions of each organ of the digestive system; and
assess the importance of the digestive system in the overall
functioning of a human being.
RESOURCES
apples hydrochloric acid

funnel sponge
beaker mallet
rubber tubing paper towels
diagram of the digestive system
PREPARATION
a) Provide the students with basic facts about the role of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine in the
digestive system.
b) Show them the materials listed above. Enlist the students help in
choosing which equipment showed represent which organ in the
digestive system.
c) Refer to some biology books for complete information on the parts

and functions of the digestive system. Discuss these topics fully for
better results.
84
Opening Activity
Introduce the new lesson by giving a general description of the

digestive system and a visual representation of what happens to food
as it passes through the digestive canal.
Food is broken down by the digestive system into simple substances to

enable the body to use them for energy and for future needs, and to
keep the body healthy.
The human digestive system is a coiled, muscular tube (69 meters
long when fully extended) extending from the mouth to the anus.
Several specialized compartments occur along this length: the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and
anus.
Accessory digestive organs are connected to the main system by a
series of ducts such as: salivary glands, parts of the pancreas, liver
and gall bladder.
Most absorption of the digested molecules into the blood occurs in the
small intestine through the villi. The villi contain many small blood
vessels called capillaries.
Main Activity
1. Divide the class into groups.

2. Let one of the members of each group get the needed materials
from you.
3. Remind the students to follow the procedure described in the
activity sheet carefully.
4. Remind them of the safety precautions in handling chemicals.
5. Facilitate the presentation of the different groups and the class
discussion that follows.
Discussion Ideas
We receive signals from the different parts of our body indicating that
we must eat. Why do we get hungry? An area in the deep brain
controls our eating. When this hunger center receives signals from
parts of the body saying that we need to eat, we feel hungry. Painful
sensations, such as a headache and stomach cramps, can also
prompt us to eat.
85
Extension Ideas
1. Trace the pathway of food from the mouth down to the anus.
Discuss what happens to the food as it passes through the different
digestive organs.
2. Ask students some common problems of the digestive system, such

as constipation, gas, lactose intolerance and ulcers.
3. Let them create a brochure, similar to one found at a doctor's office

that describes the problem, its causes, symptoms, and possible
treatments.
4. Finally, have students title their brochure in the form of a question a

patient might have. For example:
"Why do I burp?" (for kids)

"Why do I throw up?" (for kids)
"Why do dairy products make me sick?" (for teens)
"Are you taking antacids every day?" (for middle-aged adults)
"Is it time for a colonoscopy?" (for older adults)
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following:
1. Which of the following foods is easy to digest?

a. apple c. peanut
b. chicken d. rice
2. Food descends from the mouth to the stomach through this

muscular tube.
a. pharynx c. trachea
b. esophagus d. small intestine
3. Which part of the digestive tract is responsible for the complete

digestion of food?
a. mouth c. small intestine
b. stomach d. large intestine
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4. If your stomach is aching, should you take oily foods? Why or why
not?
5. Why is digestion important to the proper functioning of the human

body?
HOMEWORK
Write your answers in one sheet of pad paper.

1. How long is the digestive system?
2. How do villi aid the small intestine in absorption?
REFERENCES
Science and Technology II SEDP Series

Darmarajah, Nirmala. Part West High School, USA
Living Environment (Summer 2001)
http://www.scienceteacherprogram.org/biology/nirmala01.html (July 30,
2003)
87
Teacher Notes
tunt Activity
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
TheVISUALIZING THEdown
digestive system breaks HUMANfood intoDIGESTIVE SYSTEM
simple substances that the cells
can use. It then absorbs these substances into the bloodstream and eliminates
any left over waste matter. The main part of the digestive system is a long tube
called the alimentary canal. This tube consists of:
The mouth, esophagus and stomach
The small intestine and the large intestine
Other parts of the digestive system include the gall bladder, liver, pancreas,
salivary glands and teeth.
Adapted from: http://www.recreation.uconn.edu/~bi102vc/images/digestive_system.gi

f
88
Student Activity
VISUALIZING THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Objectives

observe the movement of food in the digestive system; and
identify the major organs of the digestive system and their
functions.
Resources
model or chart of the sponge
human digestive system mallet
apples paper towels
rubber tubing hydrochloric acid
funnel beaker
Procedure
1. Each group will get some of the materials from the teacher. The
group should provide the other materials.
2. Crush the slices of apple with the mallet and add a little water to the
mixture. This will represent the teeth and saliva.
3. Using the funnel, pour the mixture into the rubber tubing and using
your hands, squeeze it through. This will serve as the esophagus
and will show peristalsis motion.
4. Put the mixture into a beaker containing a small amount of
hydrochloric acid. This will represent the stomach.
5. Pour the mixture into the sponge and allow the liquid portion to be
absorbed. This will serve as the small intestine.
6. Collect the solid pieces and place them on the paper towels to
absorb the water. This will represent the large intestine.
7. Present your findings to the class.
Guide Questions
1. What are the different parts of the digestive system?

2. How does each part perform its function?
3. How does food digestion take place?
89
Lesson 11
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

identify the parts and functions of the human respiratory system;
trace the path of inhaled air from the nose to the lungs;
construct a model of the respiratory system that will demonstrate
the processes of inhalation and exhalation; and
appreciate the importance of the respiratory system in the overall
functioning of the human being.
RESOURCES
Model construction Volume of air exhaled

2 plastic straws food coloring
2 small balloons water
rubber cement paper towel
clear plastic cup 2-liter plastic bottle
large balloon 2-hole rubber stopper
rubber band rubber tubing
tape glass tubing
graduated cylinder
PREREQUISITE
Divide the students into groups of eight. Before the activity, be sure
that the students are familiar with the parts and functions of the
respiratory system.
90
Students should make an analogy between the model made and the
human lungs. Encourage class participation by allowing the students to
demonstrate how the model works.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
Clarify the objective of the lesson and explain the respiratory system.
The main objectives of this lesson are to make a model of the

respiratory system that will demonstrate the processes of inhalation
and exhalation; and to determine the volume of air exhaled by man.
The respiratory system makes gas exchange possible between body

cells and the external environment. The main parts of the human
respiratory system and their functions are as follows:
asal cavities - serve as the passage of air from the nostrils to the
trachea. They are lined with a mucus membrane and
fine hair which filter air.
rachea or wind pipe - connects the upper respiratory to its lower
part. The epiglottis protects the upper part. The lower
end splits into two branches called bronchi.
wo lungs - are balloon-like masses made up of spongy tissues.
They contain air sacs where the exchange of gases,
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
Main Activity
1. Ask the members of each group to get the needed materials from
the your table (other materials can be provided by them).
2. Remind the students to strictly follow the procedure for better
results. Distribute the Activity Sheet.
3. Let each group demonstrate the inhalation and exhalation
processes.
4. Ask the following questions:
a. Why is it important to measure the volume of exhaled air
three times before and after exercise?
91
b. How does your average volume of exhaled air before

exercise compare with your average volume of exhaled air
after exercise?
c. What effect does exercise have on the volume of exhaled
air? Explain.
Discussion Ideas
Breathing is essential. If you do not agree, try to stop breathing for
more than a few seconds. How do you feel? Why do we breathe faster
when we exercise?
When we exercise, our muscles do more work and therefore need

more energy. They get this energy from the air, which is broken down
during respiration. Respiration uses up oxygen and so we breathe
faster to supply the extra oxygen our muscles need when we exercise.
Extension Ideas
Discuss the meaning of pulse and pulse rate. Show students how to
take the pulse rate in the wrist, neck or temple. Time the students as
they determine their pulse rate for 30 seconds.
Have the students multiply the 30-second pulse rate by two and record
this number as their 60-second pulse rate. Repeat two more times.
For highly motivated students plan and execute experiments affecting
blood pressure or pulse rate, such as running in place, isometric
exercises, breathing into a bag, holding their breath, or submerging
one hand in cold water.
ASSESSMENT
Enter the number corresponding to the right answer in the box.
Questions a to c refer to the diagram.
92
a. Identify the diaphragm.

b. Identify the bronchioles.
c. Part of the respiratory tract also
known as the voice box.
d. Where exchange of air occurs
also known as air sacs
e. Pulse rate in healthy adult man
is ________ beats/minute (at
rest)
1. 90 94 3. 72 78
2. 86 90 4. 62 - 66
HOMEWORK: DO-IT-YOURSELF LUNG MODEL
A. Heres what you will need

a) an old pair of scissors (not your mothers good ones)
b) six inches of surgical tubing
c) 3 good-sized balloons
d) two rubber bands
e) a large lump of modeling clay
f) a clean, plastic one-liter bottle
g) a three-way hose connector (available in hardware stores)
B. Procedure
1. Assemble the lungs

a) Push the plastic tube into one opening of the hose
connector. Use the clay to make an airtight seal.
b) Lightly fix a balloon into each of the other openings with the
rubber bands, making sure the seal is airtight.
2. Prepare the chest cavity

a) Using scissors, carefully cut off one inch of the bottom of the
bottle. Make sure the cut edge of the bottle is smooth.
93
b) Place the lungs (balloons and connectors) inside, and seal

the plastic tube into the neck of the bottle with the rest of the
clay to make an airtight fit.
3. Prepare the diaphragm
a) Tie a knot in the neck of the third balloon then carefully cut it
in half, crosswise.
b) Gently stretch half of the balloon with the knot in it over the
bottom of the bottle, pulling it up around the sides. Make the
balloon as taut as you can, like the top of a drum.
4. Start breathing
The lower part of the balloon represents the diaphragm, the

main breathing muscles. Pull it down, as though you were
inhaling. Doing this lowers the air pressure in the bottle. Air from
outside reaches in and makes the two balloons expand, just like
the real lungs in your chest.
REFERENCES
Ludwig, Kelly. 16627 Grants Trail Orland Park.

