Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer - 297 PDF

2
Programs for the Analysis of the

Structure
One &the first stages in reinforced concrete design is to carry out the structural
analysis to determine the moments, shears and axial forces that have to be
resisted. As this usually involves a considerable amount of numerical calcu-
lation it is best if it can be processed with the aid of the computer.
This chapter describes several analytical programs, starting with a simple
case of the one span beam, then a continuous beam, and so to further
developments of these programs in order to calculate the envelopes of shear
and bending moments with the option to redistribute the moments and also to
carry out the analysis for beams with haunches. The programs have been
developed in a structured form with the use of standard subroutines that can be
utilised in successive programs so that the logic should be more readily
understood and applied.
2.1. Limit State Analysis of a Single Span Beam
The program calculates the shear forces, bending moments and deflections at
2O&intervals along a one span simply supported beam, and sorts for the
maximum moment and deflections. Any of the limits states can be considered
by inputting the relevant partial factors of safety. Many of the features of this
program are similar to those used in the longer programs for the analysis of
continuous beams which also include the calculations of the shear force and
bending moment envelopes.
The load distribution on the beam can be either concentrated, uniform or
triangular, as specified in figure 2.1. The input data for each load on a span
consists of
(a) the type of load distribution, identified by a code number 1, 2, 3 or 4

17
18 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN BY COMPUTER
A 2 Uniformly
distributed
A 3 Triangular
left
(b) the weight, W, of the load in kiloNewtons

(c) the distance, A, in metres from the spans left-hand support to the start of
the load
(d) the distance, C, in metres that the load cavern
(e) whether the load is dead or imposed, identified by an input D or I.
21.1 AnaIytIcaI procedure
The shear forces and bending moments are calculated at 20th increments
along the span for each load and progressively accumulated for the total
loading, so providing the final distribution. Further explanation of the
procedure is given in the program description of section 2.1.3.
The deflection is calculated based on the second moment of area of the
untracked concrete section. The method of analysis uses the flexibility
equations and a process of numerical integration applying Simpsons rule.
At any point along the beam
deflection =
mm1
-dx
I EI
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 19
where m, is the bending moment along the span due to the applied loads and ml
is the corresponding bending moment due to a unit load applied at the point
where the deflection is being calculated. Applying Simpsons rule to the
numerical integration to achieve greater accuracy gives
jydr = s/3 [(sum of end ordinates) + 4 (sum of even ordinates)

(2.2)
+ 2 (sum of remaining odd ordinates)]
where s is the length of the increment, equal to span/20 in this program.

In this numerical integration, greater accuracy is attained if any disconti-
nuities in the bending moment diagram occur at an odd-numbered section.
Also in applying Simpsons rule the number of intervals must always be an even
number.
The actual procedure is probably best explained by working through a
numerical example by hand calculation. In the beam of figure 2.2 the deflection
due to the loads shown is required at section number 4 along the span.
For this hand calculation the numerical integration has been carried out over
10 increments at 2 metres spacing. The bending moment diagrams m, due to
the span loads and m, due to a unit load at section 4 are shown.
The numerical values of the bending moments and their products at each
section are listed in table 2.1.
So applying Simpsons rule the deflection of the beam at section 4 is given

by
EI x y4 = j[(O + 0) + 4(39.2 + 352.8 + 345.0 + 163.8 + 19.2)
+ 2 (156.8 + 403.2 + 259.2 + 76.8)]
= 3648 kN m3
therefore
y4 = 3648/H = 3648070
= 21.5 mm
This compares with a result of 21.1 mm using the computer program with
an integration over 20 intervals.
2.1.2 Flow diagram for the single span beam analysis program
lNPT DATA
Title. T$
Partial safety factors. GK. OK
Elastic modulus, EC
Beams span. I.
2nd moment of area. I2
Characteristic loads:
No. of loads. NL
For each load:
Load type ~ 1.2, 3 or 4. T1 (J)
Load weight, WC(J)
start distance. A(J)
Cover distance. C(J)
Dead or imposed, TS(J)
I
Calculate design loads
I -50
1 Calculate span shear
and moments. Sort
GOT0 SUBROUTINE for maximm moment
1
Table 2.1 Values of moments and their products
Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f% 0 28.0 56.0 84.0 112.0 115.0 108.0 91.0 64.0 32.0 0
ml 0 1.4 2.8 4.2 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0
m,ms 0 39.2 156.8 352.8 403.2 345.0 259.2 163.8 76.8 19.2 0
2.1.3 Lkscription of the single span beam analysis program
Lines
30 The variable arrays are dimensioned for the shears, VS, the
moments, MS, the deflections, DS, and Simpsons ordinates, S.
40-330 Input of data, commencing with the title and then the partial
factors of safety on lines 70-110. The beam information of
elastic modulus, the span and second moment of area are
input on lines 12&180, then the data for the characteristic
loading is input on lines 19&330.
35&370 The design loads WD are calculated as a product of the
characteristic loads, WC, and the partial factors of safety,
GK or QK, depending on whether the load is dead or
imposed.
380 The program transfers to the subroutine on lines 4Ol%4450
in order to calculate the shears and moments along the
beams span.
390 The program transfers to the subroutine on lines 6-260
for calculating the deflections along the span.
4c+710 Printout of data and results. An example of the printout of
data is shown in section 2.1.6. Although the moments and
deflections are calculated at 21 sections along the span, only
the results for 11 alternate sections are. printed.
4oi3u Subroutine to calculate span sheets and moments.
4010-4040 Variables that are used in accumulative totals are initialised to
zero.
4050+380 Within a FOR-NEXT loop the reactions, shearsand moments are
calculated for each design load and accumulated for the complete
loading arrangement.
407&4140 The reactions Rl and R2 are calculated for each load according to
the type of load distribution, and the total reactions RA and RB
are accumulated on line 4140.
4150-4260 The span shears, VS(K), are calculated at 11 sections along the
beam.
42704UXl The span moments, MS(K), are calculated at 21 sections along the
beam. As with the shears, the moment calculation is carried out in
three parts according to whether the section being considered is to
the left or right of the load, or within the load distribution.
441LL4440 The moments along the span are sorted to determine the maxi-
mum moment, MM, and its distance, SM, from the left-hand
support.
-260 Subroutine to calculate deflections. The span deflections, DS(K),
are calculated at 21 sections along the beam based on the numeri-
cal integration method and Simpsons rule described in section
2.1.1, using the span moments already calculated in the previous
subroutine.
2.1.4 Listing of the single span beam analysis program

10 REM ANALYSIS OF R SINGLE SPANBER
211REM .~~*~*ff,.~ff*t.fff+,,,,*~~*~*
2.1.5 Lid of variables in the single span beam program
A ( ) Distance from the left-hand support to the start of the load

C ( ) Distance of load cover
DK Sum of integration product in deflection calculation
DM Maximum deflection
DS ( ) Deflection at intervals along the beam
EC Elastic modulus
GK Partial factor of safety for dead load
I2 Second moment of area of the beams section
L Span of beam
MK Bending moment
MS ( ) Bending moment at intervals along the beam
MM Maximum moment
MX Moment due to unit load
NL Number of loads on the span
QK Partial factor of safety for imposed load
RA, RB Support reactiotis
RL, RR Support reactions calculated for each load
Distance from left support to load centroid
: 0 Simpsons rule factors
SD Distance from left support of maximum deflection
SM Distance from left support of maximum moment
T . Distance from right support to load centroid
Tl Code for type of load distribution
T$ ( ) Load type, dead or imposed
VK Shear force
vs ( ) Shear force at intervals along the span
WCC ) Weight of characteristic load
WD( 1 Weight of design load
Wl Weight of part of load to interval along the beam
z, Zl
and 22 Distance of section intervals along the beam
2.1.6 One span beam analysk example
Section +*;
2Om
BEMS BPnN - 20 m.tr..
CHWacCTERR1STIC LOIIDBCLN, AND PoaITI0Nhmtr.r~
twMBER a LOms ON SPW - 2
This program analys,es a continuous beam which may have cantilever moments
acting at the supports at either end. It caters for uniformly distributed loads
but by inputting the load cover as zero it will also deal with concentrated loads.
Using the fixed end moments tabulated in table 2.2 the program would be
readily modified to include loads with a triangular distribution; in addition the
subroutine for the span moments would also require altering so as to be similar
to that for the one span beam of the previous section.
The sign convention for the results is that sagging moments are positive
while hogging moments are negative.
2.2.1 Am&tid procedure
The analysis of a continuous beam to determine the support moments can be

carried out by setting up the slope deflection equations as a series of simul-
taneous equations and solving these equations for the rotation at each support.
The support moments can then be derived from the rotations.
For a continuous beam of N spans there are N + 1 equations of the form
4 XK, R, + 2 k, RZ = MCL - MF,u

2 k, R, + 4 SK, R2 + 2 k2 R3 = M~nl - Mm2
2k,, Rim,4 XK, Ri + 2 ki R,+, = M,,(,,) - Mm (2.3)
2kvR.w+4W++,R,y+, =MFRN-Men
In these equations
ki = Ii/L+ the stiffness of the beam in the ith span

XKi = the sum of the stiffness of the two spans meeting at the ith support
Ri = the rotation of the beams at the ith support
M CL = the cantilever moment at the first support
Men = the cantilever moment at the last support
Mni = the tixed end moment at the left-hand support of the ith span
MFni = the tixed end moment at the right-hand support of the ith span
The slope deflection equation can be rewritten in the form
D, Rx + E, RZ = Fl
E, R, + Dz Rz + EZ Rs = Fz
Ei-, Rim, + Dj Ri + Ej R,+l = F,
EN RN + DN+I RN+I = F~+~
which corresponds to the form they have been set up in the program subroutines
starting at lines 4000 and 6000 of the program listing.
The solution of the simultaneous equations to provide the rotation Ri at each
support is achieved by a process of forward elimination and backward substi-
tution similar to the Gauss elimination method. The support moments at the
ends of each span are calculated from the equations
M,j = ki (4 Rj + 2 R,+l) + Mmj

(2.4)
MRi = ki (2 Ri + 4 Ri+l) - Mpn;
The shears and moments at 20th intervals along each span are calculated
using a method similar to that for the one span beam program of the previous
section, but in this case the effect of the end support moments must also be
included.
This program does not include the subroutine for calculating the span
22.2 Flow &?gmm for the continuous heam program
deflections as in the single span beam program, but if required it could be
readily introduced using the same routine procedures of numerical integration
applied to the moments along each span which are stored in the array MS(I,K).
The effect of full fixity at the end supports could be provided by arranging to
modify the program so that the left-hand stiffness coefficients D(1) or
D(NS + 1) in the subroutine starting at line 4000 are set to a very large
number.
This continuous beam program could also be used for the analysis of a
continuous slab at the ultimate limit state for the single loading condition of all
spansbeing fully loaded, with 1.4 GK + 1.6 QK as specified in clause 3.5.2.3
of BS 8110.
Lines
30 The variable arrays are dimensioned.
4M60 Input of the beam data consisting essentially of the length and
second moment of area for each span.
170-320 Input of the data for the loads on each span.
33&370 Input of the data for any cantilever moments, which in this
instance are keyed in as positive when they cause hogging at the
relevant support.
42W450 Calculation of the beam stiffness, In, for each span.
460 Transfer to the subroutine for setting up the coefficients for the
left-hand side of the slope deflection equations.
470 Transfer to the subroutine to calculate the fixed end moments at
the ends of each span.
480 Transfer to the subroutine for setting up the coefficients for the
right-hand side of the slope deflection equations.
490 Transfer to the subroutine for solving the slope deflection equations
and calculating the moments at the ends of each span.
500 Transfer to the subroutine for calculating the shearsand bending
moments along each span.
510-560 Sort for maximum span moments, MM(I), and their position,
.SM(I).
570-950 Printout of the data and results. The result consistsof a tabulated
list of the shearsand moments at 11 section along each span. The
maximum saggingmoment and its location along the span are also
printed out.
4OOU4080 Subroutine to set up the coefficients for the left-hand side of the
slope deflection equations. These coefficients are a function of the
member stiffnesses only.
500&5130 Subroutine to calculate fixed end moments at the end of each
span. These moments are stored in the arrays FL(I) and FR(1);
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRLKTURE 31
they are calculated according to the equations in table 2.2 which
are set out on lines 5070 and 5080.
6WO60 Subroutine to set up the coefficients for the right-hand side of the
slope deflection equations, these coefficients being a function of
the fixed end moments and any cantilever moments at the end
supports.
7OGG7160 Subroutine to solve the slope deflection equation and calculate the
support moments at the ends of each span. The processof forward
elimination is carried out between lines 7010 and 7050, while the
back substitution to determine the member end rotations, R(I), is
between lines 7060 and 7100.
The support moments at the end of each span, ML(I) and
MR(I), are calculated on lines 71l&7160. The sign convention for
these moments is that clockwise moments are negative.
80004320 Subroutine to calculate span shearsand moments. This subroutine
is very similar to that used in the single. span beam program,
except that it caters only for uniformly distributed loads; also it is
necessary to include the effect of the span end moments on lines
8020-8050.
2.2.4 Lkting of the continuous beam andysk program

16 RE ANALYSIS OF A CONTINOS BEI\H
ZB REM fff*ffftt~.f~**~...~.~**.~.**
311DIM s,1B,ll~,Ms~1B,*1~
4y REM l ~f..~**.*.*.tft*f*f..~*.*.~~*.~~***.~~ Input Of data
58 DISP ENTER TITLE
66 INPUT TS
78 ~~pj l *.~~~*~f*~f~~ff+lfl********.*.~~~** Beam information
88 DISP ENTER NO. OF SPANS
98 INPUT NS
IOk7
110
128
I,@
2.2.5 List of variables for tbe conthuouv beam program
Many of the variables used in the one span beam program are used again to
define the same term in this program, and so they are not listed again in this
section. In some instances a variable such as W(I) has been changed to a two-
dimensional array, W(I,J), to take account of the number of spans. For these
array variables, in general I refers to the span number whilst J is the load
number on that span. Similarly for a variable such as MS(I,K), the span
number is I and K is the interval along the span, which is from 1 to 21 for a span
moment or 1 to 11 for a shear.
CL Cantilever moment at the first support

Cantilever moment at the last support
$) and E(1) Coefficients for the left-hand side of the slope deflection
equations
F(I) Coefficients for the right-hand side of the slope deflection
equations
FL(I) and FR(I) Fixed end moments at the ends of each span
WI) Stiffness of the beam in each span = 12(1)/L(I)
NS Number of spans
R(I) Rotation of the beam at each support
2.3 Envelope Program
In order to design a continuous beam it is necessary to construct the envelopes

of maximum shear forces and bending moments along the beam. These
envelopes are used to calculate the areas of reinforcement at the key sections
and to set out the curtailment of the reinforcing bars. In constructing the
envelopes it is required to consider all the critical combinations of dead and
imposed load, usually at the ultimate limit state.
2.3.1 Andytkal precedure for the envelope program
Consider the continuous beam shown in figure 2.7, which has cantilever spans
at both ends and the number of internal spans NS = 4. The critical loading
306 kN 100 kN 306 kN
llltit
Gm 1 bm , Gm
I I
&
-pattern
&.
1
patterns which determine the shear force and bending moment envelopes at
the ultimate limit state are shown in figure 2.7.
Load patterns number 1 and 2 cause the maximum sagging moments in the
odd and even numbered spans respectively, and also with possible maximum
hogging moments in adjacent spans. The following three loading patterns, 3,4
and 5, provide the maximum design hogging moments at the successive internal
supports, as specified by the requirements of some Codes of Practice.
The last two loading patterns, 6 and 7, need be considered only when there
are cantilever spans. These patterns induce the maximum shear force at the end
supports, but they will also cause the maximum end moments in the end spans
of a substitute frame described in section 2.4.
2.3.2 Flow diagram for the envelope pro.@xm

Thus the number of critical loading patterns for a continuous beam of NS
internal spansare
NS + 1 with no cantilevers present

NS + 2 with one cantilever span
NS + 3 with two cantilever spans
A modification of this program to conform with the more simplified require-

ments of BS 8110, clause 3.2.1.2.2, is described at the end of this section.
2.3.3 Lkscription of the envelope program
This program is a further development of the continuous beam program of

section 2.2. The major changes from the previous program are as follows.
(1) Input of the partial factors of safety GK and QK for the dead and imposed
loads, lines 7&110.
(2) Input of the characteristic weight of the loads and specifying if the loads are
dead or imposed, lines 30&310 and 36G370.
(3) Input of the cantilever moments as dead and imposed components caused
by the characteristic loading, lines W80. Moments causing hogging at
the support are keyed in aspositive.
(4) Initialising the variables VE(I,K), MN(I,K), and MP(1.K) for the shear,
hogging and sagging moment envelopes, lines 49GS60.
(5) Calculation of the number of critical load patterns, NP, lines 62W550.
(6) Repeating the analysis for each critical load pattern, LP, from lines 680 to
750.
(7) Adding a subroutine to calculate the design loads on each span for each
loading pattern, lines 9OGG-9440.
(8) Adding a further subroutine to sort for the shear force and bending
moment envelopes, lines lOiXM-10180.
Much of the remaining program remains the same, using identical sub-
routines for setting up and solving the slope deflection equations and for
calculating the shears and moments along each span of the continuous beam.
2.3.4 Listing of the envelope program

1s REM SHEARAND HOENTENVELOPES FOR A CONTINOS BEAM
28 REM ~f..f.**f~**.*ff**f~~***~*~**~~.~~.**.~.....~**~
38 0, S(1B,11),E(ls,ll),nSo.~~,~~,*~~
48 RE *~,ff..fff*f***~f*~*.~...,....***...~. Ipt of data
5&i ISP ENTER TITLE
611INPVT TS
76 REH l ft*f*ff***f*~*f*f,f.**.... Partial factors Of safety
88 DISP ENTER PARTIAL FRCTOR OF SAFETY FOR DEAD LOAD,GK
98 INPUT GK
188 DISP ENTER PARTIAL FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR IPOSED LOAD,QK
33Y.
348
7866 R,NS+l)-F,D
FOR K=l TO II
IF ABS tE,I,K,,<RBS ,YS,I,K,, THEN YE(I,K,-S(I,K)
NEXT K
2.3.5 Lid of variables for the envelope program
Variables already defined previously in section 22.5 of the continuous beam

program are not included in this list of variables. As before, in general for an
array variable, I refers to the span number, .I to the load number and K to the
section number along a span.
CL(l) and CR(l) The cantilever moments caused by the characteristic dead
loads at the first and last supports respectively
CL(2) and CR(2) The cantilever moments caused by the characteristic im-
posed loads at the first and last supports
GG Partial factors of safety applied to the dead loads for each
load pattern
GK Maximum partial factor of safety for the dead loading
LP Load pattern number
MN(W) Moments along the hogging moment envelope
MV,K) Moments along the sagging moment envelope
NP Number of critical loading patterns
QG Partial factors of safety applied to the imposed loads for
each load pattern
QK Maximum partial factor of safety for the imposed loading
WD(LJ) The design loads
WLK) Shears along the shear force envelope
SPm4NO. 1
SECTION SHEAR HODGINO
NO. nOnENT
1 131.10 -.oo
2 LOO.Jo 0.00
: (19.90
39.50 0.00
s 8.70 0.00
d -27.23 0.00
7 -57.83 0.00
B -ea. 43 0.00
BnwING
lWYlENT
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.67
11.75
7.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
; 119.03 -.20
: 57.83
se. 43 0.00
b 27.23 0.00
7 -8.70 0.00
e -39.30 0.00
9 -6V. 90 0.00
10 -Loo.SO 0.00
II -151.10 -.oo
nnxnltm emw naENT - L&e.06 ld4.m
Dead Load gk=25kN/m

Imposed Load qk=10 kN/m
m
I -A
Figure2.9 Sheorandmomenttwelopesexample
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCI-URE 41
Modification of the envelope program to conform with BS 81IO
The Code of Practice BS 8110 allows the maximum design moments at the
supports to be calculated from one loading arrangement with all spansloaded
with the ultimate load of (1.4 GK + 1.6 QK). In this case there are only three
critical loading arrangements and the program can be readily modified for the
option by adding the following program lines.
2.4 Substitute frame analysis
With some relatively minor modifications and additions, the previous program
for determining the shear force and bending moment envelopes of a continuous
beam may be applied to the analysis of a substitute frame. Briefly these changes
and additions are as follows.
(1) Input the column dimensions.

(2) Initialise to zero the column moments.
(3) Calculate the column stiffnesses and distribution factors.
(4) Modify the left-hand side of the slope deflection equations in the sub-
routine starting at line 4ooOin order to include the effects of the column
stiffnesses.
(5) Calculate the column moments by means of a subroutine at line llOC+J
which is called on line 725.
(6) Print out the column data.
(7) Print out the column moments.
These changes and additions have been inserted into the program without
altering the previous line numbering, and they are presented in sequence
shown in the listing of the revised and additional program lines.
2.4.1 Listing of the amended and additional lioes for the substitute frame
analysis program
24.2 List of variables for tbe substitute frame analysis program
DA(I), DBU) Distribution factors for the column above and below
WI), WI) Second moments of area of the column section above and
below
KNI), WI) Column stiffness above and below
MA(I), MB(I) Column moments above and below the beam
MD Sum of the column moments at a support which is equal to the
difference in the end moments of the beams meeting at that
support
TA,TB Temporary values of the column moments
2.5 Moment Redistribution
All the previous programs in this chapter have carried out an elastic analysis.
Howevtx, at the ultimate limit state reinforced concrete no longer behaves
elastically but acts more as a plastic material with the formation of plastic
hinges at the most highly stressed sections. To allow for this plastic behaviour
the Code of Practice allows for a redistribution of the moments calculated from
an elastic analysis. Up to a 30 per cent reduction of the elastic moments is
permitted, but this is restricted to 10 per cent for structures over four storeys in
height. There is also a restriction on the maximum depth of the neutral axis, x,
at a section such that
x sl (pb - 0.4)d
where d is the sections effective depth and Pb is
moment at the section after redistribution
Pb =
moment at the section before redistribution
This restriction will in general rule out any redistribution of the moments in
columns which are primarily axially loaded members, with a relatively large
depth of neutral axis.
It is also important that after redistribution there must still be equilibrium
between the external loads and the internal member forces.
25.1 Andytic~I procedure for the redistribution program
For simplicity and ease of understanding the redistribution is applied only to

the continuous beam envelope program and not to the substitute frame
program.
Most redistribution is usually applied to reduce the maximum support
moments where the continuous beam acts as a rectangular section and where
there is also the possibility of congestion of steel reinforcing bars. With
reference to figure 2.1, the maximum hogging moment at the Nth support is
caused by the (N + 1)th loading pattern.
The effect of moment redistribution to the hogging moments at a support is
shown in figure 2.10. It can be seen that the codes restriction that the moment
at any section must not be less than 70 per cent of the elastic moment prevents
the movement of the point of contraflexure at point c. This ensures that there
should always be an adequate curtailment of reinforcement to resist the elastic
moments at the serviceability limit state.
Elastic moments
Redistributed moments
__----.---- 70% of elastic moments
Figure *.lll Moment redishibuzion
When redistributing the moments in a substitute frame the column moments,

as already explained, should not be changed from those calculated in the elastic
analysis. Hence forthe support hogging moments shown in figure 2.11 the
difference in beam moments, length ef, represents the moment induced in the
columns and this value should not be changed by redistribution of the moments
for any of the loading patterns. Also redistribution must never be applied to
any cantilever moments at the end supports.
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRlJClVRE 51
25.2 Flow diagram for the moment rdstributhn program

A
25.3 Listing of the amended and additional lines of the moment redistribution
Program
Foil 1(=1 TO 21 STEP 2

PRINT SING ,918 ; ,R+1),Z;R,I,(K+l),Z);RN(I,K);RP,I,K)
2.5.4 List of variables for the envelope redistribution ~ro&!ram
ML(LP,I) Moments at the end of each span, I, and for each load pattern, LP
MR(LP.1)
R$ Moment redistribution to be applied -Y or N?
RW) Percentage redistribution at each support
RF Fractional change of moment due to redistribution
RL(LP.1) Moments at the end of each span after redistribution
RR(LP,I)
RN(W) Negative (hogging) and positive (sagging) envelope moments after
WW) redistribution
WLK) Shear force envelope after redistribution
RX Variable for temporary storage of moments at the end of each span
2.6 Continuous Beam with a Varying Cross-section
In many reinforced concrete structures, for reasons of strength, stiffness or

perhaps aesthetic requirements, the beams are constructed with haunches at
the supports. To allow for this the continuous beam program hasbeen modified
so that it will cater for the three types of haunches shown in figure 2.13. The
prismatic haunch, type 1, could be used with the analysis of flat slabswith drop
panels. The program could be readily further modified to deal with a beam of
any variable section by either the program calculating the second moments of
area or by direct input of the members second moments of area at the discrete
intervals along the span.
LL L2
L
=+ETD2
k
(a) Prismati: haunches
(b) Straight haunches
(c) Parabolic haunches

Figure2.13Types of haunches for amemberof varyingsection.
The beams are considered to be of constant unit breadth but, by a small
modification to the subroutine which calculates the second moments of area,
beams of varying breadth could also be included.
2.61 AnaIyticdprocedure
For a member of constant cross-section the slope deflection equations for the
rotations at the supports of a continuous beam take the form shown in equation
(2.3). In the equation the stiffness at each end of a member is 4EIIL while the
carry over effect due to a unit rotation is 2EIIL.
With a member of non-constant section the slope deflection equations have
to be modified to allow for the stiffness of kA x El/L and ks x EIIL at each
end of the member and a carry over effect of kc x H/L. In these stiffnesses
the coefficients kA, kB and kc depend on the type and size of the haunches,
while EIIL is based on the second moment of area of the member at the centre
of span between the haunches.
The stiffness coefficients kA, ks and kc can be determined from the flexi-
bility matrix for a member AB such that
The terms in the flexibility matrix are derived in most standard textbooks of
structural analysis by applying the method of virtual work, so that
(2.6)
and
fl2 = fil =
The moment diagrams for ml and mZ are shown in figure 2.14.

The stiffness at end A of a member is the moment MA required to rotate it
through unit angle, so setting 13A = 1 and tlB = 0 and cross-multiplying the
flexibility matrix 2.5 gives
kA = MA =
(2.7)
kB =
The carry over effect moment is
In the computer program the stiffness coefficients for each span are calcu-
lated by the method of numerical integration and applying Simpsons rule to
give a better accuracy, in a manner similar to that used to calculate the
deflections in the one span beam program.
It is also necessary to calculate the tixed end moments for each span using a
numerical integration procedure. The tixed end moments are given by
M FA = kA 8~ + kc es (2.8)
MF~ = ks 0~ + kc On
where MFA, Mm are the fured end moments at ends A and B of span AB
and OA, OSare the free rotations with ends A and B released of moment
restraint.
Applying the principles of virtual work the free rotations are

when m, and m, are the moments in the bending moment diagrams of figure
2.14
and m, are the moments of the free bending moment diagram due to the
applied loads on the span.
The fixed end moments for each span are also calculated by applying numerical
integration with Simpsons rule.
Within the program for each span I, the fixed end moments MFA, MFB and
the free rotations AA, eB are represented by the variables FL(I), FR(I), DL
and Dri respectively.
2.6.2 Flow diagram for continuous beam with varying section program
2.6.3 Descri@m of tbe contim~ous beam wit6 vrvying cross-section program
Lines
30 The variable arrays are dimensioned.
40-290 Input of the structure data, consisting of the span lengths, and
the types of haunches with their lengths and depths.
3w50 Input of the data for the loads on each span.
520 Initialising variables to zero.
530 Transfer to subroutine for setting the ordinates for Simpsons
rule and for the integrals of the unit force moment diagrams.
560 Transfer to subroutine for calculating second moments of areas
along each span.
570 Transfer to subroutine to calculate member stiffness coef-
ficients, KA(I), KB(I) and KC(I).
600 Transfer to subroutine for setting up the coefficients of the left-
hand side of the slope deflection equations.
610 - Transfer to subroutine to calculate the free bending moments
on each span with no support restraint.
620 Transfer to subroutine to calculate the fixed end moments.
630 Transfer to subroutine for setting up coefficients of the right-
hand side of the slope deflection equations.
640 Transfer to subroutine for solving slope deflection equations
and calculating the support moments.
650 Transfer to subroutine to calculate the bending moments along
each span.
660-1180 Print out of data and the results, consisting of the member
stiffness factors and the bending moments at intervals along
each span together with the maximum sagging moment and its
location.
4WO80 Subroutine to set up the coefficients for the left-hand side of the
slope deflection equations. This subroutine is very similar to
that in the continuous beam program, except that the stiffness
factors, KA(1) and KB(I), replace the value 4, and KC(I)
replaces the value 2.
5cK&s120 Subroutine to calculate the fixed end moments. The fixed end
moments, FL(I) and FR(I), are calculated using equation (2.8)
and (2.9).
6OOCMO60 Subroutine to set up the coefficients for the right-hand side of
the slope deflection equations. This subroutine is also very
similar to that in the continuous beam program, except in this
case the cantilever moments have not been included.
7000-7160 Subroutine to solve the slope deflection equations and calculate
the support moments. This subroutine is again very similar to
the one in the continuous beam program, except the stiffness
coefficients, KA(I), KB(I), replace the value 4 and KC(I) the
value 2 in calculating the end moments on lines 7130 and 7140.
800&8120 Subroutine to calculate the span moments. The span moments
at intervals along the span are calculated by adding together on
line 8040 the moment due to the support moments and the free
span bending moments which are calculated in the final sub-
routine starting on line 17ooO.
14OOLL14170 Subroutine to set up the ordinates for Simpsons rule and the
integrals of the moment diagrams due to unit forces. The
ordinates for Simpsons rule, lines 14010-14060, are as defined
in section 2.1.1. The integrals of the moment diagrams and their
products, lines 14070-14160, are according to equations (2.6)
and (2.9) used in calculating the stiffness factors and the fixed
end moments.
15cO&15330 Subroutine to calculate the second moments of areas at inter-
vals along each span. These values are calculated at the 21
intervals along each span for each type of haunch.
1600&16130 Subroutine to calculate the member stiffnesses. Equations (2.6)
and (2.7) are used to calculate the stiffness coefficients KA(I),
KB(I) and KC(I) for each span. The products of the Simpsons
ordinates, S(K), and the relative second moments of area,
Il(I)/I2(K), are calculated on lines 1601~16030 and stored in
the variable P(I,K).
17cOO-17170 Subroutine to calculate the ordinates of the free bending
moment diagram for each span with no moment restraint at the
supports. These values are used in calculating the fixed end
moment in the subroutine starting at line 5000, and also in
calculating the final moments along each span in the subroutine
starting at line 8CCil.
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCKJRE
DISP ENTER SPAN LENGT - metres w
INPUT ,I)
DISP ENTER LENGTH Ll - metres
INPUT l,I,
DXP ENTER LENGTH r.* - metres
INPUT L?(I,
L-llSP -ENTER DEPTH D - metres *I
INPUT DC(I,
DISP ENTER DEPTH Dl - metres
INPUT Dl(f,
DfSP ENTER DEPTH DZ - metres
INPUT DZ,I,
PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THE STRUDURE 63
4#9@ RE I.tfff*t*.~.~.*.*t,*....,**.,*~~,~.*******~**..~.
NEXT K
KA=KA(*, c KB=KB,I, P KC=KC(I,
FL (I, =KA*D-KCDR
FR,I,=KBDR-KCDL
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN BY COMPUTER
X=0
FOR K=l TO 21
Ml(K)=(l-X)-Z
MZ(K)=X-2
Pl3(K)=X*(l-X)
PM(K)=l-X
ns ,K)-X
x=i+i/a
NEXT K
Lx=Dc
12 (K) .DX^3/12
x=x+w*o
NEXT K
2.6.5 Lirt of variables
Again most of the variables used in the program listing are consistent with
those in the orevious programs, and only the principle new variables are
defined here.
DW) Depth of the haunch at the left-hand side of each span

W!) Depth of the haunch at the right-hand side of each span
DC(I) Depth of the beam between haunches for each span
DX Depth of beam at each section along a span
Fl, F2, F3 Flexibility factor coefficients as used in equations (2.6)
WI) Type of haunch-prismatic, straight OTparabolic
11(I) Second moment of area of the section between the haunches
for each span
12(K) Second moment of area at each section along a span
IWO, KB(I), Stiffness factors as defined in equations (2.7)
KC(I)
Ml(K) to Ordinates of the moment integrals of equations (2.6) and
M-W) (2.9)
Loading : 25 kN/m
WAN NO. 2
--_-_---_
Pa. OF LOADS ON SPlaN - 1
Lom No. 1
LOALl UEIBHT - 150 kN
DISTANCE TO LOm ST(VIT - 0 I.W..

