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RABINDRANATH TAGORES PROSE FICTIONS

AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION: A STUDY

Dissertation submitted for


the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Faculty of Arts,
Jadavpur University

By

DIPANKAR ROY

Department of English
Jadavpur University
June 2012
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Synopsis

The initial idea for this enquiry germinated from my reading of a theory that has been
drawing attention for quite some time now, nation as an imagined community. The
emergence of nation during the era of Print Capitalism has provide me impetus to
take up themes like nationalism nationalist imaginings and novelistic
manifestations of them in a text. It is important that we isolate two key ideas, i.e.
nation as an imagined community and the simultaneity of the rise of the modern
national consciousness and the novel, in this context. Research is conducted about the
role of fiction, especially novels, in national imaginings and also about the other
closely-related corollary theme the nature of encodings of nationalist discourse in
the novels.

In my research I take up these two themes, in the context of postcolonial India. I


have chosen Rabindranath Tagores prose fiction, his novels and short stories, as my
primary material in order to explore the complex relationships between Indian
nationalist discourse and fictional representation of nationalist concerns. In this
connection, I wish to say a few words about the close and intricate relationships that
recent critical exercises have traced between the nation and the novel.

During the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth
century, Europe witnessed the phenomenal rise of the European vernaculars during
the new age of Print Capitalism, their establishment as languages of state after 1820
as well as the independent growth European literature as a number of national
literatures. Therefore, the formulation of the discourse of nation, nationalism
nation-state, citizen subject and the birth of the idea of national literatures have a
curious simultaneity about them. As a possible analysis of this, we can say that
nations are imaginary constructs that depend for their existence on an apparatus of
cultural fictions. The imaginative literature, especially the novel, plays a decisive role
in this. The rise of European nationalism coincided especially with one form of
literature the novel. It can be said that it was the novel that historically accompanied
the rise of nations by objectifying the one, yet many of national life, and by
mimicking the structure of the nation, a clearly bordered jumble of languages and
styles. We should notice the peculiar flexibility of the novel as a genre to incorporate
within its sphere heterogeneous experiences of the nation, the polyglot world. This
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can be done primarily by reproducing ostensibly separate levels of style


corresponding to different social classes; a jumble of poetry, drama, newspaper report,
memoir and speech and also by a mixture of the jargons of race and ethnicity.

The rise of the novel brought changes in the concept of realism. Within
realisms new national framework the novel brought together the high and the
low spheres of the nations cultural horizon for specific national reasons. This new
framework came to involve, the serious treatment of everyday reality, the rise of more
extensive and socially inferior human groups to the position of subject-matter for
problematic existential representation.

There is another feature of the novel which is very significant for my thesis. It is
about the unique nature of the novel-reading experience which turned an essentially
isolated and private experience into something which assumes communal dimensions.
It is because Print-capitalism meant ideological insemination on a large scale. It
created the conditions where people could begin to think of themselves as a nation.
The novels created world allowed for multitudinous actions occurring simultaneously
within a single, definable community, filled with calendrical coincidences. Read in
isolation, the novel was, nevertheless, a mass ceremony; one could read alone with the
conviction that millions of others were doing the same at the same time.

This communal dimension ingrained in the novel-reading experience has its


corollary the emergence of the nation-space within the spatio-temporal matrix of
the novel. If the worldly becomes textual, in this way, within the novel it is important
that we look closely at the poetics of the novelistic genre and its power to reproduce
the nation with all its spatial palpability and temporal simultaneity.

In the context of literary articulations in colonized countries, critics are sharply


divided over the degree of the importance of nationalistic concerns in the literature of
many countries which have been colonies in the past. While some tries to develop an
all-encompassing category of national allegory for all Third World texts, others
prefer a less restrictive category of collectivity. Theorists also highlight the process
of separation of the public and the private the necessary fall- out of capitalistic
system of production ingrained in the literary efforts of the Third World. My readings
would emphasize a more temperate alternative. It is necessary that we acknowledge
that a certain nationalism is fundamental in the Third World. It is fundamental,
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arguably because it is only on the terrain of the nation that an articulation between
cosmopolitan intellectualism and popular consciousness can be forged.