Rabago, Lilia M. et al. Biology. 280285.
Science and Technology II. SEDP Series. 336338.
http://www.iit.edu/~smile/bi9419.html (July 30, 2003)
www.lessontutor.com/ jm_respiratory.html
94
Teacher Notes
www.lessontutor.com/ jm_respiratory.html
95
# NAME FUNCTION
1 Nose A nose is a nose is a nose. Smelling, tasting and breathing all start
here. The size, location, mucous lining and tiny hairs (cilia) inside
help prevent foreign objects from entering by trapping large air
impurities before they can be drawn further into the respiratory
system. Achooo! Out with the bad... bugs and carbon dioxide.
Mouth Mouth breathing can also be remembered as 'the big gulp', or Plan
B for air entry. Like the nose, it has many functions. It is the starting
2 point of the digestive system as well as a secondary inhaler and
exhaler.
3 Larynx The larynx has three main functions: 1) as passageway for air, 2) as
a valve to close off the air passage from the digestive one (the
epiglottis) like a hinged trap door, and 3) as a voice box.
4 Lung The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. The main function
of the lungs is to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen and vice
versa. Each lung is enclosed separately within two membranes, like
a balloon inside a bag.
5 Right There are 2 main bronchi (Latin plural of bronchus): the right and
bronchus left, each leading to a lung. If you accidentally breathe, or aspirate,
a very small piece of food that gets past the trachea, it is most likely
to fall and be pulled into the right main bronchus. If a peanut gets
this far, what do you think could happen?
6 Diaphragm This muscular structure acts as a floor to the chest (thoracic) cavity
as well as a roof to the abdomen. It helps to expand and contract
the lungs, forcing air into and out of them.
7 Pharynx The pharynx is shared with the digestive system from the tongue
down to the epiglottis. Food goes on down the esophagus and air
passes on through the trachea-but never both at the same time!
8 Trachea This armored tube allows air to pass beyond the larynx to where it
divides into the left and right bronchi. The protective 'c's of cartilage
also provide protection to the digestive system's esophagus right
behind it.
9 Left The left one has a sharper bend due to the presence of the heart
Bronchus and major blood vessels directly underneath it.
10 Bronchiole Each bronchus divides and subdivides into smaller and smaller
branches, the bronchioles, just like tree branches that get smaller as
they grow up and out. By the time the air has reached here from
outside, it has been warmed up to body temperature, filtered and
moisturized.
96
# NAME FUNCTION
11 Alveoli These tiny air cell or sac are the 'leaves' of our respiratory tree. They
resemble bunches of grapes and are the link between the respiratory
and circulatory systems. Gas exchange happens here-I'll trade you
fresh oxygen (O2) for your used carbon dioxide (CO2). Now trace the
route of the old air back out to the nose.
12 Throat The throat includes all the structures lying in front of the spinal
column including the mouth, tongue, pharynx, tonsils, larynx and
trachea.
13 Trachea, These three portions of our airways also have rings of muscle along
bronchi and their length as well as glands lining them. These glands produce
bronchioles mucous that traps particles of dirt. Eventually, this sticky stuff and its
trapped dirt are coughed up and cleared out. With asthma, these
sensitive muscles tighten, making all the airways smaller and more
difficult to breath through, and excessive mucus is produced,
sometimes flooding the airways.
97
Student Activity
RESPIRATORY MODEL
Objectives

construct a model of the respiratory system;
demonstrate the processes of inhalation/exhalation; and
determine the volume of air exhaled.
Resources
A. Model Construction B. Volume of Exhaled Air
2 plastic straws food coloring

2 small balloons water
rubber cement paper towel
clear plastic cup 2-liter plastic bottle
large balloon 2-hole rubber stopper
rubber band rubber tubing
tape glass tubing
graduated cylinder
Diagram
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/breathing.gif
98
Procedure
Read and follow the instructions below:
1. Take a piece of straw and cut a hole in the middle.

2. Fit a small balloon over each end. If the balloons are slightly larger
than the straw, cement them to the ends. Put them aside to dry.
3. When the cement has dried, bend the straw in the middle of the
hole.
4. Take a second straw. Make a Vent shape (V-cut) at the end of the
second straw.
5. Fit the slanted points of the straw into each semicircle of the bent
straw.
6. Cut a hole at the bottom of the clear plastic cup using the diameter
of the straw as a guide.
7. Push the open end of the straw into the hole of the plastic cup from
the inside.
8. Cement the hole of the straw.
9. Take the large balloon and cut the upper portion off. Carefully
stretch the cut balloon sheet over the opening of the cup. Do not
crack the cup. Secure the balloon and sheet with a rubber band. If
necessary, tape the edges, but do not cement them to the sides of
the cup. The model will work only if there are no leaks.
10. Pull down on the balloon sheet. Observe what happens to the small
balloons.
11. Push up on the balloon sheet. Observe what happens to the small
balloons.
Measuring the Volume of Exhaled Air
1. Fill a plastic bottle with water until it is four-fifths full.

2. Add several drops of food coloring to the water.
3. Put a short glass tube (it should not reach the water) and a long
glass tube (almost reaching the bottom of the bottle) through the 2-
hole rubber stopper.
4. Connect a piece of rubber tubing to the short glass tube to blow
into. To the long glass tube connect a piece that will touch the
bottom of the graduated cylinder.
99
5. Cover the opening of the shorter length of rubber tubing with a

paper towel, and after inhaling normally, exhale normally into the
rubber tubing.
6. The exhaled air will cause an equal volume of water to move
through the outer length of tubing into the graduated cylinder.
Record an equal volume of water in milliliters in a data table.
7. Pour the colored water from the cylinder into the 2-liter plastic
bottle. Repeat steps 4 to 6 two more times.
8. Record the results in your data table. Calculate the average of the
three readings.
9. Run in place for two minutes and exhale into the rubber tubing.
10. Record the volume of the water in the graduated cylinder.
11. Rest for a few minutes until your breathing returns to normal. Then
repeat step 8 two times and record the results.
12. Calculate the average of the three readings.
Guide Questions
Answer the following questions:
1. What is represented by the following:

a. small balloons
b. two ends of the straw to which the balloons are attached
c. the longer piece of the straw
d. sides of the cup
e. balloon sheet over the cups opening
2. What happened to the small balloons when you pulled the balloon
sheet down?
3. What happened to the small balloons when you pushed the balloon
sheet up?
4. What happened in the plastic bottle as you exhaled into the rubber
tubing?
100
Lesson 12
THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
TIME
Three sessions
SETTING
Laboratory activity
OBJECTIVES
identify the structure and functions of the organs which
make up the circulatory system;
compare and contrast the structures and functions of the arteries,
veins and capillaries;
describe the circulatory process; and
discuss how some hormones or drugs influence the distribution of
blood.
RESOURCES
small aquarium fish (goldfish, young tilapia, dalag, gourami or
guppy)
microscope
large Petri dish
glass slides
epinephrine solution
aquarium, pond or fresh water
absorbent cotton
PREREQUISITE
Wrap a fish in water-soaked absorbent cotton and place this on a large
Petri dish. Put a glass slide under and another over the caudal fin to
hold the fin in place and help restrict the fishs flipping. When the tail is
positioned under a light microscope, the circulation of blood can easily
be observed, as well as the movement of blood from the arteries to the
capillaries and to the veins. When epinephrine (adrenaline) solution is
added topically to the fin, the response of the vessels can be observed.
101
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Discuss how the circulatory system works.
The circulatory system distributes digested food to the following

cells of the body. It also carries away waste materials produced by
the cells. The human circulatory system consists of:
Blood and lymph

are circulatory fluids
Arteries, capillaries and veins
a system of tubes or vessels through which blood or lymphs
flow
Heart
a pumping organ which pumps blood through the blood vessels
2. Tell the students that they will experiment on how the circulatory
system functions in aquatic organisms, e.g. fish. They will observe
how the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) changes the flow of
blood in the fish.
3. Students will learn the components of blood and visualize that our
blood is made up of different parts and that each part has a specific
function.
Main Activity
1. Divide the class into groups of six or eight.

2. Assign a leader and data recorder for each group.
3. Give the students 30 minutes to complete their work.
4. Give each student an activity sheet.
5. Supervise the students in their microscopic study.
6. Present each groups output.
7. Ask the following questions before the activity:
a. In what direction would you expect blood to flow through the
following structure in a fish fin arteriole? Veinuole? Capillary?
102
b. What are the primary differences between the structures listed

above?
c. What effect would you expect epinephrine to have on the
circulation of blood in the fin of a fish?
Discussion Ideas
Discuss the basic concepts involving the anatomy, function and

importance of the heart using a pull-apart plastic model heart, or a
chart of the circulatory system.
There is something with the plumbing in our school building. If it isnt

fixed soon, well have to suffer for a day. The principal making this
statement is well aware of the importance of the school buildings
plumbing system.
Similarly, the combined action of the heart, the blood and the blood
vessels are very significant in the overall functioning of a human being.
Extension Ideas
1. To make the students appreciate the differences in structure and

functions of the circulatory system, show them prepared slides of
the tissue section of arteries and veins under the microscope.
Likewise, a prepared slide of a blood smear may be helpful in
raising the students interest and in facilitating the discussion on
blood.
2. For advanced students, conduct further discussion on the other

functions of blood, especially in terms of immunity, blood clotting
and heart rate after exercise. You may also the students to make a
research on the blood functions.
ASSESSMENT
Questions 1 and 2 are based on the diagrammatic representation of

the heart below.
In the box, write the letter of the correct answer.
103
Vessel A
Vessel D
1. Identify the blood vessel A in this diagram.

a. aorta c. inferior vena cava
b. carotid artery d. pulmonary artery
http://www2.gsu.edu/~bioasx/humanheart.
gif
2. Identify the blood vessels D in this diagram.
a. aorta c. pulmonary trunk
b. inferior vena cava d. superior vena cava
3. Which blood vessels carry blood from the heart to various parts of
the body?
a. arteries c. veins
b. capillaries d. pulmonary veins
4. How does blood get around the body (2 points)?
HOMEWORK
1. Make a sketch of the human heart.