DIBTIWCE a Lam COVER - 6 m&r..
STIFFNESS .=acTms
3
Beam Analysis and Design
Once the ultimate bending and torsional moments and shear forces have been
determined, either by continuous beam or substitute frame analysis, the next
most likely step in the design of any reinforced concrete structure is the design
of tbe beam elements.
Any such beam element must have adequate strength at the ultimate limit
state to resist the design forces, and must also satisfy serviceability require-
ments of deflection, cracking etc. under serviceability conditions. Programs for
serviceability conditions are given in chapter 7 and this chapter is concerned
only with analysis and design at the ultimate limit state. This chapter therefore
includes the following programs
(i) The analysis of rectangular and flanged beam sections.

(ii) The design of rectangular and flanged beam sections for bending
(iii) Design of shear links.
(iv) Design for torsion.
Whereas the first of the above programs is concerned with analysis, the
others form part of the overall design procedure for concrete beam design. The
inter-relation of these programs is shown in the flow chart in figure 3.1 which
shows a generalised approach to reinforced concrete beam design. The pro-
grams in this chapter are indicated by the heavy black lines.
Although these programs are presented as stand alone programs, the inter-
relation of both the bending design and shear design programs with the analysis
programs given in chapter 2 should be noted.
The output from the analysis programs include shear force and bending
moments at discrete intervals along each beam span. Using the computer file
storage system, these moments and shears can be stored and the bending and
shear design programs can be modified to read this data and carry out the
section design at critical locations along each span. The linking of the programs
in these two chapters will lead to the development of a powerful design aid, and
means of doing this are discussed further in chapter 8.
68
BEAM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 69
3.1 Section Analysis for Bending Resistance
The program in this section calculates the ultimate moment of resistance of any
rectangular or flanged beam containing a single level of compression and/or
tension reinforcement. The analytical procedure is based on the use of the
rectangular concrete stess block, the parameters of which can be altered within
the program to suit the requirements of different Codes of Practice. In this
program, stress block parameters have been assigned to give an average stress
of 0.45f,, and a stress block depth of 0.9 x.
Figure 3.2 shows the assumed stress and strain conditions in a concrete
beam at ultimate load conditions. The beam section can be analysed using
fundamental principles of compatibility of strain, equilibrium and material
stress/strain relationships. The steps in the method can be summarised as
(i) Assume a value of the neutral axis depth, x.

(ii) From the geometry of the strain diagram calculate the strain in the
compression and tension reinforcement, E.~ and E.~, for this assumed
value of x.
(iii) Using the design stress/strain graph for reinforcement, figure 3.3,
- determine the stress in the compression and tension reinforcement, fs
andfst.
For a strain in the tensile reinforcement of l ., the values of stress are
given by
fst = 200.103 Est +ts El
fst = fyhn %f El
For a strain in the compressive reinforcement of l IC the values of
stress are given by identical expressions
Section Strains Stress

FIgwe 3.2 Se&m subjm 10 bending
~igum 3.3 S~resrisnain graph for reinforcemem (remion and compression)
(iv) Calculate the compressive force, C, above the neutral axis and the
tensile force, T, in the tension steel given by
C = F,, + F,,
=f(bkx) +A,f,
T = F,,
= 4 fst
(v) If T and Care not within agreement to an acceptable level of accuracy,
then repeat from step (i) until an acceptable level of accuracy is
reached.
(vi) Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance, Mu, by taking moments
about the tension steel
M,=(fbkx) d-; +A,f,(d-d)

( 1
(b) Fhged sections
The procedure for a flanged section is identical to that described above,
except that the possibility of the stress block extending into the web must be
considered.
Stress block in theflange. The section can be treated as a rectangular beam

of breadth equal to the breadth of the flange, bf, as shown in figure 3.4. The
analytical equations are identical to those given above.
+
l P
hf AS Pf;di3:
d
AS
m
F-St
&
Section Stress
Figure 3.4 Fhnged seckm - s,ress block in rheflnnge
Stress block in fhheweb. In this case the equations have to be modified to

allow for the area of web in compression above the neutral axis. With
reference to figure 3.5, the modified equations are given below and can be
used in steps (iv) -(vi) above.
C=f(b,h,+b,(k*-h,))+A:f,,
T = As fst
+fb,(kx-h,) d-$
+A:fsc(d-4 (3.6)
bf f
Section Stress
Fiyre 3.5 Fkmgczd section - stress block in he web
! Concrete grade FU
Steel strength FY
Beam type B$
3.1.3 Description of the section analysis program
Lines
N-300 Data input. The program will analyse either a rectangular or
flanged section and the appropriate input data is requested after
the response to the question displayed on line 120. In lines 10 and
20 the concrete stress block factors, K8 and K9, are equated to
0.45 and 0.9. These factors give an average concrete stress,f, of
0.45 fcu and a stress block depth of 0.9 x.
310 (-500) An iteration procedure is used to determine the neutral axis depth
of the section (steps (i) to (v)).
370 The iteration commences with the neutral axis depth, x, equal to
the depth of the compression reinforcement, d, or in the case of
a singly reinforced beam with x equal to 11100of the effective
depth, d.
410/420 The program is routed to the subroutine to calculate strains and
stressesin both tension and compression reinforcement (steps (ii)
and (iii)).
440 If the stress block lies within the web of a flanged beam then the
area of concrete in compression is modified to include the web
area.
4501460 The compressive force, C, and tensile force, T, are calculated
(equations (3.1), (3.2), (3.4) and (3.5), step (iv)),
470 The current value of (T-C) is compared with the corresponding
value (T9 - C9) from the previous iteration. For small values of
neutral axis depth the term (T - C) will be positive. As the
neutral axis depth increases, the compressive force will increase as
the tensile force decreases, and hence the term (T - c) will
eventually become negative. Hence if (T - C) and (T9 - C9)
are both.positive, the iteration is repeated in increments of d/100
until (T - C) is found to be negative.
490/500 The value of x at which T and C are equal must lie somewhere
between the current negative value of (T - C) and the positive
value from the previous iteration. The iteration procedure is
repeated, commencing with the value of x from the previous
iteration and increments of d/loo0 to obtain a more accurate
estimate of the neutral axis depth (step(v)). Figure 3.7 illustrates
this iterative technique.
530 The ultimate moment of resistance of a rectangular section, or a
flanged section with the stress block in the flange, is calculated
(equation (3.3) and step (vi)).
560 The ultimate moment of resistance of a flanged section with the
stressblock in the web iscalculated (equation (3.6) and step (vi)).
57&730 Data, ultimate moment of resistance and xld ratio are printed.
Small values of x Large values of x il

T>C TcC +
xc=
4OtXb4050 Calculation of the strain and stress in the compression reinforce-

ment (steps (ii) and (iii)).
406&tloO Calculation of the strain and stress in the tension reinforcement
(steps (ii) and (iii)).
276 INPUT AC
3.1.5 List of variables for the section analysk program
3.1.5.1 Data variables
B$ : F for flanged section, R for rectangular section
3.1.5.2 Program variables
C : Compressive force in concrete and steel above the neutral axis

El : Steel yield strain tl
E3 : Strain in compression steel
E4 : Strain in tension steel
F3 : Stress in compression steel
F4 : Stress in tension steel
G : Iteration variable
KS : Concrete stress block factor
K9 : Neutral axis depth factor
T : Tensile force in the steel below the neutral axis
U : increment for iteration of X
3.1.6. I Determine the ultimate moment of resistanceof the beam section given in
figure 3.8. fc. = 30 N/mm2, f, = 460 N/mm2
Input:
TITLE : ANALYSIS EXAMPLE
CONCRETE GRADE, fcu - N/sq.mm : 30
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF
REINFORCEMENT, fy - Nlsq.mm : 460
FLANGED OR RECTANGULAR BEAM? :R
BREADTH OF BEAM, b-mm : 280
AREA OF TENSION STEEL, AS - sqmm : 2410
EFFECTWE DEPTH, d-mm :510
AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL,
AS(C) - sqmm : 628
2L10rnm2
1280..-
Figure 3.8
DEPTH TO COMPRESSION STEEL,

d(C) -mm : 50
Output:
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF SECTION= 411.98 kNm
X/D RATIO = 0.41
3.1.6.2 Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the flanged beam in

figure 3.9. fC = 25 N/mmz, f, = 460 N/mm*
TiTLE : ANALYSIS EXAMPLE

REINFORCEMENT, fy - Nlsqmm : 460
FLANGED OR RECTANGULAR BEAM? :F
800
1 300 /
Figure 3.9
DEPTH, hf, AND BREADTH, h, OF
FLANGE - mm : 150,800
BREADTH OF WEB, hw - mm : 300
AREA OF TENSION STEEL, AS - sqmm : 1470
EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d-mm : 420
AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL AS (C) :o
Output:
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF SECTION= 227.94 kNm
XID RATIO = 0.17
3.1.7 Further developments
Modify the program to permit the analysis of beams containing reinforcement

at different levels.
3.2 Design of Bending Reinforcements
This program will design the areas of longitudinal tension reinforcement for a
rectangular or flanged beam section. If required the area of longitudinal
compression reinforcement is also determined. The program is based on the
development of the design expressions for the following five situations
(i) Rectangular section with tension steel only.

(ii) Rectangular section with tension plus compression steel.
(iii) Flanged section with the concrete stress block within the flange and no
compression steel.
(iv) Flanged section with the concrete stress block extending below the
flange, and no compression steel.
(v) Flanged section with tension plus compression steel.
3.2.1 Design procedure
For each of the five design situations the expressions for the required steel
areas can he developed as follows.
(i) Rectangular section with tension steel only

Referring to figure 3.2, the compressive force, FCC,in the concrete above
the neutral axis is given by
F,, = stress x area of action

=fkxb
The moment of resistance, by taking moments about the centroid of the
steel area, is
M = F, x lever arm
=fkxb(d- kx/2)
The solution of this quadratic equation provides a value for x, the depth of
the neutral axis as
x = d/k - [(d/k) ~ 2Mlf b kz] (3.7)
The force in the tension steel, F,,, is
Fst = f, A,ly, = 0.87 f, A,

and for equilibrium
Fs, = Fee
therefore
A, = f kx b/0.87 f, (3.8)
(ii) Rectangular section with tension plus compression steel
In order that the beam should be designed so that a bending failure will
ccunmence with a gradual yielding of the tension steel, the depth of neutral
axis calculation from equation (3.7) should not exceed the neutral axis
depth xba,, at the balanced condition. This balanced state is taken at a
neutral axis depth equal to half the effective depth, which ensures that the
tension steel has yielded at collapse.
However, if moment redistribution has been carried out, the neutral
axis is further limited to
+,a~ = 0% - 0.4) d (3.9)

where
moment at section after redistribution
I%= (5 1)
moment at section before redistribution
This limitation applies where redistribution exceeds 10 per cent (that is,
Pb s 0.9).
The moment of resistance of the section in terms of the concrete
strength, obtained by taking moments about the tension steel, is
BEAM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Xl
M ha, = f b kxh;i, (d - kx,aJ2) (3.10)

If
M applied Mbal
then compression steel is required and the depth of neutral axis, x, is

restricted to xbal in order to ensure a gradual tension-type failure and not a
sudden compressive failure.
Referring to figure 3.2 and taking moments about the tension steel
M = F,, (d d) + F,, (d - kx,,,/Z)
where
F,, = fs, A : and
Fee = f b kXbz.1
so-that solving for the area of compression steel, A:
A, = M - f b k%a, (d - kXtJ2)
P (3.11)
fx (d - d)
A: = (M - Mb&& (d - d) (3.12)
The stress, fsC, in the compression steel is derived from the steels stress/
strain diagram using the equations of section 3.1.1,
For the equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forces on the section
(3.13)
(iii) Flanged section with the concrete stress block within the flange: no com-
pression steel
Referring to figure 3.5, with the depth of the stress block equal to the
flange depth, ht, the force in the concrete is
Fx-fb,h,
and the moment of resistance of the section in this case is obtained by
taking moments about the tension steel
Mr = F,, (d - h,/2)
=fbthr(d - h,/2) (3.14)
If
M app,ied < Mr
then the stress block is within the flange. In this case the depth of the
neutral axis, x, can be calculated from equation (3.7) with the flange
breadth, bt, replacing the beam breadth, b. The force in the concrete, F,,
is
Fcc=fbrh
For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forces
Fs, = Fc,
therefore the area of tension steel is given by
A, = f bf kx/0.87fy (3.15)
(iv)eFlangedsection with the concrete stress block extending below theflange: no

compression steel
When Mapplied > Mr the neutral axis must lie within the web. In this case,
taking moments about the tension steel for the compressive forces de-
veloped by the concrete gives
M = F,, (d - hr/2) + F,w [d - (kr + h,)/2] (3.16)
where F,,, the compressive force in the Range, is
F,,=f brht
and F,, the compressive force in the web, is
Fw=fbw(h - h,)
so that equation.(3.16) is a quadratic which can be solved for x, giving a
solution of the standard form
x = - B ? (B - 4 AC)?2A (3.17)
where
A = k212, B = - kd
and
c = M - f h hf Cd- W) + h d _ ,,z /2
f f
fbw
For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forceson the
section
Fs, = F,, + Few

therefore
A = f br h, + f bw (kx h,)
s
0.87 f,
(v) Flangedsection with tension&s compression steel
When the depth of the neutral axis equalsx,., the force in the concrete,
F,, is
Fee = Fc, + Few = f br hr + f bw&al - h,)

and the moment of resistance of the concrete, taking moments about the
tension steel is
MM = Fc,(d - W) + Fav[d - (&,a, + Q/21
so that if
then compression steel is required and the depth of neutral axis, x, is

limited to xbal for a tensile-type failure.
The area of compression steel required is given by
A: = W - Mdfsc Cd - 0 (3.19)
where the steel stress, fsc,is derived using the equations of sections 3.1.1.
For equilibrium of the section, the tensile and compressive forces
developed by the steel and concrete must balance. So that
Fst = Fee + Fc, + Few

Therefore the area of tension steel required can be calculated from
A = ~A:fx + f bf hf + f bw ha, - W (3.20)
I 0.87 fy
If the depth of the flange, hf, is greater than+,,,, then the section should be
designed as a rectangular section with a breadth of bf.
32.2 Flow diagram for the design of bending4inforcementprogram
Title, T$
Lines
Concrete grade FU
Steel strength FY
3w190 Beam type BS
Beam breadth B
lNPT DATA
200 lange breadth BF
.%mge depth HF
25&280 Applied ultimate moment M

% Redistribution RD
2W310
320
33c-340
SECTION MOMENT. MB
(1) TENSlON STEEL ONLY:

3Hk3-90 CALCULATE TENSION STEEL
(2) TENSON STEEL PLUS COM- /

W&410 PREWON STEEL: NEUTRAL AXIS
DEPTH = BALANCED DERH (XB)
420 GOT0 SUBROUTINE
CALCULATE COMPRESSION
43w50 AND TENSION STEEL AREAS
460 FLANGED SECTION F

BEAM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
470
4X SECTlON MOMENT, MB
490
CALCULATE MOMENT FOR

S,, STRESS BLOCK DEPTH
= FLANGE DEPTH. MF
510
(3)STRESSBLOCKWlTHlN
5X--5X1 FLANGE:CALCLATE
-..-~_ TENSIONSTEELAREA
sw1n BEI.OWFLANGE:CALCLATE
J
TENSION STEEL AREA I
(S)TENSlON +COMPRESS,ON
h2w430 STEEL:NETRALAXlSDEPTH,
=BALANCEDDEPTH
MO ~?i%OS+RO~ CALCULATESTEEL
COMPRESSWE STRESS,
hxk-810 PRINTDATAANDSTEELAREAS
32.3 lkscrtption ofthe designofbendingreinforcementp~am
Lines
30480 Input of data.
290-310 Variables are assigned, including values for K8 and K9 which
specify the depth and magnitude of the concrete stress block. The
steel yield strain, El, is calculated and the depth of neutral axis,
XB, at the balanced condition, allowing for redistribution if
applicable. The percentage redistribution assumes a decrease in
moment.
320 If the section is flanged the program goes to line 460 to commence
the design for a flanged beam.
340 For a rectangular section the moment or resistance, MB, of the
concrete at the balanced condition is calculated using equation
(3.10).
350 If the applied moment, M, is greater than MB then compression
steel is required and the program jumps to line 400.
360-390 The design of the area of tension reinforcement for a singly
reinforced section is carried out. The depth of neutral axis, x, and
the area of tension steel are calculated using equations (3.7) and
(3.8) respectively.
4wo The design of compression and tension steel is carried out in this
part of the program. The depth of neutral axis, X, is set equal to
the balanced depth, XB, and the stress in the compression steel is
determined from the subroutine at line 4000 which uses the
equations of section 3.1.1. The areas of steel are calculated from
equations (3.12) and (3.13).
46&510 These lines commence the design of reinforcement for a flanged
section. If the depth of the flange HF is greater than the depth of
the stress block at the balanced condition, then the section is
designed as a rectangular section and the program is directed back
to 330 from line 470.
The moments of resistance of the concrete section, MB at the
balanced condition and MF for the flange alone, are calculated
using equations (3.16) and (3.14). If the applied moment, M,
exceeds MB, then the program goes to the design of a section with
tension and compression steel at line 620. If the applied moment is
less than MB but exceeds MF, then the program goes to line 560
for a design with the concrete stress block extending below the
flange.
520-550 With M less than MF the stress block lies within the flange and the
tension steel is designed using similar equations to that for a
rectangular section of width BF, the flange width.
560-610 This part of the program is for the design of a section with the
stress block extending below the flange.
62&660 The design of a flanged section with tension plus compression steel
is carried out in this part of the program. The depth of neutral axis,
X, is set equal to the balanced depth, XB, and the steel compres-
sive stress is obtained from the subroutine at line 4000. The areas
of reinforcement are calculated using equations (3.19) and (3.20).
67&800 Printout of data and steel reinforcement areas, AS and AC.
Subroutines
4WO40 Subroutine to calculate strains and stresses in the compressive

reinforcement.
3.2.4 Listing the design of bending reinforcement program

32.5 List of variables for the design of bending reinforcement program
Bl Equals, B, the breadth of the beam web

El Steel yield strain t,
E3 Strain in compression steel
F3 Stress in compression steel
K8 Concrete stressblock factor
K9 Neutral axis depth factor
MB Moment of resistance of the concrete section at the balanced condition
MF Moment of resistance of the concrete flange
RD &centage redistribution at section
XB Depth of neutral axis at the balanced condition
3.2.6 Beam section design examples
3.2.6.1 Determine the area of reinforcement required if the beam section in

figure 3.11 carries an ultimate moment of 145 kN m. No moment
redistribution has been carried out. fCu = 25 N/mm, f, = 460 N/mm.
Input:
TITLE : BEAM DESIGN
CONCRETE GRADE, fcu- N/sq.mm : 25
REINFORCEMENT, fy - N/sq.mm : 460
FLANGED OR RECTANGULAR BEAM :R
BREADTH OF BEAM, b-mm : 230
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF BEAM, d - mm : 490
DEPTH TO COMPRESSION STEEL, dl -mm : 50
APPLIED ULTIMATE MOMENT kNm : 14.5
% REDISTRIBUTION AT SECTION :o
Output:
AREA OF TENSION STEEL = 854.72 sqmm
3.2.6.2 Determine the required steel areas for the T beam in figure 3.12 which
is subject to an ultimate moment of 160 kN m. No redistribution has
been carried out. fcu = 25 Nlmm2, f, = 460 N/mm2
Input:
TITLE : FLANGED BEAM
CHARACIXRISTIC STRENGTH OF
REINFORCEMENT, fy - N/sq.mm :460
600
r
1 250 .
Figure 3.12
FLANGED OR RECTANGULAR BEAM F
BREADTH OF BEAM, b - mm 250
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF BEAM, d-mm 530
DEPTH TO COMPRESSION STEEL, dl- 50
BREADTH OF FLANGE, bf - mm 600
DEPTH OF FLANGE, hf - mm 150
APPLIED ULTIMATE MOMENT - kNm 160
% REDISTRIBUTION AT SECTION 0
Output:
AREA OF TENSION STEEL = 789.17 sqmm
3.27 Further developments
(a) Write an additional subroutine to select a suitable number and size of

reinforcing bars to satisfy the calculated areas of reinforcement. Consider
the-following alternatives
(i) Automatic selection of bars from all available bar sires. Write the
available sizesin a DATA list and for each size calculate the required
number of bars. PRINT answers for all sizes to give a selection of
results.
(ii) Oser selection of sizes. Permit the user to INPUT as data his chosen
number and sizes of bars. The program can check whether the chosen
bars are adequate.
(iii) User specification of sizes. Permit the user to specify a limited number
of acceptable bar sizes. The program should calculate the numbers of
each size required in combination to give the steel area nearest to the
required value.
(b) Once the above bar selection subroutine is written, add additional routines
tp calculate bar spacingsand to seeif the chosen combination of reinforce-
ment satisfies requirements for spacing. See BS 8110, clause 3.12.11.
(c) Clause 3.12.5 of BS 8110 specifies minimum areas of tension and compres-
sion reinforcement and clause 3.12.6 specifies maximum areas. Add a
subroutine to check whether the limitations are met and to print suitable
warning messagesif they are not met.
3.3 Design of Shear Links
In any concrete beam, other than those of minor importance, shear reinforce-
ment, in the form of links, will be provided in addition to the longitudinal
bending reinforcement. The size and spacing of these links can be determined
using this program which calculates the link area/spacing ratio for any given
beam section and ultimate shear force.
3.3.1 Designpmcf?dwe
The design of shear links for a beam section is based on the equation
AS
-= WV - 4
(3.21)
S 0.87f,
where A,, is the sum of the cross-sectional area of the legs of a link and sv is the
link spacing. The shear stress v at the beams cross-section is calculated from
and this value of v should not exceed a maximum value given by 0.8Vfc, or 5
N/mm2, whichever is the lesser.
The ultimate shear stress, v~, that can be resisted by the beam without shear
reinforcement is a function of the grade of concrete, the beams effective depth
and the percentage area of the longitudinal tension reinforcement at the
section considered. This tension reinforcement must extend at least an effec-
tive depth beyond the section or be adequately anchored at a support section.
The value of Y= is obtained from the formula
..=0.79(100 2 )"'(Y)'" -;t;;
where the steel ratio, 100 Aslbd, should not be taken as greater than 3 or less
than 0.15, and the effective depth d should not exceed 400 mm. -yrn is taken as
1.25
For characteristic concrete strengths in excess of 25 N/mm the value of V~
obtained from equation (3.22) can be multiplied by &/25), but in using this
multiplying figure fc. should not exceed 40 N/mm*.
Where the average shear stress is less than (v~ + 0.4) N/mm*, minimum
shear reinforcement should be provided according to the formula
0.4 b
(3.23)
0.87 f,
For members of minor structural importance, where Y < 0.5 v,, minimum
links can be omitted; but the program in this section calculates minimum link
requirements in all cases where the average shear stress is less than (v~ + 0.4)
N/mm. The characteristic strength of the shear links should not be taken as
greater than 460 N/mm.
3.3.2 Flow diagram for the design of shear links program
3.3.3 Description of the design of shear links program
Lines
3c-170 Input of data.
190 Calculation of the average concrete shear stress, v = Vlbd.
200 The program calculates the maximum shear stress, 0.8Vf=,. If the
value of Y exceeds this maximum stress, then the program displays
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS EXCEEDED and goes to the
end of the program.
230 The program goes to a subroutine at line 4CKKl to determine the
ultimate concrete shear stress, v,, using equation (3.22).
25&26a Minimum values for A,Js, are calculated.
270 Values of A&, are determined when the average shear stress
exceeds (v. + 0.4) N/mm.
28&370 Data and A,,/s, are printed.
3.3.5 List of variables for the design of shear links program
Reserved variables only used.
D9 : Effective depth
M$ : A string to display that A,,/s, is the minimum required
U : Equals concrete grade, FU
VC : Design concrete shear stress, v=
Vl : Maximum shear stress
3.3.6 Shear links example
Determine the required A&, ratio for a beam section 300 mm wide and
effective depth 550 mm subject to a shear force of 196 kN. The area of
longitudinal steel is 982 mm2, fen = 25 N/mm*, f, = 250 N/mm*.
Input:
TITLE : SHEAR LINK EXAMPLE
SHEAR LINKS, fyv - N/sq.mm : 250
BEAMS BREADTH, b - mm : 300
BEAMS EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d - mm : 550
AREA OF LONGITUDINAL TENSION
STEEL, As - sqmm : 982
ULTIMATE SHEAR FORCE, V - kN : 196
Output:
SHEAR LINKS-A&, = 0.900
(a) Write an additional subroutine to select a suitable size and spacing of shear
links to satisfy the calculated A,,/s, ratio. The links can be either automati-
cally selected from available sizes written into a DATA list; or user-
selected with the user selecting the size and the program calculating the
spacing.
(b)-Further develop this subroutine to reject those combinations of link sizes
and spacings which fail to meet the requirement that links must be spaced
no more than 0.75 d apart.
3.4 Design for Torsion
The design of a reinforced concrete beam to resist torsional moments is based

on a number of design formulae given in BS 8110. Torsional stresses are
resisted by the addition of torsional reinforcement in the form of closed links
and also additional longitudinal reinforcement. The required areas of both
types of reinforcement can be calculated with the aid of this program.
The design procedure for torsional design may be summarised as follows.
(i) Calculate, by an appropriate method of structural analysis the torsional

moment, T, for which the section is to be designed.
(ii) Calculate the torsional shear stress, Y,, according to the formula
2T
Vt =
h2min (Lx - hmiJ3)
where
h,in = the smaller dimension of the beam section
h mar = the larger dimension of the beam section.
(iii) If vt > O.O67Vf=, (with an upper limit of 0.40 N/mm), then torsional
reinforcement is required.
(iv) If vt + v > 0.80dff,, (with an upper limit of 5.00 N/mm), then the
design is inadmissable. v is the shear stress due to the shear forces on the
section.
(v) In the case of small sections (y, < 550 mm) the design is inadmissible. if
Yt > 0.80VfC x Ji
550
where
y, = the larger dimension of a reinforcing link
(measured centre to centre).
(vi) Calculate the required torsional reinforcement, in the form of closed

links according to the formula
4, T
-> (3.25)
& 0.8 XI YI (0.87 f,)
where
x, = the smaller dimension of a reinforcing link
f, = the characteristic strength of the links.
(vii) Calculate the link spacing which must be limited to the least ofx,, y,/2 or
200 mm.
(viii) Calculate the add ltmnal longitudinal reinforcement required according

to the formula
4 - - (XI + Y,) (3.26)