A fundamental premise for my understanding is that the nation provides


some kind of a matrix for the enunciation of a nationalist discourse, be it imaginative
literature and genres like novel or other non-literary texts. My purpose here is to
explore the problematic relationship that exists between nationalism as a concept and
the novelistic portrayal of it. I would like to clarify here that nationalism has turned
out to be one of the chief concerns of the postcolonial theorists whether they belong to
the domain of psychoanalysis, social sciences or cultural history or even literary
criticism. Theoreticians from diverse disciplines and different ideological standpoints
such as Frantz Fanon, Edward Said, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Homi K. Bhabha,
Dipesh Chakrabarty, Partha Chatterjee, Tanika Sarkar, Ashis Nandy et al. have all
grappled with the problematic of nationalism and postcoloniality.

Rabindranath Tagore, however, took the position of a non-conformist when,


during his life-time, the official nationalist discourse was taking its shape. For him,
nationalism was a kind of bhougolik apadebata, a territorial demon. Tagore carried
on his strife against this demon till the very end of his life. Tagore believed in
freedom, individual freedom and freedom for the oppressed. Tagore also believed in
the uniqueness of every individual. These beliefs of Tagore led him to protest against
any kind of systematic standardisation of human endeavours. From his strong dislike
for the aims and objectives of colonial education system, programmed to produce
clerks, to his protest against Mahatma Gandhi's creed of the charkha, a mass of
people blindly following a unitary principle; from his championing the cause of
awakening atmashakti to his trenchant critique of the use of violence in achieving
political independence Tagore the polemicist as well as Tagore the activist always
stood firm in his faith that each single individual is a unique creation of the Almighty.

To him, it is for the best possible interest of all concerned that the
individuality of each human being must not be curbed or moulded into a
predetermined pattern but be given adequate opportunity to flourish to his full
potential. It is this faith in the inscrutable marvel called man that, like a common
thread, binds many varied ideas and activities of Tagore. Among these are his
foregrounding of samaj in the nation-building project during the imperial rule, his
experiments in a holistic system of education through the establishment and
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development of Visva-Bharati, his theories and practice in rural reconstruction and


most importantly his continuous attempts to outgrow any form of parochialism, be it
nationalist or of other types. His ultimate goal was to arrive at an inclusionist
cosmopolitanism, a scheme of things in which the best and the greatest thoughts and
achievements of both the 'East' and the 'West' be offered to the welfare of humanity.

In his long career as an artist and a polemicist Tagore continued to grapple


with the issue of nationalism, which he thought of as a western import and,
therefore, had no future of an organic growth on Indian soil. He almost incessantly
wrote about nationalism and its contemporary theories; in his autobiographical
writings and his writings on education, in lectures, in letters and articles and creative
writings. The search for an answer to the problems facing his country, social,
political, psychological and even economic, and the possible role of nationalism in
solving the problems, ultimately takes the shape of his last novel, Char adhyay. This
novel which, for me, is Tagore's tour de force critique of the dehumanising tendencies
inherent in a violent struggle for independence is a clear testimony of the inability of
nationalism to solve the problems. It, as a matter of fact, compounds the problems
further as, for Tagore it has the potential to desensitize and to corrupt human souls.
He would rather make a journey which would take him from a location of national
consciousness to international consciousness, the final destination.

To know the specific nature of Tagores inclusionist internationalism, or as the


term cosmopolitanism in such contexts, it is important that we look at cultural and
familial heritage from which Tagore continued to draw upon throughout his creative
career. Tagore's cosmopolitanism was, to a great extent, a product of his family
background. Tagore often spoke about the tension in his own mind between the
contending forces of East and West. Tagore spoke of himself being a background
where two opposing forces were constantly in action, one beckoning him to peace and
cessation of all strife, the other egging him on to battle.