2. Use arrows to illustrate the flow of blood.
104
REFERENCES
Miller, Amy L. Science Connection Learning About the Cardiovascular

Systems
Rabago, Joaquin and Lagunzad. Biology.
Umbarger, David L. Mantezuma-Cortez High School, Cortez, CO
http://student.biology.arizona.edu/sciconn/blood/teachersnotes.html (July 30,
2003)
http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg020_2.gif
105
Teacher Notes
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Source: http://www.healthsquare.com/fgwh/wh1c1202.jpg
The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system, a muscular pump a
little larger than your fist that continuously forces blood through the lungs,
where it takes on oxygen, and then through the arteries, capillaries, and veins
that make up the rest of the circulatory system.
The expansion and contraction of the heart as it sends blood through the
body is your heartbeat. To get an idea of what a tireless workhorse the heart
is, consider this: the average heart beats about 100,000 times every day,
pumping about 2,000 gallons of blood.
The heart is made up primarily of muscle tissue, called myocardium, and is

divided vertically by the septum. It consists of four chambers: two atria in the
upper half and two ventricles in the lower half.
The pumping of blood through the chambers is aided by four valves that
open and close allowing blood to flow through the heart in only one direction
when it contracts.
106
The four heart valves are:
The tricuspid valve, located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
The pulmonary or pulmonic valve, between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery leading to the lungs.
The mitral valve, between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
The aortic valve, between the left ventricle and the aorta, the main artery
from the heart to the rest of the body.
107
Student Activity
BLOOD CIRCULATION
Objectives

observe the circulation of blood in the fin of a fish and how the
hormone epinephrine changes the flow of blood;
compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries,
capillaries and veins; and
discuss how some hormones or drugs influence the distribution of
blood.
Resources
small aquarium fish (any of these: goldfish, guppy, dalag, tilapia or

gourami)
aquarium, pond or fresh water
epinephrine solution
microscope
large Petri dish
glass slide
absorbent cotton
Procedure
Follow the instructions below.
Part A.
1. Wet enough absorbent cotton with aquarium water.
2. Cover the goldfish all around with cotton. Saturate the absorbent
cotton with aquarium water. Completely surround a goldfish from
the aquarium and wrap it in the cotton.
3. Place the fish on a Petri dish.
4. Place a glass slide under the caudal fin of the fish and then place
another glass slide over the fin.
5. Position the fish fin on the microscope stage such that you can
observe the fin near its distal portion through the microscope using
the low power lens (you will probably need to lower the light by
adjusting the diaphragm to a smaller setting).
108
6. Familiarize yourself with the flow of blood in the fin by moving the
Petri dish around as you observe the fin through the microscope.
7. Locate an arteriole, a veinuole and a capillary in the fishs fin. After
finding each structure, turn the powered lens to medium and
observe. After each observation, answer the questions relative to
the three structures:
a. What is the relative size of this structure?
b. With what relative velocity does blood move in this
structure?
c. Does blood move at a constant rate in one direction, or in
both directions and at different rates?
Part B. How do hormones effect circulation?
1. Position the fish under the microscope where an arteriole and a

capillary can both be observed at the same time (use low power).
2. While one person observes the blood flow, an assistant should add
two drops of the epinephrine solution to the fish fin just cranial to
where the fin is positioned under the microscope slide.
Guide Questions
Answer the following questions after returning your fish to the

designated aquarium.
a. What effect did the epinephrine have on the rate of blood flow in the
arteriole and the capillary?
b. Under what conditions would you expect a fish to naturally secrete
epinephrine?
c. After observing the effect of epinephrine on the circulation of blood
in a fish fin, expound your answer in question b to include an
evolutionary advantage the fish might gain by secreting epinephrine
under these conditions.
d. Based on your observations, under what conditions would you
secrete epinephrine? What effect would you expect epinephrine to
have? What evolutionary advantages would you expect epinephrine
to provide?
109
Lesson 13
THE HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
TIME
One or two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

describe the structures and functions of the organs that comprise
the excretory system;
using a model, explain how the kidneys work; and
assess the importance of the excretory system in the overall
functioning of the human being.
RESOURCES
body diagram spaghetti(uncooked)

small marshmallows red yarn
glue brown paper rack
kidney beans blue yarn
cafeteria straws
scissors
Each group needs:

3 kidney beans (to represent the kidneys)
3 spaghetti pieces (to represent the ureters)
2 marshmallows (to represent the bladder)
2 drinking straws (to represent the urethra)
2 meters of red yarn (to represent the arteries)
2 meters of blue yarn (to represent the veins)
110
Preparation
Teaching the topic on the Excretory System will be greatly improved if

a specimen of a mammalian kidney can be procured and dissected in
class to show its structure, parts and their respective functions.
A microscopic examination using prepared slides will give the students

a better idea of how the kidney performs its functions of filtration and
osmoregulation. Prior to this lesson, you and your students are
advised to do some readings regarding the Human Excretory System.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Review the past lesson on circulatory system. Connect the new

lesson. Say something like:
We have discovered that the main functions of the circulatory

system are to distribute nutrients and oxygen to the body cells and
to collect carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes from the
cells and bring them to where the body can get rid of them.
This lesson is about the mechanism of the body that is responsible

for expelling metabolic wastes. What are metabolic wastes?
During metabolism, some harmful

Metabolism: the process of
by-products called metabolic
building and maintaining a
wastes are formed. Today, we will
living substance (anabolism),
explore the organs of the body that
by which large molecules are
are involved in getting rid of excess
broken down into smaller
water, excess salts, carbon dioxide
molecules to make energy
and nitrogenous wastes (e.g.,
available to the organism
ammonia, urea, and uric acid).
(catabolism).
The process by which the body gets rid of its metabolic wastes is
called excretion. We will also describe the processes that illustrate
how the body effectively maintains internal balance.
111
3. Describe the urinary system as part of the excretory system.
The urinary system is made up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and

urethra. The nephron, an evolutionary modification of the
nephridium, is the kidneys functional unit. Waste is filtered from the
blood and collected as urine in each kidney.
Urine leaves the kidney by way of the ureters and collects in the
bladder. The bladder can distend to store urine that eventually
leaves through the urethra.
Main Activity: EXCRETORY SYSTEM MODELING

This is a hands-on activity so that the students can learn both the
name and locations of the organs involved in the excretory process, as
well as describe their functions.
1. Form 5 groups of 8 members each.
2. Select 1 leader and 1 encoder per group.
3. Give a brown lunch bag with all the materials to each group.
4. Tell them to use rubber cement to attach the body model to the top
board prior to the lesson.
5. Facilitate the group presentation and discussion after the activity.
6. Conduct a discussion based on the group presentation.
Discussion Ideas
Do you know that the human body needs 8 to 12 glasses of water

every day to stay healthy?
Extension Ideas
Ask the students to identify and describe the parts of the kidney
and urinary system from pictures/illustrations.
Trace and explain the process of excretion.
See sample picture below.
112
http://www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/biology-edited/chap19/b1919201.asp
http://borg.com/~lubehawk/urisys.jpg
In human beings, the kidneys are the main organs of excretion. Through the
processes of filtration, reabsorption and active transport, the kidneys remove the
bodys wastes and retain useful substances. These functions help maintain
balance in the body.
ASSESSMENT
Rubrics: Assess the group presentation

5 points exceptionally well done/cooperation of the group is evident
4 points accurate and detailed explanation
3 points partially complete detailed information
2 points not so accurate information
1 point not well done
HOMEWORK
How does a kidney work?
RESOURCES
Rabago et al. Biology. 298302.

113
Student Activity
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM MODEL
Objective
In this activity, you will identify the structure and order the process of
the excretory system through a model diagram.
Resources
body diagram spaghetti(uncooked)

small marshmallows red yarn
glue brown paper rack
kidney beans blue yarn
cafeteria straws
scissors
Each group needs:

3 kidney beans (to represent the kidneys)
3 spaghetti pieces (to represent the ureters)
2 marshmallows (to represent the bladder)
2 drinking straws (to represent the urethra)
2 meters of red yarn (to represent the arteries)
2 meters of blue yarn (to represent the veins)
Procedure
1. Glue on the kidney beans.

2. Prepare approximately 7.5 cm of yarn.
3. Separate the yarn into 2 strands, about halfway up the total length
so that the arteries and the veins can go down each leg.
4. Glue on the arteries and the veins.
5. Insert approximately 3 cm of spaghetti into the mini marshmallow at
an angle, to represent the ureters draining down into the bladder.
114
6. Insert approximately 1 centimeter of straw into the bottom of the

marshmallow only. The spaghetti should just be high enough to go
over the top of the yarn.
7. Using the model you prepared, describe to the class what happens
in the excretory system.
Model Diagram/Illustration
Guide Question
How would you assess the importance of the excretory system in the
overall functioning of human beings?
115
Lesson 14
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom/ Laboratory
OBJECTIVES

infer the relationship between the structure and functions of the
nervous system;
describe neurons, their components and activities;
prepare and create some models of the nervous system; and
appreciate the importance of the nervous system in the overall
functioning of the human body.
RESOURCES
1. For the neuron

a. clay
playdough
styrofoam
recyclable bottle caps
cups
buttons
etc., or food (fruit jelly beans)
b. A picture of the diagram of a neuron
2. Beady neuron (65 beads)
PREREQUISITE
Sometimes the best way to learn about something is to hold it in your

hand. What better way to learn about the different parts of the nervous
system then than for the students to make a model of it?
116
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Review the past lesson on the different body structures and how
they function. Connect the new lesson. Tell something like:
The four systems namely: digestive, circulatory, respiratory and

excretory demonstrate how intricate the processes are that underlie
life. Todays new lesson provides general information on the
nervous system, which is the main mechanism of the body. This
system monitors and controls almost every organ system of the
body through a series of positive and negative feedback loops.
The nervous system of man is divided into two:

central nervous system composed of the brain and the spinal
cord;
peripheral nervous system which contains nerves only,
particularly the cranial and spinal nerves.
2. In the discussion, give special emphasis to the structure of the

neuron, the functional unit of the nervous system. When discussing
nerve impulses, remind the students that synapses occur between
neurons. Discuss fully the brain, its structures and functions. For
more details, consult some Biology books written by local and
foreign authors.
Main Activity
1. Divide the class into five groups, each consisting of eight members.
Let the members of each group assign a leader and a data
recorder.
2. Give each group materials needed for the activities.
3. Remind them to cooperate with one another.
4. Give instructions on what to do.
5. Distribute the materials to each group, as well as the activity sheet.
6. Give the students time to complete their activities.
7. Facilitate the presentation of their work as well as the discussion.
117
Discussion Ideas
Think about the last time you saw your favorite team sport being
played. Imagine how difficult it would be for the team members to work
together if they were blindfolded and gagged just before the game
starts.
In the same way that an orchestra or a band needs a conductor to

organize the individual musicians efforts to produce good music, there
must be a system that will control or regulate the activities of the
different parts in order for the whole to function effectively.
Extension Ideas: BRAIN RECIPES