S fY
where
f,, = characteristic strength of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
69 In the case of Ranged sections the section should be divided into com-
ponent rectangles and each component designed to carry a torsional
moment given by
(3.27)
3.4.2 Flow diagram for the torsion design pqram
Concrete grade FU
Number of com,mnents N
Hmax, min. H ( )
Number of shear component N1
Breadth and effective depth
Steel men$hs P( and F
Link dimensions Y1 ( )
andX,( )
BEAM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
3.4.3 Description of the torsion design program
Lines
1@350 All the data is entered at the beginning of the program.
38&500 For each component rectangle the torsional shear stressis calculated
(equation (3.24)) and the ultimate shear stressesare checked (steps
(iii), (iv) and (v)).
51lK610 Torsional link areas and spacingsare calculated (equation 3.25 and
step (vii)) together with the additional longitudinal reinforcement
areas (equation (3.26)).
620-790 Data and design calculations are printed.
SO@820 The program permits the optional looping back to line 280 if
additional calculations are required for the same section but dif-
ferent shear force and/or torsional moment.
348 INPUT T
356 T=T*1@-6
366 RErl l ****f*** Calculate component shear stress..Fzq 3.24
378 FOR 1-1 TO N

388 A(I,*)=L? @ A,I,3)=B
396 T(I)=T*H(I,3l,S
488 V2(I~=2*T(Il/~HlI,2~-z*~H~~,l~-.333*H(I.2)l~
418 REM *******=*==******* Check Ultimate torsional stress
H( ) Maximum and minimum dimensions for each component rectangle

(mm)
N Total number of component rectangles
Nl Number of the component rectangle carrying shear
Xl Smaller dime&ion of links (mm)
Yl Larger dimension of links (mm)
S
Vl Ultimate torsional and shear stress (0.80gfa)
V2( ) Torsional shear stress
v3 Minimum torsional stress(O.O67tf,,)
3.4.6 Torsion design example
Calculate the torsional reinforcement required for the beam section shown in
figure 3.16. Take the centre to centre dimensions of the links, x1, and yI as
60 mm less than the overall dimensions of the beam to allow for cover etc.
fc. = 25 N/mm2
f, = 250 N/mm
f, = 250 N/mm*
VT16OkN
T=13kNm
A,,/s, = 0.86 for shear design
Input:
TITLE : TORSION EXAMPLE
NUMBER OF COMPONENT RECTANGLES :3
H m_ & H,i, FOR COMPONENT 1 : 250,200
2 : 500,300
3 : 250,200
COMPONENT NUMBER WHICH IS
CARRYING SHEAR :2
SHEAR FLANGE BREADTH, b, &
EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d-mm : 300,450

CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF LINKS,
f, AND MAIN REINFORCEMENT,
fy - N/sq.mm : 250,250
LARGEST, yl, AND SMALLEST, xl,
DIMENSION OF LINKS FOR
COMPONENT-mm 1 : 250,140
2 : 440,240
3 : 250,140
RATIO A,,& FOR SHEAR DESIGN : 0.86
SHEAR FORCE, V, AT SECTION - kN : 160
TORSIONAL MOMENT, T-kN m : 13
Output:
COMPONENT A&, for Total Maximum Additional
shear AS& link spacing longitudinal steel
1 0 0.24 125 95
2 0.86 1.4 200 371
3 0 0.24 125 95
Slab Design
The Rexural design of reinforced concrete slabs is similar to the design of
reinforced concrete beams.
One way spanning slabs can be designed as beams of unit width. Two way
spanning slabs are designed by usual methods once the design moments are
known. The moments can be calculated either by reference to Tables of
Moment Coefficients in BS 8110 or by use of formulae, or where these are not
applicable by other methods such as the yield line method.
This chapter is therefore concerned with the calculation of the design
moments for slabs under different support conditions. Once calculated these
moments can be entered as data into the section design program in chapter 3,
or the programs can be linked together as discussed in chapter 8.
The procedure for shear design of solid slabs is similar to that for beams, and
the modifications that need to be made to the shear design program in chapter 3
are discussed. An additional program is given for punching shear under the
action of concentrated loads.
4.1 One Way Spanning Slabs
One way spanning slabs can be analysed for moments and shears using the
continuous beam program in chapter 2. A unit width of slab should be used in
carrying out the analysis.
For the more usual cases of solid slab design, BS 8110 permits the analysis of
the slab under the single load case of maximum design load on all spans,
provided that the characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m*. The
ratio of the characteristic imposed load to dead load should also be less than
1.25 and the area of each slab bay should exceed 30 m. In these circumstances
the continuous beam program can be used directly for the analysis of the slab,
although the resulting support moments should be reduced by 20 per cent and
the span moments increased accordingly.
Where the use of the single load case is not appropriate, the envelope
104
SLAB DESIGN 105
program in chapter 2 can be used, as for a beam, with full loading patterns. The
use of loading patterns is particularly important where there is a cantilever in a
continuous slab.
Whereas the single loading case reduces the necessary amount of compu-
tation for manual analysis, where computer programs are being used there is
little meaningful saving in effort in using the single load case when compared
with the analysis under full load patterns. It is suggested therefore that the use
of the envelope program with full load patterns could he considered for all
cases.
One way spanning ribbed slabs can be analysed using the same programs and
methods as for a solid slab. Flat slab structures may be divided into a series of
substitute frames consisting of columns and strips of slab and analysed, using
the substitute frame program under the action of vertical loading. Full loading
patterns or, where appropriate, the single load case may be used.
4.2 Two Way Spanning Solid Slab - Simply Supported without Torsional
Restraint
42.1 Design procedtue
For a simply supported slab, spanning two ways at right anglesand subjected to
a uniformly distributed load, the ultimate design moments are given by
m,, = a,. n 1: (4.1)
r?lsy= asy n 1: (4.2)
where
and
I, = length of shorter side of slab
I, = length of longer side of slab
m,, = maximum ultimate moment at midspan on strips
of unit width and spanning 1,
msY= maximum ultimate moment at midspan on strips
of unit width and spanning 1,
n = total ultimate load.
The solution to equations (4.1) - (4.4) is direct and simple, and it is left to the
reader as an exercise to write the short program to determine the design
moments.
A further useful exercise is to write this program as a separate subroutine of
the section design program in chapter 3. The program can be modified to loop
twice through the design calculations using a FOR NEXT loop and taking the
design moment as m,. on the first loop and msy on the second loop. The
resulting program will be a simple but useful design program for this simple
type of slab.
4.3 Two Way Spanning Solid Slab with Torsional Restraint
This program calculates the design moments for a uniformly loaded slab,
sparming two ways at right angles, which is restrained against uplift and torsion
at the corners. Different support and span moments are calculated, depend-
ing on the number of continuous or discontinuous edges to the slab.
For design of continuous slabs, the loading on panels adjacent to the one
being designed should be approximately equal to the loading on the panel
being designed. In addition, adjacent panels should have span lengths approxi-
mately equal to that of the panel being designed when measured in a perpen-
dicular direction to the line of cantnon support.
4.3.1 Design pmcedure
In the design of restrained slabsthe slab is divided into strips in both the X and
Y directions, asshown in Figure 4.1. The calculated moments apply only to the
middle strips, and in the edge strips minimum reinforcement only is required.
SLAB DESIGN 107
The design ultimate moments are given by
4, = Psx n r: (4.5)
4y = Psy 1: (4.6)
where
1, = length of shorter side of slab
1, = length of longer side of slab
m,, = maximum ultimate moment at midspan or over
supports on strips of unit width and spanning lx
rnsY= maximum ultimate moment at midspan or over
supports on strips of unit width and spanning I,
Ps. and P.y = moment coefficients.

The-values of the moment coefficients in the above equations can be deter-
mined as follows
(a) Coeficient, by, for positive midspan moment for strips spanning ly
pY is given by the following expression
p, = (24 + 2 Nd + 1.5 iv~)/lOOo (4.7)
where
Nd = the number of discontinuous edges (0 < N,, < 4)
(b) Coefficients for negative support moments for strips spanning iy (p, and
Pd
For a discontinuous edge the coefficient is zero.
For a continuous edge the coefficient is 4/3 of the positive midspan
coefficient pY. That is
p, = 0 or 4/3p,
p2 = 0 or 4/3p,
where p, and pz are the coefficients for the negative (hogging) moments
over the two shorter side lengths.
(c) Coefficient px for positive midspan moment for strips spanning I,.
p. can be determined from the following expression
3 u/(18) ;
Y
{d/(Py + PI) + d/(Py + Pz))
1 (4.8)
uy = m. + Pd + wx + Pd (4.9)
where pz and p4 are the coefficients for the negative (hogging) moments
over the two longer sidesand, as for p, and pz, take the value of zero for a
discontinuous edge or 4/3rds of the positive midspan moment p, for a
continuous edge.
The coefficients p, to p4 can be expressed as
PI = KIP, : Pz = my : P3 = K&x : Pl = K&x
where K, to K4 are constants which can take the value of zero or 4/3
depending on the continuity of the edge.
Hence from equation (4.8)
y=; 3 - ~18 ; {v/(Py + &Py) + v/(Py + &Pg)) (4.10)

[ Y I
rind from equation (4.9)
t/Y = v/p, [V/(1 + I&) + v/(1 + KJ

and squaring both sides
Y = p. [V(l + I&) + V(1 + &)I

or
Y
(4.11)
I%= [V/(1 + K3) + v/(1 + &)I2
To calculate the coefficient, k, the following procedure may be followed
(i) Assign values of zero or 4/3 to the constants K, to& depending on the
edge conditions of the slab (continuous or discontinuous).
(ii) Use equation (4.7) to calculate the coefficient p,..
(iii) Use equation (4.10) to calculate Y.
(iv) Use equation (4.11) to calculate the coefficient p,.
(d) Coefjicients for negativesupport momentsfor strips spanning /. (p3 and

Pd
According to the edge conditions p3 = 0 or 4/3p,. Likewise p4 = 0 or
4/3$,.
SLAB DESIGN 109
4.3.2 Flow diagram for the two way spanning slab with torsional restraint
Spanlength;x directionLX
Spanlength;Y direction LY
Dead lOad GK
lmpsed load OK
Number of discntins short
edges NS
Number Of disctiuor
4.3.3 Description of the two way spanning slab with torsionalrestraintprogram
Lines
40-190 Data input. On line 100 an error check is added to ensure that the
length LY is always entered as the length of the longer side. A
further check is incorporated on line 110 to suggest that if the length
of the longer side is greater than twice that of the shorter side a
design as a one way spanning slab is more appropriate.
20&260 The coefficients K, to K4 are assigned values of zero or 413 depend-
ing on the number of discontinuous long and short edges.
27&290 Equations (4.7), (4.10) and (4.11) are used to calculate the coef-
ficients p,, and p, (YB and XB respectively).
30&330 Midspan and edge moments are calculated for strips spanning in
two directions.
340-450 Data and design moments are printed.
SLAB DESIGN 111
4.3.5 List of variables for the two way spanning slab with torsional restraint
LX - : Length of shorter side of slab measured in X direction

LY : Length of longer side of slab measured in Y direction
NS : Number of discontinuous short edges
NL : Number of discontinuous long edges
G : The value of Y
ii Ei: The constants K,, KZ, K3 and K4 in equations (4.8)-(4.11)
Ml : Edge moment for strips spanning in Y direction
M3 : Edge moment for strips spanning in X direction
MX : Midspan moment for strips spanning in X direction
MY : Midspan moment for strips spanning in Y direction
ND : Total number of discontinuous edges (NS + NL)
XB : Coefficient p,
YB~ : Coefficient py
4.3.6 Two way spanning slab with torsional restraint example
A 5 m x 6 m rectangular slab carries a characteristic dead load of 3 kN/m

and an imposed load of 5 kNlm*. It is continuous over three supports and
discontinuous over one long edge. Determine the design ultimate moments.
Input:
TITLE : SLAB EXAMPLE
SPAN LENGTH IN X DIRECTION - metres :5
SPAN LENGTH IN Y DIRECTION - metres :6
CHARACTERISTIC DEAD LOAD, gk - kN/sq.m :3
CHARACTERISTIC LIVE LOAD, qk - kN/sq.m :5
NUMBER OF DISCONTINUOUS SHORT EDGES :0
NUMBER OF DISCONTINUOUS LONG EDGES :l
Output:
EDGE MOMENT, Msx, IN DIRECTION OF SPAN Lx = 17.09 kNmh
MIDSPAN MOMENT, Msx, IN DIRECTION OF SPAN Lx = 12.82
kNm/m
EDGE MOMENT, Msy, IN DIRECTION OF SPAN Ly = 11.18 kNm/m
MIDSPAN MOMENT, Msy, IN DIRECTION OF SPAN Ly = 8.38 kNm/m
This program can be written as a separate subroutine of the section design

program in chapter 3. Link the two programs together in this way and modify
the section design program to loop four times through the design calculation
using a FOR NEXT loop. On each loop the steel areas can be determined for
each of the four ultimate design moments.
4.4 Yield Line Analysis
Whereas the methods and programs described in the previous sections of this
chapter are applicable only to rectangular slabs under certain conditions of
loading and support, the yield line method is more generally applicable. It is
one of the ultimate load methods which will enable slabsof irregular geometry,
loading or support conditions to be analysed.
However, it is not easy to write a simple program to generalise the method
and it is suggested that it might be better to develop a suite of programs to
analyse different situations. The program described in this section deals with
one such situation and once the principles are understood it should not be
difficult to develop further programs.
4.4.1 Analyticalpmcedwe
The slab to be analysed is shown in figure 4.3. It is simply supported on three

sides and free on the fourth. For a general shape of slab where L, could be
greater or less than L,, two yield line mechanisms are possible. These are
shown in figure 4.3.
It is assumed that the slab is orthotropically reinforced with moments of
resistance of m, and pm. in the X and Y directions respectively. The
alternative mechanismscan be analysed as follows using the energy approach.
SLAB DESIGN 113
m,
Ial Lb1
Figure4.3(a,and(b,Ydi Iinemechonrrms
1
Internal work done =2m,L, - + 2m,x ;
* Y
External work done = w 4iL,Xf +(L,-

I
W
LL,
--- L,x
L2 3 I
where W is the ultimate load/unit area.
Equating internal and external work and rearranging the expressions gives
1
L,L,l2 - L,xl3
m, = w (4.12)
2 pLyIx + XIL,
Yield line pa&m (b)
1 1
Internal work done = 2m, L, - + r&L, -
Lx12 Y
External workdone = W + 2(L, - y) Lx/2 ;

1
1
Equating internal and external work and rearranging the expression gives
L, LJ2 - L,yl6
??I,= w (4.13)
4 wL,IL, + L,ly I
The design moment is taken as the optimum solution to either equation
(4.12) or (4.13). In equation (4.12) x can vary between zero and OSL, and in
equation (4.13), y can vary behveen zero and L,.
SLAB DESIGN 115
4.4.2 F/o w diagram for the yield line analysis program
YES
FOR Y = ,,.os LY TO LY STEP 11.05 LY

4
CALCULATE DESIGN MOMENT
M, FOR SECOND YIELD
LINE PATTERN
4.4.3 Descrtption of the yield line anaIysiv program
Lines
l&150 Input of data. The moment ratio m,lm, is input as data on lines
14C-150. The choice of this ratio is left to the discretion of the
engineer, but a value equal to (L,/L.) is suggested.
160-260 The value of MX is calculated at increments of x of O.O5L,. The
current value of the moment, M7, is compared with the value from
the prewous iteration. If M7 > MX, then the optimum value of the
moment has not been found and a further calculation takes place. If
an optimum value is found, the program jumps to line 340 otherwise
it proceeds to calculate the optimum solution to the second pattern.
27&330 The optimum solution to the second yield line pattern is determined
as described above.
340-440 Data and ultimate moments are calculated together with the X and
Y coordinates (relative to the lower left-hand corner of the slab) of
the point marked A in parts (a) and (b) of figure 4.3
SLAB DESIGN
4.4.5 Zist of variables for the yield tine analysis program
LX : Length of slab measured in X direction

LY : Length of slab measured in Y direction
RA : Ratio of moment/unit length: Y direction/X direction
MX : Ultimate design moment/unit length in X direction

MY : Ultimate design moment/unit length in Y direction
W : Ultimate load/unit area
X, Y : Dimensions of yield line pattern as shown on figure 4.3
4.4.6 Yield line analysis example
A 5 m x 8 m slab is simply supported on three sidesand unsupported on one

of its shorter sides. It is isotropically reinforced (p = 1) and is to be designed
to carry a dead and imposed load of 1 and 3 kN/m respectively. Determine the
design ultimate moments.
Input:
TITLE SLAB EXAMPLE
SPAN LENGTH IN x DIRECTION, Lx, - metres 5
SPAN LENGTH IN y DIRECTION, Ly, -metres 8
CHARACTERISTIC DEAD LOAD, gk, - kN1sq.m 1
CHARACTERISTIC IMPOSED LOAD, qk, - 3
kN1sq.m
MOMENT RATIO MJM. 1
Output:
DESIGN ULTIMATE MOMENT IN x DIRECTION = 13.53 kNm/m
DESIGN ULTIMATE MOMENT IN y DIRECTION = 13.53 kNm/m
Lx = 2.5 m AND LY = 3.6 m
4.4.7 l?urther developments
(a) Write additional programs to analyse slabs of

(i) different shapes
(ii) different support conditions
(iii) different loading conditions.
(b) Write these programs into a single program with each different analysis
program forming a subroutine of this single program. Write a master
program segment to display the options available on the VDU and to access
each subroutine using the ON GOT0 statement.
4.5 Shear Design of Solid Slabs
The design of solid slabsfor shear is very nearly identical to the shear design of
beams, with the same limiting values applying to the ultimate concrete shear
stresses.The shear design program in chapter 3 can therefore be used, with
minor modifications for the design of solid slabs.
This section is therefore intended to give guidance on the slight differences in
approach and the modifications that should be made to the shear design
p~OgIE3Ill.
As for beams, the average shear stress, Y, can be calculated from

V
=-
bd
where the breadth, b, should be taken as a unit width of one metre. This stress
should not exceed the maximum value given by 0.8Xfc, or 5 N/mm whichever
is the lesser. The design shear stress, v., is given by equation (3.22) and the
section should be designed according to the following rules
(i) for Y>Y, + 0.4: design links according to equation (3.21)
(ii) for v,<v<v, + 0.4: provide minimum links using equation (3.23)
(iii) for v<v,: no links required
(iv) for slabs less than 200 mm thick, shear reinforcement is unlikely to be
effective and should not be used.
SLAB DESIGN 119
A study of the shear design program in chapter 3 and the above rules will
show that the differences in the approach to the shear design of beams and slabs
are minimal. In fact it is only the rules (iii) and (iv) above which need to be
incorporated, and this can be done by adding the following lines to the shear
design program
231 IF VA>VC AND H<200 THEN N$ = ALLOWABLE SHEAR
STRESS EXCEEDED FOR SLABS LESS THAN 200 mm THICK
@AV=O@GOTO280
232 IF VA<VC THEN N$ = SHEAR CHECK O.K. NO SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED @ AV = 0 @ GOT0 280
371 PRINT N$
An additional line should also be added at the data entry stage to permit the
input of the slabs overall depth (H). Line 231 allows for the case of a slab of
overall depth less than 200 mm where the average shear stress exceeds the
design shear stress v,. N$ is a string that ensures that an appropriate warning
message is printed on line 371. For subsequent guidance, to enable modifi-
cations to be made to the design, values of v (VA) and Ye (VC) could also be
printed out.
Line 232 ensures that in all cases, when the average shear stress is less than
Ye, no shear reinforcement is provided (AV = 0) and an advisory message is
printed on line 371.
4.6 Punching Shear
This program checks the adequacy of a solid slab to resist the punching shear
stressesarising from a concentrated load. In the event that shear reinforce-
ment is required, the prqgram determines the areas of the necessary reinforce-
ment.
4.6.1mDesign procedure
When a slab is subjected to a concentrated load (V), punching shear stresses

must be checked on the critical perimeter which is taken at 1 Sd from the face of
the loaded area, as shown in figure 4.5.
The shear stress, Y, is calculated from the formula
V
=
{2(a + b) + (8 x 1.5d)}d
where d is the effective depth of the slab and can be taken as the average
effective depth of the tensile reinforcement in each direction.
l.!id 0.75d
1 ~Second
Loaded Perimeter
I I Al-ml I I
yI l------J I
L l--------J
If v is less than v,, the design shear stress, then no shear reinforcement is
required. If Y is greater than v, and the overall slab depth is greater than
200 mm, shear reinforcement can be provided according to the formula
(4.15)
where:
A,, = the area of shear reinforcement (mm*)
u = length of the critical perimeter
f,.,, = characteristic strength of the reinforcement.
(v - VC) should not be taken as less than 0.4 N/mm.
Should shear reinforcement be required, the calculation should be repeated

for perimeters at successive intervals of 0.75dout from the first perimeter until
v is found to be less than v,. Any required shear reinforcement should be
distributed around the zone of slab bounded on the outside by the perimeter
under consideration and on the inside by the perimeter at 1.5d away from the
outside perimeter.
Equation (3.22) can be used to calculate Ye, the design concrete shear stress,
but the reinforcement percentage to be used in the equation is given by
100 X effective area of reinforcement
ud
SLAB DESIGN 121
where the effective area of reinforcement is the total area of all tension
reinforcement passing through the slab zone. This reinforcement should ex-
tend an effective depth, d, or 12 times the bar size on either side of the zone.
The maximum shear stress, v,,,, should also be checked at the face of the
loaded area and should not be greater than 0.8ufCu or 5 N/mm2 whichever is
the lesser. The value of the maximum shear stresscan be calculated from
V
Vmar = (4.16)
{2 fa + b)l d
4.6.2 Flow diagram for the punching shear program
DETERMINE
3K I DESIGN CONCRETE
SHEAR STRESS. VC
ALLOWABLE
380 STRESSES
EXCEEDED
A=0
YES SHEAR STRESSES

390 l O.K.? NO
REINFORCEMENT
AV=O
-20 CALCULATE STEEL

AREA, AV
43&440 AND MESSAGE
CALCULATE
SHEAR
PERIMETER
AT .75d
FURTHER OUT
SLAB DESIGN 123
4.63 Description of the punching shear program
Lines
4&Z-250 Data input.
260 The program is routed to a subroutine to print out the data. As the
program loops through a number of calculations, printing out the
results of each calculation after each loop, it is convenient in this
case to write the data output section at the beginning of the
program.
27S-310 The maximum shear stress is checked at the face of the loaded
area. The effective depth is taken as the average for the reinforce-
ment in both directions.
32M20 The punching shear stressis determined on the critical perimeter
at ISd from the loaded area. If the shear stress exceeds vC then
shear reinforcement is determined using equation (4.15). The
reinforcement area is calculated at successiveperimeters at 0.75d
increments until a perimeter is found where no reinforcement is
required. If the slab is lessthan 200 mm thick, the shear stress is
checked on line 380 and if greater than vC a warning messageis
printed and the computation finishes.
43w40 The results of the calculation for the current shear perimeter are
printed.
450 If the current perimeter requires shear reinforcement, the pro-
gram is returned to line 330 where a design check is performed on
a perimeter at a distance 0.75d further out from the loaded area.
Subroutines
4OC@4100 This subroutine is identical to that in the shear design program in
chapter 3 and determines the ultimate shear stress, v,.
5ooO-5130 Subroutine to print out data.
4.6.4 Lkting of the punching shear program

iii REM PUNCHING SHEAR PK0GR.m : BS 8110
1M KEN *l*ff**~ffff~~ff..f.****~.~~*,*...
3@ REM t.f~**l~f**l*f.f***f.**.~~*.~~.*.*.~~~* Input of data
140 DISP ENTER SLABS OVERALL DEPTH ,h, - mm
150 INPUT
160 DISP ENTER STEEL AREA FOR STEEL SPANNING IN x rJ,RECTION
- sq.mm,metre
17d INPUT Al
186 DISP ENTER STEEL mEA FOR STEEL SeRNNING IN Y DIRECTION
- sa.mm/metre*
4.6.5 List of variables for the punching shear program

Al : Longitudinal tension steel area for reinforcement spanning in the X
direction (mm2/metre width)
A2 : Longitudinal tension steel area for reinforcement spanning in the Y
direction (m&/metre width)
Dl : Effective depth for steel area Al
D2 : Effective depth for steel area A2
LX : Length of loaded area measured in X direction
LY : Length of loaded area measured in Y direction
V : Ultimate punching load

AV Area of shear reinforcement (larger of A3 and A4)
A3 Area of shear reinforcement
A4 Area of shear reinforcement (VA - VC = 0.4)
B Length of punching shear perimeter
s Distance from face of loaded area to shear perimeter
VA Shear stresson shear perimeter
VC Design concrete shear stress v<
VM Maxmimum shear stxss at face of loaded a~ea
Vl Maximum shear stress
4.6.6 Punching shear example
A 300 mm thick slab is reinforced with 12 mm diameter reinforcing bars at

150 mm centres (754 mm?metre) and in the transverse direction with 12 mm
diameter bars at 200 mm centres (566 mn?/metre). The effective depths of the
two levels of reinforcement are 275 mm and 263 mm respectively. The slab is
subjected to a concentrated load of 700 kN acting on a 400 x 400 loaded area.
Determine what shear reinforcement is required if fcu = 40 N/mm and
fy = 250 N/mm*.
Input:
TITLE : PUNCHING
SHEAR
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF SHEAR LINKS, : 250
fyv - N/sq.mm
LENGTHOFLOADEDAREAINXDIRECTION-nnn : 400
LENGTH OF LOADED AREA IN Y DIRECTION - mm : 400
SLABS OVERALL DEPTH, h, -mm : 300
STEEL AREA FOR STEEL SPANNING IN X : 754
DIRECTION - sq.mm/metre
STEEL AREA FOR STEEL SPANNING IN Y : 566
DIRECTION - sq.mm/metre
EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d, FOR STEEL SPANNING IN X : 275
DIRECTION - mm
EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d, FOR STEEL SPANNING IN Y : 263
DIRECTION - mm
ULTIMATE PUNCHING LOAD, V - kN : 700
Output:
AREA OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT - Asv = 2388.47 sqmm
PERIMETER = 403.5 mm FROM LOADED FACE
AREA OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT - Asv = 0 sqmm
PERIMETER = 605.25 mm FROM LOADED FACE
SHEAR STRESS CHECK OK. NO SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
REQUIRED.
Column Design
Figure 5.1 summarises the design procedure. for reinforced concrete design to
BS 8110. The complexity of this procedure is immediately apparent and this is
therefore one area where computer-aided design methods can assist in ensur-
ing that the various stages of design are accurately and fully considered.
The limit state design of reinforced columns by manual methods necessitates
the solution of approximate design formulae or interpolating from sets of
interaction curves covering different combinations of axial load, moment,
material strengths and section properties. The interaction curves given in
BS 8110, however, are applicable only to a limited range of sectional shapes
and reinforcement locations and cannot be used when, for example, the
reinforcement lies close to the axis of bending.
The design of slender columns and design for biaxial bending requires the
further Use of additional formulae which have to be used together with the
interaction curves.
The use of computer programs as an aid to design will overcome these
problems and remove many of the complexities and possible sources of error
associated with column design.
It is quite feasible to write a single program to cover all the stages of design
indicated in figure 5.1. However, such a program would be quite complex. In
order to aid the understanding of the principles involved, this chapter therefore
presents a number of design and analysis programs each of which can be
incorporated as part of a suite of column design programs which, linked
together, could provide a complete solution to column design.
The programs in this chapter include
(1) The analysis of rectangular sections.
(2) The design of rectangular sections with a symmetrical arrangement of
reinforcement.
(3) The design of rectangular sections with an unsymmetrical arrangement of
reinforcement.
(4) Calculation of N/M interaction curves for rectangular sections.
127
(5) Calculation of N/M interaction curves for non-rectangular sections.
(6) Biaxial bending of rectangular section short columns.
(7) Calculation of effective height.
(8) The design of rectangular section slender columns.
CALCULATE
SLENDERNESS LIMITS
INCREASE
<LlMITS O.K.?
DIMENSlGNS
USE EQUATIONS
40 and 41(BS8110)
AND DESIGN
L d
CHECK MINIMUM AND DESIGN USING
MAXIMUM DESIGN CHARTS
AREAS OF
RElNFORCEMENT
COLUMN DESIGN 129
5.1 Rectangular Section Column Analysis
The program described in this section will calculate the ultimate moment
capacity of any rectangular section column subject to a given ultimate axial
load. Only one level of reinforcement in each face of the column is catered for,
but this reinforcement may be at any position in the columns cross-section.
5.1.1 Analyticaiprm?dure
The fundamental principles of equilibrium, strain compatibility and material

stress/strain behaviour can be used to analyse a column cross-section under
ultimate load conditions. The method is similar to that described for beam
section analysis given in chapter 3 and can be summarised in the following
steps.
(i) Figure 5.2 shows the assumedstressand strain distribution in the column
section under ultimate load conditions. The neutral axis depth, x, is
unknown and a value must be assumed.
(ii) From the geometry of the strain diagram the strain in the reinforcement,
E,~and E., in both faces of the column can be calculated
0.0035 (x - d)
Ex =
.x
0.0035 (d - x)
Es =
x
(iii) The stress,f,, andf,, in the reinforcement in both faces can be calculated
using the design stress/strain graph for reinforcement given in figure 3.3
and the equations developed in section 3.1.1.