This ambivalence in Tagore's mind gets a rather refracted manifestation during


the heydays of Swadeshi Movement. Tagore's participation in the movement in its
initial phase was whole-hearted, to say the least. Poems and songs poured out from his
pen. It is this productive period of his patriotic phase in his poetic career that made
critics comment that Tagore sang India into a nation. But he withdrew himself
completely from the movement when it took a rather violent turn and the key players
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of the movement failed to involve all classes and religious groups into it. Tagore
became especially upset when in the name of boycotting foreign goods the leaders
indulged in oppressing poor, Muslim peasants and small-time traders. After 1907
Tagore not only stopped participating in any political event; but he also started to
spend most of his days in Bolpur, devoting himself completely to the cause of the
development of his dream institution, Visva-Bharati.

After his series of lectures published as Nationalism in 1917 Tagore published


The Centre of Indian Culture in 1919, his major treatise on the ideal kind of education
for students of India. For him India was a country plagued not only by an oppressive
foreign rule but also by various other kinds of social evil. It is no mere accidental
coincidence that when Tagore decided to leave active politics he primarily
concentrated on issues related to education: and that his two major English
publications, Nationalism and The Centre of Indian Culture followed one another.

In a number of his polemical essays Tagore discussed why the 'Indian samaj'
(not identical with the western notion of 'society') should be made into the primary
building-block of India the nation, and how it should once again be turned into a
self-sufficient, self-governed unit. He knew that the story of political subjugation for
this country will one day end but trouble will not be over for the poor, hapless people
of this country until we turn our attention to the problems which neither the British
rulers nor the nationalist leaders had so far taken concrete steps to eradicate. Tagore's
position on nationalism was under attack from the Indian nationalist leadership with
the exception of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru who valued and adopted
Tagore's world-embracing and inclusive nationalism for India's future as a liberal,
secular democracy. Tagore posited the idea that the history of the growth of freedom
is the history of the perfection of human relationships.

The idea 'growth of freedom' has as its corollary in the idea, 'individuality of
the self'. Tagore urges, much in the manner of Gandhi, that this should be done
through an absolute commitment to the cultivation of love and neighbourliness,
restraint and sacrifice, self-help and hard labour through the full realisation of what
he called atmashakti. The discussion of ideas like self and atmashakti would take
us to issues like the adoption of strategies of non-co-operation or of violence by
freedom-fighters who had to blindly follow the path shown by the leaders, even if
their individual natures refused to subscribe to the dominant views of freedom
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movement. Tagore was particularly averse to the use of violence by the extremist
groups. The question always plagued him whether violence, as a principle, could be a
moral means even to just ends. For him, the reward that one gets by doing a wrong
will never be at an affordable price; only the debt of the wrong will become terribly
heavy. In Char adhyay, his final novel, we see how choosing the path of violence
ultimately destroys the moral fibre of selfless revolutionaries like Indranath and turns
Atindranath, an individual with fine poetic sensibility, swadharmabhrashto and
swabhabchyuto. Char adhyay is Tagore's most memorable indictment against man
resorting to violence against other men. This novel, along with many of his other
polemical writings makes Tagore our contemporary more than ever, when the most of
the world is trying to find answer as to how to put a stop to the endless bloodbath that
is raging all across the globe. Tagores deep concern about violence and its unholy
alliance with nationalism and nationalist self-fashioning is something that continues to
plague intellectuals even in the twenty-first century; like, Amartya Sen and Slavoz
Zizek, among many others.

Thus, it becomes fairly evident that during his long career as an artist and a
polemicist Tagore, intellectually, was not only trying to outgrow the discursive
liminality of official nationalism but he also was trying to formulate his own theories
of nation-building project, the ideal kind of national self and the like. He was aiming
for something much greater in significance than mere political independence. He
envisaged that following ideas like nationalism or nation-state, in a blindfolded
manner, is not likely to lead the Indians to freedom; freedom which would give them
breadth to their creations. The ideas would rather substitute a colourful idol for the
substantive universal values of justice and right.