Here are two recipes for the construction of a brain model.
Recipe 1 (from the Pacific Science Center and the Group Health
Cooperative in Seattle, WA)
Resources
cups (360 ml) instant potato flakes
cups (600 ml) hot water
2 cups (480 ml) clean sand
gallon ziplock bag
Procedure A
1. Combine all the ingredients in the ziplock bag.
2. Mix thoroughly. The filled bag/mixture should weigh about 3 lbs.
(1.35 kg.) and should have the consistency of a real brain.
Recipe 2 (adapted from Brain Link)

Resources
2 cups water
2 cups flour
4 teaspoons cream of tartar
cup vegetable oil
cup salt
red food coloring
118
Procedure B
1. Mix the water, salt, flour and cream of tartar in a large bowl or
blender until the lumps disappear.
2. Mix in the vegetable oil.
3. Turn out the entire mixture into a saucepan and cook over low
heat until it gets lumpy.
4. Pour the mixture out and let it cool.
5. Then knead and shape it into the form of a brain. Dont forget to
add wrinkles (gyri) to the brain.
6. Squirt in red food coloring for the blood vessels.
ASSESSMENT
1. Identify the nerve fibers, which are considered extensions of the
cell body of a neuron.
2. What is the point at which two neurons meet?
3. Which is the most highly specialized organ of the human body?
4. What enables you to be aware of, and to react to your external
environment?
HOMEWORK
Research on and be ready to tell the class how a message travels
along a nerve.
REFERENCES
Rabago, Lilia et al. Biology. 302307.
119
Student Activity
MODELING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Objective
In this activity, you will make a model of a nervous system.
Resources
Option 1: Create your own neuron using any of the following materials
clay
playdough
styrofoam
recyclables
food or anything else you can get your hands on.
pictures from books to give you an idea where the components of a
neuron should go and what shape they should be.
120
The human body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells of the nervous

system, called nerve cells or neurons, are specialized to carry
"messages" through an electrochemical process. The human brain has
about 100 billion neurons. Neurons differ from other cells in the body
because:
1. Neurons have specialized extensions called dendrites and axons.

Dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons take
information away from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical
process.
3. Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example,
synapses) and chemicals (for example, neurotransmitters).
Procedure
General Tips
1. Use different colors to indicate different structures.

2. Make a neural circuit with a few of the neurons.
3. Create sensory or motor systems.
4. Eat your model if you made it out of food.
Recipe for playdough:
1. Mix: 1 cup flour, cup salt and 2 teaspoons cream of tartar

2. Add: 1 cup cold water with food coloring, 1 tablespoon salad oil
3. Cook the mixture over low heat, stirring constantly until it thickens.
4. Let it cool a bit and then knead it.
5. Keep in an airtight container so it doesnt dry out.
6. Color the playdough by adding some poster paint, instead of food
coloring, to the liquid. Try to use as little paint as possible to get the
desired color, or it will make the playdough sticky.
121
Option 2: BEADY NEURON
Materials: You will need 65 beads
Procedure
1. Make a neuron with seven dendrites. It will require 65 beads: 42

beads for the dendrites, 10 beads for the cell body, 12 beads for the
axon and 1 bead for the synaptic terminal.
2. String the beads using the pattern in the diagram above. You may
use yarn, a rope, or for best results, flexible wire to string the beads.
3. You can also create your own pattern.
Sample Diagram
Adapted from: http://www.naomisclass.com/docs/Activities.htm
122
Option 3: EDIBLE NEURON
Materials
Jell-O - any flavor

Plastic bags - sandwich size
Canned fruit
Candies
Twist ties
A picture or diagram of a neuron
Procedure
1. Mix one box of Jell-O with water by following the directions on the
Jell-O box.
2. After the Jell-O has cooled to a warm temperature, pour it into small
plastic bags. Add fruits (canned fruit cocktail works well) and
candies to the Jell-O to represent the organelles you would find
inside of a neuron.
For example, mandarin orange slices could be mitochondria; a

cherry half could be the nucleus; red and black string licorice could
be microtubules and neurofilaments.
3. The plastic bag can represent the cell membrane. Don't forget
ribosomes, the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.
4. You should also make a "legend" of your cell so you remember
which food represents which organelle.
5. Write your legend on some card stock or index card.
6. After all the "organelles" have been added, tie off the top of the bag
with a twist tie and place the "cell" in the refrigerator.
7. When the Jell-O gets firm, take it out, and compare your neuron to
other neurons. Then, have a snack...a neuron snack.
123
Lesson 15
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: DUCTLESS GLANDS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES
describe the hormones produced by the endocrine glands and their
general effects on the target cell;
tabulate the hormones produced by the endocrine glands and their
general effects on the target cell;
make a presentation about the significant changes that take place
during puberty; and
assess the importance of the endocrine system in the overall
functioning of a human being.
RESOURCES
chart of the endocrine system in males and females
manila paper
marking pen
meter stick
Biology books (reference)
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Recall the lesson on the nervous system and relate the new lesson.
The nervous system is the main mechanism by which the body
regulates its functions (nervous control). The other way is by
means of hormones (chemical control).
124
Hormones, are chemical substances produced by the body

which, together with the nervous system control and regulate
the functions of the body. The endocrine system acts with the
nervous system to coordinate the body's activities. Both
systems enable cells to communicate with others through
chemical messengers.
The endocrine system also involves hormones. It is a

collection of glands that secretes chemical messages we call
hormones. They act on target cells that may be anywhere in
the body. The endocrine system is slower than the nervous
system because hormones must travel through the circulatory
system (blood) to reach their target.
Hormones play an important role in maintaining the biochemical

balance of the body. They may either speed up or slow down
the activities of the body such as: release of energy, body
growth, and development of sexual maturity.
2. It would be helpful to start the discussion with a definition of
important terms. It would also be useful to have a tabulation of the
endocrine glands, the hormones they produce, and their
physiologic effect.
3. Present this tabulation to the class or assign its preparation to the
students.
4. Include also the discussion of some common endocrine
abnormalities such as goiter, diabetes mellitus, giantism or
dwarfism.
5. Consult other references for this purpose and show pictures related
to the topic.
Main Activity: HORMONE LABELING

1. Divide the students into groups of eight members each.
2. Choose a leader and an encoder per group.
3. Prepare a table showing the different glands, their corresponding
hormones and the functions of each hormone.
4. Study the picture/illustration showing the location of the glands of
the endocrine system.
5. Ask students to identify the glands, the hormones they secrete and
their effects on the body.
125
6. Conduct a discussion based on the group work/presentation.
Discussion ideas
Ask students to do the following:
Observe the heights of your seatmates. Are they the same as yours?
Why do you think others are tall while others are short?
How do glands affect growth? Our height is controlled by a growth
hormone, a chemical made by the pituitary gland. Too much of these
hormones can make a person very tall, while too little can stunt their
growth.
Children with abnormal levels of the growth hormone can be treated so

that they grow to a more normal size. The pituitary gland is the most
important gland in the body because it produces hormones that have
effects on other parts of the body.
Extension Ideas
1. Describe the changes brought on by puberty on boys and girls.
2. Make a presentation about significant changes that take place

during puberty.
ASSESSMENT
Describe the following hormones as to their functions:
1. insulin
2. androgen
3. estrogen
4. progesterone
5. adrenaline
HOMEWORK
1. How does a girl feel when she gets her menstrual period for the first
time?
2. How does a boy feel when his voice cracks while he is talking in
school?
126
3. How does it feel to have pimples right before going to a social

event?
4. What does it feel like when awareness of the opposite sex
increases?
Ask each group to prepare a short skit dramatizing one change they
have researched on and how kids their age feel about it.
The skits must show both the physical and emotional adjustments
taking place during puberty. Possible ideas for skits include the
questions listed above.
REFERENCES
Fenichel, Marilyn. Changes of Puberty.