Figure 5.2 Section subjecr IO aria1 load and bending
I the event that the neutral axis depth, x, is found to be greater than the
effective depth, d, the steel in the bottom face will be in compression and
its strain must be related to its stress,f: using the compressive stress/strain
relationship.
(iv) The axial load capacity of the section is given by
N, = F, + F,, - F, (5.3)
=f(bkx)+A:f,-Asfs
and if the neutral axis is outside the column section and the whole of the
concrete section is in compression
N,=fbh+A:f,,+A,f: (5.4)
where the final term in this expression is now positive because of the steel
in the bottom face being in compression.
(v) If the calculated axial load capacity and the applied axial load are not
_within agreement, then the calculations must be repeated until there is
agreement.
(vi) The ultimate moment of resistance of the section can be calculated by
taking moments about the centre line of the column
Mu = (kfbx)(F)+ A: fx (k-d) +A,f+ 5) (5.5)
This equation has to be modified if the whole of the concrete section is in

compression
) -A,f: ( d-G) (5.6)

COLUMN DESIGN 131
5.12 Flow diagram for the rectangular section column analysk program
concrete grade Fu
Steel strength FY
Column breadth B
Column depth H
Compression face ~te.3 AC
Depth to compression face steel
Tension face Steel area AS
Depth to tension face steel IX
Axial load N
I
ITERATE X IN INCREMENTS OF
3cG500 Hit0 THEN Hi100
CALCULATE STRESS
38W30 IN COMPRESSION
AND TENSION STEEL
440 CALCULATE AXIAL LOAD CAPACITY
PRlNT DATA, AXIAL LOAD

53&650 AND ULTIMATE MOMENT
5.1.3 Lhxription of the rectangular section analysis program
Lines
lo-250 Data input.
300 (-500) An iteration urocedure similar to that described in section 3.1 is
used to calcuiatethe neutral axis depth.
370-400 The strain in the steel in the bottom face is calculated. If the
neutral axis depth is less than the effective depth, this reinforce-
ment will be in tension and its tensile stress is determined from the
subroutine on line 4040. Otherwise the steel is in compression and
its compressive stress is determined from the subroutine on line
4ooo.
410-430 The program is routed to the subroutine on line 4ooO to calculate
the compressive stress in the top face steel.
440 The axial load capacity of the section, N2, is calculated. The
expression on this line accounts for both equations (5.3) and (5.4)
as appropriate. The variable S in the expression is the depth of
concrete in compression which is taken as the total depth, H,
when the whole of the concrete is in compression (line 340).
Otherwise S is taken as the depth of the stress block, K9.X (line
350).
450 If the neutral axis depth lies outside the section and both levels of
reinforcement have yielded in compression, then the maximum
axial load capacity of the section will have been reached. This line
terminates the iteration by jumping to line 650 if this condition has
been reached and the axial load capacity is still less than the
applied load.
4642-500 The iteration procedure is repeated until there is a 2 per cent
agreement between the calculated and applied axial loads.
510 The ultimate moment capacity of the section is calculated. Again
this expression accounts for either equation (5.5) or (5.6) with S
taken as either H or K9.X as appropriate.
53@%0 Data and the section ultimate moment capacity are printed.
Subroutines
4CW4020 Calculation of stress in the compression reinforcement.
403@406Jl Calculation of stress in the tension reinforcement (tensile stresses
taken as negative).
COLUMN DESIGN
51.5 L&t of variables for the recti@ar section column andysis program
Dl : Depth to steel in most highly compressed face

D2 : Depth to steel in opposite face (measured from the opposite face)
5.1 S.2 Program variables
El : Strain at which the steel yields E,

F3 : Stress in tension face steel
F4 : Stress in compression face steel
K8 : Concrete stress block factor
K9 : Neutral axis depth factor
N2 : Axial load capacity
M3 : Moment capacity
S : Depth of concrete in compression
U : Iteration variable
51.6 Rectangular section column andysk example
Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the column section shown in

figure 5.4 if the ultimate axial load is 1760 kN.
COLUMN DESIGN 135
Input:-
TITLE
I
L
FIgwe 5.4
COLUMN ANALYSIS EXAMPLE

CONCRETE GRADE, fcu- N/sq.mm 40
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF 460
REINFORCEMENT, fy - Nlsq.mm
COLUMN BREADTH, b-mm 3.50
COLUMN DEPTH, h-mm 450
AREA OF STEEL IN COMPRESSION FACE, 1610
As(C) - sqmm
DEPTH TO COMPRESSION FACE STEEL, dl -mm 60
AREA OF STEEL IN TENSION FACE, As - sqmm 982
DEPTH TO TENSION FACE STEEL, d2 - mm 60
AXIAL LOAD, N - kN 1760
Output:
MOMENT STRENGTH = 322.88 kN m
51.7 Fmtber developments
Further developments of this program could include
(a) The analysis of sections containing several levels of reinforcement. This

would require modification to the fundamental equations asdescribed later
in this chapter in section 5.4. A study of the program listing in section 5.4.4
will give further guidance on how to modify this program.
(b) The writing of an additional subroutine to analyse non-rectangular sections.
A suitable subroutine is given later in this chapter in section 5.5 and this
subroutine can be adapted to this program. In order to carry out the
analysis the area of concrete in compression, which in this program is taken
as b kx, must be replaced by the actual area of the non-rectangular section
above the neutral axis. Also, in calculating the moment of resistance the
concrete compressive force should be taken as acting through the centroid
of the area of concrete in compression and the location of this centroid must
be calculated.
5.2 Rectangular Section Column Design - Symmetrical Arrangement of

Reinforcement
This program can be used to design a rectangular column section where the
areas of reinforcement in both faces of the column are equal. This arrangement
of reinforcement may be used where axial loads are predominant and where
approximately equal moments can act in either direction about the axis of
bending.
52.1 Designprocedlu.?
The principles of equilibrium, strain compatibility and material stress/strain

behaviour can be used to design a section having a symmetrical arrangement of
reinforcement.
With reference to section 5.1.1 and figure 5.2, the axial load capacity of a
column section is given in equation (5.3) as
Nu=f(bkx)+A,fsc-A,fs (5.7)
If A, = A, = AJ2 this can be rearranged to give
A = 2(Nu-kfbx)
s (5.8)
(fsc - fs)
and similarly the ultimate moment capacity of the section is given in equation
(5.5) as
Mu = (k f b x) (!!+) + A:f, (4 - d ) + A, f.d - ; (5.9)
If A, = A, = A,/2 and d = h - d this can be arranged to give

A = 2[M. - kfbx(h - kx)/2]
I (5.10)
Khn - d) CL + fdl
Hence for a given value of N, and Mu it is necessary to determine, by iteration,
a value of the neutral axis depth x which will result in identical answers for the
steel area A. from both equations (5.8) and (5.10).
COLUMN DESIGN 137
In the program this iteration is carried out in two stages, as for certain values
of the neutral axis depth it is possible for the term cf,, - fs) in equation (5.8) to
approach zero and the solution for A, becomes inexact.
In the first stage the neutral axis depth is varied between 2.33d and 0.9d. At
each increment A, is calculated from equation (5.8) and this value is used
in equation (5.9) to calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the section.
If no solution is found at which the ultimate moment of resistance is equal to
the applied ultimate moment, a second iteration takes place with the neutral
axis depth varying from d to 0.9d. In this case the steel area is calculated
from equation (5.10) and this value is substituted into equation (5.7) to
calculate the axial strength of the section. The iteration is terminated when
there is agreement between the axial load capacity and the ultimate axial load.
The iteration limit of 2.33d corresponds to compressive yield strains in both
levels of reinforcement, resulting in zero moment of resistance. The limit of
0.9d is the point at which the denominator of equation (5.8) approaches zero,
resulting in an inexact solution for A,.
52.2 Flow diagram for the rertanguar secbbn design program -symmetrical
arrangement of reinforcement
YES
PRlNT DATA, SEE
AXIAL AND MOMENT CAPAClTY
COLUMN DESIGN 139
5.2.3 Lkscription of the rectangular section design program - symmetrical

l&210 Data input.

270 The ultimate moment is compared with the minimum design value
of N x e,i, where e,i, is the lesser of h/20 or 20 mm.
29&350 The section is checked to ensure that minimum reinforcement is
provided when the design loads and moments are of small magni-
tude. Minimum steel area is taken as 0.4 per cent of the concrete
section.
36&560 The neutral axis depth is incremented from 2.33 D to 0.9 D. At
each increment the steel area is calculated using equation (5.8)
(line 510) and this steel area is used to calculate the ultimate
moment of resistance using equation (5.9) (line 530). If the
ultimate moment of resistance and the applied ultimate moment
are not in agreement to within 2 per cent, the iteration is repeated
until such agreement is reached.
57&780 The neutral axis is incremented from Dl to 0.9 D. Equation (5.10)
is used to calculate the steel area (line 710) and, using this steel
area, the axial strength is calculated (line 730). When there is a
2 per cent agreement between applied axial load and the axial
strength, the iteration is terminated.
81&920 Data, steel area, axial and moment capacity are printed.
Subroutines
400&4020 Calculation of stress in the compression reinforcement.
403&4060 Calculation of stress in the tension reinforcement.
5.2.4 Listing of the rectangular section design program - symmetrkat

118 INPUT FY
the axial
COLUMN DESIGN 141
598 X=X-H/
688 x=x+,
616 IF X>H,KS THEN S=H
628 IF X<H,K) THEN s=m*x
5.2.5 List of variables for the rectangular section design program -
symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement
All variables as in the rectangular section column analysis program.
All variables as in the rectangular section column analysis program with the
following addition
EM : emin - lesser of h/20 or 20 mm
5.2.6 Rectangular section column design example -symmetrical

reinforcement
Design a column of section 400 mm wide and 500 mm deep to carry an ultimate
axial load of 3OOLlkN and a ultimate moment of 450 kN m. The depth to the
reinforcement is 37.5 mm. fcu = 40 Nlmm2, f, = 460 N/mm.
Input:
TITLE : DESIGN EXAMPLE
CHARA(XERISTIC STRENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT, : 460
fy - N/sq.mm
COLUMN BREADTH, b -mm : 400
COLUMN DEPTH, h-mm : 500
DEPTH TO REINFORCING STEEL, dl -mm : 31.5
AXIAL LOAD, N T kN : 3ooo
MOMENT, M - kN m : 450
Output:
TOTAL STEEL AREA = 4454.99 sqmm = 2.22%
AXIAL STRENGTH = 3054.87 kN
MOMENT STRENGTH = 450 kN.m
(a) Write a subroutine to calculate the number and diameter of a selection of

bar sizes, chosen from a DATA list of acceptable sizes, which will satisfy
the calculated steel area requirement.
(b) Further develop this subroutine to reject choices which do not satisfy the
limitations in BS 8110 on maximum steel areas.
COLUMN DESIGN 143
(c) Write an additional subroutine to calculate the minimum size and maxi-
mum spacing of links for each chosen combination of main reinforcement.
5.3 Rectangular Section Column Design - Unsymmetrical Arrangement of

Reinforcement
A column which is subjected to axial force together with a large moment acting
in one direction about the axis of bending can be designed to have an
unsymmetric arrangement of reinforcement. This generally will lead to a more
economic design, as more efficient use is made of the column reinforcement.
This program calculates the areas of reinforcement in both faces of a rectangu-
lar section, giving the minimum total steel area for any given set of design
loads.
With reference to figure 5.2, the axial load capacity of the column section is
given in equation (5.3) as
Nu= f@kx)+Adfsc-A,fs (5.11)

If moments are taken about the tension reinforcement, the ultimate moment of
resistance of the section is given by
M, + N, (h/2 - d2) = FCC(d - k x/2) + F, (d - d)
M, + N, (h/2 - d2) = f(b k x) (d - k x/2) + A: fw (d - d)
This can be rearranged to give the area of steel in the compression face, Ai as
A, = M,+N,(h/2-d,)-kfbx(d-kxl2)
s (5.12)
fsc (d - d)
For any value of neutral axis depth, x, equation (5.12) can be used to calculate
the compression face steel area, A:. This value of Ai can be substituted
into equation (5.11) to find the corresponding area of steel in the tension face,
A,. Both of these equations need to be modified for values of x which lie outside
the section. Steel strains can be calculated from the geometry of the strain
diagram, and stressesfrom the stress/strain graph for the reinforcement.
It is apparent that the total steel area (A: + A,) will vary for differing
values of neutral axis depth. The calculations can be repeated until the value of
x is found which gives the minimum value of total steel area and hence the most
economic design.
This is one application where the use of computer methods will permit the
rapid economic design of column sectionswhich would otherwise be difficult to
design becauseof the extensive nature of the repetitive calculations required.
5.3.2 Flow diagram for the rectangular section design program -
unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement
Axial bad N
Moment M
220
,TERA? X IN INCREMENTS OF DllOO

THEN D,,ml
AREAFROMPRElOS
ITERATION?
COLUMN DESIGN
5.3.3 Description of the rectangular section design program - unsymmetrical
Lines
l&210 Data input.
290 A check is made on the eccentricity (M/N) of the resultant load. If
it is small [less than (d-h/2)] a messageis printed suggesting that
a design with symmetric reinforcement is more appropriate.
30&350 The section is checked to ensure that minimum reinforcement is
provided when design loads and moments are small.
36OJaO The neutral axis is incremented, starting with a value equal to the
depth of the compression face steel. Equations (5.11) and (5.12)
are used on lines 520 and 540 to calculate the areasof compression
face and tension face reinforcement.
The total steel area (A3 + A4) is compared with the area from
the previous iteration (B3 + B4). If a minimum value has been
reached, the iteration is repeated with a smaller increment of
neutral axis depth and commencing at a point two iterations
before the minimum was reached. This results in a better estimate
of steel areas.
610-720 Data and steel areas are printed.
Subroutines
4OtG4020 Calculation of stress in the compression reinforcement.
403&4060 Calculation of stress in the tension reinforcement.
5.3.4 Lkting of the rectangular se&on design program - unsymmetrical

328 S=N,B,K*,F
COLUMN DESIGN 147
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF REINfORCEHENT = *;FY;
COLHN BREADTH = ;Fl;%m~
5.3.5 List of variables for the rectangular section design program -

unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement

Additional variables
A3, B3 : Tension face steel area
A4, B4 : Compression face steel area
5.3.6 Rectangular section column design exampIe - unsymmetrical

reinforcement
Design a column of section 300 mm wide by 400 mm deep which is subject to an

axial load of 1100 kN and a moment of 230 kN m. The depth to the compression
face steel is 80 mm and to the tension face steel 60 mm. fcu = 25 N/mm*,
f, = 460 N/mm.
,:
Input:
TITLE DESIGN EXAMPLE
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT, :W
fy - N/sq.mm
COLUMN BREADTH, b-mm : 300
COLUMN DEPTH, h - mm :4Ml
DEPTH TO REINFORCING STEEL, dl -mm : 80
DEPTH TO REINFORCING STEEL, d2 - mm : 60
AXIAL LOAD, N - kN : 1100
MOMENT, M - kN m : 230
Output:
REQUIRED STEEL AREA As = 2221.69 sqmm
REQUIRED STEEL AREA As = 1051.88 sqmm
For rapid design of rectangular column sections BS 8110 Part 3 gives sets of
axial load (N)/moment (M) interaction curves. However, these are restricted
to certain combinations of concrete strength, steel strength and section proper-
ties and are therefore not applicable in all situations.
This program will determine the interaction curve for any combinations of
material strengths and reinforcement locations within the concrete section.
Because the graphical output of data requires a certain amount of machine-
dependent programming, the results are output only in tabular form. How-
ever, any reader familiar with programming for graphical output will find it an
easy matter to write an additional section to this program to give such an
output. Graphics are discussed further in chapter 8.
5.4.1 Analytical j~mcedure
The axial load capacity of a rectangular section is given in equation (5.3) as
N.= f(bkx)+A:fsc-&fs
This can be written as
(5.13)
where & is the diameter of the ith reinforcing bar
h is the stress in the ith reinforcing bar

N is the total number of reinforcing bars.
COLUMN DESIGN 149
By taking moments about the top face of the column section, the moment
capacity is given by
where d, is the depth of the ith reinforcing bar measured from

the most highly compressed face.
By iterating the neutral axis depth, values of N. and M, can be calculated
from the above equations and plotted as an interaction curve.
As in the column analysis program, both of the above expressions have to be
modified if the whole of the concrete section is in compression and this can be
accomplished by replacing the stress block depth, /a by the column depth, h.
5.4.2 Flow diagram for the N/M interaction curve program (rectangular
Lines
,NPT DATA
Concrete grade F
Steel r,rength FY
Column breadth B
Column depth H
Number of reinforcing
For each bar:

Bar diameter DI ( )
Depth to bar D ( )
FOR X = Hi20 TO 5 STEP Hi20

I
Lines
30 The axial load (N2) and moment (M3) arrays are dimensioned for
100 pairs of terms in each.
-220 Input of data.
25&500 The neutral axis depth is varied in increments of H/20. At each
COLUMN DESIGN 151
increment the steel stressesare calculated from the subroutine on
lines 4CGGW.O or 40304OfAl asappropriate, depending on whether
the steel is in compression or tension. The steel stress for each
bar is stored in the array F3 ( ).
The axial load capacity is calculated using equation (5.13) on
line 380 and the moment capacity using equation (5.14) on line
430. The iteration procedure is terminated if
(a) the moment capacity is found to approach zero (line 450)
(b) the slope of the interaction curve is found to flatten off,
indicated by a very small change in the difference between
successive pairs of axial load values (line 480).
51@4i60 Data, axial loads and corresponding moments are printed.
Subroutine
400&4020 Calculation of stressin the compression reinforcement.
403@4Q60 Calculation of stressin the tension reinforcement (tensile stresses
taken as negative).
COLUMN DESIGN 153
5.4.5 List of variables for the N/M interaction curm program (rectangular
sections)
D ( ) Depth of ban from the compression face

DI ( ) Diameter of bars
N Total number of reinforcing bars
The program variables in this program are identical to those in the column
analysis program in section 5.1.
Additional variables
N2 ( ) : Axial load capacity array
M3 ( ) : Moment capacity array
5.4.6 N/M interaction curve example (rect%nguiar section)
Determine the N/M interaction curve for the column section in example 5.1.6.
Input:
TITLE N/M CURVE EXAMPLE
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF : 460
REINFORCEMENT, fy - sqmm
COLUMN BREADTH, b-mm : 350
NUMBER OF REINFORCING BARS :4
DIAMETER AND DEPTH TO BAR 1 : 32,60
DIAMETER AND DEPTH TO BAR 2 : 32.60
Output:
Axial Load (kN) Moment (kN m)
115.13 159.93
492.91 220.87
770.61 262.71
998.27 293.73
1143.72 308.59
3867.82 41.90
3871.09 41.36
(a) The output to this program is presented in tabular form. Using a computer
system having graphics capabilities, a plotting subroutine can be written to
plot the interaction diagram. As all moments and axial loads are retained in
the arrays M3 ( ) and N2 ( ) respectively, the subroutine can be accessed
at the end of the program immediately following the printing of the output.
Such graphical output would enable the plotting of series of interaction
curves similar to those given in BS 8110, but for any column section.
Further discussion on graphical output is given in chapter 8.
(b) For practical design a column should not be designed for a moment, M, less
than N 0.05 h where h is the overall dimension of the section in the plane
of bending. This condition is satisfied if M > N 0.05 h or N < 20 M/h.
Incorporate a few extra lines into the program which will ensure that
those combinations of moment and load that do not satisfy this require-
ment are identified, and replace the axial loads by an equivalent value of 20
-M/h.
(c) The eccentricity (M/N) of 0.05 h should not exceed 20 mm. Incorporate
this requirement into the modifications made in (b) above.
5.5 Non-rectangular Section Column - NLWInteraction Curves
This program is a further development of the program in section 5.4 to include

columns with straight sidesbut of non-rectangular section. The column section
must, however, be symmetrical about the axis at right angles to the axis of
bending.
5.51 Analytical procedure
The theory developed for the program in section 5.4 is equally applicable to this
program provided that the relevant geometric properties of the non-rectangular
section are incorporated into the equations.
The properties required are the sectional area of the concrete above the
neutral axis, together with the distance from the top of the section to the
centroid of this area. Consider the typical section shown in figure 5.8.
The area A, of the shaded section shown is given by
A, = 2 (x, - +) cyl ; yz) + (x* - x3) ti2 ; y3)
)
COLUMN DESIGN 155
or in general
A,=2C ;I; (Xi-Xi+,) cvi+yi+l) (5.15)

2
And similarly the depth to the centroid, Y,, of this section can be expressed as
(5.16)
The axial load capacity is therefore given by

N. = F, + F,, - F,
where as before
& is the diameter of the ith reinforcing bar
h is the stress in the ith reinforcing bar
N is the total number of reinforcing bars.
And by taking moments about the compression face of the section the moment
capacity, M,, is given by
M,=N,y-fA,Y,- (5.18)
where , is the distance from the top face to the centroid of the whole section,
d, is the depth of the ith reinforcing bar measured from the compres-
sion face.
Again these expressions need to be modified slightly if the whole of the
section is in compression. This is achieved by replacing the area of concrete,
A,, by the gross area of the section, and the term Y, by j.
Iterating the neutral axis depth enables pairs of values of N, and M, to be
calculated and subsequently plotted as an interaction diagram.
55.2 Flow diagram for the N/M interaction curve program (non-rectangular
secfims)
Concretegrade F
Steel strengthF-Y
Number of coordinate points Nl
x and Y coordinate X( ), Y c 1
Number of reinforcing bars N
Diameter and depth
DI( ).D( 1
1 CALCULATEAREAAND
370 GOT0 SUBROUTlNE CENTRDID OF SECllON
ABOVE NEUTRAL AXIS
1- CALCULATE STRESS
38G-ml GOT0 SUBROUTlNE IN COMPRESSION AND
TENSION STEEL
1 -
CALCULATE AXIAL LOAD
44c-520
AND MOMENT CAPACITY
Ftgm 5.9
COLUMN DESIGN 157
5.5.3 Description of the N/M interaction curve program (non-rectan@lar
S?CthS)
Lines
l&250 Data input. The coordinates of each comer of the column
section must be input as data. The coordinates are with ref-
erence to the centre of the top face of the section, and the
number of comers must include the points where the axis of
symmetry intersects the section. The caners should be
numbered sequentially and in a clockwise direction com-
mencing with the centre of the top face. As an illustration, the
section shown in figure 5.10 requires the coordinates of the four
points shown input as data in order to define the geometry.
One limitation of the program is that they coordinate at the
highest numbered end of any side must be greater than or equal
to they coordinates of the lower numbered end.
330 - The program is routed to the subroutine on line 5110 in order to
calculate the centroid, Y3, of the gross column sectional area.
34G.580 The overall depth of the section, H, has been calculated on lines
3OC-320. The neutral axis is incremented in increments of H/20
and at each increment the steel stresses are calculated from
either the subroutine on lines -20 or 4030-4060 asappro-
pliate.
On line 370 the program is routed to the subroutine on line
5000 to calculate the area and centroidal depth of the concrete
section in compression.
The axial load capacity is determined from equation (5.17) on
line 460 and the moment capacity from equation (5.18) on line
510.
Again the iteration procedure is terminated if:
(a) the moment capacity is found ta approach zero (line 530)
x
2
l ,Y.
. I a3
0
i
Figure 5.10
(b) the slope of the interaction curve is found to flatten off,

indicated by a very small change in the difference between
successivepairs of axial load values (line 560).
59&790 Data, axial loads and corresponding moments are printed.
Subroutines
400&4020 Calculation of stressin the compression reinforcement.
40304060 Calculation of stressin the tension reinforcement.
5ooo (-52OlI) Subroutine to find the area of the section in compression and the
depth to the centroid.
501&5100 An interpolation routine is used to find the coordinates of the
point where the line at the bottom of the stress block intersects
the section (point 3 on figure 5.8). The coordinates of the
corners of this stressedarea are stored in the arrays X9 and Y9.
If the whole section is in compression the coordinates of the
ccmer~ of the whole section are stored in the arrays X9 and Y9.
51s5200 The area of the stressed concrete section is calculated together
with the depth to its centroid using equations (5.15) and (5.16).
COLUMN DESIGN
5.5.5 List of variables for tbe N/M interaction curve program (non-rectangular
SXtiOIl.9)
D ( ) : Depth of bars from the compression face

DI ( ) : Diameter of bars
N : Total number of reinforcing bars
Nl : Number of coordinated points
X ( ) : X coordinate of coordinated point
Y ( ) : Y coordinate of coordinated point
COLUMN DESIGN 161
The p&ram variables in this program are identical to those in the column
analysis program in section 5.1 with the following additions
YG : Distance from compression face to centroid of concrete area in compres-
sion
Y3 : Distance from compression face to centroid of gross concrete
sectional area
5.5.6 N/M interaction curve example (non-rectangular sections)
Determine the NIM interaction curve for the column section shown in figure
5.11.f=. = 25 Nlnm?,f, = 460N/mm*.
Input:
TITLE : NIM CURVE EXAMPLE
REINFORCEMENT, fy - N/sq.mm
NUMBER OF COORDINATED POINTS :3
X & Y COORDINATE OF POINT 1 : 0,o
X & Y COORDINATE OF POINT 2 : 212,212
X & Y COORDINATE OF POINT 3 : 0,424
NUMBER OF REINFORCING BARS :4
DIAMETER AND DEmH TO BAR 4 : 25,344
Output:
Axial load (kN) Moment (kN in)
75.48 78.77
255.37 84.18
409.55 86.56
591.12 83.18
1789.02 1.0
1793.20 0.45
Chapter 4, section 4.3 in reference 1 (seeend of this chapter) gives a program to

det+nine the geometric properties of a more generalised shape (including
those containing voids) than can be designed by this program in its present
form.
Study this generalised program for geometric properties and develop it as a
subroutine to replace the subroutine given on line 5000 of this program.
5.6 Biaxial Bending of Short Rectangular Columns - Symmetrical

Arrangement of Reinforcement
Although it is possible to carry out a rigorous strain compatibility analysis of a

column section subject to biaxial bending, BS 8110 gives a simplified design
method for the common caseof a symmetrically reinforced rectangular section.
The simplified method permits the design of the section for bending about a
single axis subject to an enhanced design moment. The program in this section
is based on this approach and is in fact a development of the program given in
section 5.2 for the design of a symmetrically reinforced rectangular section.
5.6.1 Des& procedure
The column section can be designed for bending about either the X or Y axis
subject to the following conditions.
(1) Bending about the X axis

The effective design moment is given by
M; = M. + p ; U, (5.19)
COLUMN DESIGN 163
and design should be based on this moment provided that

M M
Z-2
h b
(2) Bending about the Y axis
The effective design moment, Mb, is given by
M; = M, + $ ; M,
and the condition that design should be based on this moment is
Mx M,
-<F
h
In both the above formulae
M, = the ultimate moment for bending about the X axis
M, = the ultimate moment for bending about the Y axis
,, = the effective depth of the section for bending about the X axis
b = the effective depth of the section for bending about the Yaxis
P = a coefficient which can be calculated from the following expression

0.7 N
p = 0.3 + - 0.6 - - (a 0.3)
0.6 b h fc.
5.6.2 Flow diagram for the hiarial bending program
5.6.3 Description of the biawial bendiog program
The major part of this program is identical to the section design program in
section 5.2. The following describes the additional lines that need to be added
to complete the biaxial bending program.
Lines
l&212 Data input. This now includes the ultimate moments about the X
and Y axis.
230 The program is routed to the subroutine on line 5000 to calculate the
enhanced design moment and the critical axis of bending.
81CL940 Data is printed together with a messageadvising which is the critical
axis of bending and the value of the enhanced moment.
COLUMN DESIGN 165
Subroutines
5ooo Between lines 5030 and 5050 the coefficient p is calculated. The
critical axis of bending is identified and the value of the enhanced
moment is calculated using either equation (5.19) on line 5080 OI
equation (5.20) on line 5100.
5.6.4 Listing of the biaxial bending program
The biaxial bending program is a development of the section design program in

section 5.2. In addition to the extra subroutine at line 5oo0, only a few extra
lines are needed as additions or amendments to the original program. These
lines are marked with a # in the listing.
60 DISP ENTER TITLE e DISP

78 INPUT TS
80 DISP ENTER CONCRETE GRADE ,fC, - wsq.mm.
98 INPUT F
#
#
298 RE l . . . . ..*.....f.*.**.t Check of unreinforced section
388 IF NIB THEN 368
320 S=N,LvK*,F
167
56.5 List of variables for the biaxial bending program
As in the section design program with the following additions.
Dl : Depth to the reinforcement for bending about the X axis (see figure
5.13)
D2 : Depth to the reinforcement for bending about the Y axis
MX : Ultimate moment about the X axis
MY : Ultimate moment about the Y axis
AX$ : X for bending about the X axis, Y for bending about the Y axis
Cl : The value of N.l(b h fcu)
C2 : The coefficient p
5.6.6 Biaxial bending example
Design the reinforcement for the column section show in figure 5.13 which is
subjected to an ultimate axial load of 1200 kN together with the moments
shown. feu = 30 N/mm,f, = 460 N/mm.
Input:
TITLE : BIAXIAL EXAMPLE
X
COLUMN DESIGN 169
REINFORCEMENT, fy - Nlsqmm
COLUMN BREADTH, b -mm : 350
DEPTH TO REINFORCING STEEL, dl -mm : 60
DEPIH TO REINFORCING STEEL, d2 - mm : 70
AXIAL LOAD, N - kN : 1200
MOMENT, MX - kN m : 80
MOMENT, MY - kN m : 75
Ouput:
AXIAL STRENTH = 1223.18 kN
MOMENT STRENGTH = 115.71 kN m
DESIGNED FOR BENDING ABOUT X AXIS : ENHANCED MOMENT
= 115.71 kN m
5.7 Effective Height Calculations
In order to determine whether a column should be designed as slender OTshort

it is necessary to calculate the effective heights with respect to both major and
minor axis bending.
This program determines the effective height of a column in a framed
structure for bending about any chosen axis and allows for the restraining effect
of beams spanning in to the column and for base restraint.
57.1 Design procedlm
The effective height, I, is dependent on whether the column is considered as

braced or unbraced. For a braced column the effective height is taken as the
lesser of
1. = I (0.7 + 0.05 (%I + 4) c+kJ (5.21)
or I, = lo (0.85 + 0.05 &in) (>lo) (5.22)
For an unbraced column the effective height is the lesser of
I, = lo (1.0 + 0.15 (&, + UC*)) (5.23)
I, = lo (2.0 + 0.3 &in) (5.24)
where in all the above equations
l,, = the clear height between end restraints
%I = the ratio of the sum of the column stiffnesses to the sum of the
beam stiffnesses at one end of the column
%z = the corresponding ratio at the other end of the column
%rlin = the minimum value of the ratios ac,, acz.