This colourful idol figures prominently in the idea-worlds of a number of


important characters in Tagores fiction. Nationalism functions as an important
agency in the dialogic world of all his major novels. Nation and the self, nation and
its women are some central motifs in the novels. In my research, therefore, I shall
take up Rabindranaths prose fiction as my primary material in order to explore the
problematic relationship between Tagore and the contemporary ideas of nation as it is
encoded in the texts. I have, therefore, titled the dissertation Rabindranath Tagores
Prose Fictions and the Idea of the Nation: A Study.
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I am convinced that the study of his prose fiction can throw significant light into
the evolving relationship between nationalist, anti-nationalist and post-colonial
experience in the experiential world of our country; an experiential world to which I
belong. To the educated Bengali texts like Gora, Home and the World and Four
Chapters have remained, till today, an important part of his self-understanding. These
are texts against which the Bengali intellectual impulse would constantly test itself.
These texts of Tagore, by all means, are very much like important literary milestones
in the incessant process of national imagining. The texts, therefore, help us
comprehend the role of the intellectual within the collectivity of nation-building.
Moreover, in these texts Tagore, with a high degree of regularity, addresses problems
of hybridity and bilingualism which are as much a part of our postcolonial present.
The texts help us to realise how for the colonized, there can be no return to a pure,
pristine past. It is my contention that although the texts are written in Bengali, the
crucial socio-historical dimensions of the texts are not lost in the translations. In fact,
Tagores novels and short stories provide us keys to an understanding of the complex
nature of Indian postcoloniality. Moreover, these texts provide rich materials for
engaging in a critical analysis of the textual strategies involved in narrating the nation;
a major concern for many current postcolonial critics. On a more personal level, as a
bilingual educated youth, the problem that haunts me, like many others, is how to
relate myself with the heterogeneous population of the country. Tagores fiction
interests me in that respect too. A study of his prose fiction may provide me answers
to some of the questions that plague a western-educated subject like me in a country
with a colonial past.

But this dissertation is not merely about the nature of Tagores long and
problematical relationship with nationalism as projected by the mainstream Indian
politics. This relationship has a very long history. Several texts of Tagore reflect on
this relationship. More importantly, Tagores views about nationalism, nation,
race underwent major changes during his long career as a polemicist and creative
writer. What I am going to focus on here is the particular nature of the synchronicity
that exists between the emerging nationalist consciousness and texts like Gora and
Home and the World. For me, these texts are very important texts of Tagore, which
have their autonomous artistic existence and the polemicist-self of Tagore could never
fully overshadow the artistic demands and constraints of these literary texts. What I
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am interested in is the precise nature of the artistic encodings, slippages, ruptures,


reflections, refractions of the discourses of emerging national consciousness of the
Indian intelligentsia in Tagores prose fiction during some important phases of anti-
colonial struggle. This dissertation does not claim to explore the authors psyche with
regard to his political prerogatives. Rather, this is about the process of complex
mediations between the social discourses at the macro-level and the literary
articulations at the micro-level in particular texts. The schematic divisions of my
dissertation focus on three basic tenets of nationalism nationalist self-formation,
womens question and articulation of nation as an organic community and attempt
to analyse their artistic codifications in the text in three separate chapters:

1. Representation of the Nationalist Self Novelistic Portrayal of a New


Cultural Identity in Tagores Fiction

2. Female Voice, Male Discourse and the Nation; Dissent, Mergers and
Silences

3. Narrating the Nation.

In all three chapters I have tried to, at first, present the precise nature of nationalist
discourse, focussing on one particular theme with the help of secondary literature.
Thereafter, I went on to analyse the textual encodings of the theme critically in
Tagores novels and short stories.