Rabago, Lilia et al. Biology. 307312.
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/endocrorgs.gif
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20102/Bi
o%20102%20lectures/Endocrine%20System/endocrin.htm
www.emc.maricopa.edu/.../ BioBookglossE.html
127
Student Activity
MALE AND FEMALE ENDOCRINES
Objective
In this activity, you will recognize the glands, the hormones they
secrete and their effects on the body.
Resources
chart of the endocrine system in males and females
Manila paper
marking pen
meter stick
Procedure
1. Study the picture/illustration showing the location of the glands of
the endocrine system.
2. Identify the glands, the hormones they secrete and their effects on
the body.
128
3. Fill out the chart below:
Gland Hormone Hormone Function

(Effects on the body)
a. Pituitary
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
4. Present your work to the class.
129
Teacher Notes
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
One of eleven major body organ systems in animals; a system of glands that
works with the nervous system in controlling the activity of internal organs,
especially the kidneys, and in coordinating the long-range response to external
stimuli.
Adrenal glands Divided into 2 regions; secrete hormones that influence the
body's metabolism, blood chemicals, and body
characteristics, as well as influence the part of the nervous
system that is involved in the response and defense against
stress.
Adrenaline: (or epinephrine) constricts blood vessels thereby
increasing blood pressure; initiates the physiological changes in
the fight or flight response.
Hypothalamus Activates and controls the part of the nervous system that
controls involuntary body functions, the hormonal system,
and many body functions, such as regulating sleep and
stimulating appetite.
Ovaries and Secrete hormones (steroids) that influence female and male
testicles characteristics, respectively.
Estrogens (ovaries) stimulate growth of uterine lining; control,
development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone (ovaries) stimulates growth of uterine lining
Androgens (testes) control sperm formation as well as the development

and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
Pancreas Secretes a hormone (insulin) that controls the use of glucose
(Islets of by the body.
Langerhans)
Parathyroid Secrete a hormone that maintains the calcium level in the
glands blood.
Pineal body Involved with daily biological cycles.
Pituitary gland Produces a number of different hormones that influence
various other endocrine glands.
Thymus gland Plays a role in the body's immune system.
Thyroid gland Produces hormones that stimulate body heat production,
bone growth, and the body's metabolism.
130
Lesson 16
MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Laboratory
OBJECTIVES
describe the composition and functions of the skeletal and
muscular systems;
explain the coordinated actions of the skeletal and muscular
systems;
appreciate the importance of muscles and bones to the overall
function of the human body; and
discuss homeostasis as a vital principle in self-regulation in the face
of a continually changing environment.
RESOURCES
14 white paper plates per group
one-hole puncher per group
scissors
large poster of the human skeleton
hard candy to give students after the lesson (something hard on
the
outside but juicy or squishy in the middle, similar to the make-up of
a
bone).
picture of a bone that can be cut out and added to their butcher-
paper
131
PREREQUISITE
The paper plates will be traced on and cut out. Prepare beforehand
patterns of the parts of the skeletal system and the entire skeleton.
Prior to this activity, be sure the students are familiar with the names
and descriptions of the 13 major bones:
cranium fibula
clavicle tibia
ribs carpals
humerus tarsals
radius phalanges
ulna pelvis
femur
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Recall the previous topic and connect the new lesson.
The endocrine system assists the nervous system in regulating the

body functions. With the help of the nervous system, the human
body moves through the action of the bones and muscles. This
lesson describes how the body moves with the help of the skeletal
and muscular systems.
The muscular and skeletal systems give support to the other

tissues of the body. The muscles enable a person to move his body
parts and to move from one place to another. The general anatomy
and naming of the bones will be covered, along with identifying
where joints are in the human body.
2. Present to students useful information about muscles and skeletons,

the types of skeletal systems, the functions of muscles and bones,
bone tissues, bone growth, joints etc. Stress the effect of
hormones, vitamins, and minerals on bone formation. Emphasize
also the need for a proper diet and general concern for ones
health.
3. Recall the previous lesson about puberty.
132
Main Activity
1. Give each group the paper plates with the outlines of the skeletal
system on them.
2. Task the students to cut out each bone beginning with the cranium.
Let them decide where to punch a hole in the plate so that it can be
connected to the next bone.
3. Instruct them to write the name of the bone on the paper plate
bone.
4. Announce the order of assembly.
5. Use the inquiry method to find out the bone on their own body.
Discuss which way the bone moves and what that bone helps the
human body to do.
6. Ask the students the names of the bones and what the bones do.
7. Hand out the candies to the students and explain how they are like
a bone.
8. Cut out the photocopied bones for posting on their butcher paper.
9. After they have finished their work, discuss the following concepts.
Discussion Ideas
A human body cannot run as fast as a cheetah nor climb a tree like the
monkey. In some ways humans may seem poorly adapted to compete
in the natural world.
Yet humans are capable of a wider range of activities than most

animals. Look at your hands. Close your fist. Open them. Can other
living things do that? Can a dog, a flower, a fish do them? What is your
hand made of?
Extension Ideas
Discuss homeostasis. Recall the functions of the organ systems in the

body. How does each system contribute to the overall normal
functioning of the body? What do you need to do to maintain
homeostasis in the body systems?
133
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following as indicated:
1. Muscles work in pairs to move the bones. Describe how the pair of
muscles work when:
a. the pair gets shorter
b. the pair gets longer
c. one gets shorter while the other does not change
d. one gets shorter while the other gets longer
2. Why do muscles get tired?
3. Why do people shrink as they grow old?
4. What minerals comprise the bone tissue?
HOMEWORK
Fill up the table below:
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth

1. kind
2. shape
3. no. of muscles
4. location
5. illustration
REFERENCES
Rabago, Lilia et al. BIology. 312316.

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chmodel.html
134
Student Activity
PAPER PLATE SKELETON
Objectives
In this activity, you will create a skeleton and connect the bones.
Resources
14 white paper plates per group
1-hole puncher per group
scissors
large poster of the human skeleton
hard candy to give to the students after the lesson (something hard
on the outside but juicy or squishy in the middle, similar to the
make-up of a bone)
picture of a bone that can be cut out and added to their butcher-
paper
Procedure
1. Get your materials from the teacher such as paper plates with
outlines of the skeletal system.
2. Follow the instructions indicated from this point onwards as follows:
a. Cut out each bone beginning with the cranium.
b. Decide where to punch a hole in the plate so that it can be
connected to the next bone.
c. Order the assembly in this manner:
cranium clavicle
humerus radius
ulna carpals
ribs pelvis
femur tibia
fibula tarsals
Note: The radius and ulna will be on the same bone. The same
will be done for the fibula and tibia. The tarsals and phalanges
and the carpals and phalanges are also in the same bone.
135
3. Cut out the photocopied bone and paste this in their butcher paper
body.
4. Eat the candy.
5. Feel what is inside the candy.
6. Draw your paper plate skeleton. Present your output to the class.
Illustration
Guide Questions
1. What are the 13 major bones? Describe each.

2. In what part of your body are the bones used as protection?
3. Where are the bones connected?
4. Why is calcium important?
Final Task
Now rotate your head. Can you turn your head completely around? Can you turn
your upper body completely around without moving your feet? Stand up, sit
down. What prevents your body from collapsing like a rag doll?
(Some responses should involve bones and muscles).
136
Teacher Notes
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system consists of the bones (206 in adults) and joints, along with
the cartilage and ligaments that occur at the joints. The skeleton is divided into
the axial skeleton (skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage) and
the appendicular skeleton (girdles and limbs).
Cranium
or skull
http://www.fulton.edzone.net/cites/winkler-science/team2/Human_skeleton.gif
The skeleton has the following functions:

1. It supports the body and its organs against the pull of gravity.
2. It protects soft body parts.
3. Certain bones produce blood cells.
4. Bones are storage areas for mineral salts, notably calcium salts.
5. Bones provide sites for muscle attachment and permit flexible body
movement.
137
Lesson 17
DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
OF DEFECTIVE ORGANS
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
The discussion and the students interaction will be done inside the
Classroom.
OBJECTIVES

identify and classify the technologies within their group;
give the uses of these technologies; and
realize the value of resourcefulness.
RESOURCES
thermometer
sphygmomanometer
some drawings/pictures of the technologies
manila paper
crayons
marker pen
text/write-ups
PREREQUISITE
Before the lesson, divide the students into small groups with five
members in each group Instruct them to research on the technologies
used in a hospital to diagnose or correct malfunctioning organs.
Ask them to bring pictures or to draw these technologies.
138
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Begin the session by clarifying the purpose and content of the

lesson. Tell something like:
Todays lesson will help you develop skills in identifying and

classifying technologies. You will recognize the different
technologies used by doctors to conduct a thorough examination
and check-up of the human body. The type of technology to be
used depends on the problems to be answered and corrected.
2. Ask the students to recall the parts of the different organ systems in
the human body and to give their functions.
3. Ask them to share the results of their research on the different

technologies used to diagnose or correct certain illnesses
Main Activity
1. Ask the students to perform both activities (see attached copies)

2. Facilitate the presentation of group outputs.
3. Ask the questions below to help elaborate on the discussions.
What technologies do you know?
What are their uses?
What technologies did you learn after reading the text?
What are their uses?
Discussion Ideas
Illnesses and accidents happen everyday in our lives. These may

damage the human organs permanently or temporarily. For us to know
the condition of the cell or organ, we need to be diagnosed/examined.
Luckily, the present generation has access to technologies that are
more advanced in diagnosing and restructuring damaged cells, organs
and organ systems.
139
Extension Ideas
Medicines or drugs are also the products of modern technologies. If

used correctly as prescribed by the physician, these drugs eliminate
disorders and pain. But what happens when certain drugs are abused?
What will happen to our organ systems? Explain.
ASSESSMENT
Using pictures/drawings, identify the type of technologies and give

their uses:
1. (thermometer)
2. (ultrasound)
3. (electrocardiogram)
4. (Dentures)
5. (heart transplant)
6. (microsurgery)
7. (lung transplant)
REFERENCES
Rabago, Lilia, Crescencia Joaquin and Catherine Lagunzad. Science

and Technology Biology. 68.
Rabago, Lilia, Crescencia Joaquin and Mona Lisa Intong. Science and
Technology Biology. 67.
Rabago, Lilia, Ricardo Crisostomo and Alicia Padua. Science and

Technology. 252254.
140
Student Activity-1
ORGAN DIAGNOSIS USING TECHNOLOGIES
Objectives
identify some technologies used to diagnose the condition of a
specific organ; and
give the uses of the different technologies.
Resources
clinical thermometer
sphygmomanometer
some drawings/pictures of the different technologies
researched on previously
Procedure
1. Brainstorm with your group members and fill in the first and second
columns of the table below. Transfer your data to the manila paper
to have a bigger space to write on.
Technologies that you Technologies that Technologies that you