In calculating the effective heights, the following conditions also apply
(i) At a base designed to resist only nominal moment, a, should be taken
as 10.
(ii) At a base designed to resist the column moment, a. should be taken as
1.0.
(iii) a, should be taken as 10 if the beams framing into the column are
designed as simply supported.
(iv) I,, the clear distance between end restraints, should be limited to sixty
times the minimum thickness of the column.
(v) If one end of an unbraced column is unrestrained, I,, should be limited to
100 b*/h, where h and b are the larger and smaller dimensions of
the section respectively.
In the case of a braced column the column is defined as slender if the ratio
I./h is greater than 15. In the case of an unbraced column the limiting ratio is 10.
COLUMN DESIGN 171
57.2 Flow diagram for the effective height program
INPUT
DATA
Tide
TS
Lines
Column
type
10-90TIS
depth,
breadth,
c height and clear hecghf,
w LB( ), L( 1. LB
INPU
DATA
Lower COlrn depth, breadth
height, DC 1. B( ), L( )
Beam depth, breadth,
W 1. B(
length,
1, L( ) (left
hei&D( ),B( ),L( )

29c-ml Beam depth, breadth, length,
W ). B( L L( ) W
EFFECnVE COLUMN
HEIGHT
FIgwe 5.14
5.7.3 Description of the effective height program
Lines
l&340 Data input.
lW160 If the lower end of the column is a basesupport, Cl (ucl) is assigned
the value of 1 if the base is designed to resist the column moment.
Otherwise Cl is equated to 10.
17&190 If the lower end of the column consists of simply supported beams
spanning into the column, Cl is equated to 10.
260-280 If the upper end of the column consists of simply supported beams
spanning into the column, CZ (uc2) is equated to 10.
35w30 The minimum value of Cl and C2 is calculated. Cl and C2 have
values of either 1, 10, or a value based on the ratio of column to beam
stiffnesses, as appropriate.
440-520 Effective heights are calculated from the equations given in section
5.7.1, and the designvalue is taken asthe lesserof the hvo calculations.
53&770 Data and the effective height are printed. On line 760 a warning is
printed if the clear height exceeds sixty times the minimum thickness.
A warning is printed, in the case of an unbraced column, if the
clear height exceeds 100 b2/h.
COLUMN DESIGN 173
5.7.5 List of variables for the effective beigbt program
5.7.5. I Data variables
A$, B$, C$, DO Prompts that take the value of Y for yes or N for no
L0 Clear height of column between end restraints
TI$ Type of column: BR for braced, UB for unbraced
Cl Ratio of column to beam stiffnesses at lower end of column

c2 Ratio of column to beam stiffnesses at upper end of column
CM Minimum value of Cl and C2
Ll Effective height calculated from equation (5.21) or (5.23)
L2 Effective height calculated from equation (5.22) or (5.24)
L3 The lesser of Ll or L2
TL Larger dimension of thr column section
TM Minimum dimension of the column section
5~ 7.6 Effective beight example
Calculate the effective height of the braced column AB in figure 5.15. The clear
height is 3.45 m.
Input:
TITLE EFFECTIVE HEIGHT EXAMPLE
COLUMN TYPE BRACED (BR), UNBRACED : BR
CUB)
COLUMN DEPTH, BREADTH, HEIGHT & CLEAR : .35,.35,4,3.45
HEIGHT, LQ- metres
COLUMN DESIGN 175
Fi 5.15
IS THE LOWER JOINT A BASE SUPPORT. Y or N N

ARE THE LOWER JOINT BEAMS SIMPLY N
SUPPORTED. Y or N
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH & HEIGHT OF LOWER .35,.35,4
COLUMN-metres
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH &LENGTH OF LOWER .60,.30,8
BEAM ON LEFT SIDE-metres
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH & HEIGHT OF LOWER .60,.30,7
BEAM ON RIGHT SIDE-metres
ARE THE UPPER JOINT BEAMS SIMPLY N
SUPPORTED Y or N
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH & HEIGHT OF UPPER .35,.35,4
COLUMN-metres
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH & LENGTH OF UPPER .60,.30,8
BEAM ON LEFT SIDE-metres
ENTER DEPTH, BREADTH & LENGTH OF LOWER .60,.30,7
BEAM ON RIGHT SIDE-metres
Output:
EFFECTIVE HEIGHT OF COLUMN - 2.56 tn.
5.8 Slender Columns
If either of the ratios 1,./h or &lb is greater than 15 for a braced column or 10
for an unbraced column, then the column should be designed asslender (1., and
I76 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN BY COMPUTER
ley are the effective heights with respect to major and minor axis bending, h is
the depth of the section and b is the width of the section). In this case it is
necessary to take account of additional moments which occur as a result of
cuwature of the column under ultimate load conditions.
This program determines the area of symmetrically placed reinforcement in
a slender column of rectangular section subject to single axis bending and
accounting for additional moments.
5.8.1 lksignprocedure
The design procedure given is valid for single axis bending about either a major
or minor axis. However, the length of the longer side of the section expressed
as a ratio of the shorter side length should be lessthan three. Also for major
axis bending l,/h should be lessthan 20.
The design moment, M,, is given by
M, = Mi + Ma,,.,
where
Madd = additional moment due to column bending

N = ultimate axial load
b = the smaller dimension of the section
I, = the effective height
In the above equation Mi is the maximum initial end moment due to ultimate
loads but should not be taken aslessthan 0.05 Nh. For a braced column with no
transverse loading along its height, Mi may be taken as
M, = 0.4 M, + 0.6 Ms (5.26)
where
M, = the smaller of the hvo initial end moments-taken as
negative if the column is bent in double curvature
MZ = the larger of the two end moments-taken as positive.
It is a further requirement that M, should not be less than 0.4 M2 and M, not
lessthan M, or M1 + M&2.
Equation (5.25) represents the additional moments due to the deflection of
the column under ultimate loads. This additional moment may be reduced by a
factor K where K is given by
COLUMN DESIGN 177
(5.27)
where
N,, = the axial load capacity of the section with zero moment
acting, given by (0.45 fCu A, + 0.87 f, A,,)
Nbal = the balanced axial load which corresponds to a simul-
taneous compressive strain in the concrete of 0.0035
and a tensile strain in the outer layer of tensile rein-
forcement of 0.002. Nba, can be taken as 0.25 fCu bd.
For manual calculation the use of the moment reduction factor requires a
trial and error approach asN, cannot be calculated until the steel areas are
known. However, using a computer program an iterative technique can be
used until a unique solution is found to satisfy equations (5.25) and (5.27).
58.2 Flow d&ram for the slender column program
IO-250
5ooo-5100
r--------
+ See column design

CALCULATE STEEL AREA proram - Eymmetrical
I
870
YES
IS THE STEEL AREA

880 EQUAL TO THAT FROM THE
PREVIOUS ITERATION? YES
COLUMN DESIGN 179
Lines
lw250 Data input. The section should be orientated such that the end
moments are always taken about the X-X axis of the section as
260 The effective length is calculated as the greater of the effective
lengths about the X axis and the Y axis.
340 The program is routed to the subroutine on line 5000 to calculate
the design moments for a slender column.
35c870 This section of program is identical to the program in section 5.2
for the design of columns with a symmetrical arrangement of
reinforcement.
880 The calculated steel area is compared with that from the previous
iteration. If there is agreement to within 2 per cent the iterative
procedure is terminated.
the moment reduction factor K, from equation (5.27).
the new design moment allowing for the moment reduction factor
K. The program is then returned to line 440 to calculate another
area of symmetrical reinforcement based on the reduced design
moment.
92C930 Both the axial load capacity and the moment capacity of the
section are recalculated.
940-1110 Data, required steel areas and ultimate load and moment
capacities are printed.
Subroutines
4mo20 Calculation of stress in the compression steel.
40304060 Calculation of stress in the tension steel.
5ooo-5210 Subroutine to calculate the design moment for a slender column.
5CQ&SlOO The column end moments are identified as either the smaller end
moment, Ml, or the larger end moment M2. For an unbraced
column the maximum initial moment, MI, is equated to the larger
moment, M2 (line 5080). For a braced column the smaller end
moment is taken as negative if the column is bent in double
curvature (line 5090) and positive if it is in single curvature (line
5100).
511&5130 The maximum initial end moment, MI, for a braced column is
calculated using equation (5.26). A check is made on line 5130 to
ensure that MI is not lessthan 0.4 M2.
5140-5210 The design moment is calculated (line 5140) and checked against
limiting values including the minimum moment given by N e,i.
(line 5180).
-50 Subroutine to calculate the moment reduction factor, K, using
equation (5.27).
DISP ENTER TITLE e DlSP

INPUT TS
DISP ENTER CONCRETE GRADE ,fC, - N/S.2
INPUT F
COLUMN DESIGN 181
5.8.5 List of variables for the slender column program
LX : Effective length for bending about X-X axis

LY : Effective length for bending about Y-Y axis
Ml : Column end moments (which must be taken about the X-X axis.)
M2 Clockwise momenf~ should be taken as positive
Tl$ : BR for braced column, UB for unbraced column
As in the column analysis program with the following additions

Bl : Minimum dimension of column section
Hl : Maximum dimension of column section
K : Additional moment reduction factor
LE : Effective length
MA : Additional moments
MI : Initial moments
MT : Design moment = MI + K. MA
NB : Axial load for balanced condition
NU : Ultimate load, N,
5.8.6 Slender column example

The braced slender column shown in figure 5.18 is to carry an ultimate axial
load of 3000 kN together with the ultimate moments shown. Determine the
ar&s of reinforcement if the effective height is 6.75 m for bending about both
the X-X and Y-Y axis. fcu = 40 N/mm, f, = 460 N/mm*.
Input:
TITLE SLENDER COLUMN EXAMPLE
CONCRETE GRADE, fcu - Nlsqmm :40
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF REINFORCEMENT, :460
fy - Nlsqmm
COLUMN BREADTH, b -mm :400
COLUMN DEPTH, h - mm : ml
DEPTH TO REINFORCING STEEL, dl -mm : 37.5
AXIAL LOAD, N - kN : 3ooo
MOMENTS TOP & BOTTOM OF COLUMN - kN m : 225, -225
EFFECTIVE LENGTHS, L., X & Y AXIS -metres : 6.75,6.75
BRACED OR UNBRACED STRUCTURE-BR OR UB : BR
output:
AXIAL STRENGTH = 3041.82 kN
MOMENT STRENGTH = 356.50 kN/m
5.8.7 Further development
(a) The effective height calculation program calculates results which form part
of the input data to this program. Develop the two programs as a single
program such that the effective height results are entered automatically
into this program as data. To do this, rewrite the data entry stage of both
programs such that only one set of data is entered, and write the effective
-
COLUMN DESIGN 185
225 kN.m
m /
r;
Y
4 a I 0
-+-
I-1
X- -X
0 I 0
&I J \
225 kN.m
Fit 5.18
height program as a separate subroutine accessed at the beginning of this

prcrgram.
(b) Incorporate additional subroutines as suggested in section 5.2.7 to select
and check a suitable number and size of reinforcing bars.
Reference
1. Mosley, W. H. and Spencer, W. J., Microcomputer Applications in Strut-

turd Engineering, Macmillan, London, 1984.
6
Foundation Design
The most common types of footing for the foundation of any conc*ete stmctme
include reinforced pads, strip footings, combined footings, rafts and piled
foundations.
The essential function of any footing is to transmit the structure loadings to
the supporting ground without causing excessive bearing pressures which could
result in settlement, leading to damage of the structure.
The designer must choose the type of foundation appropriate to his structure
and soil conditions, and determine suitable footing dimensions.
Bending moments and shear forces in the footing must be calculated so that,
if necessary, reinforcement can be provided. In the case of piled foundations,
the size and distribution of the pile group must be determined.
The calculations and design decisions associated with the choice of a suitable
foundation can be complicated but can be aided by the use of appropriate
computer programs.
In this chapter, programs are presented for the design of three different types
of foundation. These are: (a) pad footing design, (b) ground beam on an
elastic foundation and (c) combined footing. These cover some of the more
complicated calculations associated with foundation design. The theoretical
treatment of some others, such as the design of piled foundations, is given in
reference 1 (at the end of this chapter) and the reader can develop his own
programs for these cases.
6.1 Pad Footing Sizing and Design
The design of a pad footing is concerned initially with the determination of

suitable footing dimensions to ensure that under serviceability conditions
excessive ground bearing pressures are not developed. Once a suitable base
size has been calculated the base can be designed for bending, shear and
punching shear at ultimate load conditions.
186
FOUNDATION DESIGN 187
This program calculates the minimum dimensions of a square or rectangular
pad footing supporting a centrally placed square column. The column can be
subjected to axial load and/or moment about one axis, and different combi-
nations of dead, live and wind loading may be considered.
The program is interactive, with the user being invited to try different base
sizes. Once a suitable size of base is selected the bending moment, shear and
punching shear forces are calculated at the critical sections. These values can be
entered as data into the design programs in chapter 3 and 4 so that the necessary
reinforcement can be designed.
(i) Under serviceability conditions

Under the action of axial loads and moments, hvo possiblestressdistributions
are possible under the base of the footing.
(a).Base fully in compression
Figure 6.1 shows the assumed stress distribution under the rectangular
base, shown with the moment, M, acting about the Xaxis and the axial load,
N, acting through the centroid. The axial load will include the self-weight of
the base.
If the allowable bearing pressure at the most highly compressedface isf,,
then the stresscondition at this face is given by
N
- + - 6M s fa (6.1)
L L, L L:
Hence, to satisfy equation (6.1) suitable values of L, and L, must be
determined.
Plan Elevation &stress

distribution
Figure 6.1 Stress distribudon under pod footing
,N
(b) Tension developing at the rear of the base

If, under the action of a large moment, tension develops at the rear of the
footing, a different stress distribution will develop under the base, as shown
in figure 6.2.
Resolving vertically
;fYL. = N (6.2)
Taking moments about the column centre-line
;fYL, ( ? -5 ) =M
And by combining equations (6.2) and (6.3) the maximum compressive
stress,f, and the length of base in compression, Y, are given by
2N
f= (6.4)
3 L.(L,/2 - M/N) -'fa
(6.5)
To determine suitable base dimensions, vahes of L, and L, which just

satisfy equation (6.1) can he calculated. In the program either L, is taken as
equal to L, for a square footing or L, is input as data for a rectangular
footing. In both cases L, is determined by iteration.
If, for the calculated value of L,, the stress at the rear of the base is
checked using simple bending theory and is found to be in tension, then
equation (6.4) can be used to determine the minimum value of L, to satisfy
this equation. Equation (6.5) can be used to calculate the length of base in
compression.
(ii) Untfer ultimare load conditions

Figure 6.3 shows the assumedstressdistribution under the rectangular base
at ultimate loads.
The critical section for bending is taken at the face of the column, and the
ultimate moment at this section is given by
where
The critical section for shear is taken at a section, 1.0 x the effective
depth (d) from the column face, and is given by
"=cfl+f4)L L-'-C-l,Od (6.10)

2 x ( 2 2 1
where
L +c
VI - fd L+
2
l.Od (6.11)
i
fa = f2 +
LY
In the event that, under ultimate load conditions, tension develops at the
rear of the base, the calculations must be based on a stress distribution
similar to that shown in figure 6.2. The design moment and shear force can
be calculated in a similar manner to that described above, but the calcu-
lation must account for both casesof the critical section lying within the
stressdiagram or to the rear of the stressdiagram in the base tension zone,
although this latter case is best avoided.
To calculate the punching shear force, the ultimate axial load is considered
acting on its own and the critical punching shear perimeter is taken at a
distance 1.5 x the effective depth (d) as shown in figure 6.4.
The length of the critical perimeter, L,, is given by

L, = 4 e + 8 x 1.5 d (6.12)
The area bounded by the perimeter, A,, is
A, = (c + 3 d)* (6.13)
If the axial load is N the stress, f, under the base is given by
f= & (6.14)
x Y
and hence the punching shear force, V,, is given by
V,=f&L,-A,) (6.15)
6.1.2 Flow diagram for the pad footing sizing and design program
Liner
,NPUTDATA
Title l-16
Base depth H
17
Wind load@ NW, MW
4
,TERATE TO CALCULATE
MINIMIJM LENGTH OF BASE,
LY, TO SATISFY EQUATION (6.1)
4
CALCULATE STRESS.
AT REAR OF BASE
..I
. -.
59&610
6X%50
NO
650
CALCULATE STRESS AT FRONT

67W OF BASE Fl, AND CONTACT
LENGTH Y
4
DISPLAY STRESSES Fl. F2
694720 OR STRESS Fl AND
CONTACT LENGTH Y
730 YES
BASE SIZE?
77&780 CALCULATE ULTIMATE LOADS

4
CALCULATE STRESS AT
7904cm FRONT AND REAR OF BASE
I
CALCULATE BENDING
MOMENT AND SHEAR
810 FORCE
AT CRllKAL SECTIONS
103~1130
CALCULATE STRESS AT
82S850 FRONT OF BASE AND
CONTACTI LENGTH I
86&1130
114&12M
1240-1460 SHEAR AND PUNCHING 1470

SHEAR FORCES
6.1.3 Lkscription of the pad footing sizing and design program
Lines
l&Z60 Data input. Different combinations of live, dead and wind loading
can be considered.
27&300 Partial factors of safety for the ultimate limit state are assigned
according to the load combinations entered asdata. Serviceability
loads and moments are calculated.
310-400 An iteration routine is used to calculate the minimum base size to
satisfy the inequality expression of equation (6.1). Iteration com-
mences with a minimum length of the base, Ly, of 0.5 m and
iteration increments of 0.5 m. Once a base length is determined
which satisfies equation (6.1), a second iteration takes place
commencing one increment back and using new increments of
0.05 m. On line 350 the base width, Lx, is equated to the length,
Ly, if the base is square.
41WZO The stressat the rear of the base is calculated. If it is in con~pres-
sion the program is routed to line 580 where the minimum length is
displayed on the VDU.
43&540 An identical iteration routine is used to find the minimum length
of base required to satisfy the inequality of equation (6.4). The
length of base contact is calculated on line 540 using equation
(6.5).
55MlO The minimum base length is displayed on the VDU and if tension
is developed in the basethe length of basecontact is also displayed.
The user is invited to enter a trial base length as data.
620-680 For the trial base size, stressesare calculated at the front and rear
of the base. If tension develops in the base, equations (6.4) and
(6.5) are used to calculate the maximum compressive stress and
length of base contact.
69&750 The calculated basestressesare displayed together with the length
of basecontact when tension has developed. The user is invited to
confirm that these stressesare acceptable or to try another trial
base size.
77&780 Ultimate loads and moments are calculated.
79&850 Base stresses are calculated under ultimate load conditions. If
tension develops under ultimate load conditions, equations (6.4)
and (6.5) are again used to calculate the maximum compressive
stress and length of base contact.
86&l 130 Equation (6.6) is used to calculate the ultimate moment at a
section at the face of the column (equation (6.6) on line 1070). If
tension has developed in the base a modified form of this equation
is used on line 900 or 920, depending on whether the section lies
within or behind the stressed area of the base.
Likewise, equation (6.10) is used on line 1130 to calculate the
shear force at a distance of 1.0 d from the face of the column. This
equation is modified on lines 990 and 1010 for the case of tension
developing in the base. All the equations include a final term to
account for the self-weight of the base.
If the critical shear section lies outside the base a warning
message is printed.
114&1230 Equations (6.12) - (6.15) are used to calculate the punching shear
force with ultimate axial load only acting. Warning messages are
printed if the critical perimeter lies outside of the base.
124&1460 Data, ultimate moment, shear and punching shear forces are
printed.
6.1.4 Listing of the pad footing sinhg and design program

1.REM PAD FOOTING SIZING AND DESIGN PROGRA
LYi.5 e =.5 @ G=l
898 F3=F1*IY-Y2,/Y
1389 PRINT
1318 PRINT = AXI.4 ,kN, WmENT ,
kN.rnl P.S.P
1328 PRINT DEAD~,NG,G,GG
1338 PRINT = LIVE=,NQ,MQ,M
1348 PRINT = W1ND,NW,M.GWe PRINT
1359 PRINT nrNu4un BASE LENGTH= =;LY;=metre=
FOUNDATION DESIGN
6.1.5 List of variables for the pad footing sizing and design program
A$ Y for yes, N for no

C column dimensions
F allowable bearing pressure
LX width of base measures in x direction
L2 chosen base width
NG axial dead load
NW axial wind load
NQ axial live load
MG dead load moment
MW wind load moment
MQ live load moment
R$ R for rectangular base, S for square base
AP : area bounded by punching shear perimeter

Fl : maximum compressive base stress
E-2 : minimum compressive base stress
F3 : stress at critical section
GG : dead load partial safety factor at ultimate limit state
GW : wind load partial safety factor at ultimate limit state
GQ : live load partial safety factor at ultimate limit state
P : length of critical punching shear perimeter
s : half the width of the punching shear area
Y : length of base contact when base is in tension
Yl : distance to critical section measured from the fear of the base
Y2 : distance to critical section measured from the front of the base
VP : punching shear force
6.1.6 Pad footing sizing and design example
A square footing carries an 0.4 m square column, has an overall depth of 600
mm and an effective depth of 520 mm. It carries axial loads from dead and
imposed loading of 1000and 600 kN and corresponding moments of 100 and 60
kN m.
Determine suitable base dimensions and the base design moments and shear
forces. The safe bearing pressure is 200 kN/m2.
Input:
TITLE : PAD FOOTING
SIZE OF COLUMN-metres : 0.4
OVERALL BASE DEPTH, H-metres : 0.6
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF BASE, D-metres : 0.52
ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE - kN/sq.m : 200
RECTANGLE OF SQUARE BASE R or S :s
DEAD LOADING (1) AXIAL - kN, : 1ooo,100
(2) MOMENT - kN m
LIVE LOADING (1) AXIAL - kN, :600,60
(2) MOMENT - kN m
WIND LOADING (1) AXIAL - kN : 0.0
(2) MOMENT - kN m
Output:
MINIMUM BASE LENGTH = 3.2 metres
Input:
REQUIRED BASE LENGTH : 3.2
Output:
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM STRESSES = 199.95 AND 141.35 kNI
sq.metre
Input:
DO YOU WISH TO TRY ANOTHER BASE SIZE :N
Output:
DESIGN MOMENT = 818.74 kN m
DESIGN SHEAR = 737.22 Kn
PUNCHING SHEAR = 1474.63 kN
PUNCHING SHEAR PERIMETER = 7.84 metres
The output from this program forms part of the data input to the section design,
shear design and punching shear programs in earlier chapters.
Making use of the principles discussedin chapter 8, combine these programs
to form a complete design program for the design of a pad footing.
BS 8110 requires that the maximum shear stress in the footing around the
face of the column should not exceed 0.8 LfC, OT5 N/mm, whichever is the
lesser. This is similar to the requirements for maximum shear stressat the face
of the loaded area of a concentrated load acting on a solid slab, asgiven in the
punching shear program in chapter 4. The shear stress can be calculated from
equation (4.16) where V is taken as the column axial load.
In developing this program for a pad footing, ensure that this design
requirement is checked and a suitable warning messageprinted if this stress
limitation is not met.
In addition, to allow for an increase in shear stressesas a result of moment
transfer between the column and footing, BS 8110 requires that both punching
shear stressesand the maximum shear stressesat the face of the column should
be increased by 25 per cent before checking the design ultimate stresses.
Incorporate this requirement into the program for the situation where the
colutin transfers moment aswell as axial load to the footing but not in the case
of axial loading only.
6.2 Beam on Elastic Support
In the design of foundations on soft ground it may be necessary to take into

account the settlement of the foundation under loading,
This program calculates the bending moments, shear forces and deflected
shape of a strip footing on a soft ground, the material properties of which are
specified by its coefficient of subgrade reaction. The strip footing can be of any
length and carrying any number of axially loaded columns at any position along
the footing.
6.2.1 Aoaiyticdproced~~e
The strip footing is assumed to be subdivided into a number of equal span
lengths as shown in figure 6.6. Each support is considered to be a spring of
equivalent stiffness to the supporting ground an equidistance either side of the
support.
The analytical method is similar to that described in chapter 2 for the analysis
of a continuous beam, but in this case account must be taken of the sway
deflection of the spans as a result of the support settlements.
For the ith span of the beam a slope deflection expression can be written of
the form
Ill ,, Ill
/////// L L L
TX Strip footing Equivalent beam
on elastic support
Figure 6.6 Strip fooring on sofr ground, with ideoliwd model
n/L3 b/L -12lL3 bL2 yi

b/L= 4/L -6/L 2lL Ri I
= El
-121L3 -b/L 12lL3 -6/L= yi+,
6/Ll= 2/L -6/L 4/L Ri + 1
where
EIIL = the stiffness of the ith span
Mi = the end moment at the ith support
Pi = the end shear at the ith support
Yi = the deflection of the ith support
Ri = the rotation of the ith support

Considering the equilibrium conditions for the whole beam, the stiffness
matrix of the structure can be constructed. Each supported joint will contribute
two rows of terms to the stiffness matrix, of the form
V, = El -,,?$-,!$+,$-,,i!$i+,!+
- VFR(i-1) - VFLi
1
(6.17)
O=EI 6 yi_+2- Ri-1 +8 ; -,F+,y]

[ L= L
(6.18)
+ MFR(i-l) - Mm
where
V, = is the support reaction at the ith support
Vni = the tked end shear force at the left-hand end of the ith span
FR(i 1) = the fixed end shear force at the right-hand end of the (i - 1)th
span
M,, = the fixed end moment at the left-hand of the ith span
MFR(i - 1) = the fixed end moment at the right-hand end of the (i - 1)th
S&Vi
If each support is considered to be an elastic spring, the support reaction at
the ith support can be written as
Vir = K yi
K = the equivalent spring stiffness (the negative sign arises from the sign
convention used which assumes that downward defection and forces are
taken as positive).
Hence equation (6.17) can be modified to allow for the spring stiffness and
written in the form
r Yi-1
12 - -,!$+ (;+;)Yr-12~+6!g
o=EII-L L3
- FR(i-1) - VFL (6.19)
The stiffness matrix of the beam has been set up in the program to form pairs
of equations as indicated in equations (6.18) and (6.19). The solution of these
equations is by a process of forward elimination and backward substitution to
determine the support deflections and rotations. These are in turn substituted
into the equations of (6.16) to determine the end shears and moments for each
span of the beam.
In the event that a support deflection is found to be in the upward direction, a
second analysis is performed with the stiffness of that spring support set to zero.
This analysis is repeated until all the supports, which have a positive spring
stiffness, are found to deflect in the downward direction.
6.2.2 Flow diagram for the beam on elastic support program
520 FOTO SUBROUTINE

AND MOMENTS
HUNT DATA, MOMENTS, 7ixw7G9ll
53s760 SHEARS AND DEFLEC,-IONS
6.2.3 Lksdption of the beam OR ehstic support program
Lines
30 Arrays are dimensioned for a maximum of ten column loads and
ten subdivisions of the foundation. These are fairly arbitrary
restrictions and can be increased if desired.
4G250 Input of data. The user can specify the number of subdivisions of
the foundation (lines 70 and 80). A large number of subdivisions
will result in a more accurate answer but also an increase in
solution time.
260-340 Material and section properties are calculated. The arrays, R( )
and Kl( ), are set to zero.
the fixed end shear forces and moments which are stored in the
array R( ).
36&400 The terms in the structure stiffness matrix S( ) are set to zero.
410 The program is routed to the subroutine on line 5000 to set up the
structure stiffness matrix.
the support rotations and deflections using a forward elimination
and backward substitution procedure.
43s5Ml The support deflection terms are examined in turn and if at any
support, I, the deflection is found to be upwards, the term Kl(1) is
set to unity. At each iteration the terms in Kl( ) are summed and
if the sum exceeds that from the previous iteration the program is
returned to line 360 so that a further iteration can take place with
the stiffness of the Ith support set to zero.
the end shearsand moments for each span of the beam.
53G7-770 Data and end shears, moments and deflections are printed.
Subroutines
4OOtL4120 Subroutine to calculate the fixed end shear forces and moments
using standard formula for a point load on a beam.
500%5360 Subroutine to set up the stiffness matrix of the structure. Between
lines 5190 and 5270 the leading diagonal terms are modified to
include the stiffness of the spring supports which is calculated on
line 5200. In the event that the Ith support is found to have
deflected upwards, the spring stiffness is subsequently equated to
zero by multiplying by a value of C, and C2 of zero. On lines
528G5-5360the values of the fixed end forces and moments are
added from the column vector R( ) into an additional column of
the matrix S( ) to prepare for solution of the joint displacements.
204 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN BY COMP-R
6OOLM250 Subroutine to calculate the joint displacements by a procedure of
forward elimination and backward substitution.
7~703l Subroutine to calculate the shear forces and moments at the end of
each span using the expressions of equation (6.16).
6.2.4 ListJiIg of the beam oa &stir suppoli program