It is my contention that social scientists who have theorized on nationalism and


postcoloniality have often used texts to illustrate their points without adequately
paying attention to the independent nature of textuality itself. I, therefore, made use of
concepts like heteroglossia and chronotope in my analysis. My reason for using
these ideas is that I believe concepts like dialogic principle and heteroglossia offer
us a very dynamic model for criticism. Mikhail Bakhtins notion of dialogised
heteroglossia reveals a constant conflict between centripetal and centrifugal
forces that operate within the matrix of a national language. Bakhtins strategies for
understanding the tussle between monologic and dialogic tendencies that exists
within discourses can serve a useful purpose in analysing texts that embody so many
dimensions of colonial hegemony and anti-colonial resistance. It is more so when
the attempt is made to decode artistic encodings of discursive concerns in a particular
arrested historical moment of an emerging nation. In this context it is worth noting
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that Raymond Williamss concept of the structure of feeling is more of a diachronic


analysis of the dynamism involved in cultural formation covering an era or at least
decades. Bakhtins dialogic principle, on the other hand, gives us opportunities to
look at both the diachronic and synchronic dimensions ingrained in any cultural
formation. The dynamism involved in heteroglossia is immensely helpful for
unraveling fissures and dissents, in the Indian contexts, within the discourse of official
nationalism, encoded in the artistic articulations. Regarding the more overtly
postcolonial concerns, the notion of chronotope the spatio-temporal matrix of the
novel helps enormously to open up strategies of narrating the nation within a
fictional plane. In the last chapter of my dissertation I have undertaken a study of and
Tagores Gora and Hungry Stone from a chronotopic perspective in order to show
how the ideological standpoints of the project of narrating the nation choose suitable
chronotopic forms for their particular novelistic exercises. In Gora Tagores
nationalistic concerns influence him to choose a particular chronotope based largely
on dialogues. But in Hungry Stone he chooses the gothic chronotope in order to
tell the untold story of the nation. I am certain that reading Gora alongside Hungry
Stone from such a perspective will definitely throw new lights on the role of
ideological compulsions behind the artistic shapings up of novelistic forms that
directly or tangentially engage in the project of narrating the nation. In the
concluding section of my thesis, however, I have tried to look at Shey, a piece of
fantasy literature, one of Tagores last works, as a text where the desire to outgrow the
nationalists concerns for narrating the nation takes a different artistic shape.
Tagores cosmopolitanism clashes directly with the political in this text. The text,
for alert readers, may provide artistic solutions for reaching a position which modern-
day theoreticians would call a post-historicist, post-nation one.

However, in keeping with the extremely eclectic nature of postcolonial criticism,


I have also juxtaposed critical strategies employed by critics like Pirre Macherey,
Fredric Jameson, Raymond Williams and others to intensify the focus of the enquiry.
Machereys theory about the role of silences present in the text and Bhabhas theory
about the act of mimicry involved in the colonized discourses are to be of great help
for my present study; filling in gaps for me in looking at elements of heteroglossia
ingrained in Tagores texts.
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In the first chapter I have presented in detail the actual contours of the projected
nationalist self the virile, ascetic figure who would lead the heterogeneous
population of India in the anti-colonial struggles through a vigorous regeneration of
the countrys rich heritage. I have then gone on to explore the nature of textual
discursivity of such a constructed self in Gora and Char adhyay; this is shown
through a detailed textual analyses. My focus has been on the authorial intention of
showing the dialogical nature of the issue of the 'self'; through the presentation of
exchanges of long dialogues between characters like Gora, Paresh Babu,
Anandamoyi, Binoy in Gora and Indranath Ela and Atin in Char adhyay. These two
texts can be called Tagore's attempt to write 'thesis novel'. I, however,discussed these
novels in the light of Bakhtin's idea of 'salon chronotope'.

I have also shown how in these two texts the overt masculinity of Gora and
Indranath is dialogised by the positive androgyny of Binoy and Atin. In the context of
androgyny, Anandamoyi's character in Gora offers a new possibility of outgrowing
the rigidity of male/female binary opposites. I have also tried to show that the
masculinist self projected through the character of Gora and Indranath is a
construction largely based upon the western paradigm. At the level of the unconscious
of the text it operates like a migratory signifier for the colonizeds desire of the
Other. In the second part of this chapter, I have shown how masculinity, encoded in
overt Hindu martial values, as it is represented in Gora, written at the beginning of the
twentieth century, is gradually blown out of all proportions in Char adhyay, Tagore's
last novel, due to its gradual entwinement with violence, brute, ruthless violence. The
Extremists resorting to violence; violence for its own and their refusal to held
accountable for violent acts as they tried to justify their actions by citing religious
texts like Srimadbhagabatgita deeply pained Tagore. In this text he shows how
engagement with violence can dehumanise an individual; as Atin laments, can make
him swadharmochyuto and swabhavbhrosto.

In the second chapter I have taken up the 'woman question'. I have tried to show
that reforming women and the creation of a new subject-position for women
Bhadramahila was high on the list of agenda for the nationaqlist readers. Against
the 'materialist' west 'woman' was used as the most important markar of the 'spiritual'
India in the rising nationalist discourse. I have shown how ideas of female
auspiciousness and gendered spiritual helped building the platform for the act of
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imagining the nation as organic community. In this chapter too as I get on with the
textual analysis of Tagore's major novels both the hegemonic voice and the dissenting
voices the centripetal and the centrifugal are seen to be encoded in the texts. In
my analysis I have classified Tagore's novels into two broad categories; 'domestic
novels' and 'political novels'. In the attempt to develop the Bhadramahila-construct, a
form of synthetic femininity, a repression of female sexuality took place. The effect
this could be observed in the realm of conjugal relationship. In my study I have tried
to show that Tagore's 'domestic novel's bear testimony to this fact.

In the 'political novels', with the help of Raymond Williams dynamic model of
culture the dominant, the residual and the emergent I tried to locate female
characters who represent different tendencies of the culture of those times. In a text
like Gora, the prescribed iconic representation of female subjectivity which was
propagated by official nationalism gets splitered by the presence of characters like
Sucharita or Anandamoyi, who represent different kinds of 'idea-world'. The figure of
Anandamoyi, as I have mention earlier in this essay, shapes up as a transgressive
individual who rises up to an androgynous position, blending in her character qualities
of both Bangali males and females.

Interestingly, it is the absent consciousness of characters like Labonya or


Sasimukhi present in Gora which articulates (by remaining silent) the centrifugal
traits present in the actual nature of female existence during the emergence of
nationalist discourse. I have tried to show that however consciously the authorial
intentions tried hard to supplant dissenting voice of Lolita with the mother-figure
of Anandamoyi during the last movement of the novel, Sasimukhis and Labonyas
presence in the text open up the split that existed between the pedagogic and the
performative elements in the nationalist discourse with its nation-building agenda.

In the last two sections of this chapter I take up a study of Bimala, the central
female character in Ghare baire and Ela, the heroine of Char adhyay. I have tried
show how Bimala's attempt to posit herself as a 'self-representing woman', a woman
in total control over her sexuality, turns out to be disastrous in the end. The 'split'
between the official figure of woman the sanctum sanctorum of 'Indian culture'
and the actual position woman in Indian society becomes wide open in Char adhyay.
Ela's attempt to prioritize her emotional and libidinal needs before the cause of the
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nation, her becoming a genuine female agency, becomes something impossible to


handle for official nationalism. She has to be killed off in the end.

The same element of split is explored in the last chapter in an attempt to analyse
the natures of textual strategies involved in the project of narrating the nation.
Bharatbarsha the imagined community is perhaps the one idea that is most
consistently dialogised in a novel like Gora. Goras India is juxtaposed with Paresh
Babus, Anandamoyis and Binoys India. Although the articulations of India the
nation occur mainly on a discursive level, Goras journeys to the countryside open up
another India which is far away from the intellectual concerns of the educated,
bilingual bourgeois class of the country. It is the marginal presence of subaltern
classes in the text that really opens up the fissures of the constructed ideological
projection of India the pedagogic subject. This feature of the text once again
proves the artistic autonomy of the 'literary' where traces of minority discourses get
recorded, sometimes even the author of not being fully aware of it. On the other hand,
my attempt is precisely to read the borderlines of the nation-space. This I find
encoded in a text like Gora. I find in the presence of characters like Nanda or an
unnamed village barber. A study of their characters, I am hopeful, can open up the
discursive liminality of official nationalism and its claims of comprehensive
representation. Careful attention to the centrifugal voices be they of minor women
characters or of nameless subaltern in the multi-textured discursivity of texts like
Gora may provoke a crisis within the process of signification and discursive address
of dominant nationalist discourses of India during her colonial days and which still
continue to hold sway over much of the intellectual perceptions of the present-day
educated class about India the nation.

We must also keep in mind that the 'split' in the act of 'national imagining' can be
observed not only synchronously. It can also be traced in the way the nationalist
discourses 're-member' the nation. It involves 'acts of forgetting' which would result in
repression. Tagore's story 'Hungry Stone' is an artistic record of the effects of such
repression. The cultural and political strategy of erasing the country's Muslim past in
order foreground India's past glory in the light of an essentially Hindu heritage takes a
strange turn of events in this story. The Muslim past comes back to haunt a bilingual
western-educated subject as it takes him back to a gothic chronotope during his
encounter with a deserted palace, with a Muslim past. The peculiar temporal nature of
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'castle time' makes alive for the protagonist of the story all the things that his race was
trying hard to forget.

In the very last section of my thesis I discuss Tagores Shey. I have tried to show
during the very last phase of his artistic career; Tagore tries to seek refuge in the genre
of fantasy literature. In the world of fantastic stories and pictures of Shey Tagore
makes an attempt to outgrow the 'nationalist horizon' and, in the process, explore
possible other ways of enjoying our stay in the planet. For him the act of
'provincializing' the nation is like rediscovering 'reality' itself.

Coming back to my use of methodological tools in my research, I am sure that


critical practices, empowered by Bakhtinian narratology, are capable of offering
important and relevant insights, for a time like ours and country like ours, into the
dialectical nature of relationship between literature, history and politics. My attempt,
in my study of Tagore's fiction, has consistently been of such kind; trying to discover
the polyphonic nature of Tagore's works. I want to humbly add that departments of
literature of various universities of our country should be more enterprising in this
respect as specialists from other fields are fast appropriating Bakhtin to study race,
ethnicity or culture. (Two such cases immediately come to mind - Sumit Sarkar has
used the idea of chronotope in his book Writing Social History and Bhabha has
developed his arguments with help from Bakhtins analysis of Gothe in
DissemiNation). But I strongly believe that it is the literary critics who are most able
to use Bakhtins thoughts to uncover multi-nuanced literary texts, thereby offering
fresher perspectives for studying society, history and culture.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources
Books and Articles (English)

Tagore, Rabindranath, A Vision of Indias History, Kolkata: Visva-Bharati, 1951,


(rpt.) 2002.

, Angel of Surplus: Some Essays and Addresses on Art and Aesthetics, Sisir Kumar
Ghosh (ed.), Kolkata: Visva-Bharati, 1978, (rpt.) 2010.

, Binodini: A Novel, Krishna Kripalani, (trans.), New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi,


1959, (rpt.) 1998.
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, Chaturanga: A Novel, Asok Mitra, (trans.), New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1963,
(rpt.) 2005.

, Chokher bali, Sukhendu Roy (trans.), New Delhi: Rupa, 2004, (rpt.) 2008.

, Crisis in Civilization, Calcutta: Visva-Bharati, 1941, (rpt.) 2000.

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