KNOW you WANT to know LEARNED
about about
2. Read the text/write-ups and fill in the third column (teacher will
provide information)
3. Presentation of the group output
Guide Questions
1. What technologies do you KNOW that are used to diagnose the

condition of a specific organ?
2. What technologies for diagnosing a specific organ do you WANT to
know of?
3. What technologies used to diagnose the condition of a specific
organ did you LEARN about after reading the text/write-ups?
141
Student Activity -2
CORRECTING DEFECTIVE ORGANS
Objectives

identify some technologies that can correct/help malfunctioning
organs; and
name the specific uses of different technologies.
Resources
drawings/pictures of the technologies that can correct

defective organs and aids for them to function properly
eyeglasses
hearing aid
Manila paper
crayons
text/write-ups
marker pen
Procedure
1. Brainstorm on technologies that can correct a defective organ and

help it function properly.
2. Fill in the 1st and 2nd columns of the table below. Transfer your data
to a sheet of Manila paper in order to have a bigger space to write
on.
Technologies that Technologies that you Technologies that

you KNOW WANT to know about you LEARNED
about
142
3. Read the text/write-ups and fill in the third column (teacher will
provide materials for this)
4. Facilitate the presentation of the group outputs.
Guide Questions
1. What technologies are used to correct/help a defective organ

function properly?
2. What technologies do you want to know about that are used to
correct/help a specific defective organ function properly?
3. What technologies used to correct/help a specific defective organ
function properly did you learn about after reading the text/write-
ups?
143
Student Hand-outs
Clinical Thermometer: most commonly
used instrument to measure
temperature. This consists of a uniform-
diameter glass capillary that opens into
a mercury-filled bulb at one end. The
assembly is sealed to preserve a partial
vacuum in the capillary. If the
temperature increases, the mercury
expands and rises in the capillary. The
temperature may then be read on an
adjacent scale.
http://www.alibaba.com/photo/10340291/Wood_Thermometer.jpg
EKG (Normal) EKG (Abnormal)
Potential Potential
Strip-chart Difference Difference
recorder
Electrodes
Time
Time
http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/electricpotential/electrocardiography.jp
g
Electrocardiography
Cardiologists use this medical procedure to trace the electrical activity of the
heart. The rhythmic beating of the heart is maintained by an orderly series of
discharges originating in the sinus node of the right atrium, and proceeding
through the astrioventricular node and the bundle of neuromuscular fibers to the
ventricles.
By attaching electrodes to various parts of the body, a record of this current can
be obtained. The record is called an electrocardiogram or ECG or EKG-+ for
short. Prominent parts of the ECG are the P wave, a deflection caused by the
current originating in the atrium; the QRS complex, showing the passage of the
electrical activity into the ventricles; and the T wave which moves, as the
ventricles reset themselves. The ECG is often helpful in showing the cause of an
abnormal heart rhythm or an evolving heart attack.
144
EEG (Normal alpha rhythm) EEG (Abnormal)
E lectrodes
connected
to detection Potential Potential
and
Difference Difference
recording
devices
Time Time
http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/electricpotential/electroencephalography.jpg
Electroencephalography (EEG)
This procedure is used to obtain a record of the electrical activity of the brain by
means of electrodes attached to the surface of the skull.
Normal patterns on the electroencephalogram, or ECG, include the alpha wave,

indicative of a relaxed state, and the theta wave, usually found in children and
thought by some to reflect creative activity in adults.
The EEGs have contributed to the diagnosis of epilepsy and also research into
the nature of sleep, as they have helped identify the four stages of sleep.
Using the EEG, scientists have analyzed brain waves stimulated by sensory
input, such as a flash of light or a sound, to determine which parts of the brain
carry out various functions.
The finding of a flat, or waveless ECG in persons in coma has been interpreted
as an absence of brain function and used as legal evidence of death.
145
Ultrasound
These are sound waves with frequencies beyond the range that the human ear
can detect. It is commonly used in obstetrics to diagnose both the age and health
of a developing fetus.
An ultrasound-emitting device called a transducer is placed against the skin of

the pregnant womans abdomen. The sound waves reflect in varying degrees
when they contact tissues of different densities and elasticities.
The pattern of echoes is detected by the transducer and converted into a moving
image seen on a monitor. Ultrasound is also used in procedures involving the
sampling of amniotic fluid or placental tissue.
Outside of obstetrics, ultrasound is used to detect tumors, damage, or

abnormalities in the liver, kidney, ovaries, eyes, and other organs.
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/ultrasound-philipsa.jpg
146
http://www.venofer.net/VenoferHCP/images/renal_failure_3.jpg
Kidney Dialysis
One way to get around the shortage of donors is to use wholly or partially
artificial organs made of plastic, metal and other synthetic materials. A kidney
dialysis machine, for example, is an artificial organ, even if it is too large to
implant in the body.
Left-Ventricular Assist Devices

(LVADs)
LVADs are implanted beside a patients

heart to help it pump blood. LVADs
keep patients heart alive until a donor
heart is available. Many artificial
devices work to restore the operation of
malfunctioning organs without replacing
the whole organ. Examples include
artificial heart valves and pacemakers
to help the heart function properly, and
cochlear implants to restore hearing.
http://www.columbiasurgery.org/res/sccor/img/pic_lvad.jpg
147
Contact lenses
These are plastic corrective lenses that can be worn under the eyelids, directly
over the eyeball. Such contact lenses minimize the danger of breakage that is
always present with ordinary glasses, because, like the eye, contact lenses are
protected from injury by the shape of the skull. Present-day contact lenses cover
only the cornea of the eye; a special molding process permits precision fitting to
the curvature of the cornea to minimize irritation. So-called soft lenses, now in
common use, are made from a soft plastic material that molds itself to the shape
of the cornea.
Microsurgery
This is a technique that uses fine instruments and high magnification, enables
surgeons to sew tiny blood vessels and nerves together. Lung transplants are
used to replace a single diseased lung, and sometimes both lungs. In some
cases lung disease has damaged the heart-lung transplantation.
http://www.iosmc.com/microsurgery_retinaset.jpg
148
Lung Transplant Machine
Successful lung transplants are hampered by the difficulty of preserving the lung
of a person who has recently died so that it is still viable by the time a proper
recipient is found. In 1998, around 862 lungs were transplanted in the United
States. The one-year survival rate for lung transplants is about 74 percent.
http://www.medformation.com/adamsurgpres/10244.jp
g
Full Dentures, Prosthetic Devices
These are used by dentists to serve as replacements for large numbers of

missing teeth, they are custom-designed to fit each patient. Dentures are
constructed from acrylics and are often reinforced with various metal alloys.
They are designed to be removable for cleaning and are kept in the mouth
through the use of special oral adhesives.
Full Dentures
Upper
Denture
Lower
Denture
ttp://www.2dentists4u.com/images/dentures_full_sm.jpg
149
Unit Integration 1
EFFECTS OF TROPISM IN PLANT GROWTH
TIME
Two class periods. Students will set up the experiment during the first
period and observe the seeds over the next two periods.
OBJECTIVES
In this culminating activity, students will recognize that organisms can

react to internal and environmental stimuli through behavioral response
(e.g., plants have tissues and organs that react to light, water, gravity,
and other stimuli; animals have nervous systems that process and
store information from the environment.)
Specifically, they will:

perform an experiment to test whether species depend on one
another and on the environment for survival;
observe and analyze how plants respond to different environmental
conditions;
identify how tropism affects plant growth and development.
RESOURCES
For the class

Computers with Internet access (optional but very helpful)
Reference materials: books and encyclopedias
For groups of three students
One petri dish
Four soaked corn seeds
One piece of filter paper
One graduated cylinder
Water (If there is no sink in the classroom, water needs to be
brought to class in a bucket.)
150
Cotton
Cellophane tape
Grease pencil
Scissors
For each student:
Pencils and paper
Activity Sheets:
Geotropism Data
Tropisms in Your Neighborhood
PREREQUISITE
Read about tropism in a science book or encyclopedia. Draw a

diagram of tropism.
Guide Question
How do plants respond to different environmental conditions?
What happens when gravity acts on plants?
PROCEDURE
1. Review with the class the interesting characteristic of plants:
Plants can change their growth in response to their environment.

These changes are called tropisms. Plants can exhibit the following
kinds of tropisms:
Phototropism
The way a plant grows or bends in response to light.
Gravitropism
The way a plant grows or bends in response to gravity.
Hydrotropism
The way a plant grows or bends in response to water.
Thigmotropism
The way a plant grows or bends in response to touch.
151
2. Explain that tropic responses can be positive or negative. A positive

response is when the plant moves toward or in the direction of the
stimulus. A negative response is when a plant moves away from
the stimulus. For example, roots respond positively to gravity by
growing down into the soil. The trunk and branches respond
negatively to gravity by growing up toward the sky. (You may also
want to note that the trunk and branches respond positively to
light.)
3. Divide students into groups of three. Tell them that they are going
to perform an experiment to test gravitropism, a roots response to
gravity. Have students follow the steps below:
a. Take four corn seeds that have been soaked overnight. Place
them flat in the bottom of a Petri dish with the seeds pointed
ends facing inward. Think of them as hands on a clock at 12,
3, 6, and 9.
b. Cut a piece of filter paper so that it just fits in the Petri dish.
Place the filter paper into the Petri dish, covering the seeds. (Be
careful not to disturb the positioning of the seeds.)
c. Without moving the Petri dish, pour 15 milliliters of tap water on

the filter paper. Then place enough cotton over the filter paper
so that when the cover of the Petri dish is put on, the paper and
the seeds will not be able to move. The cotton should absorb
any excess water.
d. Once youve placed the cover on the Petri dish, tape it shut.
Turn the Petri dish over. You should be able to see the seeds in
the bottom of the dish, in the same position they were originally
placed.
e. With a grease pencil, write the name of your group on the side
of the Petri dish.
f. Tape the Petri dish containing seeds to the wall of a cupboard,

with the bottom of the dish (showing the seeds) facing out.
Close the cupboard door so that no light is exposed to the
seeds for the next few days.*
152
* The dishes are kept in a dark cupboard so that the only variable
being tested is the seeds response to gravity. Their response to
light is not being tested. Students should find that the roots grow
downward, illustrating the effects of gravitropism.
4. After students have finished setting up and storing their Petri

dishes, have each student predict the results of the experiment by
drawing how they think the roots will grow from each of the four
seeds. Have students write their predictions on the Activity Sheet 1:
Geotropism Data.
5. Each day, students should make an observation and record the

data on their sheets. Have them record the date and draw how the
roots from each seed are growing. Have students record their
observations for three days. As students are collecting data, have
them look in reference books and on the Web to learn more about
tropisms.
6. Have students write a short paragraph summarizing the results of

the experiment on their data sheets. Did the root growth match the
predicted sketch? What do these results show about how roots
grow?
7. Hand out copies of the Activity Sheet 2: Tropisms in Your

Community. Suggest that students collect information over a two-
week period. Then have students bring in their sheets and share
information with the class. How many tropisms did they observe?
Was one kind of tropism more prominent than others? Did the
tropisms vary from neighborhood to neighborhood within the
community?
Adaptations
Have students design their own experiments to test another plant
tropism, such as light, water, or touch. Experiments must include a
control and test only one variable at a time. For example, if students
would like to test phototropism, they could put a control group upright
under lights and an experimental group on its side under lights. To
determine whether the plants are growing toward the light, students
could use a protractor to measure the angle of the plant stems every
30 minutes for 2 hours. To record their results, students should design
a data sheet. At the end of the experiment, have them present the
experimental design and data to the class.
153
Guide Questions
1. How does the response of a root to gravity help a plant?