18 REM BEM ON ELASTIC SUPPORT PROGRAH
28 REM ..**ff.ff~~.t~f+.*..~*..~~,.~*~
S~2*1;2*1+2j=Si21;2*1+2E1/L
S(2*1+1,2*1-1)=S(21+1,2*1-11-12E1/L-3
5(21+1,2*1).S(2*1+1,2*11-6*E1/L-2
S(2~1+1,21+1).S(2~1+1,2~1+1)+12E1/L-3
S(21+1,2*1+2)=5(21+1,2*1+2l-6E1/L-2
6(2*1+2,21-1)=S(2*1+2,2*1-1~+6E1/L-2
S(21+2,2I)=S(21+2,2I,+2*EI,L
S(2*1+2,21+1).6~21+2,21+1)-6*E1/L-2
S(2*I+2,2*I+2~=S,2*I+2,2*I+2~+*~EI/L
NEXT I
REM **a* edify matrix to include stiffness Of support.5
K=CSB+l*L,2
KJR I=1 TO NI
c1=1 e c2=1
IF K1(1,=1 THEN cl=@
5216 IF ic1t1+1,=1 THEN c*=8
5258 S,2*I-1,2*I-l)=S(2I-l,2*I-l~+Kcl
5266 S(2*I+1,2*I+l)=S,*I+l,2=I+l~+KCZ
527s NEXT I
5288 REM l f*** *ncorporate load vector in the 1.3Et COl"rn" to
prepare far solutio
207
62.5 List of variables for the beam on elastic support program
cs : Coefficient of subgrade reaction

L2( ) : Distance of column load measured from left-hand end of the footing
NI : Number of subdivisions of the foundation
NL : Number of column loads
w ): Column load
A : Distance of column load measured to the nearest support to the left

of the load
Bl : Distance of column load measured to the nearest support to the
right of the load
Cl, C2 : Variables that take a value of zero if a support deflects upwards
DS( ) : Column vector of joint displacements and rotations
EI Flexural stiffness of the footing
G,G2 i Sum of the terms in the vector Kl( )
K : Support spring stiffness
Kl( ) : Array of unit or zero values depending on whether a support de-
flects upwards
Ml, M2 : Fixed end moments
Rl, R2 : Fixed end shear forces
R( ) : Column vector of fixed end shear forces and moments
SC ) : Stiffness matrix of structure
TA, TB : Rotations at left and right-hand end of one span
YA, YB : Deflections at left and right-hand end of one span
6.2.6 Beam on dstic suppori example
A 6 metre long footing, 1.5 metres wide and 0.5 metres deep, carries three
column loads at distances of 1,3 and 5 metres from one end. The corresponding
axial loads are 100,2M) and 100 kN. If the coefficient of subgrade reaction of
the foundation is 20000 kN/m3 determine the shear forces and moments
together with the deflections of the footing. fc. = 40 N/mm.
Input:
TITLE : FOOTING EXAMPLE
NUMBER OF BEAM INCREMENTS : 10
CONCRETE GRADE, fcu - Nlsqmm :40
COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE REACTION : 2E4
--N/m/\3
DEPTH, h, AND WIDTH, b, OF FOOTING - : SJ.5
metres
LENGTH OF FOOTING - metres 16
NUMBER OF COLUMN LOADS :3
LOAD 1 - kN : loo
DISTANCE FROM LEFT HAND END :l
-metres
LOAD 2 - kN : 200
DISTANCE FROM LEFT HAND END - :3
metres
LOAD 3 - kN : loo
DISTANCE FROM LEFT HAND END - :5
metres
Ouput: Left shear Right shear Left m*ment Right moment

Interval WV WO W m) W W
1 -17.72 17.71 0 -10.63
2 -55.33 -44.68 10.62 -23.82
3 5.09 -5.1 23.81 -20.77
4 -36.09 36.08 20.76 -42.42
5 -78.52 78.51 42.41 -89.53
6 -121.49 -78.52 89.52 -42.42
7 36.08 -36.09 42.41 -20.77
8 -5.1 5.09 20.76 -23.82
9 -44.68 -55.33 23.81 -10.63
10 17.71 -17.72 10.62 0
Deflection
Node interval (mm)
1 1.96
2 2.08
3 2.19
4 2.28
5 2.35
6 2.38
7 2.35
8 2.28
9 2.19
10 2.08
11 1.96
The bending moment, shear force and deflected shape diagrams are plotted
in figure 6.8.
6.2.7 l&her developments
Only a small modification to this program is required to allow for the case of a
foundation carrying columns with axial loads and end moments.
Modify the program to permit end moments to be input asdata, and modify
the subroutine on line 4OCHIto include these end moments in the column vector
of forces, R( ).
i::r -
100T (kN.m)
210 REINFORCED~ONCRETEDESIGNBYCOMPUTER
6.3 Combined hating Sizing
When two columns are closely spaced it may be necessary or more practical to
found the columns on one continuous footing or base.
To ensure that differential settlement is minimised, it is common practice to
proportion the base such that the resultant serviceability axial load passes
through the base centroid, thus ensuring a uniform stress distribution under the
base under serviceability load conditions.
This program will permit the user to interactively select a rectangular or
trapezoidal base section which will ensure that under serviceability conditions
the allowable ground-bearing pressure is not exceeded and the resultant axial
load passes through the base centroid.
6.3.1 Lksignprocedure
Figure 6.9 shows a typical trapezoidal footing supporting two axially loaded
columns.
When the column loads are approximately equal, the base may be made
rectangular by making dimension A equal to dimension B. Otherwise, when
the axial load in one column is predominantly large, a trapezoidal shape may be
more preferable.
The area of the base, A,,, is given by
A,=;(A+B)C
and by taking moments of area about the right-hand side the distance to the
centroid of the base, Sl, is given by
Sect ion &

Figure 6.9 Combined fooring
s1 = A C2/2 + [(B - A)/21 Cz/3
(A + B) C/2
By taking moments of force about the right-hand column, the distance of the
resultant force from the column, S2, is given by
Nl S
s2 = (6.21)
(Nl + N2)
Hence if the base is proportioned such that the resultant force passes through
the centroid, the base should be positioned at a distance S3 from the right-hand
column where
s3 = Sl - s2
and Sl, S2 are given by equations (6.20) and (6.21) respectively.
6.3.2 Flow diagram for the combined footing sizing program
Lines
INPUT DATA
Title Tf
Base depth, H
lc-140 Allowable bearing pressure, F
Column spacing, S
Axial loads Nl. NZ
I
I
t
CALClJLATE REOUIRED BASE
15~1so AREA AND DISPLAY
15xKml
22&2x? INPUT DATA Trial widfh A

i
CALCULATE MINIMUM
240 BASE~LENOTH AND DISPLAY
25s260 ,NPT DATA Base length, C
330-340
3s DISPLAY Fl
360-330
39a-l20 OF SECTION AND

DMENSIONS S1, S2, S3
430-550 I PRINT
BASE
DATA AND
DIMENSIONS I
Fkglm
6.10
560 STOP
Cl
6.3.3 Description of the combined footing sizing program
Lines
l&l40 Data input. The axial loadings, Nl and N2, are the total serviceability
loadings on each column for the load combination under considera-
tion.
lS&lSO The required base area is calculated and displayed on the VDU. The
equation on line 170 includes an allowance for the weight of the
base.
19CL320 Trial base sizescan be entered for either a rectangular or trapezoidal
shaped footing. In the case of a rectangular footing the width is
entered as data and a minimum length is displayed to give guidance
on the required length.
In the caseof the trapezoidal footing, dimensions A, Band C must
be entered and the program checks, on lines 31CL320,whether the
area is adequate.
33&380 The basestressis calculated and the user invited to confirm that this
is acceptable or to try another trial base size.
39&420 The dimensions Sl, S2, S3 as shown on figure 6.9 are calculated.
43&X0 Data, base dimensions and distance S3 are printed.
6.3.4 Listing of the combined footing sizing program

1B REM COMBINED eOOTING SIZIhiC PROGRAM
*a HEM .t***.tt*t*~tt*,.~~**~...~*.~..
x(6 REM *.*t*f*f..f*.**~~f..*..**~~.~.~~.~~*~. inPUt Of data
48 OiSP ENTER TITLE P DISP

in INPUT TS
611 DISP ENTER ESTIEIRTED 3RSE DEPTH. H - metres-
78 IlvPUT H
d!2 DiSP ENTER iiLr.OliABLE C1ERRING ZRLSSuRt - kN,sq.,wtre
6.3.5 List of variables for the combined footing sizing program
A$ : y for yes, N for no

A, B, C : base dimensions
F : allowable bearing pressure
Nl, N2 : axial column loads
S : column spacing
AB : minimum area of base

Al : area of base
N : total axial load
Sl, S2, S3: base dimensions
6.3.6 Combined footing sizing example
A combined footing is to support two columns, 3 m apart, which carry

serviceability axial loads of 1200 kN and 1700 kN. If the allowable bearing
pressure is 300 kN/m, determine a suitable size of base.
Input:
TITLE : COMBINED FOOTING
ESTIMATED BASE DEPTH, H-metres : 0.8
ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE - : 300
kN/sq.m.
SPACING OF COLUMNS - metres :3
AXIAL LOADING, COLUMN 1, COLUMN 2 : 1200, 1700
-kN
Output:
MINIMUM BASE AREA = 10.33 sq.metres
Input:
RECTANGLE OR TRAPEZOIDAL BASE :R
R or T
TRIAL WIDTH - metres : 2.3
Output:
MINIMUM LENGTH = 4.49 metres
Input:
TRIAL LENGTH ~ metres : 4.6
Output:
MAXIMUM STRESS = 293.30 kN/sq.metre
Input:
DO YOU WISH TO TRY ANOTHER BASE :N
SIZE
Output:
SELECTED BASEDIMENSIONS A B
2.3 2.3 4.6 metres
DISTANCE OF BASE END TO COLUMN 2 : 1.05 metres
(a) The output from this program does not include any geometrical checks on
whether the columns can both be physically located within the chosen base
size. Amend the program to determine the proximity of the columns to the
edges of the base and to display a warning messageif the relative locations
are not practical.
(b) Develop this program to calculate the maximum ultimate moments and
shear forces, and their locations.
(c) Using the methods discussed in chapter 8, combine this program with the
section design, shear design and punching shear programs in earlier chap-
ters to form a complete program for the design of a combined footing.
Reference
1. Mosley, W. H. and Bungey, .I. H., Reinforced Concrete Design, Macmillan,

London, 2nd edn, 1982.
7
Serviceability and Detailing
Most reinforced concrete design is concerned initially with the design of
structural elements at the ultimate limit state. Once these strength consider-
ations Have been met it is usual to consider the serviceability requirements of
deflection and cracking under service load conditions.
Whereas empirical rules are often used to satisfy these requirements, it is
possible to calculate deflections and crack widths using analytical methods and
to compare the results with allowable values.
In this chapter programs are given for calculating deflections and crack
widths and also, in the case of the serviceability limit state of deflection, for
calculating span-effective depth ratios as an alternative to the direct compu-
tation of deflections.
As this chapter is also concerned with detailing, a program is given for
determining the areas of steel necessary to satisfy the provision of ties to ensure
a robust structure. Although tie considerations are based on ultimate limit state
criteria, the actual calculations are usually carried out as a check at the detailing
stage to ensure that sufficient continuous reinforcement is being provided.
Hence this program has been included in this chapter. A further program to aid
the preparation of bar bending schedules is also given.
Figure 7.1 illustrates the relationship of the programs in this chapter to
the various steps at this stage in design.
7.1 Span-Effective Depth Calculations
Although beam deflections can be calculated for comparison with allowable

values, in most design situations it is sufficient to calculate limiting span-effective
depth ratios and to ensure that these ratios are not exceeded. This program
calculates the basic span-depth ratios of a cantilevered, simply supported or
continuous beam. The ratio is modified to allow for the effect of both tension
and compression reinforement and in the case of a flanged beam for the ratio of
217
CALCULATE
CRACK YES
~CRACK WIDTHS NO CHECK BAR
WIDTHS AT CALCULATIONS?-- SPAClNG RULES
CRlTlCAL
LOCATION
1 I
web width to effective flange width. Warning messages are printed if the beam
fails to meet the requirements for span-depth ratios.

The calculation of limiting spandepth ratios is based on the identification of
appropriate spandepth ratios which should be modified to account for the
SERVICEABILITY AND DETAILING 219
effect of both tension and compression reinforcement. The steps in the

calculation of these ratios are as follows.
(i) Select a basic ratio for a rectangular section from the following
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26
If the span is in excess of 10 metres the above values may be multiplied
by the ratio IO/span, except in the case of a cantilevered beam where
deflections should be calculated. For these longer spans, the use of the
span+iepth ratios is valid only if it is not necessary to limit the deflections
due to the construction of partitions and finishes.
(ii) Multiply the basic ratio by a factor which allows for the area of tension
reinforcement and which is given by
Factor = 0.55 +
(477 - fs) s 2.0 (7.1)
12O(O.Y + Mlhd)
M = design moment at midspan or at the support of a canti-

IWCX
f, = characteristic steel strength

A s.req = area of tension steel required at midspan (or at the sup-
port of a cantilever)
*S.pO = area of tension steel provided at midspan (or at the sup-

port of a cantilever)
&, = ratio of the resistance moment at the section after re-
distribution to that before redistribution.
(iii) Multiply the basic ratio by a further factor which allows for the effect of
compression reinforcement, given by
00 *:.,mvbd
c 1.5 (7.2)
Factr = + (3 + 100 A;,,,,,lbd)
*;.pru = area of compression reinforcement

(iv) In the case of a flanged beam, multiply by a factor which varies from 0.8 to
1 .O as the ratio of the web width to effective flange width varies from 0.3 to
1 .o.
7.1.2 Flow diagram for the span effective depth program
IS THE BEAM A NO INPUT DATA ,40

< FLANGED BEAM? Beam breadth RF
\/
YES
I
3os330 SPAN DEPTH RATIOS
3cQ410 MODIFY FOR TENSION
420464 REINFORCEMENT
0STOP
7.1.3 Description of the span effective depth progrsm
Lines
40-290 Input of data.
3C&350 Basic span-ffective depth ratios are calculated and if the span is
greater than 10metres the ratio is multiplied by IO/span. On line 340
a check is made and a warning printed if the beam is a cantilever in
excess of 10 metres.
36Wl90 Modification factors are calculated to allow for the areas of tension
and compression reinforcement and for the additional modification
factor in the case of a flanged beam.
5W700 Data, actual and allowable span effective depth ratios are printed.
7.1.4 Listing of the span effective depth program

TtONS REQUIRED @ STOP
7.1.5 List of variables for the span effective depth program
AC : Area of compression steel provided

AP : Area of tension steel provided
AS : Area of tension steel required
BB : Moment factor = moment after/moment before redistribution

Tl$ : CA for cantilever, SS for simply supported, CO for continuous
7. I S.2 Program variables
FS : Service stress in reinforcement

Ml : Ratio Mlbd
SD : Span+ffective depth ratio
Ul : Modification factor for tension reinforcement
U2 : Modification factor for compression reinforcement
7.1.6 Span-effective depth example

A simply supported slab of effective depth 145 mm spans 4.5 metres and is
reinforced with 1130 mm2 mild steel tension reinforcement per metre width of
slab. The area of reinforcement required was found to be 1044 mm. The
design ultimate moment at midspan was 30 kN m. Check the spandepth
requirements.
Input:
TITLE : SPAN DEPTH EXAMPLE
REINFORCEMENT, fy - Nisq.mm.
LENGTH OF SPAN, L - mm : 4500
FLANGED OR RECTANGULAR :R
SECTION?
EFFECIIVE DEPTH, d-mm : 145
BREADTH OF BEAM, b - mm : 1ocu
AREA OF TENSION STEEL PROVIDED : 1130
- sq.mm
AREA OFTENSION STEEL REQUIRED, : 1044
As - sq.mm
AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL :o
PROVIDED - sq.mm
DESIGN ULTIMATE MOMENT, M ~ : 30
kN m
MOMENT FACTOR : 1
BEAM TYPE : ss
Output:
ACTUAL SPAN/DEPTH RATIO = 31.03
ALLOWABLE SPAN/DEPTH RATIO = 34.X2
DESIGN CHECK O.K.
The program in this section can be used as a design check to determine the
adequacy of the span+3fective depth ratio once the areas of both tension and
compression reinforcement are known.
However, if the positive contribution of the compression reinforcement is
neglected and the design service stress,f,, is taken as WSf,, then equation (7.1)
can be used directly as a design calculation to determine a suitable effective
depth. In other words if the basic ratio multiplied by the expression in equation
(7.1) is equated to the actual span divided by the effective depth, an expression
results which can be rearranged and solved iteratively to give a direct solution
for the effective depth. This is particularly useful in the case of slab design
where the section is usually singly reinforced and the span-effective depth ratio
often governs the design.
Study equation (7.1) and write an alternative program that can be used to
give a direct solution to the required effective depth. As a further exercise
combine both programs into separate subroutines of a single program with the
user being asked if he wishes to carry out a design check or a direct solution for
the effective depth; the response to which question will cause access to the
appropriate subroutine.
7.2 Deflection Calculations
When it is necessary to calculate deflections, BS 8110 proposes a method of

calculation based on curvature calculations of either the cracked or untracked
concrete section, depending on which gives the larger value of deflection. The
program described in this section enables estimates of deflection to be made for
a single span beam under the action of a uniformly distributed load. Once the
principles have been understood it is a relatively easy matter to modify the
program to cater for other loading or support conditions.
72.1 Analytical procedure
For a simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed loading the midspan
deflection is given by
L2 1
Ymar = - x -
9.6 I
where
L = span length
l/r = curvature of the section
SERVICEABILITY AND DETAILING 22s
The total curvature l/r is given by

l/r = l/r, l/r, + l/r, + l/r,,
where
l/r, = instantaneous curvature due to total load
l/r2 = instantaneous curvature due to permanent loading
l/r3 = long-term curvature due to permanent loading
l/r,, = shrinkage curvature.
The curvature calculations should be based on consideration of either the
cracked or the untracked section.
The untracked section
From the simple theory of bending the curvature can be expressed as

1 M
where
M = bending moment at midspan
I = second moment of area of untracked section
E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete
For calculation of short-term deflections E, should be taken asthe instantan-
taneous static modulus, but for long-term deflections this should be reduced by
a factor of l/(1 + +) where + is a coefficient that allows for creep effects. The
concrete stress at the level of the tension steel in this section is limited to
1 N/mm.
The cracked section
The calculation of curvature for the cracked section is based on a concrete

tensile stress, ffd, at the tension steel centroid of 1 N/mm* or 0.55 N/mm2 for
instantaneous or long-term deflections respectively. The assumed stress and
strain distribution is shown in figure 7.3.
By taking moments about the centre of compression at l/3 x from the top Of
the section, the section moment can be expressed as
M = A,f, +;hhf;,(hw)+AJf, (7.3)

EC fc
where
and
Equating tension and compression forces
A:fsc+; bxfc=Asfs+ ;bV-x)fc, (7.4)
and from the strain distribution
(7.5)
If equation (7.3) is rearranged to give an expression for fs and this expression

is substituted into equations (7.4) and (7.9, two separate equations for fc
result.
By iterating the neutral axis depth, x, a value of x can be determined at which
both expressions yield the same value off,. In other words, at this value of x the
equations of equilibrium and compatibility are satisfied simultaneously. The
curvature can be calculated from
1- fc
r x Ec
The shrinkage curvature can be calculated from
(7.6)
where
tcS = the free shrinkage strain
a, = the modular ratio
I = the second moment of area of the cracked 01 untracked
section, depending on which gives the greater ctnvature
S, = the corresponding first moment of area of the rein-
forcement about the centroid of the section.
Values of +, the creep coefficient, and Ed,, the shrinkage strain, are given in
Part 2 of BS 8110. In the program, values of + of 2.75 and l ,, of 0.00025 have
been used, although these could be changed to any other values considered
mcxe appropriate to the design situation.
The value of the modulus of elasticity of the concrete is taken in the program
as the mean value of the instantaneous modulus given by
E, = 20 + 0.2 f,,
7.2.2 Flow diagram for the deflection calculation program
Fi@m 7.4
7.2.3 Description of the deflection calculation jwogram
Lines
40-270 Data input.
330 (450) An iteration procedure, similar to that used in the section analysis
program in chapter 3, is used to determine the neutral axis depth
of the cracked section.
350 For calculation of long-term deflections a creep coefficient of 2.75
has been used. This figure can be changed asrequired to any other
suitable value.
370 For long-term detlections ffd is taken as 0.55 N/mm*.
56w540 The curvature of the cracked section, R( ), is compared with that
of the untracked section, RU. The curvature of the untracked
section is based on the second moment of area of the transformed
section calculated on lines 59MoO. The larger of the two curva-
tures is used in the subsequent calculation provided that, in the
caseof the untracked section, the stressat the level of the tension
steel is limited to 1 N/mm.
66&740 The calculation of shrinkage curvature is determined using
equation (7.6) and the value of the first moment of area of the
reinforcement and the second moment of area of the transformed
section, for either the cracked or untracked section as appropri-
ate, is also calculated.
750-780 Long-term and short-term deflections are calculated. The con-
stant of 9.6 is appropriate to a simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed loading. It can be changed to suit other
loading and support conditions as appropriate.
79&920 Data and deflections are printed.
WP : Permanent IoBd U.D.L.

WT : Transitory load U.D.L.
CR$ : CR for cracked section, UC for untracked section

DF( ) : Deflections
Fl : Maximum compressive stressin the concrete
F2 : Maximum compressive stressin the concrete
F3 : Tensile stress in the concrete at the level of the tension steel for un-
cracked section
Fr : Tensile strength in concrete at level of tension steel
G : Iteration variable
IC : Second moment of area of cracked section
IU Second moment of area of untracked section
MR Modular ratio
R( ) Curvature
RU Untracked section curvature
RS Shrinkage curvature
SC First moment of area of reinforcement for cracked section
su First moment of area of reinforcement for untracked section
U Increment of X in iteration
xc Neutral axis depth of cracked section
xu Neutral axis depth of cracked section
7.2.6 LkIIection calculation example
Calculate the short-term and long-term deflections for the beam section shown
in figure 7.5 which is subject to a permanent load of 10 kN/m and a transitory
load of 5 kN/m.
Inptit:
TITLE : DEFLECTION EXAMPLE
REINFORCEMENT fy - N/sq.mm
BREADTH, b, AND OVERALL DEPTH, :300,700
d-mm
SPAN LENGTH, L-metres : 12
AREA OF TENSION STEEL, As- sqmm : 2450
EFFECTIVE DEPTH, d - mm :600
AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL, : 226
As(c) - sqmm
DEPTH TO COMPRESSION STEEL, : 50
d(c) -mm
PERMANENT LOAD U.D.L. - kN/m : 10
TRANSITORY LOAD U.D.L. - kN/m :5
output:
TOTAL SHORT TERM DEFLECTION = 37.04 mm
TOTAL LONG TERM DEFLECTION = 60.88 mm
7.2.7 Further development
(a) As stated in the introduction to this section, the program only calculates
deflections for the case of a simply supported beam with uniformly dis-
tributed loading. The program can be developed to cater for other common
loading casesby altering the coefficient in the deflection formula on lines
760 and 780. Typical coefficients are given in table 7.1.
26r-m
f c:,~25N/mm2
f! , ~460 N/m-n2
1 l
300
0
J
2, 450 m ml2
L
Figure 7.5 Lhyk!ction example
Table 7.1 Typical deflection coefficients
Loading condition Coefficient
A simple way to present the user with alternative loading situations is to

display a menu of options on the VDU and use the ON GOT0 statement
to route the program to a line where the appropriate value can be assigned
to the deflection coefficient.
(b) BS 8110 gives guidance on acceptable levels of deflection under service-
ability conditions. Write a subroutine to compare the results of this
program with allowable values and to print warning messages if deflections
are excessive.
7.3 Crack Width Calculations
In many design situations it is not necessary to calculate flexural crack widths

and compliance with normal bar spacing rules will usually ensure that flexural
crack widths arc not excessive. However, BS 8110 suggests a method for
calculating crack widths which, under normal environmental situations, should
not be found to exceed 0.3 mm.
This program will calculate crack widths along the bottom and side faces of a
rectangular beam section with a single level of bars of equal diameter in the
tension zone.
7.3.1 Analytical procedure
The design surface crack width is given as

3 a,, E,
!+= (7.7)
1 + 2 [ =,;y]
where
w = design surface crack width
a,, = distance from the point under consideration to the sur-

face of the nearest reinforcing bar
% = the average strain calculated from equation (7.8)
cmin = minimum cover to the tension steel
h = overall depth
x = depth to neutral axis.
t, is given by the expression
b, (h - x) (a - x)
Em = El ~ (7.8)
3 E, A, (d ~ x)
where
E, = the strain at the level considered, calculated using the

cracked transformed concrete section
b, = width of section at the level of the tensile steel
a = distance from the compressive face of the section to the
point at which the crack is being calculated.
The analytical procedure therefore consists of the following steps

(i) Calculate the neutral axis depth of the cracked transformed section,
neglecting the concrete below the neutral axis.
(ii) Calculate the second moment of area of this section about the neutral axis.
(iii) At the point under consideration calculate the strain t, using the simple
theory of bending.
(iv) Calculate t, from equation (7.8).
(v) Calculate the crack width using equation (7.7).
The neutral axis depth and second moment of area can be determined with
reference to figure 1.6 as follows.
Taking moments about the neutral axis
bx~+(m~l)A:(x~d)=mA,(d-x)
which rearranges to give x =
~ [(wl)A: + m A,] t d{[(m-1)A: + m A,] + 2b[(wl)A:d + mA,d])

b
(7.9)
the second moment of area of the section is given by
I =; b x1 + (m-l) A; (x-d)* + m A, (d-x)2 (7.10)
If the bending moment at the section is M, the concrete strain, Ed, at the
level of the tension steel is
m=E,
EC
a As. , I
mAs
b
Section Transformed
section
M (d - x) m
E, = (7.11)
Es I
and the strain at any other level can be determined from the geometry of the
strain diagram.
In the calculation of strains the modulus of elastacity of concrete should be
taken as one-half the instantaneous modulus. In the program a mean value of
instantaneous modulus is used given by the expression
E, = 20 + 0.2fC
wheref,. is the characteristic strength of the concrete.
7.3.2 Flow diagram for tke crack width calculation program

7.3.3 Description of the crack width calculation program
Lines
l&Z80 Input of data. The position of each bar in the tension zone is
measured from the left face of the beam as shown in figure 7.9
29&390 The neutral axis is calculated, equation (7.9), and the second
moment of area of the section, equation (7.10). The elastic modulus
of the concrete is calculated on line 300 and is reduced by a factor of
one-half as recommended in BS 8110.
4cs470 Using equations (7.7) and (7.8) the crack widths are calculated along
the bottom face of the beam. The widths are calculated at the points
midway between adjacent bars and at both corners - positions 1
and 2 in figure 7.8. The strain at the level of the bottom of the beam is
calculated on line 420 using equation (7.11)
480-540 Crack widths are calculated on the side face of the beam at point (3)
equidistant between the neutral axis and the tension steel. All
calculated crack widths are stored in the arrays W( ) and Wl( ).
55cb770 Data and crack widths are printed.
SID-X) 1
526 Rl=SQR ll.5~S~I~-S~I-1~1~-2~.5ID-X~~-2~-.5*oI
538 Wl(r,.3*A1*E4/ll+2.cAl-cMl/(H-X))
cda UFI?. r
239
7.3.5 List of variables for tbe crack widtb calculation program

CM - : Cover to tension steel

M : Serviceability moment at section
N : Number of reinforcing bars in tension zone
S ( ) : Distance of tension bar from left face

Al : Distance from tension bar to point where crack width is being
calculated
E3 : Strain at level under consideration
E4 : Average strain (E,)
F : Stress in tension reinforcement
MR : Modular ratio
W ( ) : Crack widths along bottom face
Wl ( ) : Crack widths on side face
7.3.6 Crack widtk calculation example
Calculate the crack widths for the beam shown in figure 7.10. The serviceability
moment at the section is 650 kN m. fN = 25 N/mm, f, = 460 N/mm.
Input:
TITLE : CRACK WIDTH
EXAMPLE
REINFORCEMENT, fy - N/sq.mm
BREADTH, b, AND OVERALL DEPTH, h, OF : 400,loGa
SECTION - mm
TOTAL NUMBER OF BARS & BAR DIAMETER, : 3,40
+-mm
HORIZONTALDISTANCE OF BAR 1 FROM LEFT : 70
FACE OF BEAM - mm
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OF BAR 2 FROM LEFI- : 200
FACE OF BEAM-mm
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OF BAR 3 FROM LEFT : 330
FACE OF BEAM-mm
BO?TOM COVER TO STEEL - mm : 50
AREA OF COMPRESSION STEEL, As(c) - sqmm :0
SERVICEABILITY MOMENT AT SECTION - : 650
kN m
output:
CRACK WIDTH ALONG BOITOM FACE OF BEAM (mm)
BAR TO LER OF BAR TO RIGHT OF BAR
1 ,238 .230
2 ,230 ,230
3 ,230 ,238
CRACK WIDTHS ON SIDE FACE OF BEAM (mm)
LEFT FACE = 0.221 mm
RIGHT FACE = 0.221 mm
7.4 Ties
This program calculates the areas of reinforcement necessary to meet the

requirements for tying the structure. The program caters for a building with a
uniform grid of columns at equal spacings in both the X and Y directions. The
loading at each floor level must be identical.
Reinforcement areas are calculated for all the different types of tie as given
in BS 8110 and for two different steel strengths.
7.4.1 Design requirements
In order to provide a stable and robust structure, reinforcement acting at its

characteristic strength should be provided as ties acting vertically throughout
the height of the building and horizontally at each floor level. These require-
ments can be summarised as follows.
Should be capable of carrying a force F, where F, is the lesser of 60 kN or

(20 + 4 x number of storeys in the building). They should be provided at
each floor level.
(b) Internal ties
Should be capable of carrying a force given by the greater of
F, kN/m width
F,(g*+4k) 1,
1.5 x s kNm
Width
where I, is the greatest distance in metres in the direction of the tie between
centres of columns or supporting frames or walls. Internal ties should be
provided at each floor level in two perpendicular directions.
(c) External column and wall ties
Should be capable of carrying a force given by the greater of
3 per cent of the total ultimate vertical load at the floor level
or the lesser of
(i) 2 F, kN
(ii) & Ft kN
where 1, is the floor to ceiling height.

These horizontal ties should be provided at every floor level. Corner
columns should be designed similarly but should be tied in two perpendicu-
lar directions.
Vertical ties are required only in buildings of five or more storeys. They
must be able to resist a tensile force equal to the maximum ultimate dead
and imposed load transmitted to the supporting column or wall by any one
floor or roof.
7.4.2 Flow diagram for the tie program
7.4.3 Lkxription of the tie program
Lines
l&150 Input of data.
16W180 F, is calculated as the lesser of 60 kN or (20 + 4 X number of
storeys).
19&230 The internal tie force is calculated as the greater of F, kN and
Ft {(g* + 4*)/7.5) x (1,/5) kN. The calculation is repeated for
both X and Y directions and the results stored in the array IT( ).
24W280 The column tie force is calculated as the greater of 3 per cent of the
total ultimate vertical load at the floor level and the lesser of 2F, kN
and (1,/2S)F, kN. The ultimate vertical load is calculated on line 270
for the column af groundfloor level.
29&310 For buildings with five or more storeys, the ultimate dead and
imposed load at one floor level is calculated. The calculation on line
310 is for an external column. The tie force in an internal column is
twice the figure for the external column for columns at equal
spacings.
32&540 Data, tie forces and the required steel areas are printed for charac-
teristic strengths of 250 and 460 N/mm for the reinforcement.
7.4.4 Listing of the tie program

lid RE TIE PROGRAM : B.S.8118
243 REM f**f,.*.~f.ff*ff*ftf*~
X10 REM f*,.*ff~~.ltt......f***~~*~.~......~.* Input of oat.3
7.4.5 List of variables for the tie program

Lb : Floor to ceiling height
LX : Span length in X direction
LY : Span length in Y direction
NS : Number of storeys

CT : Column or wall tie force
Fr : Tie force Ft
IT ( ) : Internal tie force
VT : Vertical tie force
XL : Span length in X direction
YL : Span length in Y direction
7.4.6 Tie example
Determine the stability tie requirements of the structure shown in plan in figure
7.12 given that
E
0
r; tran*verse
beam
6.5m 6.5m 6.5m 6.5m
Number of storeys = 8
Floor to ceiling height = 3.4 m
Characteristic dead load = 6 kN/m2
Characteristic live load = 3 kN/m.
Input:
TITLE TIE EXAMPLE
NUMBER OF STOREYS 8
FLOOR TO CEILING HEIGHT - metres 3.4
SPAN LENGTH, L, IN THE X DIRECTION-metres 6.5
SPAN LENGTH, L, IN THE Y DIRECI.ION - metres 7.0
CHARACTERISTIC DEAD, gk, AND LIVE LOAD, 6.3
qk - kN/sq.m
Output:
TIE FORCE (kN) AREA (sq.mm) AREA (sq.mm)
(fy = 250) vY=w
Peripheral 52.00 208.00 113.04
Internal - x 567.84 2271.36 1234.43
Internal-Y 567.84 2271.36 1234.43
Column (wall) 72.07 288.28 156.67
Vertical (external) 300.30 1201.20 652.82
Vertical (internal) tYlo.60 2402.40 1305.65
7.5 Bar Bending Schedules
The preparation of bar bending schedules is one of the final stages in any
concrete designfollowing the preparation and detailing of the working drawings.
Whereas the procedure is generally straightforward, it does require a certain
amount of calculation which can readily be carried out with the aid of a
computer program. The program in this section calculates the lengths of
reinforcing bars required and outputs a bar bending schedule table together
with the total weight of steel.
7.5.1 Procedure for preparing hending schedules
The program is based on the recommended method given in reference 1 at the

end of this chapter. The shapes of bars are in accordance with BS 4466 (see
reference 2 at the end of this chapter).
The preparation of data for the program is exactly the same as the data
prepar&ion for any conventional bending schedule. For example, with ref-
erence to figure 7.13, the data that must be read off the drawing includes
(i) the bar mark
(ii) type and size of bar
(iii)the number of members with that bar
(iv) the number of bars in each member
(v) the shape code
(vi) dimensions A, B (C, D, E/r), including any allowance for tolerances as
indicated in figure 7.13(b).
The dimensions A, B etc. are used to calculate the length of each bar
according to the appropriate formula for each shapeof bar. The formula for bar
mark 38 is given in figure 7.13(c). The dimensions A, B etc. should be entered
to an accuracy of the nearest 5 mm, and the program calculates the length to
the nearest 25 mm.
When the standard radius of a bent bar is required, or when the shape
includes a standard hook or bend, the program calculates the appropriate data
using the information given in figure 7.14.
7.5.3 Lkscription of the bar bending schedule program
Lines
4w30 The array S( ) which contains all the schedule data initially has all
its terms set to zero. This is not necessary on some computers
where array terms are automatically set to zero once the array has
been declared.
100 The program is routed to the subroutine at line 4000 which reads
into the array SC( ) information specifying the number of dimen-
sions which are required for each shape code. For example, three
dimensions are required to calculate the length of shape code 38.
Hence the value of 3 will be read into SC( ) in the 38th row
position - that is SC(38). The program contains information on
only fourteen diffewntshape codes. Once the logic is understood,
as many different shape codes as are required can be added to the
program.
11@-440 Input of data. All schedule data is entered into the array S( ). The
program loops back to line 200 after every set of bar data has been
entered. If the bar mark is entered as zero, the program exits the
loop and proceeds to line 560.
470-520 The dimensions of standard hooks, bends and radii are calculated
according to whether the bar is high yield (T) or mild steel (R).
530 The program is routed to the subroutine on line 5C00 to calculate
the total length of the bar according to the formula appropriate to
the shape code. At the same time the dimension required to
calculate the length but not to be specified in the schedule is set to
zero.
56@610 The total weight of steel is calculated.
62MOO The bar schedule is tabulated.
SERVICEABlLITY AND DETAILlNG 251
.__.___--________..._________n @ PRINT
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
THEN
e RE
c : Input data counter

S( ) : Array containing all the bar schedule data
Tl$ Schedule reference number

T2$ Site reference
T3$ Date
T4$ Member number
X$ Bar type and size -for example, RlO
H Length of standard bend

N Length of a standard hook
R Standard radius
SC ( ) Array defining the number of data inputs for each shape code
V Total volume of steel
WT Total steel weight
Y$ ( ) String array of types of bar-that is, T or R.
7.5.6 Bar bending schedule example
Input:
SCHEDULE REFERENCE NUMBER : 15/01/A
SITE REFERENCE : NANYANG
EXTENSION
DATE : 28/05/1984
MEMBER NUMBER : BEAM Al
BAR MARK : 1
BAR TYPE & SIZE : T16
NUMBER OF MEMBERS :6
NUMBER OF BARS IN EACH MEMBER :2
SHAPE CODE : 37
DIMENSION A-mm : 305
DIMENSION B-mm : 1500
Repeat for bar marks 2 to 4
BAR MARK :o
Output:
BAR SCHEDULE REFERENCE I5,OliA
SrrE REF NANYANG EXTENSlON DATE 28/05/1984
Member Bar Ty ,.yo. Total Le;gt; Shape A B c D E/r

1
mark size mbrs each no. bar code. mm.
BEAM Al
1 l-16 6 2 12 1775 37 305
2 l-12 6 2 12 4050 20 4050
3 R 10 6 20 120 1750 64 240 540
4 T 12 6 15 90 900 43 100 250 200 150
References
1. Gmcrete Society/Institution of Structural Engineers, Standard method of

detailing reinforced concrete, Concrete Society, London.
2. BS 4466: Bending dimensions and scheduling of bars for reinforced concrete,
British Standards Institution, London.
8
Program Enhancements, Files
and Graphics
8.1 Program Enhancements
The programs in the previous chapters have been presented in their simplest
forms in order to aid the understanding of how the principles of concrete design
can be incorporated into working computer programs.
However, any commercial program will also incorporate many features
which will improve both the efficiency and presentation of the program by, for
example, checking input data for incorrect responses or data values which are
outside the range of normally expected values.
The inclusion of many of these features into the programs in this book in
many cases involves the addition of only a few extra lines of program or the
addition of extra subroutines. Typical enhancements are discussed below and
guidance is given on the extra programming statements required.
S.l.~.l Error traps
The input data sections of the programs in the previous chapters have been
written in a prompt and respond format, thus exploiting the interactive
capabilities of the computer.
In all cases the response required is clearly elicited, but it is nevertheless
possible to key in incorrect values or wrong responses. Such incorrect data
values or responses can be detected or trapped by the computer, and correct
data input requested or clarification sought that the data entered was indeed
correct.
For example, consider the following few lines of program which form part of
the torsion design program.
255
800 DISP ANOTHER LOAD CASE -------- Y or N?
810 INPUT B$
820 IF B$ = Y THEN 280
The input response is clearly expected to be either Y for yes or N for no.
In fact, if the response is Y the program will correctly GOT0 line 280 for
another set of calculations. However, any response other than Y will be taken
as N, as the statement on line 820 tests only whether B$ is equal to 7.
It might therefore be desirable to limit the only possible responses to Y or
N, and ensure that any other response is rejected by the computer. This can be
done by adding the following line to the program
815 IF B$ < > y AND B$ < > N THEN 810
This line of program ensures that any response other than Y or N simply
returns the program to the INPUT statement on line 810. If the response is Y
line 820 returns the program to line 280, and if the response is N the program
will continue to line 830.
Some of the programs already contain similar error traps in the given
program listings. For example, lines 590 to 610 of the pad footing design
program
590 DISP ENTER REQUIRED BASE LENGTH
600 INPUT L2
610 IF L2 < LY THEN DISP CHOSEN LENGTH TOO SMALL
@ GOT0 600
The program has already calculated the minimum (LY) length of base required
to give an admissible design. At the stage when the user is invited to key in the
chosen base length it is obviously desirable that the length selected is greater
than the minimum. Line 610 checks whether this is the case and if not a warning
message is displayed and the program returns to the INPUT prompt on line
600.
If the INPUT sections of each of the programs is studied it will soon become
apparent that the addition of even a few extra lines in this form will prevent the
entry of erroneous data or responses.
8.1.1.2 Funny value checks

Another form of error check concerns the input of data which is acceptable to
the program but lies outside the range of values that would normally be
expected in engineering design. For example, many of the programs contain a
statement to enter the characteristic strength of concrete
40 DISP ENTER CONCRETE GRADE, fcu - N/sq.mm
50 INPUTFU
It might be reasonable to assume that for most concrete design the concrete
strength is unlikely to exceed (say) 60 N/mm* or be less than 15 N/mm2. Values
PROGRAM ENHANCEMENTS, FILES AND GRAPHICS 251
outside these limits are possible but unlikely and are often referred to as funny
values. If such data is keyed in, it is possible for the program to query the
accuracy of the input but not to reject it if the user confirms that the funny
data, is intentional.
The addition of the following lines will achieve this desired effect.
40 DISP ENTER CONCRETE GRADE, fcu - N/sq.mm
50 INPUTFU
51 IFFU> = lSANDN< =6OTHENGOTO60
52 DISP FU @ DISP VALUE CORRECT ------ Y OR N
53 INPUTB$
54 IF B$ < > N AND B$ < > Y THEN 53
55 IF B$ = N THEN GOT0 40
60 (Next part of the program)
Line 51 checks whether the value of FU lies within the normally accepted range
of 1540 N/mm2. If FU does lie within the range, the program continues to line
60. If hot, the data is displayed on the VDU and the user is invited, on line 52,
to confirm the accuracy of the input data. If acceptable the program continues
to line 60, otherwise the GOT0 statement on line 55 returns the programto the
INPUT prompt on line 40 for new data to be entered.
Many of the data input statements can be checked for funny values in this
way. Such checks might be applied to all material properties, span lengths,
beam depths etc.
8.1.1.3 Default values
All of the programs in concrete design require the input of a certain amount of
data which is common to all programs and may be taken as the same value
every time a program is used.
For example, in a design office it may be standard practice to design mainly
in grade 30 concrete and with high yield steel of characteristic strength 460
N/mm. In this situation it may be desirable not to have to enter this data on
every occasion but to have it contained within the program. The facility must
also exist to change the data, if required, to values other than the chosen
default values.
Such default data can be READ into the program from DATA lists. For
example
10 READ FU, FY
20 DATA 30, 460
Every time the program is RUN, FU will be READ as30 (N/mm) and FY as
460 (N/mm). No further data input will be necessary if these default values are
acceptable. All other data which can be assigneda standard default value may
be included in the READ and DATA statements.
READ data Yes

from DATA list
L I. I
F
One simple way of altering the default data is, of course, to LIST the
program and change the DATA line. However, this is not usually a desirable
practice and it is better to write a few extra program lines which will permit
either the READing of default values or the INPUT Of non-standard Values
from the keyboard, as indicated in figure 8.1.
8.1.1.4 Editing of input data
No matter how many error traps are built into a program, it is impossible to
prevent the accidental entering of incorrect data which lies within the range of
normally aceeptable values.
Hence a desirable feature of any program is the facility to edit and amend
data, if required, immediately following the data input stage.
Editing facilities can be added to all the programs in this book and this can
best be achieved by writing a separate editing subroutine or possibly several
separate subroutines. The nature of the subroutines will depend on the amount
and nature of the input data. Where the amount of data is small, it may be
simpler and quicker to re-run the program from the beginning. However, in
programs such as the continuous beam program in chapter 2, an editing facility
would obviate the necessity to re-enter all the data again because of one or two
small errors.
Another advantage of an editing facility is that if data is recovered from a
da?a file, items of data can be selectively changed and the program ream with
different data parameters.
Editing features can be added to the programs in several ways. For example,
a single editing routine can be provided after all the data has been entered.
Alternatively, if there is a large amount of data, blocks of data can be edited
before the next~data items are either entered from the keyboard or read from a
data fde
It may also be desirable to combine the editing routines with additional data-
printing routines so that data can be output, checked, edited if required and
output again. This would, of course, necessitate changing the data output
sections of the programs, but if written into subroutines these would present
few problems. Figure 8.2 illustrates methods of editing data.
DATA OUTPUT
Data A
Data B
Data c
DATA INPUT
AND
OUTPUT OF 4
DATA OUTPUT
Data B
COMPUTATION
AND OUTPUT
As an illustration of how an editing facility can be incorporated into the

program, consider the bar bending schedule program in chapter 7. This is a
typical program where a substantial amount of data input could be required,
including the dimensions A, B, C E/r of each bar mark. A simple editing
routine can be incorporated into the program to permit amendment of any
incorrect bar data by adding the following few lines of program
450 DISP DIMENSIONS O.K. -------Y or N
451 INPIJT E$
452 IF E$ < > Y AND E$ < > N THEN 451
453 IF E$ = Y THEN 459
454 DISP DELETE OR AMEND DATA ------- D or A
455 INPUT E$
456 IF E$ < > D AND E$ < > A THEN 455
457 IF E$ = D THEN C = C-l @ GOT0 200
458 IF E$ = A THEN GOSUB 6OGil
459 S(C, 5) = S(C, 3)*s(c, 4)
These lines will display on the VDU the prompt DIMENSIONS O.K. ------- Y
or N. If the response is Y (Yes), the program continues without interruption
to line 459.
If the response is N (No), an additional prompt is displayed: DELETE
OR AMEND DATA ------- D or A. If the response is D (Delete), the data
counter is incremented backwards by one and the program is returned to line
Zodso that the next set of bar information over-writes the current set.
If the response is A (Amend), the program is routed to a subroutine on line
6000 so that the current set of data can be amended.
The subroutine could simply repeat the program lines 220-440 such that all
the data on the current set of bars can be entered again in its correct form.
However, it is better to selectively edit the data, thus minimising the number of
corrections to be made.
The following subroutine would permit selective editing of one complete line
of data in the bending schedule.
This subroutine utilises the ON GOT0 statement which permits the routing
of the program to any line given in the ON GOT0 statement. For example, if
the user wishes to change the bar mark, he can key in the number 1 in response
to the menu of options displayed on the VDU and the program will jump to
line 6120, the first line number given in the ON GOT0 statement. When a new
bar mark is entered, the program returns to line 6020 and a further menu of
options is displayed. Only when option 7 is selected (End of Edit) will the
program exit the subroutine and return to the main program.
In the caseof the dimension data (A, B .), each item is selectively edited
by extending the menu of options on line 6170. If the shapecode is altered, the
dimension data must be reentered also as different shape codes require
different combinations of dimensions.
This example editing subroutine illustrates one way of adding editing facili-
ties to a program. There are, of course, other ways of achieving the same end
result and, by studying this example and the programs in this book, the reader
should be able to devise suitable editing subroutines for each of the programs,
particularly those requiring substantial amounts of data input.
One further alternative way of editing data is to combine data storage on a
massstorage device with a purpose-written editing program independent of the
main program. Data read on to a file can be edited and, when correct, stored
hack on the tile for subsequent accessand use by the main program.
8.1.2 Enhancements to (be output
Most computer programs used in CAD produce large quantities of data output.
The visual presentation of this output and the quality of the information
conveyed is an important feature of most commercial programs.
In the sameway that effort should be made to make the programs easy to use
by enhancing the data entry stage, consideration should also be given to the
output stage of the program. A well-presented output listing of results will not
only convey a good impression of the program but more importantly will
minimise the possibility of misinterpretation of the results.
In the programs in this book, a simple approach to the output has been
adopted. However, various features can readily be added to all the programs
which will add perhaps only a few lines of program in each casebut will result
in a much more professional presentation of the results. Typical enhancements
could include the following.
8.1.2.1 Title blocks
All the programs permit the entry of a simple title or job descriptor which is
printed at the beginning of the data and result output. This title enables the set
of results to be referenced to and identified with the particular j&.for more
visual impact, this title could be printed within a title block at the head of each
sheet of output and, if the hardware in use permits, could be highlighted in bold
print. To print a title block a separate subroutine could be written which is
accessed every time the printer advances to a new page. The title block could be
developed in a variety of forms and may also include other information such as
the name or logo of the firm or company using the software.
8.1.2.2 Further job reference information
The documentation of a particular job run is a feature of most large computer

systems and is a feature that can be built into most programs to be output with
the results for future reference. In the same way in which a job title can be input
and output in the title block, additional information which could be included in
the same way might include
(i) Data and time that the computation took place.
(ii) The name or identification code of the program user.
(iii) A further job descriptor: for example, the main job descriptor may
describe the name of the job and the further descriptor may provide
further information on the particular element being designed
Job descriptor: Nanyang Engineering Block
Further descriptor: Block 3, First floor level
(iv) File reference of data storage: the next section in this chapter discusses the
use of files for storing data and results on a storage medium external to the
computer. The.location of the file where the current set of data is being
stored can also be included in the output for future reference.
X.1.2.3 Alternative form of data output
Data can be output on the VDU or more practically, if a hard copy is required,
on an external printer. For most uses in design, a hard copy of both data and
results will always be required but sometimes it is desirable to view the data
and/or the results on the VDU before they are. output to the printer. For
example, the user may wish to view and edit his data before computation takes
place or he may wish to preview his results before deciding to make a paper
listing.
This can readily be achieved by adding a few lines to each program just
before the output stage of the form
710 DISP Is a listing of results required on the VDU

720 INPUTA$
730 IF A$ = Y THEN
740 IF A$ = N THEN
The nature of the statement after the IF THEN statement on lines 730 and 740
will depend on the system in use. It can, for example, take the form of routing
the program to one or another subroutine to output to the VDU (line 730) or
to the external printer (line 740). In this case the data output section of the
programs will need to be written into subroutines.
Another possible refinement that can be made to any program that creates
large quantities of both input data and results is the facility to select which data
or which results are to be output. For example, if a particular design or analysis
is being carried out several times on the same structure, it may be desirable to
suppress the input data once a printout of that data has been obtained on the
first program run.
Similarly in a program such as the substitute frame program, a large number
of results may be calculated and the designer may only be interested in, say, the
maximum span moments or maximum support moments. A useful addition to
this program would be the facility to output all the span moments and shears or
alternatively a summary of the peak moments and shears as required by the
user. If two alternative subroutines are written to output the results in one or
another form, then the user can be invited to select which alternative is
required and the IF THEN statement used to route the program to the
appropriate subroutine.
8.2 Use of Files for Program and Data Storage
Any computer system will have the facility to store both programs and data on a
storage medium external to the computers own memory. Typically, the device
will be a tape cassette or cartridge unit or a flexible disc unit, although both
cassettes and cartridges are of limited use because of their speed of operation.
Such an external device, often referred to as a mass storage system, extends
the capabilities of the computer and its software by
(i) allowing programs to be saved and subsequently recovered
(ii) permitting the storage of data on files which can be accessed and manipu-
lated by one or more programs
(iii) Linking together separate programs and recalling them sequentially into
the computer memory
The existence of these features in a computer system provides the opportunity
of developing the individual programs in this book into a more powerful CAD
system. Each of these features will be discussed.
8.2.1 Program storage
Most massstorage medium such as a flexible disc unit have to be initialised or

formatted before use. This procedure sets up a directory, clears and tests the
disc and marks out the disc in segmentsready to receive information which is tq
be stored. The directory records the contents of the disc and can be inter-
rogated by the user to determine the disc contents.
Once initialised, the disc is ready to store any program which has previously
been entered through the keyboard. The program is saved in a program file in
a manner usually determined automatically by the computer operating system.
The BASIC command to save a program is usually either
STORE filename
SAVE filename
The filename is any name chosen by the user and typically would reflect the
nafure of the program. For example, the column analysis program could be
given the name COL ANALYSIS although it should be remembered that
there is usually a restriction on the length of the filename.
To recover the program from storage a command such as LOAD filename
is usually used. Programs can therefore be developed and saved on disc for
rapid accesswhen required on future occasions.
8.2.2 Data storage
All of the programs in this book contain both input data - the parameters
that define the problem - and output data - the results of the individual
calculations.
8.2.2.1 Input data storage
In the case of input data it may be desirable to have data such as that given in
the various tables in BS 8110 which can be stored on disc and accessedwhen
required by the program. Such data could be contained within the programs in
DATA statements and READ into memory. However, it could be much more
efficient to have this data READ from disc storage, particularly when the same
data is required by more than one program.
Once the data for a particular problem has been entered through the
keyboard, it may also be advantageous to save the data for possible future re-
runs of the same problem or simply to keep a record of a particular design or
analysis that has been carried out.
A possible flow chart for these alternative forms of input data treatment is
8.2.2.2 Output data storage
The results of any set of calculations may also be saved on the external storage
device. The saving of the output may simply be a matter of keeping a record of
the results for future reference or more importantly to build up a databank of
information to be accessedand used by other programs. These other programs
may equally produce results which can be saved in separate records or aspart of
one large record system.
In the development of an integrated suite of reinforced concrete design
programs, the use of such data storage facilities is essential and is illustrated in
figure 8.4.
DATA INPUT
Loads, geometry. material
properties, etc.
I-
SUBSTITUTE FRAME .
ANALYSIS PROGRAM
Analysis for nlomcnts.
shears column loads etc.
SECTION DESIGN ,
PROGRAM
Design for bending
reinforcement
82.3 Data files
Program data can be stored in tiles on the storage medium. Each file will be
identified by a unique filename, the use of which enables data to be stored on
the file and to be accessedfor subsequent use. Usually the massstorage device
will maintain a catalogue or directory of the files stored on it, and executing the
appropriate command for the particular computer system will enable the
directory to be inspected.
.Generally there are two types of data file.
(a) Serial or sequential access files where data is stored and retrieved in
sequence. This type. of file storage is useful when all the data is to be stored
and subsequently retrieved, although individual items of data can be
accessedonly by searching through the data from the beginning.
(b) Random accesswhere data is stored individually or in blocks, and each
individual item or block of data can be accessedwithout the necessity to
read all the data to memory.
The BASIC commands necessary to manipulate files and the form that
the actual file structure takes vary from computer to computer, but the
principles are identical in all cases.
8.2.4 File records
A file on a massstorage medium usually consists of several records of record

length which is usually specified in bytes. Each record in a file will have records
of the samelength but this length can usually be specified by the user to suit the
amount and type of data to be stored.
If data is to be stored in serial mode, the length of each record is not very
important asonce the first record is filled with data the next item of data wil be
stored in the second record and so on. When it is subsequently accessedit will
be read back, beginning with the first record.
If data is to be stored in random accessmode, the length of record can often
be specified according to the data to be stored in each record. For example, if
the bending moments in the continuous beam program in chapter 2 are to be
stored on file, with the twenty-one moments for each span stored in separate
records, the length of each record must be sufficient to accommodate the span
moments. Hence, for a system with a storage requirement of 8 bytes per
number, each record length should be 168 (8 X 21) bytes in length.
Figure 8.5 indicates the structure of a typical random accessfile.
8.2.5 Writing to and reading from data files
In order to accessa data file, the file must be opened and a link formed between
the computer and the file by way of a buffer. Typical statements to create this
link include OPEN# or ASSIGN# and in all cases the statement will be
followed by the filename, a buffer or logical device number and the device
address of the massstorage unit.
To put data on to the file the usual statement used is the PRINT# or PUT#
command. Once a file has been opened, data in either numeric or string form
can be written to the file in serial or random accessmode. Usually more than
one file can be opened at once and data can be selectively written to each file,
using the logical file or buffer number to direct the data to the chosen tile.
To recover data from a file, the INPUT# or READ# or GET# statement
is used. These statements enable data, written to the file using PRINT# or
PUT#, to be read back into memory, although it should always be remem-
-168 bytes- 168bytes-168 bytes--,
Momentsfor Momentsor Moments for

span 1 span 2 span 3
-Record 1-Record 2 --K-Record 3-
aBending moment tile.

Figure 8.5 Random accessfire s*rldcture
bered that data types must match. In other words a variable written to a file as a
string must be read back as a string, and likewise numeric variables must be
read back as numeric variables.
Once access to a data file is no longer required, the tile must be closed using
the CLOSE# statement or whatever similar statement is appropriate to the
system in use.
8.2.6 Chaining programs
Unless a computer system is being used that offers a very large random access
memory, it is often advantageous to break a large program down into smaller
programs each of which can be stored externally on a mass storage device. For
example, the programs in this book can be joined together to form a complete
and logical approach to reinforced concrete design, although there would be
little advantage in joining them into a single program that would soon exhaust
the memory of the computer. If the programs are instead treated as a suite of
separate subprograms stored externally to the computer, each program can be
accessed and used when required.
Common commands to achieve this result include CALL, CHAIN or
MERGE, although these commands tend to be somewhat different in their
application. One form of these commands permits one program to complete its
own operation and on completion to automatically load and run another
program from tile storage. Data created by the first program will be erased
from memory and can be passed between the programs only if it has been
stored on a data file which can be accessed by both programs.
A more powerful facility is to chain programs together and pass variables
between the programs directly within the computer memory. Many micro-
computers offer the facility to CHAIN or MERGE programs such that the
program in memory is over-written, but the data created by that program is
passed to the new program without the necessity of storing it on file. Some
more powerful micr&otiputers enable subprograms to be CALLed from the
external storage device and to be run, but at the same time retaining the main
program in the computers memory.
8.2.7 Using files to create B suite ofdesign programs
The file-handling capabilities discussed above offer the opportunity of deve-

loping the programs in this book into a suite of programs, giving a powerful and
integrated approach to reinforced concrete design.
All of the programs can be stored external to the computer memory on a
massstorage device, and can be called into memory when required. Both input
and output data can be saved on data files to be accessedby some or all of
the programs as needed.
To develop such a system a hierarchal approach to program organisation
MASTER PROGRAM
I 1 1 1 I
SUBFRAME BEAM COLUMN SLAB FOUNDATION
ANALYSIS DESIGN DESIGN DESIGN DESIGN
1 1 1 1 1
Figure
8.6
iemduz,program
SRUClUre
can be adopted. Each of the programs given can be considered to be a
subprogram of a single master program whose function it is to access and
control the appropriate subprogram when needed. Thus the programs in this
book can be grouped together as indicated in figure 8.6.
Access to each subprogram will be by way of the master program which can
be developed in one of several ways. One possible approach is to have the
program menu driven with options being displayed on the VDU, as indicated
in the following listing.
10 DISP Select Option
20 DISP 1 Sub Frame Analysis
30 DISP 2 Beam Design
40 DISP 3 Column Design
50 DISP 4 Slab Design
60 DISP 5 Foundation Design
70 DISP
80 INPUT1
90 ON I GOT0 100,200,~300,400,500,600
100 CHAIN SUB FRAME
200 CHAIN BEAM DESIGN
300 CHAIN COLUMN DESIGN
400 CHAIN SLAB DESIGN
500 CHAIN FOUNDATION DESIGN
The appropriate subprogram will be CHAINed into memory from disc when
the chosen value of I is entered, having been previously saved on file using the
filenames shown or any alternative set of filenames.
An alternative form of control is to use keywords to accessthe appropriate
subprogram, as illustrated in the listing below.
10 DISP Enter keyword
20 INPUTA$
30 CHAIN A$
This program is obviously simpler but the user must be familiar with the
appropriate keywords corresponding to different filenames and incorrect
keyword entry must be error-trapped.
The master program segment must also be saved on file and, once the
subprogram operation is terminated, the master program can be MERGEd or
CHAINed back into computer memory to enable the next option to be
selected.
A subprogram can itself offer a further set of options, inviting accessto a
further lower level of subprograms. For example, once the user chooses to
carry out a beam design, he may then wish to choose whether he wishesto carry
out design for bending, shear or torsion or perhaps to carry out serviceability
checks. The programs in chapters 3 and 7 can therefore form a subset of
programs which can be entered from a menu driven or keyword program
which has itself been entered from the single master program. Figure 8.7
illustrates how the programs in these two chapters can be grouped at a lower
lW4.
At this level all the programs can be written as stand alone programs with
data entry from the keyboard, or alternatively data created by other sub-
programs can be READ from the appropriate data file. The file will, of course,
have to be identified by the correct filename and the results of the current
design calculations can be added to this file. Each set of results should
be entered into a separate record so that results can be accessedin random
accessmode by other subprograms.
For reinforced concrete beam design the flow diagrams in chapters 3 and 7
indicate a logical approach to limit state design at the ultimate and service-
ability limit states. If the individual subprograms are to be accessedat will by
the user, error checks should be built into the master program to ensure that
the programs are being used in a logical sequence. For example, if the user
wishes to design the beam section using data from file but no analysis results
exist on file, then suitable error traps and warning messagesshould be built into
the system to advise the US~Tof the incorrect use of the system.
The alternative to this is to have a system where, once the data is entered, all
the calculations etc. are carried out automatically, with each subprogram being
entered in a sequence dictated by the computer master program. However, this
approach removes all flexibility from the design system, does not permit the
user to intercede in the design procedure and utilise his own experience and
also removes the ability to carry out parts of the design as time and circum-
stances allow.
If program control is being left to the user, then it is advisable not only to
build in error traps to prevent totally erroneous use of the system but also
additional checks to ensure that, for example, the correct set of data is being
used from file and not data from a totally different job. One possible way of
achieving this is to precede each record of a particular job with an appropriate
job description which can be displayed on the VDU when access to that set of
data is requested. The user can then be invited to confirm that the correct set of
data has been accessed before the data is used in the current program. The
nature of the job description can be a simple few words description of the job or
could contain more detailed information such as the date and time that the file
record-was created.
Organising the program structure in the way described obviously depends
on a certain amount of compatibility between the structure of individual
programs. The programs in this book have been written using as many common
variable names as possible and adopting a standard approach to program
format and presentation. Also, many of the programs use common subrou-
tines. In these ways it is easier to develop the programs into an integrated yet
user-controlled suite of programs.
The advantages of maintaining user control can be seen if the flexibility of a
user-controlled system is considered further. For example, the structure to be
designed may be a sizable structure which has been analysed using the
continuous beam or substitute frame programs. The engineer may wish to
design all the bending reinforcement at one floor level or he may wish only to
consider the design at.one or two supports. If the record structure of the
bending moment calculations is organised in such a way that individual
maximum moments can be accessed as well as all the span moments, it is an
easy-matter to allow the user to choose which alternative design calculations he
wishes to perform.
In addition, if the filing system is directly accessible by the user, individual
data records can be entered, and the contents examined and modified if desired
before use by the programs within the program library. If the data records are
organised in a random access format, then all or selected items of data can be
treated in this way. In other words, this sort of flexibility leads to a design
system which offers the engineer a design tool which is under his direct control,
not just a black box system which is beyond his comprehension, and enables
him to intercept and make his own positive decisions at each stage of the design.
On the other hand, the routine design calculations are carried out both
accurately and comprehensively without the sort of errors inherent in manual
calculations.
The example of the program groupings at subprogram level indicated in
figure 8.7 can be modified in the case of slab design. The programs for moment
calculation will give bending moments which can be stored asa record on a data
file; this record can be accessedby the other programs applicable to slab design
and these can in their turn add the results of their calculations to the job file.
The program for bending reinforcement design is identical to that for beam
design, and this can be combined at one level with the shear and punching shear
programs in chapter 4. The serviceability programs in chapter 7 are also
applicable to slab design and can form part of the library of programs for both
beams and slabs.
All the column design programs can be grouped together with the facility to
accessthe results of the column moment calculations obtained from and stored
on file by the substitute frame program.
The easewith which the programs can be combined in the manner described
is obviously dependent on the type. of computer system being used and the
quality of the file-handling capabilities of the particular system. In the simplest
of systems it may not be feasible to develop the programs in such a way and it
may only be possible to treat them as a collection of individual programs.
However, most modern microcomputers which offer disc drive systems also
offer the opportunity to develop a design package in the manner described. A
study of the methods described in this section together with a study of the user
manual for a particular computer system will indicate the extent to which this is
possible.
8.3 Using Computer Graphics
The results of any set of engineering calculations are invariably eventually

translated into a pictorial or graphical representation, either in the form of
sketches or full working drawings.
Conveying design information in this way is the natural method of communi-
cation adopted by most engineers and is a part of the design processwhere the
computer can play a further role as a design aid. The particular facility of a
computer system to convey information pictorially is referred to as computer
graphics.
Not all computers are capable of developing true graphics capabilities
although most can produce a pseudo-graphics output with graphical characters
being printed on the output device in locations controlled by simple TAB-
ulation commands. However, a computer that offers true graphics capabilities
is potentially a powerful design tool, giving the ability to create drawings and to
display data in graphical form.
Computer graphics can be displayed on the VDU, drawn in ink on an
external plotting device or printed to a line printer. In some systems it is even
possible to store graphical output on a tile system on disc to access and
manipulate at a later date. Graphics may be in black and white or in colour.
They may be produced as a graphical interpretation by the computer of
numerical data or as a picture reproducing commands input by the user to
create a picture or drawing. They may be produced automatically or inter-
actively with the user entering drawing commands either through the keyboard
or with the aid of a graphics tablet or digitising pad.
Computer graphics is now a wide and complex field, and the programming
commands to program a system to produce graphical output is much more
complex than standard BASIC programming and is somewhat machine depen-
dent. However, the principles of computer graphics are always the same and
this section of text is intended to convey an appreciation of how graphics can be
used in CAD without the detail of how to program any particular system.
8.3.1 Creating graphics on the VDU
8.3.1. I The graphics display
Most computers that offer graphics capabilities are equipped with visual
display units which can both convey alphanumeric text and also generate
pictorial information. These display units are usually classified as either raster
scan or vector displays.
A vector display, sometimes referred to as a stroke system, enables lines to
be drawn on the cathode ray tube of the display unit by moving an electron
beam from one point to another across the face of the tube. The phosphor
coating on the tube is caused to fluoresce and the lines thus become visible.
However, as the fluorescence quickly decays with time the lines have to be
continuously redrawn or refreshed many times a second, thus placing a
restriction on the total length of line that can be drawn at any one time. An
alternative form of vector display is the storage tube which retains a flicker-free
image without the need to refresh the screen. This form of display does,
however, suffer the disadvantage that the whole screen display has to be
deleted and redrawn if any changesare required. Vector displays produce high-
qualjty graphics with high resolution, although they are generally found only
on the more-expensive computer systems.
A raster scan display consistsof a number of horizontal and vertical lines, the
intersection of which forms a mesh of dots on the VDU screen. The larger the
number of dots for a given size of screen the better the resolution of the
graphics picture. Each dot corresponds to a memory address location within
the computer memory which controls whether a dot is to be illuminated and
also the intensity of the illumination. In this system the electron beam scans
each horizontal line, one at a time, and illuminates the dots according to the bit
patterns contained in the memory. Again, the dots quickly lose their fluor-
escence and the screen graphics must be refreshed many times a second.
This form of graphics with the dots (or pixels) corresponding to memory
address locations is referred to as memory mapped graphics. There are two
forms of memory mapping: memory cell and bit graphics. Memory cell
graphics gives rise to low-resolution graphics with each address location
corresponding to a block of dots or a cell on the screen. The contents of the
memory location can be displayed by illuminating the required pixels within
the cell.
With bit graphics, each and every pixel is controlled by an individual memory
location and the bits contained within that location enable every dot on the
screen to be switched on or off at will. As the controlling memory locations can
change in value very quickly, the resulting graphics can be changed or altered
almost instantaneously as the screen is refreshed.
Using bit graphics, pairs of dots can be illuminated on the screen and the
computer instructed to connect these dots by illuminating intermediate dots. In
this way straight lines, curves and complex shapes can be generated for
pictorial representation.
8.3.j.2 Programming for graphics

There are three basic operations in programming for graphics
(i) Drawing lines and cwws
The plotting surface of the VDU can be thought of as a two-dimensional graph
surface mapped out in X and Y artesian coordinates. Any point on the surface
can therefore be represented by a pair of X/Y coordinates.
The fundamental operation in drawing a straight line on the plotting surface
is therefore to identify the coordinates of the start point and end point of the
line and to instruct the computer to join the two points together. The BASIC
statements to achieve this are usually some form of MOVE, PLOT or DRAW.
These statements permit an imaginary pen to be moved over the plotting area,
drawing a line between two defined points or relocating the pen in a new
position without drawing a line. Other statements or control parameters will
permit the pen to be raised or lowered as required. The pen is, of course, the
electron beam of the cathode ray tube and the diagram drawn is the result of
iliuminating the screen dots with the pen down or not illuminating them with
the pen up.
It will be appreciated that in this way the computer can draw only straight
lines between two specified points. Curves can therefore be created only by
drawing a succession of very short straight lines. The accuracy of the resulting
curve will therefore depend on the length of the straight lines used to construct
it, and a more accurate curve will result from a large number of very short
straight lines. However, a compromise must be struck between accuracy and
the computing time required to calculate and draw a large number of lines.
Some computers offer additional commands, such as CIRCLE to enable a
circle of given radius and origin to be drawn with the use of one statement,
otherwise a mathematical routine has to be written to calculate the coordinates
of successivepoints around the curve.
Further variations on line drawing offered by some systems include the
ability to specify different typesof line to be drawn-for example, dotted or
dashed lines and, where colour graphics are available, the colour of the pen to
be used. Additionally, some systems enable relative plotting to take place
where the current pen position is taken as a local origin, and subsequent
DRAW or PLOT operations are made relative to this origin.
(ii) Scaling and sizing the plotting area
In order to position graphics in the required location on the VDU it is necessary
to define the scale and units of measurement that the user is working in.
Generally there are two types of coordinates that have to be considered in any
system
(a) Absolute plotter units -corresponding to the number of dots that can be
illuminated on the VDU. For example, a screen which has a dot pattern of
639 by 399 has 639 absolute units in the X direction and 399 in the Y
direction.
(b) User-defined units - used to scale the plot to units consistent with the
users use of the graphics capabilities. For example, to draw a reinforced
concrete beam it would be desirable to work in units of millimetres and to
scale the plot so that there is a direct scaled correlation between what
appears on the VDU and the physical length of the beam.
To relate user-defined units, which the user understands, to plotter
units, which the computer works with, it is necessary to use a BASIC
statement such as SCALE which permits the user to specify the user
scale in the X and Y directions.
At the same time as scaling the plotting area, the user may be interested in
specifying the location on the VDU where the plotting is to take place. There
are various limitations to the plotting area that must be considered, including
the physical size of the available plotting device. The procedure for specifying
restrictions on where the plotting can take place is known as clipping, and
onceclip limits are specified all plotting is restricted to within these limits. The
advantage of plotting within clip limits is that the remaining unused part of the
display area can be used for annotation of the plotted diagram or addition of
text or general documentation.
Various BASIC commands to carry out this clipping procedure include
LIMIT, LOCATE, CLIP and VIEW. These commands also enable a pro-
cedure known as windowing to be carried out, where areas of a drawing or
plot can be picked out (or windowed) and subsequently magnified to fit on to
the whole plotting area.
(iii) Labelling ofgraphical output
The facility to add labels and annotation to graphical output is again a very
machine-dependent operation, but suffice to say that any worthwhile graphical
output should be fully labelled to convey a clear picture to the user of what
graphical message is being conveyed.
Axis to graphs should be fully labelled. All graphical output should have
clear titles and headings given, and titles should be preferably in larger lettering
than other text. Some systems enable different character sets to be used, with
differing heights and slope of lettering. This sort of facility can be used to good
effect to create graphical output which can convey information much more
effectively than other non-graphical means.
8.3.2 Hard copy graphical output
To obtain a hard copy of the graphical output, additional peripheral plotting

devices must be interfaced to the computer.
Hard copy units, like graphics display units, can be classified aseither vector
or raster devices. Raster devices form imagesmade up of many dots formed in
ink on paper, the dots corresponding to the illuminated pixels on the screen of
the cathode ray tube. For this reason they are often referred to as dot matrix
devices and are to be found either in impact form, working rather like a
typewriter, or using a thermal technique where heat is used to create imageson
special thermal paper.
Vector plotters, on the other hand, simulate conventional manual drafting
techniques with a pen being moved and controlled acrossthe surface of a sheet
of drawing paper, although in some plotters both pen and paper move relative
to each other. These sort of plotters come in a range of sizes from desk-
mounted flat bed A4 size to floor-mounted drum plotters capable of handling
large engineering drawings or even continuous rolls of paper. On the more
expensive of models interchangeable pen units are provided, enabling computer-
controlled drawings to be produced with variable line thickness and pen colour.
Vector plotters can produce high-quality drawings on different drafting media,
including paper and transparent film.
Generally, there are two ways of obtaining hard copy graphical output.
Using a dot matrix device it is usual to use a dump command which copies the
entire contents of the graphics display on to the hard copy unit. A vector
plotter can, however, be thought of as an alternative plotting device to the
display unit, and the commands that are used to create a drawing on the VDU
can also be used to create the drawing directly on to the plotting unit. Generally,
all that is required to achieve this is an additional programming command,
either embedded in the program or executed from the keyboard, which
designates the plotter unit as the current plotting device.
8.3.3 Graphics and reinforced concrete design
The purpose of using graphics is to condense data and make it clear and more
comprehensible by presenting it in the form of graphs, charts or drawings. Such
presentation enables the user to readily visualise and assimilate the data being
presented, or in the case of reinforced concrete design the outcome of his
design calculations. Once this information has been assimilated the user or the
engineer can make rational design decisions based on design results obtained
with the aid of the computer. Graphics therefore offers another dimension in
the use of the computer in reinforced concrete design.
As an example of how graphics can be used with the programs in this book
the following program listing enables an N/M interaction diagram to be
graphically displayed from the results of the N/M interaction analysis of a non-
rectangular column section using the program given in chapter 5. The program
can be added as a subroutine to the analysis program and can be accessedby
inserting a GOSUB statement on the line before the END statement.
6OOil REM Subroutine to plot the interaction curve
6010 GCLEAR
6020 _ MX=O @ NX=O
6030 FOR1 = 1 toJ
6040 M3 (I)=M3(1)/1000000 @ N2(I)=N2(1)11000
6050 IF MX < M3(1) THEN MX=M3(1)
6060 IF NX < N2(1) THEN NX=N2(1)
6070 NEXT1
6080 MX=(INT(MX/lC0)+1)*100 @ NX=(1NT(NX/1000)+1)*1000
6090 LOCATE 30, 150,20,80
6100 SCALE 0, MX, 0, NX
6110 LAXES MX/lO, NX/lO, 0, 0, 1, 1
6120 MOVE M3(1), N2(1)
6130 FORI = lTOJ-1
6140 DRAW M3(1), N2(1)
6150 NEXT I
6160 RETURN
A typical plot obtained from this subroutine is shown in figure 8.8. The
subroutine has been written for use on a Hewlett Packard microcomputer, and
for any other computer the necessary BASIC statements will depend on the
particular system in use. However, a study of this listing will indicate the main
components in producing a graphical interpretation of the N/M results which
are much easier to assimilate in this form than in a listing of pairs of figures.
Line 6010 is a statement to switch the display unit from its alphanumeric
mode to graphics mode. Lines 602&6080 calculate the maximum value (MX)
of the moments contained in the moment array (M3), and maximum axial load
capacity (NX) from the axial loads contained in the load array (N2). The
plotting area is defined by the LOCATE statement on line 6090 and this area is
SCALEd on line 6100 using the values of MX and NX to ensure that the whole
plot will fit on to the defined area. The parameters in the LOCATE statement
4oow
specify the left and right, upper and lower boundaries of the plotting area.
The LAXES statement on line 6110 enables the automatic drawing of a pair
of axes corresponding to the moment, M, and axial load, N, and labels them
with the current units of moment and load. Finally, the interaction diagram is
DRAW, commencing at the lower end of the diagram where the pen is first
MOVEd using the statement on line 6120.
The presentation of this diagram could be much improved by adding extra
statements to annotate the diagram with a title and also to label the axes with a
description of what the axes represent. Further graphical statements could also
be added to draw the outline of the column section and to mark the location of
the reinforcement. These features are relatively easy to add in programming
terms, but will not be considered here because of the variation of commands
between different computer systems.
As a further example of graphical interpretation of results, figure 8.9
illustrates a bending moment envelope, obtained from the continuous beam
analysis program of chapter 2 which has been plotted using an additional
plotting subroutine.
Using graphics in this way can aid and improve many of the programs given
in this book. Further examples that could be developed include
Shear force envelope diagrams
Beam deflection diagrams
Beam sectional and elevation diagrams showing the quantities and
location of bending and shear reinforcement
Reinforcement curtailment diagrams
And no doubt, with some thought and imagination, the reader will be able to
recognise for himself many other examples where using graphical output will
enharice the presentation and usefulness of the output generated by these
design programs.
8.3.4 Graphics and computer-aided drsffing
The most advanced application of graphics capabilities in engineering design is

the use of the computer to produce the full working drawings from which the
design end product will be fabricated or constructed.
Unfortunately, drafting systems are at present expensive in terms of both
hardware and software costs, and most engineering drafting packages tend to
be found on relatively expensive minicomputer systems. Their use is therefore
restricted to a relatively few sizeable organisations which are able to justify the
capital and development costs of installing such a system.
A drafting packagecan offer the design office many advantages including
factors such as
Increased productivity due to the speed at which drawings can be produced.
Reduction in time and effort in drawing standard and repetitive details.
Better accuracy, quality and repeatability of drawings.
The ability to alter, update and revise drawings.
The facility to produce new drawings by combining together elements of
existing drawings.
Being able to record and keep track of elements of the drawing for subse-
quent calculation of quantities and costing%
Although there are a few packages directly related to the production of
reinforced concrete drawings, the majority are. general-purpose two-dimensional
or three-dimensional drawing systems. There are a few such packages available
for microcomputer systems, but these are generally restricted by their speed of
operation and the time it takes to recall drawings or elements of drawings from
file storage.
However, it seemslikely that in the future one of the big developments in
engineering design will be a proliferation of computer-aided drafting systems.
Their widespread acceptance is likely to be related to a future decline in price of
both hardware and software, similar to the decline in recent years which hasput
desk-top computers within the reach of even the smallest of design offices.
8.3.4.1 Hardware configuration for drafting systems
Computer-aided drafting systems come in a variety of sizes and types, ob-

viously dependent on the needs and requirements of the system user. A typical
hardware configuration will have the computer and associated memory and
processing units at its heart, although the means of communication with the
system will be by way of the drafting workstation.
The workstation consistsof a graphics display unit on which the engineer can
dispIay, view and develop his drawings before obtaining a hard copy or
transferring them to file storage. The workstation will be equipped with a
keyboard for data entry, although alternative meansof data entry will include a
light pen, touch pen or menu tablet where the user can point to the system
function that he wishes to select. Thumbwheels and joysticks are also often
provided to enable the user to guide and control crosshairs on the VDU to
select the system command options.
For entering data on complex shapes, a digitising tablet may be used to trace
the outline of the shape and to convert the geometrical outline of the shape into
the binary form which can be manipulated by the computer. To obtain hard
copy output the station will also be supported by a printer and plotting device,
the size and capabilities of the latter being commensurate with the scale of
computer-aided drawing being undertaken.
8.3.4.2 Drawing with a drafting system
Mpst commercial drafting systems are based on extensive and sophisticated

software packages. The use of these packages requires a considerable amount
of training and familiarisation with the system, although the basic operations
remain those of drawing lines and curves, scaling and positioning and general
annotation of the drawings. In addition to these basic operations, there are
usually extensive capabilities to create, manipulate and edit drawings and to
control the file system on which the drawings are stored.
A typical system will offer interactive drawing facilities with a hierarchy of
system commands presented in menu form. The menu is in the form of a display
down one side of the screen with crosshairs, controlled by joystick or thumb-
wheel, selecting the menu item. Alternatively, the menu may be displayed on a
menu card on a tablet adjacent to the display unit, and a hand-held stylus is
used to select the menu option required.
PROGRAM ENHANCEMENTS, FILES AND GRAPHICS
Typical menu options will include
Line drawing. Basically the operation of connecting two points on the screen.
The points can be selected with the aid of a screen cursor or by using the
keyboard to type in the coordinate of the points.
Circle drawing. Similar in operation to line drawing but the radius and centre of
the circle must be defined. In drawing both lines and curves, different line types
(continuous, dashed, dotted etc.) and line thicknesses can be selected.
Drawing aids. These include the option to delete lines or whole areas of
drawings, to mirror sections of drawing where there is symmetry in construc-
tion, to copy, rotate and reposition elements of drawing and to move sections
of drawing from one location to another. Grid features may be provided where
a construction grid may be displayed to aid drawing preparation, but which can
be eliminated from the final drawing.
Hatching andshading. Complete defined areas of drawing can be automatically
wad-hatched and shaded in a variety of hatching patterns.
Library of shape elements. Standard symbols and shapes can be selected from a
library provided by the system or created and stored in the library by the user
for a particular application. These symbols can be recalled from the library and
located anywhere on the drawing in any orientation and at a chosen scale.
Overlay fearures. In traditional drafting methods, overlaying is a technique to
build up drawings from transparent drawing sheets laid on top of each other;
each sheet contains one or several elements of information. This facility can be
emulated in computer-aided drafting such that selected elements of infor-
mation can be overlaid and viewed on the display terminal.
Dimensioning. Automatic drawing of dimension lines and adding of dimension
text are a common feature.
Text handling. Text and general annotation can be added to drawings in any
chosen location. Text can be in different styles, sizes, slant etc.
The above represent some of the many features to be found on any
computer-aided drafting system. Many other features exist, including the
ability to merge separate drawings, help features to provide on-screen advice
during drafting operations and database features to record the drawing ele-
ments for subsequent quantities and costing work. A full description of drafting
systems is beyond the scope of this book but, to illustrate the use of such
systems in reinforced concrete design, figure 8.10 shows a concrete drawing
produced with the aid of a system having some of the features described.
Appendix: Glossary of BASIC
Statements
This glossary summarises the BASIC functions and statements used through-
out this book.
ABS Returns the absolute value of an expression

DATA (with READ) Provides data or text which can be stored in the pro-
gram lines and accessed with a READ statements
DIM Used to declare the size of an array
DISP Outputs text and variables to the VDU
END The last statement in the program
FOR * TO * STEP Enables program looping a defined number of times
(with NEXT)
GOSUB Used to call a subroutine
GOT0 Causes an unconditional jump to a specified line
number
IF * THEN * Causes conditional branching or execution of a state-
ment if the evaluated expression is true
IF *-THEN * ELSE Similar to the IF * THEN statement but permits an
alternative course of action if the evaluated expression
is false
IMAGE Used with the PRINT USING statement to format the
(with PRINT program output
USING)
INPUT Causes the computer to request the input of data from
the keyboard
INT Returns the greater integer less than or equal to the
evaluated expression
283
2&l REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN BY COMPUTER
NEXT Final statement of a FOR * NEXT loop
ON * GOT0 Transfers program execution to one of several pro-
gram statements, depending on the value of the
evaluated expression
PRINT Prints items specified in the print list to a specified
printer. This can be the VDU or an external printer
PRINT USING Similar to the PRINT statement but outputs according
(with IMAGE) to the format specified in the IMAGE statement
READ Reads specified variables from a DATA list
(with DATA)
REM Permits insertion of explanatory text into the program
listing
RETURN Used in a subroutine to return operation to the line
(with GOSUB) following the GOSUB statement
STOP Terminates program execution
TAB Specifies the column position in which an item will be
output with the PRINT or DISP statement
Bibliography
Allen, A. H., Reinforced Concrete Design to CPllOSimply Explained, Cement
and Concrete Association, London, 1974.
BS8110: Thestructural use of concrete, British Standards Institution, London,
1985.
Coates, R. C., Coutie, M. G. and Kong, F. K., Structural Analysis, Nelson,
Hughes, P. B., Limit State Theory for Reinforced Concrete Design, Pitman,
London, 1976.
Johansen, K. W., Yield Line Formulae For Slabs, Cement and Concrete
Association, London, 1972.
Jones, L. L. and Wood, R. H., Yield Line Analysir of Slabs, Thames and
Hudson, Chatto and Windus, London, 1967.
Kong, F. K. and Evans, R. H., Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, Nelson,
MacGinley, T. J., Reinforced Concrete, Span, London, 1981.
Manual for the Design of Reinforced Concrete Building Structures, joint
publication of the Institution of Civil Engineers and Institution of Structural
Engineers, London, 1985.
Martin, L. H. and Asthill, L. H., Elementary Structural Design in Concrete to
CPIIO, Edward Arnold, London, 1976.
Mosley, W. H. and Bungey, J. H., Reinforced Concrete Design, Macmillan,
London, 2nd edn., 1982.
Mosley, W. H. and Spencer, W. J., Microcomputer Applications in Structural
Engineering, Macmillan, London, 1984.
Neville, A. M., Properties of Concrete, Pitman, London, 1973.
Reynolds, C. E. and Steedman, J. C., Reinforced Concrete Designers Hand-
book, Viewpoint, U.K., 1981.
285
Index
Analysis of the section graphics 272
beam 69 hardware 9
columns 129 software 11
Analysis of the structure use in design 3
beam on elastic foundation 199 use in reinforced concrete design 14
continuous beam 26 Continuous beam analysis 26
continuous beam with varying section Crack widths 234
54~
envelope analysis 36 Default values 257
single span beam 17 Deflections 18, 217, 224
slabs 105, 106, 112 Design
nature of 1
BASIC statements 283 reinforced concrete 14
BG3lIlS Detailing 5, 217, 241, 279
analysis of section 69 Drafting 279
crack widths 234
deflections 18, 217,224 Editing 258
design for bending 79 Effective heights of columns 169
design for shear 91 Elastic foundations 199
design for torsion 96 Envelopes 36
double reinforced 80 Error traps 255
flanged 71,81,219
single reinforced 79 Files
Bending moments data 264.266.267
envelopes 36 program 263, 268
redistribution 49, 80 random access 266
Bending schedules 247 serial 266
use of 263
Chaining programs 268 Flanged sections 71.81, 219
Columns FOOtif@
analysis of section 129 combined 210
biaxial bending 162 on elastic foundations 199
effective heights 169 pad 186
interaction curves 148, 154 Funny values 256
non-rectangular sections 154
slender 175
symmetric reinforcement 136 hard copy 276
unsymmetric reinforcement 143 principles of 272
Combined footings 210 use of 276
Computers
attributes 3 Interaction curves 148, 154
281
INDEX
Loading patterns 36 one way spanning IO4

punching shear 119
Mass storage devices IO, 263 two way spanning 105. IO6
Microcomputers 7, 9 yield line method 112
Moment envelopes 36 Slender columns 175
Moment redistribution 49, 80 Software 11
Span-effective depth ratios 217
Pad footings 186 Stability 241
Plotters 10,276 Substitute frame 47
Serviceability limit state 217 T beam

Shear analysis 71
beams 91 design 81
footings 189 Ties for robustness 241
punching 190 Torsion 96
slabs 118
Single span beam 17 Yield line method 112
Slabs
design for shear 118

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2

Programs for the Analysis of the

2.1. Limit State Analysis of a Single Span Beam

(a) the type of load distribution, identified by a code number 1, 2, 3 or 4

(b) the weight, W, of the load in kiloNewtons

21.1 AnaIytIcaI procedure

jydr = s/3 [(sum of end ordinates) + 4 (sum of even ordinates)

where s is the length of the increment, equal to span/20 in this program.

So applying Simpsons rule the deflection of the beam at section 4 is given

Table 2.1 Values of moments and their products

2.1.3 Lkscription of the single span beam analysis program

2.1.4 Listing of the single span beam analysis program

2.1.5 Lid of variables in the single span beam program

A ( ) Distance from the left-hand support to the start of the load

2.1.6 One span beam analysk example

2.2.1 Am&tid procedure

The analysis of a continuous beam to determine the support moments can be

4 XK, R, + 2 k, RZ = MCL - MF,u

2k,, Rim,4 XK, Ri + 2 ki R,+, = M,,(,,) - Mm (2.3)

ki = Ii/L+ the stiffness of the beam in the ith span

The slope deflection equation can be rewritten in the form

EN RN + DN+I RN+I = F~+~

M,j = ki (4 Rj + 2 R,+l) + Mmj

2.2.4 Lkting of the continuous beam andysk program

CL Cantilever moment at the first support

2.3 Envelope Program

In order to design a continuous beam it is necessary to construct the envelopes

2.3.1 Andytkal precedure for the envelope program

306 kN 100 kN 306 kN

2.3.2 Flow diagram for the envelope pro.@xm

NS + 1 with no cantilevers present

A modification of this program to conform with the more simplified require-

This program is a further development of the continuous beam program of

2.3.4 Listing of the envelope program

2.3.5 Lid of variables for the envelope program

Variables already defined previously in section 22.5 of the continuous beam

Dead Load gk=25kN/m

Modification of the envelope program to conform with BS 81IO

2.4 Substitute frame analysis

(1) Input the column dimensions.

24.2 List of variables for tbe substitute frame analysis program

2.5 Moment Redistribution

25.1 Andytic~I procedure for the redistribution program

For simplicity and ease of understanding the redistribution is applied only to

When redistributing the moments in a substitute frame the column moments,

25.2 Flow diagram for the moment rdstributhn program

Foil 1(=1 TO 21 STEP 2

2.6 Continuous Beam with a Varying Cross-section

In many reinforced concrete structures, for reasons of strength, stiffness or

(b) Straight haunches

(c) Parabolic haunches

The moment diagrams for ml and mZ are shown in figure 2.14.

The carry over effect moment is

Applying the principles of virtual work the free rotations are

2.6.5 Lirt of variables

DW) Depth of the haunch at the left-hand side of each span

DISTANCE TO LOm ST(VIT - 0 I.W..

(i) The analysis of rectangular and flanged beam sections.

3.1 Section Analysis for Bending Resistance

(i) Assume a value of the neutral axis depth, x.

Section Strains Stress

~igum 3.3 S~resrisnain graph for reinforcemem (remion and compression)