2. Consider plant roots and stems. Explain which tropisms affect both
these plant organs. Do any tropisms affect both plant organs?
3. Consider both positive and negative tropic responses.
4. Rain forests are unique and diverse plant habitats. Discuss
tropisms that plants need to survive at various levels in the forest.
Include the canopy, the understory, and the forest floor in your
discussion.
5. Observe flowers growing in your neighborhood. Do they change
the way they grow depending on where the light is? If so, how does
this help the plant survive?
6. What do you think would happen if you place a light source below
the plant? How would the stem grow?
7. Which do you think has a stronger influence on a plant
geotropism or phototropism? How could you design an experiment
to test this?
ASSESSMENT
Use the following three-point rubric to evaluate the students work

during this lesson. Students should be able to work in groups to set up
the experiment, make a hypothesis about the way the roots will grow,
observe the seeds over a period of time, record their observations, and
draw conclusions from the experiment.
Three points
Students were able to work successfully in their groups to set up
the experiment and develop a hypothesis about the way the roots
will grow; students kept complete records of their observations,
including sketches, and wrote a clear, concise summary of the
experiment.
Two points
Students worked somewhat successfully in their groups to set up
the experiment and develop a hypothesis about the way the roots
will grow; students were able to record most of their observations,
including some sketches, and wrote a short paragraph summarizing
the experiment
154
One point
Students worked in their groups to set up the experiment and
develop a hypothesis about how the roots will grow; students were
able to make some observations, but they did not include sketches
with each observation; students wrote some ideas summarizing the
experiment
Extension Ideas
Light in a Shoebox
At one end of a shoebox, cut out a small opening that will allow
sunlight in. The rest of the box should remain covered and dark. Put a
small plant in the shoebox, and place the box near a light source.
Make daily observations by carefully lifting off the cover of the box.
Have students measure the length of growth each day and make a
map of the direction of growth.
Invent a Tropism
Have students select an environment, such as the desert or the

grasslands, and invent and name a tropism that would be
advantageous to a plants growth in that environment. Then have
students build a model of the plant and its environment illustrating how
the tropism works. For example, if the tropism is a response to fertilizer
placed deep in the ground, show how the plants grow downward in
search of these nutrients.
REFERENCES
Mary C. Cahill, middle school science coordinator, Potomac School,

McLean, Virginia.
http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/tropisms
http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0838908.html
http://www.dmrfresh.net/Jarosinski/unitdescriptions.htm#Structure
and Function in Living Things
Judy Schneider
http://www.lessonplanspage.com/ScienceExTempGravityAffectSeedGerminati
onMO68.htm
http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/tropisms/
155
Teacher Notes
TROPISMS
TERMS DEFINITION CONTEXT

Tropisms Are unique characteristic of plants that The movement of an
enable them to adapt to different organism in
features of their environmentgravity, response to an
light, water, and touchso that they external stimulus.
can flourish.
Geotropism The effect of geotropism on plants is Growing or bending
tremendous, causing both the roots in response to
and the stems and leaves to grow in a gravity.
certain way.
Gravitropism Gravity causes the roots of plants to Force drawing
grow down so that the plant is objects to the center
anchored in the ground and has of Earth.
enough water to grow and thrive.
Hydrotropism One reason why roots grow down is to Growing or bending

find water, exhibiting most plants in response to water.
tendency toward positive hydrotropism.
Photoperiodism Sunflowers are known for their The response of an

photoperiodism, or their ability to open organism to naturally
and close in response to the changing occurring changes in
position of the sun throughout the day. light during a 24-hour
period.
Thigmotropism Some people notice that their Growing or bending
houseplants respond to thigmotropism, in response to touch.
growing better when they touch them
and pay attention to them.
Phototropism The stems and leaves of a geranium Growing or bending

plant growing on the windowsill always in response to light.
turn toward the light, an example of
phototropism.
156
Activity Sheet -1
GEOTROPISM DATA
Focus Question
How do you think the roots will grow? Explain the process and draw a
sketch.
Observations
DAY/DATE HOW THE ROOTS GREW SKETCH OF PETRI DISH
Conclusion
How did the roots grow? Why?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
157
Activity Sheet 2
TROPISMS IN YOUR COMMUNITY
Procedure
Spend some time out in your yard, your home, or in a park or field
looking for plants that show a response to an environmental stimulus.
Look in shady areas and sunny areas. Look at small plants and tall
trees. Note the season: new growth in summer will show different
responses than old woody growth in the rainy season. As you observe
these areas, complete the data table below:
Following are tropisms that you might be able to observe daily:

Phototropism: response to light
Geotropism: response to gravity
Hydrotropism: response to water
Thigmotropism: response to touch
Plant Name Date Location Type of Sketch

Tropism
158
Unit Integration 2
CONNECTING OUR BODY SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVE
In this culminating activity, students will apply their knowledge about

the human body by writing a description of the organs and organ
systems.
PROCEDURE
1. After the series of discussions on the human body systems, review

the students on what they know about the human body after the
eight organ systems were completely discussed. Ask them: What
have you learned about the relationships among different systems
in the body? Ask the students to consider the questions below.
How many systems are in the human body?

What does each system do?
Is there any connection among the systems in the body?
2. Highlight connections among body systems. Example: point out

that our muscles send signals to the brain, which then sends a
message about how to move. The skeletal system protects key
organs; the skull protects the brain, and the rib cage protects the
heart.
3. Tell students that their task is to describe the connections among

the body systems in several different situations. They may work
individually or in pairs.
The situations follow. Share this hint:
Consider how the skeletal, muscular, nervous, circulatory, and

respiratory systems work together.
Case 1) What happens in the body when a team mate kicks the
ball to you during a soccer game and you kick it across
the field and make a goal? Think about how many body
systems are involved.
159
Case 2) What happens in the body when you come home from
school, smell cookies baking, run to the kitchen to see if
they're done, and take one? You eat the whole cookie
and drink a glass of milk. How many body systems are
involved? What role does each play?
Case 3) What happens in the body when you're studying for a

math test? You're reading the problems, writing the
answers, getting up to stretch, and talking to a friend on
the phone. How are the body systems working together
to complete these tasks?
Case 4) What happens in the body when you're sleeping? Which

systems are working?
Case 5) As a body organ, you are an employee of the Human

Body Company. Due to recent cost increases, the
Human Body is planning to fire workers. You need to
write a letter to the Human Body Company defending
your position in the company. In your letter, you need to
describe to the Management Committee the following
characteristics of your organ and explain why you are
important to the Human Body Company.
a) Tell what the name of your organ is and where you

are located.
b) Identify what systems of the body you work with.
c) Describe how you work with these systems.
d) List the other organs that work with you in your
system.
e) Describe your main functions as a Human Body
organ.
f) Tell the company how you perform these functions.
g) Tell the company why you are important and why they
should not fire you.
Explain what might happen to the Human Body Company

if they fired you.
You will read your letter to the Management Committee

(the rest of the class). Along with your letter, you will
need to have a photograph (labeled drawing) of your
organ to use as a visual aid.
160
4. Direct students to classroom print resources and the following Web

sites:
http://www.stcms.si.edu/hbs/hbs_student.htm
http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/systems.html
http://www4.tpgi.com.au/users/amcgann/body/skeletal.html (focus is
the skeletal system)
http://yucky.kids.discovery.com/noflash/body/pg000126.html (focus is
the digestive system)
http://www.worldinvisible.com/apologet/humbody/body.htm
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/14-anatomy.htm
5. Give students time in class to work on the activity. Make sure they
write how the body systems are connected in each situation.
Students will create a poster with a diagram of the human body to

show these connections. They will draw the systems (i.e.,
excretory, endocrine, circulatory, and immune) that help maintain
the bodys internal environment.
Guide Questions
How do living things maintain specific life functions?

How many body systems are involved in most of the activities?
What do the presentations tell us about the human body?
Closing Statement
Conclude the lesson by reviewing the students' ideas at the beginning

of the lesson.
Ask them:
What have you learned about the relationships among the different
systems in the body?
161
ASSESSMENT
Use the following three-point rubric to evaluate the students' work

during this lesson.
Three points
Students participated actively in class discussions; demonstrated a
solid understanding of how body systems work; and clearly described
how they are connected.
Two points
Students participated in class discussions; demonstrated an
understanding of how body systems work; and described how they are
connected.
One point
Students did not participate in class discussions; demonstrated no
understanding of how body systems work; and did not describe how
they are connected.
162
Unit Integration 3
PROTECTING THE HUMAN BODY
OVERVIEW
In this activity, students will examine how organisms strive to maintain a stable
environment, focusing in particular on the organisms response to attacks by
vectors of disease. They will examine the effects and life cycles of organisms that
cause human disease. Students also describe how technology is used in the
prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases.
OBJECTIVES
In this culminating activity, students will:
examine how organisms strive to maintain a stable environment,

focusing in particular on the organisms response to attacks by
vectors of disease.
gather information on the diseases that affect the systems of the
human body.
examine the effects and life cycles of organisms that cause human
disease.
analyze the information obtained and determine what it is that they
would like to know about the diseases
forge on-line communication with a medical website in order to gain
a response to an unknown of a certain disease
describe how technology is used in the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of diseases.
Focus Questions
1. How do living things maintain specific life functions?

2. What causes disease and how is it spread?
3. How is technology used in the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of disease?
RESOURCES
computerized Internet capabilities

assignment materials
163
Key Learning Points
life cycle of a disease

mechanisms to control internal stability
organ systems
vaccine
vectors of disease
PROCEDURE
1. Students and their partner will search and find ten diseases of the
organs including symptoms and possible cures. They will analyze
their findings to determine information needed for further
investigation. Students will engage in email contact from one of the
various sites to get updated information particular to any diseases
of the three human organs.
2. Tell students that the purpose of the culminating activity is to

develop their understanding of various diseases that contract many
of our organs.
3. Ask students to do the following:

Search the web sites and/or other resources such as health
magazines, health organizations, and medical practitioners
among others, for diseases and obtain the latest information on
diseases.
Choose only one disease for each of any three-owner organs.
Be sure to include symptoms and possible cures.
Save and download all pertinent information to your personal
file.
Inquire about the specific disease through the relevant web site
and/or other resources and make contact. Provide the contact
person with your background high school information and
mention your assignment to them as well.
Make a list of questions that you will need answered prior to
your email message or upon receiving contact with the web
page or any other resources.
164
Assigned Tasks
a. Gather information on 10 diseases that affect 10 different

organs and save it in a word document in your personal file
b. Analyze the information obtained on at least 3 diseases to
determine what it is that you would like to find out. Phrase
information in the form of a question that you would ask a
doctor.
c. Using any means such that, you may use your email
provider, with a medical website asking for a response to
your questions at their earliest convenience.
d. Hand in a document with 2 sections (formatted however you
want, but well organized), as follows:
Part 1: The diseases you found with the organs that they
affect including symptoms and cures.
Part 2: The questions that you wanted answered, with the
website name and address, and the response you
received.
4. Students will produce a 10-15 minute PowerPoint presentation with

the following information included:
detailed information on one body system and related organs,
minimum of one disease that affects each organ included in Part
1.
possible symptoms of each disease, possible cures for each
disease
Extension Ideas
1. Create a warning for travelers about their risk of contracting an

infectious disease from a parasite. Include explanations on the
disease, the life cycle of the parasite, location of the outbreak, and
technologies used in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
the disease.
2. Create a poster with a diagram of the human body. Draw the
systems (i.e., excretory, endocrine, circulatory, and immune) that
help maintain the bodys internal environment. Include on the
poster explanations of how the body regulates temperature and
controls disease/ infection/immune response.
165
ASSESSMENT
This rubric will be completed by the teacher and the students.
A. Content
1. Organized and clear presentation of information/concepts

2. Organized with some ideas not clearly presented
3. Some ideas are organized
4. Unorganized, too much unrelated information
B. Research skills
1. With online communication/links with medical practitioners/experts

2. No online communication but with links with medical
practitioners/experts
3. No links with medical practitioners/experts
4. No research done (using print materials)
C. Overall Presentation
1. Organized, interesting with a variety of formats, images and

graphics
2. Organized with little variety of images and graphics in the format
3. Some organization but no variety of format
4. Unorganized, no variety of format
CONNECTIONS
English/Language Arts
Students can illustrate a childrens book about the life cycle of a
disease-producing organism (e.g., the common cold).
Students can write an informative safety pamphlet for a summer camp,
including possible consequences of exposure to parasites.
Mathematics
Given the reproductive rate of a bacterium, students can graph its
exponential growth.
166
REFERENCES
Education Development Center, Inc. Insights in Biology The

Blueprints of Infection. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 1998.
Fenichel, Marilyn
http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/ultimate_humanbody/
Government of British Columbia, Ministry of Education IRP, Science &

Technology 11, Retrieved June 16, 2002.
Microbe Zoo. 27 July 2001. Communication Technology Laboratory

Center for Microbial Ecology. 5 Sept. 2001 Link to site.
http://www.michigan.gov/scope/0,1607,7-155-13515_13516_13519-36184--,00.html
http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/1896/Human.htm
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/scitech/scitec00.htm
Joseph, Linda C. (2001). In The Hollow of A Tree. Academic

Research Primer. Multimedia Schools, 8, 4, 32, 4, 1c.
Kapoun, Jim(1998). Teaching Undergrads Web Evaluation: A Guide

for Library Instruction. C&RL News ( July/August 1998) 522-523.
School Level. Retrieved June 28/02 at
http://discoveryschool.com/schrockguide/evalhigh.html
Schrock, Kathleen (1996). Critical Evaluation of a Website: Secondary
167
Unit Summary
Living things have characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things,
including: growth, response to the environment, reproduction, metabolic
processes, movement, and cell composition
All organisms are composed of one or more cells-the fundamental unit of life.
ost organisms are single cells; other organisms, including humans, are
multicellular.
Cells carry on the many functions needed to sustain life.
Plant and animal cells have similarities and differences such as: shapes,
functions, relative sizes, and observable structures: cell wall, cell membrane,
nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, vacuoles.
Living things, at all levels of organization, demonstrate the natural connection

between structure and function.
Important levels of organization for structure and function include cells,

tissues, organs, organ systems, and whole organisms; each level depends on
the levels below.
Specialized cells perform specialized functions in multicellular organisms.

(e.g., nerve cells have branches to allow them to communicate with other
cells.)
Groups of similar cells cooperate to form a tissue that performs a specific

function. (e.g., nerve tissue sends electrical impulses from one part of the
body to another)
Different tissues are, in turn, grouped together to form larger functional

units called organs. (e.g., the brain )
Different organs cooperate to form systems that perform specific functions.

(e.g., the nervous system controls and coordinates all other body systems)
Body systems interact with one another to maintain the organism as a whole.
Human body systems are very similar to those of other advanced multicellular
organisms.
Organisms transform food into energy in their cells.
168
ORGAN SYSTEM DEFINITION CONTEXT

Circulatory The system pertaining to the The heart is central to the
system heart and blood vessels, human circulatory system; it
and the circulation of blood. pushes blood through the
body's network of arteries
and veins.
Muscular system The 600 muscles in the The heart muscle is unique in
body, both voluntary and the human muscular system
involuntary because it is made of smooth
and skeletal muscles and is
involuntary.
Nervous system The brain, spinal cord, and The nervous system is the
network of nerves that control center of the body; it
receive messages from interprets the senses and
inside and outside the body enables you to respond.
and transmits, instructions
about how to respond.
Respiratory The system that allows The function of the

system breathing; includes the respiratory system is
nose, pharynx, trachea, and breathing in oxygen from the
lungs air and expelling carbon
dioxide.
Skeletal system The bones (206 in an adult) Without a skeletal system,

that give the body support the human body would be
and protect vital organs. limp and floppy.
169

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BIOLOGY

The Organ Systems

Lesson 1 Living Organisms Levels of Organization...................................................................... 1

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

Before the activity, prepare drawings of cells, tissues and organs.

In this unit, we shall investigate the detailed parts of the body of a

The structures that make up a cell are determined by the specific

1. Post the drawings of different cells, tissues, organs, and organ

Ask the students to draw or give an example showing the various

1. Which group of cells perform similar functions?

2. Which of the tissues listed here are found in animals.

3. What do you call the cells found in the nervous tissues?

4. Which tissues have coordinated functions?

5. Which cells are found in plants?

What is the importance of each of the body systems in the overall

Capco,C. and G. Yang. Biology. 110117.

Three Major Types of Plant Cells

arenchyma have uniformly thin walls; comprise the photosynthetic tissue

clerenchymahave thick and rigid cell walls; they serve as strengthening

1. Make a table similar to the one below on Manila paper. Then

Type of Tissue Type of Cell Location Function

For Activity # 1: The Root System and Its Parts

For Activity # 2: Types of Root Systems

For Activity # 3: The Structure of Root Hairs

In the previous lesson, we learned that plants can make food

Main Activity: THE ROOT SYSTEM

In a fibrous system, the primary root dies and is replaced by many

Sum up the key functions of the roots, as follows:

a. Identify the following:

b. Classify the type of root system found in the following plants:

Bernardo, Ma.Elena and M. Gatapia. Laboratory Manual for Science

Miller, Levine. Biology. 494498.

Pacifico, Biology et al. 250251.

Velasquez, C. and C. Asis. Modern Biology pp. 327332.

The root tip is covered by a protective

Roots do not absorb water and minerals

Adapted from Online botany module. Oregon State University.www.atmosphere.mpg.de/ enid/151.html

1. Characterize the following:

2. Characterize the following regions of a root:

3. Describe the following parts of roots

5. Give the characteristics of the following roots you have observed:

6. Describe and give examples of the following:

NAME OF PLANT TYPE OF ROOT FUNCTION

1. Which is easier to uproot, plants with fleshy taproots, or plants with

Growing root hairs

1. Moisten the tissue paper.

Structure of root hairs

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

Provide prepared slides of monocot and dicot stems and some

We have examined the plant roots. Another vegetative organ is the

Opening Activity: MONOCOT AND DICOT STEMS

1. Ask the students to describe the structure and functions of the

Main Activity: WATER TRANSPORT IN PECHAY PLANT

1. You may introduce this activity by saying:

You may think of plants as being motionless, particularly when

3. Facilitate class discussion using the following guide questions:

1. In Japan, the art of growing miniature trees (bonsai) is highly

2. Making a cut through the bark of the tree in a complete circle

It is important to understand what happens when the phloem is

Ask the students to create a diagram or concept map to describe the

ASSESSMENT: Multiple Choice

1. What is the primary function of the stem?

2. The pericycle gives rise to: