Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Danilo Bonga for all” (Kelman and Abramovitz). Narcise's article underscores the role of the
Issue Editor
ICM process and framework in integrating hazard management to development
I
planning and coastal management. She opines that there is no need to reinvent
S
even months after the tsunami, images of devastation still linger on the wheel as the "implementation arrangements, processes, tools and applications
everyone's mind. There is no doubt that the disaster has stirred are already in place and could be expanded to support hazard management
compassion and empathy and a greater resolve from our leaders not to considerations." On Post-Tsunami Reconstruction articulates several dimensions
R
let this event of horrific magnitude happen again. Tsunamis and other natural of the process of instituting strategies that must encompass not only reconstructing
coastal hazards are inevitable but their impacts can be mitigated. Disaster infrastructure but also ensuring protection of biodiversity and rebuilding
management practitioners have time and again highlighted that disasters can, sustainable livelihoods as well. Datta and Adriaanse, Llewellyn, et al., and
in most cases, be prevented. It is thus unconscionable that the usual attitude and Manuta, et al. highlight the principles and the wide-ranging scope and breadth to
O
response to disasters remain a vicious cycle (disaster–relief operations– reconstruct human dignity in the aftermath of the tsunami.
damage assessment–planning workshop) in due time the strategies will soon
be forgotten until another disaster strikes again. The Approaches — albeit, very limited — encompasses measures to create life-
saving belts (Harakunarak and Aksornkoae) and on rehabilitating degraded
T
This time has to be different. The guiding mantra — though cliché — "It is mangrove areas (Tamin) to re-establish the natural defense walls of the coasts.
the most opportune time to make things right" has to ring true. The tsunami Delica-Willison, on the other hand, exhorts the widespread practice of community-
is too great a loss that the 'political commitment window' has been opened based disaster risk management (CBDRM). She argues that awareness and
much wider given the tremendous mileage from the media coverage, the vast preparedness education are vital as they show that inability to respond during
I
information disseminated and the apparent locking of heads of various emergencies is basically relative to inadequate knowledge; once shown how,
institutions, governments and states. communities can willingly muster enough resources and creative solutions. The
articles on mitigating red tide (Bajarias and Arcamo) and oil spill emergencies
D
The tsunami reconstruction is now serving as a significant platform given the (Chan) point out that monitoring, surveillance and contingency-planning strategies
tragedy's immense power to focus empathy into strategic actions. But the can avert disasters that are basically man-made. Reflections section gathers
bottom-line is to pursue objectives that serve multi-hazard mitigation as opinions and contentious issues on two specific concerns: Harris reflects on the
these guidelines, when properly established, are strategies that can apply inappropriateness of Sri Lanka's move to strictly enforce the Coast Conservation
E
also to other natural and man-made hazards, be they recurrent or extreme Act (1981), particularly the no-build zone, given the prevailing conditions and
infrequent events. It is also imperative that vulnerability issues (poverty, stakeholders that have tremendously changed from those that were initially
pollution and other environmental degradation, settlement, urbanization, targeted by the law. Johnstone-Bryden, on the other hand, zeroes-in on climate
sanitation, etc.) be central to disaster management. Klaus Toepfer, Executive change/global warming and how 'scientifically fashionable' it is to pin all blame
Director, UNEP, refers to the 'silent tsunamis' — poverty, hunger, dirty water, solely on pollution and anthropogenic inputs at the expense of other equally
poor sanitation — that greatly exacerbate the impacts of hazards. important issues that could comprehensively address climate change.
This issue of the Tropical Coasts adds another layer to the vast and instructive May this issue be an eye-opener for ICM practitioners to heed wisdom gained
documents and case studies that have since been published regarding natural from the tsunami tragedy. The call is to see the opportunities from the crisis and
hazard and disaster management. Albeit very limited in scope, this issue aims greater articulation on how to operationalize the culture of prevention and safety.
to target the coastal management practitioners, who may have inadvertently Given that risks to disasters have become commonplace and have increased the
missed out on the relevance and importance of integrating 'natural hazard vulnerability of people living at the coasts, the opportunity is to institute immediate
thinking' to integrated coastal management (ICM). actions that would keep the momentum gained from ICM. The operative challenge
is to include both the natural and man-made hazards into the ICM processes. The
The articles are grouped into four sections. Towards Integrated Disaster Risk bottom-line is that ICM managers and local leaders have the moral obligation to
Reduction Strategies showcases the articulation of the culture of prevention, institute mitigation measures and not wait for disasters to happen. The paradigm
safety and mitigation that underpin the goals of the overarching sustainable must shift into creating a culture where 'disasters that did not happen' are the
development principles. Such are envisioned to decrease vulnerabilities, hence norm instead of counting the number of deaths and destroyed properties when
increasing the communities' resilience, to disasters and to create a “safer world natural and man-made hazards wreak havoc.
Tropical Coasts
in this issue
Tropical Coasts
w w w . p e m s e a . o r g
Towards Integrated Risk Reduction Strategies
4
of Disaster
Cambridge, United Kingdom
Republic of Korea
Wind can be harnessed to produce A view of tsunami and related fire damage on southeast Okushiri Island
energy and drives storm surges to in the community of Aonae following the 12 July 1993 tsunami.
that can be altered by human, isle, managing life, livelihoods, and that extreme, and often infrequent,
industrial, commercial or the built and natural environments in events do not become disasters (e.g., see
coastal zones means managing ISDR, 2004a; 2005).
agricultural effluents.
change. If such change is not
recognized or not accepted, or if it is Many of these changes and threats
poorly managed, then disasters are increasingly result from human activity.
*
ilan_kelman@hotmail.com
www.islandvulnerability.org inevitable. Pollution in the East Asian seas ranges
4 Tropical Coasts
from livestock effluent affecting
migratory birds on the Manko tidal
flat, Okinawa Island (Tashiro, et al.,
2003) to oil spills in the Malacca
Straits (Chua, et al., 2000). The
Malacca Straits epitomize much of
the chronic human-induced damage
being done to the region's seas.
The latter example illustrates Bangladesh Cyclone and Two events of similar intensity yielded different
storm surge consequences: on 25 May 1985, 11,069 people were
the rush towards economic
killed but on 19 May 1997, due to early warning and
development with scant regard for
appropriate action, 127 people died (Akhand, 1998).
environmental and natural resource Fiji Coastal Agricultural and waste run-off along with soil erosion has
stewardship. Rapid, short-term pollution been killing coral reefs along Viti Levu's south coast.
economic gain is seen as more Environmental restoration projects to regenerate and
important than the rapid, long-term protect corals include partnerships with tourist resorts to
reduce pollution in effluent, tree planting in the highlands
losses which are incurred. Using
and mangrove planting along the coasts (ADB, 2003).
dynamite and cyanide for fishing,
Indian Ocean Earthquake- On 26 December 2004, one of the most powerful
prevalent around the Philippines, is earthquakes during the last century occurred off Sumatra's
countries generated
another example. While these may be tsunami coast and produced an immense tsunami. More than
easy methods for rapidly generating 300,000 people perished across more than a dozen
revenue, they soon leave a legacy of countries around the Indian Ocean. Yet on the Indonesian
environmental destruction that
island of Simeuleu near the epicentre, only a few people
died because the people remembered from a 1907 event
precludes fishing-related livelihoods
that a tsunami could follow an earthquake. They
for generations.
immediately fled the coast after they felt the tremor, and
survived.
When livelihoods and coasts are Philippines Coastal In San Fernando, La Union, natural processes and
damaged through such pursuits, the erosion human damage combine to yield significant coastal
population's vulnerability increases erosion. Attempts to use structural measures to protect the
coastline failed. A combination of solutions is now being
to extreme events as well as to a slow
adopted, including mangrove rehabilitation and building
decline in health, communities and
structures on stilts above the water to minimize interference
opportunities. Such risks must be with sediment transport. Human impacts on the
faced within the wider context of environment and the subsequent coastal erosion impacts
rapid global changes. An altered on human livelihoods are being reduced (ISDR, 2005).
July 2005 5
climate leading to more frequent and The United Nations' Commitments to environmental
severe storms poses dangers for the International Strategy for Disaster management, sustainable
East Asian seas along with associated Reduction (ISDR) and its development, good governance and
rising sea levels which could make interagency secretariat human rights are all pertinent for
many coastal areas, including small (www.unisdr.org) advocates effective disaster risk reduction.
islands, uninhabitable. disaster risk reduction principles Similarly, for success to occur in these
and practices by advancing them areas, disaster risk reduction is
within international, regional, essential. To reduce disaster risks, a
An International national and local sustainability change of values is necessary. Rather
Framework for Disaster and development frameworks. The than people relying on emergency
Risk Reduction ISDR aims at building disaster- response in reacting to disasters after
resilient communities by damage has been done and losses
Disaster risk reduction is the promoting increased awareness of have been incurred, their attitudes and
conceptual framework of elements the importance of disaster behaviour should reflect knowledge of
considered with the possibilities to reduction as an integral conditions and demonstrate actions
minimize vulnerabilities and disaster component of sustainable based on that knowledge before events
risks throughout a society, to avoid development, with the goal of become catastrophic. Efforts are
(prevention) or to limit (mitigation reducing human, social, economic needed to implement long-term
and preparedness) the adverse and environmental losses due to processes which minimize the
impacts of hazards, within the broad natural hazards and related likelihood of catastrophes.
context of sustainable development technological and environmental
(ISDR, 2004b). disasters. To address such issues on a
global basis, the United Nations
convened the intergovernmental World
Conference on Disaster Reduction
(WCDR) in January 2005, in Kobe,
Hyogo, Japan. The WCDR promoted "a
safer world for all" and was held to:
• Increase the international profile
of disaster risk reduction;
• Promote integration of disaster
risk reduction into development
planning and practice; and
• Strengthen local and national
capacities to address the causes of
disasters that continue to
devastate and impede the
development of many countries.
Photo by Ilan Kelman, 2004.
6 Tropical Coasts
governance, and disaster risk
reduction are mutually supportive
objectives," five priorities for action
were embraced in order to achieve
"the substantial reduction of disaster
losses, in lives and in the social,
economic and environmental assets
of communities and countries":
1. Ensuring that disaster risk
reduction is a national and a local
priority with a strong institutional
basis for implementation;
2. Identifying, assessing and Fishing off the shores of Tongatapu, Tonga.
monitoring disaster risks, and
enhancing early warning;
3. Using knowledge, innovation and
education to build a culture of
safety and resilience at all levels;
4. Reducing underlying risk factors;
and
5. Strengthening disaster
preparedness for effective
response at all levels.
July 2005 7
There should be no implicit assumption
that an event must happen before Coastal environments are healthier,
and fishing and sea-related trade
8 Tropical Coasts
Since 1994, the Vietnam National perished for lack of basic knowledge
Red Cross Society has been and simple warnings, which in References
protecting and planting additional hindsight would have been greatly ADB. 2003. Islands and Climate Change [DVD].
mangrove forests in coastal parts of economical considering the eventual Asian Development Bank, Philippines.
the country to reduce wave and surge losses incurred.
Akhand, M.H. 1998. “Disaster Management and
damage (IFRC, 2002). In addition to Cyclone Warning System in Bangladesh.”
reducing damage from sea storms, Yet a headlong rush into warning Abstract at EWCII – Second International
Conference on Early Warning, Potsdam,
the mangroves are a habitat for systems for the disaster which has Germany, 11 September 1998.
shellfish, which families harvest for already happened could compound an
Bildan, L. 2003. Disaster Management in
food and trade, reducing malnutrition earlier error of ignoring clearly-
Southeast Asia: An Overview. ADPC (Asian
and providing income. Coastal identified threats. If the systems Disaster Preparedness Center), Bangkok,
livelihoods and disaster risk reduction implemented do not apply lessons Thailand.
can be supported through the same from past mistakes and do not match Chua, T.-E., I.R.L Gorre, S. A. Ross, S.R. Bernad, B.
programme. the Hyogo Framework's priorities for Gervacio, and M.C. Ebarvia. 2000. “The
Malacca Straits.” Marine Pollution Bulletin
action, then how much would have
41:160-178.
been gained? Post-catastrophe
Conclusion resources and opportunities should IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies). 2002. World
be used for much more than only Disasters Report 2002 – Focus on Reducing
Coastlines of East Asian averting a recurrence of the just- Risk. International Federation of Red Cross
countries have provided lessons for experienced event.
and Red Crescent Societies, Geneva,
Switzerland.
the world which should not only be
learned, but also applied. There should be no implicit ISDR (International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction). 2004a. Living with Risk: A
Considerable experience already assumption that an event must
Global Review of Disaster Reduction
exists to reduce disaster risks and happen before prevention and Initiatives. United Nations, New York, USA,
case studies prove to be an effective mitigation could be considered. and Geneva, Switzerland.
means of transferring this knowledge Living productively and safely in ISDR. 2004b. Terminology: Basic Terms of Disaster
into people's daily lives and coastal zones requires people to think Risk Reduction. International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction, Geneva.
livelihoods. Calls for action are not about the risks before a disaster
w w w. u n i s d r. o r g / e n g / l i b r a r y / l i b -
always matched by the resources to occurs. Coastal and marine resources terminology-eng%20home.htm (Accessed
make activities happen — until a must be used to build and sustain March 2004).
disaster occurs. livelihoods and communities without ISDR. 2005. Know Risk. Tudor Rose and the United
increasing vulnerability. Thinking Nations Secretariat for the International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction, United
In previous years before the ahead of disasters would avoid being
Kingdom/Switzerland.
Indian Ocean tsunami in December sidetracked by specific events and
2004, several calls for a tsunami early focus instead on the emphasis Tashiro, Y., A. Takemura, H. Fujii, K. Takahira, and
Y. Nakanishi. 2003. “Livestock Wastes as a
warning system in the region have not provided at the World Conference on Source of Estrogens and Their Effects on
been heeded. After the catastrophe, Disaster Reduction to produce a safer Wildlife of Manko Tidal Flat, Okinawa.”
despite some initial hesitation by world. Where the land, sea and air
Marine Pollution Bulletin 47(1-6):143–
147.
many governments, a global meet in the countries of the East Asian
commitment of tens of millions of seas, the continuing process of UN (United Nations). 2005. “Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to
dollars for tsunami protection, coastal disaster risk reduction can and
Disasters: Hyogo Framework for Action
specifically for early warning, was should be built around coastal 2005–2015.” Draft programme outcome
quickly realized. Any such initiative is resources, communities document A/CONF.206/L.2/Rev.1. United
Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
far too late for the thousands who and livelihoods.
July 2005 9
Janet N. Abramovitz
Senior Consultant on Environment
and Development
Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Stemming the
Tide of Disasters:
The Rising Tide
of Disaster
Vulnerabilities
December 2004 marked the latest
and Disaster Risk
devastating reminder of our
vulnerability to the power of
natural disasters. An estimated
Management
300,000 people died with another
1.6 million displaced by the
tsunami caused by a 9.0 magnitude
earthquake off the coast of
northern Sumatra. A dozen nations While the wealthiest countries two such events — the cyclone and
in South Asia and East Africa were sustained 57.3 percent of the storm surge that hit Bangladesh in
directly affected. measured economic losses to 1991 and took 139,000 lives, and last
disasters between 1985 and 1999, year's tsunami which claimed 300,000
this represented only 2.5 percent of lives.
Recent decades have seen a
their GDP. In contrast, the poorest
dramatic rise in the frequency,
countries endured 24.4 percent of Early warnings and disaster
severity, and cost of natural
the economic toll of disasters, which preparedness have been a significant
disasters. In fact, the 1990s set a added up to 13.4 percent of their factor in keeping the death toll of
new record for disasters worldwide. GDP. And for the poorest countries, recent decades from reaching even
During the decade over $608 and the poorest people, little if any of higher — when they are in place. Sadly,
billion in measured economic the losses are insured. Worldwide, the absence of an early warning system
losses resulted from natural only one-fifth of all disaster losses in the Indian Ocean contributed to the
catastrophes, an amount greater were insured. The vast majority of huge tsunami death toll. Advances in
than during the previous four insured losses, some 92 percent, basic services, such as clean water and
were in industrial nations. sanitation have reduced post disaster
decades combined (Figure 1). The
epidemics. Improved communications
number of "great" catastrophes
During the 20th century, more and rapid humanitarian response have
(requiring substantial outside
than 10 million people died from also proved invaluable in saving lives.
assistance) has also increased,
natural catastrophes. In earlier
according to Munich Re, a reinsurer times it was not uncommon to lose While the death toll per event has
that collects global data. Economic hundreds of thousands of lives in a declined in recent decades, the number
losses can be especially devastating single great disaster. In the last 20 of people affected has grown. In the last
to poor countries. years, however, there have been only decade over 2 billion people worldwide
10 Tropical Coasts
In $ Billions (1999 dollars)
have been affected by disasters, about 700
211 million people per year. More
600 Economic losses (In $ billions)
people are now displaced by disasters
Number of great catastrophes (In $ billions)
than by conflict, according to the 500
World Disasters Report.
400
Asia has been especially hard hit.
300
The region is large and heavily
populated, particularly in dangerous 200
coastal areas. Asia's natural and social
100
vulnerability is borne out by the
statistics. Between 1985 and 1999 0
alone, Asia suffered 77 percent of all 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
Three major trends of the 20th billion people — live within a Ecological V ulnerability
Vulnerability
century have greatly increased our hundred kilometers of a coastline. and Unnatural Disasters
vulnerability to natural hazards: In many coastal zones around the
demographic changes, ecological Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia, Around the world, a growing
mismanagement, and climate change. the population density exceeds share of the devastation triggered by
Understanding these trends, and 75,000 people per km . Coastal 2
"natural" disasters stems from
taking steps to address them, can help zones are especially vulnerable to ecologically destructive practices
make us safer in the future. storms, high winds, flooding, and from putting ourselves in
erosion, tidal waves and the effects harm's way. Many ecosystems have
of inland flooding. been frayed to the point where they
Social V ulnerability
Vulnerability are no longer resilient and able to
Similarly, there has been an withstand natural disturbances,
The enormous expansion of the explosive growth of cities. Since setting the stage for "unnatural
human population and our built 1950, the world's urban disasters," those made more
environment in the 20th century and population has increased nearly frequent or more severe due to
the migration of people to cities and fourfold. Today, the urban human actions. Deforestation
coasts mean that more people and population — almost half the impairs watersheds, raises the risk of
more economic activities are people in the world — is growing fires, and contributes to climate
vulnerable to the full array of natural three times faster than the rural change. Destruction of coastal
hazards. And these disasters often population. Many cities are also in wetlands, dunes, mangroves and
take their heaviest toll on those who coastal areas, further reefs eliminates nature's shock
can least afford it — the poor. compounding the risks. Of the absorbers for coastal storms. Such
world's 19 megacities — those human-made changes end up
Approximately 37 percent of the with over 10 million inhabitants — making naturally vulnerable areas
world's population — more than 2 13 are in coastal zones. even more vulnerable to extreme
July 2005 11
weather events. In effect, we have been Impacts include increased coastal number of people who would be
unraveling the strands of a complex flooding and infrastructure damage flooded by coastal storm surges
ecological safety net. due to sea-level rise and storm surges; would increase severalfold, meaning
higher maximum temperatures with some 75 million to 200 million more
Our usual approach to natural more droughts, heat waves, and fires in people would be affected every year,
disturbances is to try to prevent them many areas; more intense tropical even under a mid-range increase in
through shortsighted strategies using storms; and more intense precipitation sea level. However, by taking
methods that all too often exacerbate events over most regions that will measures to adapt to climate change
them. Dams and levees, for example, increase floods and landslides. these impacts could be reduced
change the flow of rivers and can (Figure 2).
increase the frequency and severity of Sea levels are already rising.
floods and droughts. Such ecological During the 20th century, global Some of the costs of climate
mismanagement is evident in China's average sea level rose by 10–20 cm, change have already been felt, and
Yangtze River. The watershed has lost according to the IPCC, and it is they are projected to increase in the
85 percent of its forest cover in recent projected to rise another 9–88 cm by future. The direct economic costs of
decades. In addition, the Yangtze's 2100. But these are just averages. climate change worldwide could top
natural flood controls had been Some areas will likely experience sea $300 billion per year, according to
undermined by numerous dams and level increases much higher than the Munich Re and the United Nations
levees, and a large proportion of the global average. (It's also worth Environment Programme (UNEP).
basin's wetlands and lakes, which realizing that a 10-cm rise doesn't Individual nations could experience
usually act as natural sponges, had necessarily equate to a 10-cm loss of tens of billions of dollars in damage
been filled in or drained. The areas land. On flat sandy beaches, for to coastal infrastructure from sea-
previously left open to give example, a 10-cm rise can result in a level rise, notes the IPCC. It reports
floodwaters a place to go have been 1,500-cm loss.) Some of the most that evidence of climate change has
filled instead with waves of human heavily populated and disaster-prone already been observed in Asia, and
settlements. All these changes areas of Asia, such as Bangladesh, that signs will become even more
reduced the capacity of the Yangtze's Indonesia and Vietnam, are projected obvious in the next 10-20 years. The
watershed to absorb rain, and greatly to lose substantial portions of their scientists' panel warns that "if this
increased the speed and severity of the land to sea-level rise, with tens of time is not used to design and
resulting runoff. The flooding in 1998 millions of people directly affected, implement adaptations, it may be too
caused more than 4,000 deaths, according to IPCC estimates (Table 1). late to avoid more upheaval," and that
affected 223 million people, inundated such adaptations in Asia and
25 million hectares of cropland, and Coastal cities, river deltas and elsewhere will be needed even if
cost well over $36 billion. small islands will be especially future greenhouse gas emissions are
vulnerable. Major river deltas like reduced.
Bangladesh, the Amazon, the Mekong,
Climate Change the Mississippi, the Nile, and others
would be at risk. Some small island Reducing Our Risks
In the future the weather is likely nations may see their national territory
to become more erratic and extreme disappear. The ever-rising human and
as a result of climate change, economic toll of disasters provides
according to the Intergovernmental Storm surges will pose additional clear evidence that a new way of
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). risk. The IPCC projects that the average managing ourselves and nature is in
12 Tropical Coasts
Table 1: Projection of PPotential
otential Land Loss and PPopulation
opulation Exposed by Sea-level
Rise in Selected Asian Countries.
Note: Estimates based on 1-meter rise, except for 0.5 meters in Japan and 0.6 meters in Indonesia.
July 2005 13
While we cannot do away with natural
hazards, we can eliminate those that we the quake's epicenter, sustained far
less damage and loss of life than areas
this light, disaster mitigation and storms and to provide local livelihood
benefits by boosting production of a
adaptation to climate change are clearly range of mangrove-dependent sea
products. When the area was hit by the
part of a broader strategy of sustainable worst typhoon in a decade, there was
nations socially
socially,, economically
economically,, and logging ban and is replanting trees in
the upper watershed, because they
ecologically sustainable. now recognize that forests are 10
times more valuable for flood control
and water supply than they are for
way. When hazards are unavoidable, interests do not undermine these timber.
development can be made to essential efforts.
withstand them — for example, Identifying and delineating natural
buildings in earthquake zones Maintaining or restoring healthy resources (like watersheds and
should be designed to weather ecosystems is essential for disaster floodplains), hazards (such as flood
earthquakes. Disaster preparedness, mitigation and sustainable zones), vulnerable infrastructure, as
too, is an integral part of saving lives development. It's time to tap nature's well as vulnerable communities and
and lowering the economic toll. And engineering techniques, to use the resources — and doing so at scales
every segment of the community services provided by healthy and that are meaningful to communities
needs to be actively engaged in resilient ecosystems. Wetlands, and decisionmakers — is an essential
planning and implementing disaster floodplains and forests are sponges step. Yet such mapping is incomplete,
mitigation efforts. that absorb floodwaters. Dunes, outdated, or non-existent in many
barrier islands, mangrove forests and communities and nations. And
Governments can invest in coastal wetlands are natural shock mapping rarely accounts for likely
hazard and risk assessments. They absorbers that protect against coastal climate change effects.
can establish and enforce land-use storms. Nature provides these
policies and building codes, limit valuable services for free, and we Expanding systems for
subsidization of risk and destructive should take advantage of them rather predicting disasters and disseminating
activities, use incentives to than undermining them. The Food warnings to the local level should
encourage sound land use and and Agriculture Organization (FAO) continue to be a high priority. The
sustainable hazard mitigation. They reports that during the recent recent tsunami exposed dangerous
can collaborate with civil society to tsunami, areas with extensive gaps in these systems, especially the
ensure that corruption and vested mangrove forests, even those close to lack of a tsunami detection system in
14 Tropical Coasts
the Indian Ocean. An International Egeland, UN Undersecretary General If we continue on a course of
Early Warning Programme was for Humanitarian Affairs, recently undermining the health and
launched January 2005 at the World proposed that 10 percent of the resilience of nature, putting
Conference for Disaster Reduction. billions spent on disaster relief ourselves in harm's way, and
They plan to have a global tsunami should be earmarked for disaster delaying mitigation and adaptation
warning system up and running risk reduction. Such a modest measures, we set ourselves up for
within 18 months. investment would yield enormous more unnatural disasters, more
dividends for the world's people. suffering, more economic losses
When early warning systems are Clearly, donors could provide and more delayed development. If
in place, rapid dissemination to the leverage and resources to promote instead we choose to work with
local level is essential, as is advance development policies that include nature and each other, we can
community disaster preparedness. In disaster mitigation and climate reduce the waves of unnatural
India, the cyclone and tidal wave that adaptation. disasters that have been washing
hit Gujarat and killed 10,000 people in over the shores of humanity with
1998 was predicted by the federal The value of incorporating increasing regularity and ferocity.
government, but the warnings were disaster mitigation and adaptation to
not disseminated by local authorities. climate change into efforts to References
On the other hand, a comprehensive achieve sustainable and equitable
disaster preparedness system has development is highlighted in the Abramovitz, J. N. 2001. “Unnatural Disasters.”
Worldwatch Paper 158. Worldwatch Institute,
helped reduce the loss of life in latest IPCC reports. The "win-win" Washington, D.C., USA.
Bangladesh, 90 percent of which is solutions are summed up: "Policies
Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.
vulnerable to cyclones. Warnings are that lessen pressures on resources, www.cred.be.
quickly disseminated to tens of improve management of
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Tsunami
thousands of community volunteers, environmental risks, and increase Reconstruction website. www.fao.org/tsunami.
who work in teams to provide the welfare of the poorest members
IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red
warnings, evacuation, search and of society can simultaneously Crescent Societies). World Disasters Report
rescue, and other emergency advance sustainable development (various years). www.ifrc.org.
assistance. They are credited with and equity, enhance adaptive IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
saving 30,000 people in the powerful capacity, and reduce vulnerability to 2001a. Working Group II, Climate Change
2001: Impacts, Adaption, and Vulnerability
1991 cyclone and countless others in climate and other stresses." (Technical Summary). www.ipcc.ch.
recent events.
IPCC. 2001b. Third Assessment Report: Climate Change
The international community 2001; Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis;
We need to shift from a culture has additional avenues for action, Climate Change 2001: Impacts Adaptation and
Vulnerability; Climate Change 2001: Mitigation;
of response to a culture of mitigation. including the International Strategy and Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report.
Long-term recovery and disaster for Disaster Reduction. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
www.ipcc.ch.
prevention efforts rarely elicit the Framework Convention on Climate
same level of empathy and support as Change also provides a way to bring ISDR (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction).
www.unisdr.org.
rescue and relief. Foreign aid budgets together the goals of adapting to
are small, and disaster prevention climate change, mitigating disasters, Munich Re. www.munichre.com.
allocations are minuscule. Efforts to and fostering equitable and OFDA/CRED International Disasters Database. www.em-
restore people's livelihoods and help sustainable development. The parties dat.net.
the poorest of the poor are also to the convention have agreed to Task Force on Climate Change, Adaptation and
shortchanged. Too often aid neglects establish a fund to help developing Vulnerable Communities. www.iisd.org/natres/
security/ccvca.asp.
people in favor of infrastructure. Jan countries finance such adaptation.
July 2005 15
Cristine Ingrid S. Narcise
ICM as a Framework
Senior TTechnical
echnical Assistant
GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on
Partnerships in Environmental
Management for the
Window of Opportunity
Though natural disasters are forceful
Management
reminders that we cannot go against
forces of nature, these should also
teach us that we are not absolutely
powerless against them. With
conscious, concerted and continuous
efforts toward managing the factors
that make us vulnerable to the
impacts of natural and man-made
hazards, we can learn to live with, and
not die from, these hazards. In the
case of the 2004 tsunami, the
extensive devastation and ensuing
rehabilitation efforts also provide a
window of opportunity for rectifying
previous practices and conditions that
exacerbated the impacts of the
tsunami. Reconstruction and
Figure 1. ICM Program Development and Implementation Cycle.
rehabilitation efforts must not only
aim to bring the affected areas back
One of the strategic approaches trends in disaster occurrences,
to pre-tsunami conditions but to a proposed for the rehabilitation of the burgeoning threats due to climate
more resilient state that can withstand tsunami-affected areas is to change and other latent natural and
or minimize the impacts of natural implement integrated coastal man-made hazards the impacts of which
hazards. This is in line with the management (ICM) in harmony with are influenced by the environmental,
increasing commitment to risk hazard management. This is a new social and economic conditions of the
reduction as adopted in the Hyogo challenge for ICM which, although receiving environment — taking stock of
Framework for Action 2005-2015: widely recognized as a the current ICM context and how it can
comprehensive and holistic approach incorporate hazard mitigation is
Building Resilience of Nations and
to manage marine and coastal considered the way forward.
Communities to Disasters (UN, 2005),
resources and environment, is
which envisions "the substantial
seldom implemented in relation to This paper is about how ICM
reduction of disaster losses, in lives natural hazards. In light of the contributes to hazard management and
and in the social, economic and tsunami disaster — and in how it can be further strengthened to
environmental assets of communities recognition of the increasing global support risk reduction strategies.
and countries."
16 Tropical Coasts
Hazard Management: would lead to risk reduction. However, Integrating Hazard
R educing V ulnerability
Vulnerability for natural hazards, which cannot be Management into the
prevented from occurring, the above ICM FFramework
ramework
relationship implies that the key to
Planning for the integration of reducing the impact of a disaster is to The overall objectives of ICM
hazard management into ICM reduce the community's vulnerability and disaster management are closely
requires an understanding of the (or increase its resilience) to the hazard. related — both ultimately aim to
concepts of hazard and vulnerability. promote sustainable development.
To quote J. Twigg (ISDR, 2004): Not surprisingly, the strategic goals,
ICM and Risk Reduction objectives, approaches, and
"There are no such things initiatives of both fields are related.
as natural disasters, only One of the factors that influence a Conceptually therefore, both
natural hazards like community's level of vulnerability or disciplines can be implemented
typhoons and earthquakes. resilience to hazards is the capacity of using a common platform, such that
A disaster takes place when the ecosystem to absorb sudden shifts in areas where the ICM management
a community is affected by in climatic, geological or biological framework and processes are already
a hazard, which is usually conditions. Environmental degradation in place, ICM implementation can be
defined as an event that affects natural processes, increases a expanded to serve the needs of
overwhelms that community's vulnerability and disaster reduction as part of
community's capacity to exacerbates the impact of natural sustainable development planning.
cope. In other words, the disasters (ISDR, 2004). The ICM framework and process,
impact of the disaster is which hinges on inter-sectoral and
determined by the extent of As a comprehensive system for multi-disciplinary coordination,
a community's vulnerability natural resource and environmental policy and functional integration,
to the hazard. This management that works to protect and stakeholder consultation and
vulnerability is not natural. maintain coastal environmental participation, institutional and legal
It is the human dimension functions and services, ICM already arrangements, and local capacity to
of disasters, the result of serves as a cost-effective tool for plan and manage, is also well-
the whole range of disaster reduction. Each ICM activity positioned to incorporate hazard
economic, social, cultural, plays a role in maintaining the integrity mitigation, which operates
institutional, political, and of the coastal environment and correspondingly using these basic
even psychological factors contributes to risk reduction. elements. The integration of hazard
that shape people's lives management into ICM can be
and create the environment However, the growing awareness initiated by strategically
that they live in." and evidence of potentially more incorporating elements of hazard
perilous conditions in the coastal area management while building on the
Vulnerable conditions and the have reinforced the pressing need to arrangements, processes and
presence of a hazard combine to give step up risk reduction efforts. ICM can activities of ICM.
risk. Risk is the probability of harmful support risk reduction efforts by
conditions to occur as a result of the integrating "hazard-thinking" and risk In the ICM framework (Figure 1)
interaction of a hazard with reduction into environmental of the Global Environment Facility/
vulnerable conditions, expressed as management activities, in relation to United Nations Development
Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability. human-induced as well as natural Programme/International Maritime
Capability to control both factors hazards. Organization Regional Programme
July 2005 17
on Partnerships in Environmental provides a comprehensive review of sources of pollution, environmental
Management for the Seas of East Asia the environmental state with regard monitoring data. Linking IIMS with
(PEMSEA), incorporating hazard to bio-geophysical characteristics, external software such as a
management does not require re- resource-use patterns, the geographical information system
inventing the wheel. The socioeconomic setting, and legal and (GIS) or with predictive models
implementation arrangements, institutional arrangements as well as enhances its capability to perform
processes, tools and applications are highlights existing problems and spatial and temporal analysis, and
already in place and could be issues related to the status, use and provide more variety of uses to
expanded to support hazard development of the area. More support ICM. Establishment of IIMS
management considerations. Doing importantly, the environmental network through the internet can
so would reflect some of the priority profile identifies and prioritizes facilitate data sharing among
actions identified in the Hyogo resource use and management various users and providers from
Framework of Action 2005-2015 (UN, issues based on a synthesis of different sites.
2005) and other initiatives and available data and points out the
publications concerning risk information gaps. It defines the Since the environmental profile
reduction (Abramovitz, 2001; Bildan, framework for the next phase of the provides fundamental basis to ICM
2003; ISDR, 2004; 2005a; 2005b; planning process that involves program formulation, incorporating
UNEP, 2005). formulation of specific action plans. hazard management into ICM
The environmental profile contains should start with incorporating
Using the ICM framework, information useful for various ICM elements of hazard management
coastal hazard identification, activities such as environmental risk into the profile (such as the types
assessment, planning, management, assessment, coastal strategy and characteristics of hazards within
and communication could be fit into development, coastal use zoning and the management area,
current ICM practices. The following institutional arrangements. vulnerabilities to the hazards,
discussion evaluates key activities in capacities for withstanding the
the ICM sites and how these can be One major source of secondary impacts of the hazards, and linkages
strengthened with regard to hazard information, which forms a with environmental and
management. It should be significant component of the profile, socioeconomic conditions and
emphasized that among the various is the Integrated Information issues). This will allow
ICM tools, the fundamental Management System (IIMS) database comprehensive analysis of
requirement for hazard management which can generate information problems through the
is risk assessment. Without an needed in compiling the profile. environmental and hazard
adequate understanding of risks, it Database management is a useful management perspectives, and
would be difficult to identify and tool in ICM to facilitate access or provide recommendations and
design measures that will properly provision of timely and appropriate actions that will address both
address the identified risk factors. data for management and concerns. Applications of IIMS for
decisionmaking. The IIMS established hazard management are presented
at ICM sites are customized for in Box 1.
Environmental Profiling coastal and marine environmental
and IIMS management. It contains information
on geographic locations, Coastal Strategy
A coastal environmental profile demography, biophysical
is an important reference document characteristics, socioeconomic, A coastal strategy (CS) is
for planning an ICM program. It institutional and physiographic data, formulated to serve as a common
18 Tropical Coasts
Box 1. IIMS Applications. data from monitoring programs and model scenarios. IIMS can
also present information in useful formats (e.g., tables, graphs,
IIMS can be applied to provide environmental, social and
maps, risk quotients or RQs) and facilitate data interpretation
economic information requirements for ICM and hazard
and management recommendations. For example, the high
management by:
coliform levels measured in bathing stations in the southeastern
• Providing information to undertake applications such as part of Manila Bay were always thought to be due to loading
environmental profiling/compilation of baseline data, from the Pasig River on the eastern part of the bay. A comparison
environmental risk assessment (ERA), integrated environmental of RQs generated by IIMS with RQ outputs of a predictive model
impact assessment, coastal use zoning, CS development and that was verified using IIMS data shows that the coliform die-off
implementation, resource valuation, oil spill contingency within a specific radius from the river mouth (Figure 1), and that
planning, environmental investments, gender analysis, public high coliform levels observed south of the river may be coming
awareness and civil society mobilization, etc. from discharges along the coastal areas and not from the river.
Results point to the need for proper sewage management not
• Managing information to evaluate trends in environmental only along Pasig River but along the coastal areas as well.
conditions in relation to environmental hazards. For example,
IIMS can store and provide information on daily observations • Linking with GIS and other external software enables broad
on mean sea level. By recording the mean sea level over a possibilities for data analysis and presentation and provides
period of time (and using historical data), changes in sea level necessary information to develop an atlas that can aid in planning
can be monitored. A portion of Manila Bay (Philippines) was and decisionmaking. For example, IIMS and GIS are important
determined to be experiencing sea-level rise based on hourly inputs in the development of the Manila Bay Atlas. Some identified
observations of mean sea level undertaken by the National applications of the Atlas are water quality monitoring, monitoring
Mapping and Resource Information Authority. of coastal erosion and shoreline changes, and natural hazard
management by providing necessary information on hazard-
• Managing information generated from environmental monitoring prone areas such as those prone to erosion and flooding. Data
programs and model applications. IIMS serves as repository of on population, economic activities and natural resources likely
Figure 1. Use of IIMS to Present Information from Monitoring and Model Scenarios.
Station Range of
Annual RQ
1 534 – 4,000
2 478 – 4,500
3 677 – 1,100
4 97 – 550
5 64 – 80
6 55 – 1,100
7 152 – 450
8 19 – 80
9 5 – 15
Fecal coliform predictive model and range of RQs at
10 6 – 85 stations in Manila Bay
Bay..
July 2005 19
Figure 2. Hypothetical Model Scenario for Manila Bay
Bay..
platform and mechanism for all
concerned stakeholders to work
together and share resources to
address environmental problems. CS
development (Figure 2) involves
massive stakeholder consultations,
leading to the formulation of a
shared vision of the coastal area,
identifying stakeholder values and
needs with regard to the marine and
coastal resources in the area,
building consensus on existing and
potential threats to those values, and
developing corresponding strategies
and action programs to realize and/
or maintain the shared vision. CS
adoption signals political
to be affected during calamities can be actions should be taken to combat the oil commitment for its implementation,
determined as these can be stored in IIMS. and protect those resources and habitats. and paves the way for the integration
The Atlas will also be used in assessing of environmental concerns into the
sites suitable for solid waste management • Networking to facilitate information-sharing
development plan of the respective
facilities using criteria set by the which can be useful in establishing and
governments.
government. By providing information on operating early warning systems. For
appropriate sites, hazards that may be instance, the Manila Bay Area Information
caused by these facilities during operation Network, which is being established, will As the platform for cross-
can be mitigated or lessened. The Atlas will serve as a platform for sharing information sectoral partnerships in addressing
also be used in suitability analysis for among members and stakeholders. By local environmental problems in the
mangrove rehabilitation since, based on the keeping network members and stakeholders ICM sites, a coastal strategy is a living
ERA of Manila Bay, the few remaining informed on monitored conditions in flood- document which should be refined to
mangrove areas need to be rehabilitated to prone areas, erosion-prone areas or areas accommodate new concerns and
strengthen coastal defenses. where fault lines lie, appropriate activities
priorities in the coastal area, taking
in those areas can be planned such that
into consideration local
• The IIMS can serve two purposes in impacts would be lessened in case of the
environmental, social, economic,
combating oil spills: as database that can occurrence of natural hazards.
provide information in developing an oil cultural and political realities.
spill contingency plan; and as oil spill model • Providing information to support hazard
that can help assess and improve response management or to reduce risks during The CS process is the first step
strategies in high risk areas, which can be disasters. For example, data on population in getting people to think about and
used to improve the oil spill contingency at community levels and economic activities realize the potential for and
plan. A hypothetical scenario on oil spill at municipal levels can be provided by IIMS consequences of various hazards.
was modeled at the mouth of Manila Bay to disaster management teams.
Therefore, to incorporate elements
(Figure 2). With the given current and wind
of natural hazard management into
situation and the type of oil, the model • With slight modifications, IIMS may be
the coastal strategy, the discussion
showed the direction of the spill and what customized to provide other information
areas would be affected. If there are sensitive requirements to support hazard should extend from man-made
resources and habitats in the area, then management and disaster risk reduction. hazards to natural hazards as part of
the consultation process.
20 Tropical Coasts
As the platform for cross
cross-- sectoral
Perception of risk is important in partnerships in addressing local
developing and implementing strategies
on risk reduction, since there may environmental problems in the ICM
sometimes be disparity between the
actual risk and what is recognized by
sites, a coastal strategy is a living
people. Communication between document which should be refined to
specialists who understand the
technical nature of hazards and risks accommodate new concerns and
and local people who are the best
source of on-site knowledge, priorities in the coastal area, taking
information and experience is essential.
Considerations in incorporating hazard
into consideration local
management into the CS include environmental, social, economic,
(adapted from ADRC, 2005):
cultural and political realities.
1. Integration of the following
technical information (into a draft buildings, population, land use, 2. Presentation of the information
hazard map) by hazard specialists: environmental and to the people/participants for
a. Various types and characteristics socioeconomic information) review and refinement,
of hazards including latent c. Estimated damages from discussion of elements not
conditions that may develop into disasters and potential damages reflected in the map, actual
hazards from latent hazard conditions experiences, constraints/
b. Basic conditions of hazard area d. Preparedness (shelters, limitations, expected problems,
(topographic map, roads, evacuation routes, etc.) capacities, local/traditional
countermeasures,
Figure 22.. Development and Implementation of Coastal Strategy
Strategy.. responsibilities
3. A walk through the key hazard
areas, if possible, including the
specialists and local people to
confirm identified risks
4. Consensus-building on the
prioritization of hazards,
countermeasures, and
responsibilities
5. Formulation of strategies and
action programs taking into
consideration cost-effectiveness,
applicability to local conditions,
and capacity for implementation
Incorporation of hazard
mitigation into ICM through the CS
will enhance its comprehensiveness
as a framework in managing and
July 2005 21
protecting the coastal area. The data, involved two complementary area to natural hazards such as storm
review/refinement of the CS should assessments: 1) evaluation of the events, wave surges and erosion.
be guided by the global initiatives and likelihood that adverse effects will
commitments on disaster reduction occur to the targets based on Strengthening further the ICM
such as the Hyogo Framework of environmental conditions that risk assessment process in relation to
Action (UN, 2005) and Cairo currently exist or may exist in the hazard management requires the
Principles (UNEP, 2005), and national future (prospective RA); and 2) incorporation of some characteristics
and local laws, policies and plans. The evaluation of changes that may have of natural hazard RA (Box 2).
refinement should be carried out occurred on the targets and
through the lens of environmental identification of significant causes The assessment of risks
management as well as risk for any adverse effects observed associated with specific natural,
reduction, and should involve (retrospective RA). Risk was assessed biological (e.g., pest infestation), and
consultations with government in relation to the hazard and technological (e.g., industrial
agencies and units, academe, private exposure (or vulnerability) of the accidents) hazards applies basically
sector, civil society, and target to the hazard. the same general concept (Risk =
communities. Hazard x Vulnerability) and
The ERA has drawn attention to approaches. Due to the different
common concerns like human health nature and potential impacts of the
Risk Assessment risks associated with contamination hazards, however, methods and
of recreational waters and requirements for data collection and
Risk assessment (RA) is the consumption of contaminated risk analysis differ from methods
essential first step in any serious seafood, and ecological risks from previously applied in ICM sites. In
consideration of risk reduction pollution and habitat loss and assessing seismic hazards, for
strategies. Following the identification degradation. Where relevant, harmful example (ISDR, 2004), hazard
of priority problems using the algal blooms (HABs), oil spills and assessment would involve identifying
environmental profile and CS, shoreline changes were also technical features of threats such as
application of RA provides a assessed. The risk agents identified the location, intensity, frequency and
systematic and scientific evaluation of include various human activities that probability of an earthquake. Ground
technical information on the hazard pollute, extract as well as physically shaking and ground movement are
and the physical, environmental and alter the coastal resources and then the two most important factors,
socioeconomic factors that influence environment. Results are used as and a statistical earthquake hazard
the degree of impacts from the inputs to provide focus to risk assessment can be made to assess the
hazard. Information from the RA will management and the application of probability that a particular level of
guide the formulation of cost- other ICM tools. RA facilitates the use ground motion at a specified site is
effective risk reduction measures. of scientific information to support exceeded during a specified time
better-informed decisionmaking. interval. Meanwhile, for assessing the
The environmental risk overall activity and potential danger of
assessments (ERA) undertaken in Although the ERA was not a volcano, field observations through
PEMSEA ICM sites focused on the undertaken in relation to natural mapping of various historical and pre-
scientific evaluation of the likely hazards, the recommendations from historic deposits are considered
consequences of various factors the ERA aims to improve the useful (ISDR, 2004). For a more
arising from human activities on conditions of the marine and coastal comprehensive ERA that includes
ecological and human targets. The resources and environment, thus natural hazards, additional specialists
ERA, which used primarily available reducing vulnerability of the coastal should therefore be included in the RA
22 Tropical Coasts
Box 2 . Characteristics of Natural
team to cover specific and potential comprehensive plan that presents Hazard Risk Assessment
natural hazards. priorities, targets, budgets, which Can Be
timeframe, and direction for Incorporated into the ICM
Vulnerability assessment is an implementation, which is envisioned Risk Assessment Process.
important complement of hazard to catch the attention and support of
• Enhance ecological risk assessment in
assessment and involves not only the the government, private sector and
relation to coastal function as natural
physical and environmental conditions other stakeholders.
defense system and relate to trends in
that make people vulnerable to hazards
degree of impacts of hazard events
but also the socioeconomic factors as CSIP development provides an
• Develop hazard maps to show the spatial
well. Expertise in using technical and opportunity to identify and
distribution of identified risks
social survey tools in data collection, strengthen cost-effective
• Use hazard maps in conjunction with
monitoring and analysis is also environmental measures that
physical and socioeconomic information
required in the RA team. maintain or restore healthy and
from the IIMS/GIS to answer the questions:
resilient ecosystems so they can
• What is vulnerable? Where is it
Coordination and cooperation provide valuable services such as
vulnerable? (Physical vulnerability)
with agencies specializing in natural protection, conservation and
• Who is vulnerable? How have they
hazards should be sought for technical rehabilitation of wetlands, mangroves,
become vulnerable? (Socioeconomic
information and support. Use of best- coral reefs and seagrass beds;
vulnerability)
available information, data and capacity promotion of responsible fisheries
• Applying participatory approach in
would be more cost-effective than and environment-friendly
identifying and mapping risks in order to
spending resources to generate new aquaculture practices; and
promote awareness of risk, interaction
data. development of alternative sources of
with experts, and acceptance of risk
livelihood to reduce the pressure on
reduction measures
As RA is the starting point of a natural resources.
cost-effective hazard management
program, building or enhancing Establishment of systems for the ICM area as well as to measure the
capacity to undertake risk assessment disaster preparedness, contingency impacts of policy and management
is a worthy investment with potentially planning, emergency management, interventions. To ensure the
significant returns. and early warning can also be usefulness of the monitoring effort as
considered in developing the CSIP. An well as its sustainability, cost-
early warning system that gets the effective monitoring programs are
Coastal Strategy right information to the right people being designed in the ICM sites by
Implementation Plan at the right time will require a) focusing on the priority issues of
combining appropriate technology concern and potentially-important
A Coastal Strategy Implementation and traditional/popular medium for data gaps identified in the RA;
Plan (CSIP) translates the strategies and communication. b) integrating and streamlining the
action programs in the CS into action efforts and resources of separate
plans and activities that will address the entities involved in environmental
priority issues identified by the Integrated Environmental monitoring at the site; and
government and stakeholders. Monitoring c) establishing mechanisms for
Priorities for the development of the information-sharing in order to
CSIP are provided by the ERA, which An environmental monitoring ensure optimal use of generated
identifies priority environmental areas program is important in order to keep information.
of concern. The CSIP is a concise and track of environmental conditions in continued on page 102
July 2005 23
Managing the
Anjan Datta1
Programme Officer
and
Coastal Zone:
Martin Adriaanse2
Programme Officer
countries have demonstrated Toepfer created the Asian Tsunami this, the Asian Tsunami Disaster Task
Disaster Task Force, charging it with Force in collaboration with the UNEP
remarkable resilience and
the responsibility for assisting Coordination Office of the Global
determination. Their efforts to alleviate
governments to assess and respond Programme of Action for the
the suffering of affected communities
to the environmental impacts of the Protection of the Marine Environment
and to put their countries on the road to tsunami. In response to requests from Land-based Activities (UNEP/
recovery have been heartening. There from governments, UNEP GPA) convened a meeting on 17th
has also been a remarkable outpouring immediately deployed experts to February 2005 in Cairo, Egypt, to
of concern and assistance from the world Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and the discuss coastal zone rehabilitation
community. In response to requests from Maldives, and later to the Seychelles and management in the tsunami-
the governments of tsunami-impacted and Yemen. These teams have affected region. Meeting participants
countries, the United Nations system, remained in the region to conduct included senior government officials
and facilitate rapid assessments and from tsunami-affected countries —
under the leadership of Secretary-
help coordinate environmental Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
General Kofi Annan and the
recovery programs in partnership Myanmar, Bangladesh, India,
Undersecretary General for
with national authorities, UN Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Seychelles,
Humanitarian Affairs, Jan Egeland, has colleagues and the international Tanzania and Yemen; representatives
swiftly mobilized emergency community. from the UNEP Regional Seas
humanitarian assistance to address Programmes, international
housing, healthcare, transport, water Together with governments and organizations and institutions. Some
and sanitation services. other partners, UNEP addressed a international organizations and
1
a.datta@unep.nl
2
m.adriaanse@unep.nl
24 Tropical Coasts
The Cairo PPrinciples,
rinciples, if adopted and
institutions include the
Department for Environment, Food
applied throughout the affected region,
and Rural Affairs-United Kingdom, will allow those involved to sequence
Department for International
Development-United Kingdom, the their actions following a common set of
Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), UNESCO, World Bank, priorities; strengthen collective
Islamic Development Bank, League
of Arab States, the World
commitment to rehabilitate and protect
Conservation Union (IUCN), World coastal communities and increase the
Wide Fund for Nature and UNEP.
Attendees from the affected efficiency of actions.
nations and supporting
international institutions endorsed Tsunami R econstruction —
Reconstruction coastal zone in the tsunami-affected
12 key principles consistent with The Guiding Principles countries. This article expands on the
an advance to more sustainable 12 principles formulated in Cairo by
forms of coastal development The Cairo meeting adopted the incorporating suggestions on the
contributing to the realization of 12 guiding principles (herein referred original draft text made before and
the United Nations Millennium to as the Cairo Principles) for the
Development Goals (MDGs). rehabilitation and management of the
Images acquired and processed by CRISP, National University of Singapore, IKONOS image © CRISP 2004, www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/tsunami/ 0 1 2 3 4
Kilometers
tsunami.html; and Ibu Liana and Faizal Parish. 2005. Preliminary Assessment of Tsunami Impact on Ecosystem in Aceh, Ministry of
Environment & Global Environment Center. Created by UNEP/DEW A/G RID-Europe, February 2005.
July 2005 25
during the Cairo meeting by the processes the necessary technical to apply a precautionary principle in
World Bank, UNEP, IUCN, FAO, the capacity should be present in each planning. It is important to
International Maritime Organization nation. acknowledge that hazards created by
(IMO) and others. It also takes note of storms, the reshaping of coastlines by
texts subsequently released by IUCN, processes of erosion and accretion,
UNEP, the Consortium to Restore What Needs TToo Be Done? instabilities produced by new patterns
Shattered Livelihoods in Tsunami- of land use as well as such
Devastated Nations (CONSRN) and the Overarching Principle 1 relatively rare occurrences as
WorldFish Center. The Cairo tsunami will together make
Principles will subsequently be shorelines increasingly hazard
Reduce the vulnerability of coastal
revised and amplified through a prone.
communities to natural hazards by
round of workshops in the region
establishing a regional early
where participants would share their The above would call for
experiences, identify priority needs warning system; and applying application of integrated coastal
and offer specific examples of construction setbacks, greenbelts management (ICM), including
successes and difficulties during its and other no-build areas in each public engagement in local
application in a wide range of nation, founded on a science- decisionmaking, to undertake
settings. After the workshops, the based mapped “reference line.” rapid assessment for zoning
revised and amplified version of the and planning pertaining to
principles will be prepared with short overall recovery process.
examples and case studies that It is not possible to sustain any
reflect the realities being encountered development in coastal areas if the Principle 2
by those most directly involved in huge energy and natural dynamics of
rehabilitation and restoration efforts. coastal systems are ignored. Many of
Promote early resettlement with
The aim is to create a living the adverse social and economic
provision for safe housing;
document that incorporates and impacts of the tsunami have occurred
builds upon collective experiences because people have been made more debris clearance; potable water,
and knowledge. For early 2006, vulnerable to natural hazards through sanitation and drainage services;
UNEP/GPA proposes to reassemble poor planning and the ineffective and access to sustainable
representatives of the affected management of coastal development. livelihood options.
nations and supporting international The technical difficulties and financial
organizations to review progress and costs of opposing the natural dynamics
lessons learned a year after the of coastal systems far outweigh the This entails putting the people
adoption of the principles. long-term benefits that can be gained first in the rehabilitation process, and
by working with the natural processes would require moving quickly to
The Cairo Principles, if adopted that create and maintain healthy resettle those displaced by the
and applied throughout the affected ecosystems and a flow of social and tsunami in a manner that provides the
region, will allow those involved to economic benefits to humankind. poor with living conditions and
sequence their actions following a services that are better than what
common set of priorities; strengthen At a time when human existed before the disaster. Those
collective commitment to rehabilitate populations are becoming increasingly that have lost property and cannot
and protect coastal communities and concentrated along coastlines, sea rebuild because their properties are
increase the efficiency of actions. It is levels are rising and long-established within the no-build zone must be
recognized that to initiate such weather patterns are changing, we need adequately compensated.
26 Tropical Coasts
Where practicable, it would be
Where practicable, it would be
advisable to identify sites beyond the
advisable to identify sites beyond the
"no-build zone" for permanent housing
"no -build zone" for permanent housing
"no-build
for those displaced by the tsunami, and
for reconstruction of essential for those displaced by the tsunami, and
infrastructure, such as access to roads,
water supply and sanitation, wastewater for reconstruction of essential
treatment and solid waste disposal.
infrastructure, such as access to roads,
Involuntary resettlement needs to water supply and sanitation, wastewater
be avoided as far as possible and, if
unavoidable, to be addressed in treatment and solid waste disposal.
accordance with the Guiding Principles
on Internal Displacement presented to Natural barriers to flooding rivers, mangroves are cut for timber
the UN Commission on Human Rights and coastal erosion, such as coral and wetlands are filled as building sites,
and the General Assembly. A "no-build reefs, near-shore rock outcrops, coastal settlements become more
zone" applied to a settled coastline may sandbars, and sand dunes that vulnerable to hazards of every
have severe consequences for those reduce, absorb and redirect waves description. Extraction of coastal
deprived of land tenure or rights of and floodwaters, should be resources should be planned with due
residence. Where relocation is judged to protected from construction care to the long-term sustainability and
be in the best long-term interest of activities and uses that compromise integrity of the natural system.
those affected, provision of adequate their structural integrity. Wetlands,
compensation for land and property lagoons, river estuaries, and reefs
Principle 4
has to be guaranteed along with are essential to sustaining fisheries,
establishment of channels for public health and the many Promote design that is cost-
grievance resolution at the appropriate livelihoods that support coastal effective, appropriate and
levels of government. populations. They contribute to a consistent with best practice and
healthy and aesthetically pleasing
placement of infrastructure away
Principle 3 environment for a seaside
from hazard and resource areas,
holiday. A portion of the
favoring innovative and soft-
rehabilitation funds should
Enhance the ability of the natural engineering solutions to coastal
therefore be assigned to protect
system to act as a bioshield to erosion control.
and restore these habitats.
protect people and their
livelihoods by conserving, Reconstruction may require Reconstruction is an
managing and restoring wetlands, thousands of cubic meters of unprecedented opportunity to relocate
mangroves, spawning areas, sand for cement and for fill, and communities away from hazardous and
building materials of every unhealthy areas, rectify badly designed
seagrass beds and coral reefs;
description. Traditionally, many infrastructure and services, and reduce
and by seeking alternative
of these materials have been previous inequities in their availability
sustainable sources of building
taken from the coast itself. and distribution.
materials, with the aim of keeping Experiences, however, suggest
coastal sand, coral, mangroves that when sand is mined from Transportation infrastructure
and rock in place. beaches, dunes and coastal such as roads, railroads and other
July 2005 27
facilities should be well inside the The rehabilitation of
Principle 7
setback line and with site-access ways hundreds of kilometers of
perpendicular to the coast. The natural shoreline should generate many Promote sustainable tourism that
barriers to flooding and coastal opportunities for more diversified respects setback lines and
erosion, specifically coral reefs, near- and more sustainable livelihoods.
carrying capacity, benefits local
shore rock outcrops, sand bars and A primary concern must be the
communities and applies
sand dunes, should be protected from future prospects of communities
construction activities and uses that dependent upon fishing. These adequate management practices.
compromise their structural integrity. communities contain a high
proportion of the region's
Principle 5 poorest people. A recent Tourism planning should be
statement prepared by responsive to the needs of the local
Respect traditional public access WorldFish Center points out community and ensure community
and uses of the shoreline, and that coastal fisheries in Asia benefits. Local communities should be
protect religious and cultural were severely depleted and involved in the tourism planning process
management measures; promote return to fishing by developing hazards. National and local authorities
sustainable fisheries management in alternative livelihoods. This will must support the industry through
contribute to reducing fishing public sector planning, development
over-fished areas, and encourage
effort and restoring natural control and provision of construction
low impact aquaculture.
resources. standards.
28 Tropical Coasts
The Process Measures the effort and provide a basis for provision of detailed before-and-after
measuring successful conditions based on aerial
How things are done is as implementation of the principles. photographs and maps showing the
important, sometimes more reference line will assist in this
important, than what is done. Local Opportunities created by the process. It is essential that
knowledge and insights are critically intense activity brought by the representatives of the poorer
important to successful planning and reconstruction process could be segments of the community are
decisionmaking, and local citizens used to strengthen the relationships present and participate actively and
must be engaged in the rehabilitation among these institutions and to that traditional leadership such as
and reconstruction process at every address weaknesses in the current village leaders and religious leaders
stage. It is essential that the coastal management system. provide guidance and assist in the
application of the construction Responsibility for coastal planning mediation of disputes. It is important
setback line and the boundaries of and decisionmaking — including the that decisions be guided by the
bioshields are defined in consultation necessary enforcement powers — are precise demarcation of the setback
with the local communities, coastal invariably distributed among a line and that the boundaries of
reach by coastal reach. number of governmental agencies at bioshields be based on pre-defined
the national and sub-national and unambiguous criteria and that
levels. In some nations, non- these be applied in a transparent
Principle 8
governmental organizations manner.
(NGOs) also play major roles in
Secure commitments from coastal management. Adaptive strategies for applying
governments and international these principles will be most
July 2005 29
Jesse Bacamante Manuta
Research Fellow
Supaporn Khrutmuang
The Politics of
Researcher
and
Recovery: Post-Asian
Louis Lebel
Director
Introduction
communities. They are now safe water, and medicine to affected communities are being erected as part of
communities, plans for the eventual this process. Firstly, participation by
struggling to survive (Sachs,
reconstruction and rehabilitation of socially vulnerable groups in setting
2005). the economy and peoples' lives and priorities for reconstruction efforts is
livelihood start to take shape. token. Many of the key decisions,
30 Tropical Coasts
Box 1: Vulnerability and Governance.
This paper is based on the some groups more socially injured (UNEP, 2005). The economic
authors' own field and voluntary work vulnerable to the disaster being base of the six provinces — tourism,
in southern Thailand during the early recreated by recovery and fisheries and agriculture — were
stages of the reconstruction process. rehabilitation programs? severely damaged. The losses in
It aims to raise a number of important tourism, fishery and agriculture
questions about how politics are sector were estimated at US$321
shaping the recovery and The Disaster million, US$43 million and US$0.65
reconstruction processes. Whose million, respectively (UNEP, 2005).
vulnerability to disasters is being The six southern provinces of Some 315 hotels and resorts and 234
reduced in the immediate and longer Thailand along the Andaman Sea — restaurants have been totally or
terms? Who will be left worse-off as Ranong, Phang Nga, Phuket, Krabi, partially destroyed.
result of reconstruction measures or Trang and Satun — were impacted
new institutional arrangements, for severely by the tsunami (Figure 1). It is estimated that the livelihood
example, for coastal management? The casualties were reported at 5,393 of around 100,000–120,000 people
Have the underlying causes that made dead, 3,062 missing and 8,457 have been disrupted. More than
July 2005 31
5) sustainable redevelopment.
Proponents of these perspectives
are shaping the recovery process
(Table 2).
Revitalizing the
Tourism Industry
Source: ACHR (2005)
32 Tropical Coasts
Table 2. Emerging RReconstruction
econstruction PPerspective
erspective and Discourses.
Discourse Proponents Proposed Recovery Actions
1. Revitalizing the Hotels and big businesses; Tourism Revive the sector through sector re-
Tourism Industry officials; tourism-related industries development, tourism campaign and incentives
that lure back tourists and restore their confidence
2. Safety and Security Safety and disaster groups Enforcement of zoning and safety measures
3. Coastal Resource Environmentalist and conservation Rehabilitation and restoration of coastal ecosystem
Conservation groups and implementation of coastal resource protection
measures
"The livelihoods of such as duty free shops (Isaacs, socio-political and cultural context
hundreds of thousands of 2005). The Prime Minister will set up that exacerbates the impact of the
people living in the affected 10 billion Baht (about US$252 million) December 2004 tsunami —
areas, from Southeast Asia trust fund to help revive the hotel "unplanned and often illegal
to South Asia to the eastern business. This undoubtedly has some establishments, pre-tsunami
coast of Africa, depend on important side effects, e.g., the ecosystems were partly ruined,
tourism. Their livelihoods seasonal employment in the tourism unsustainable and failing
cannot return to normal in sector is an important part of environment" (Bangkok Post, 24
the absence of tourist. But livelihood diversification for some January 2005, Editorial). Likewise, the
tourists will simply not households in coastal communities. aftermath reveals that several coastal
return unless they have communities lack education, training
trust and confidence in Safety and Security and preparation. Indigenous groups
their safety." (Cited by such as the Moken (sea gypsies), on
Isaacs, 2005). The concern for safety has also the other hand, escaped the tsunami
caught the attention of the country. by heeding ancestral signs and the
The recently-prepared Phuket "As terrifying and unpredictable as wisdom of the sea (Sukrung, 2005). In
Action Plan aims to restore tourist tsunamis are, good forecasting, early disaster risk management there is a
confidence in the area. The Phuket warning and education could save renewed interest in integrating
Action Plan has four phases, namely: lives" (The Nations, 28 December indigenous knowledge with modern
1) providing special assistance for 2004, Editorial). There seems a technology for community early
four key world-renowned tourist- consensus of the value of the early warning preparation.
sites — Patong, Kamala, Khao Lak warning system in the region as
beaches and Phi Phi Island; 2) building Thailand bids to host the center for The establishment of an early
new infrastructures; 3) marketing the Indian Ocean region. The tsunami warning system, enforcement of
campaign; and 4) tourist incentives aftermath has also underscored the protection zoning and safety
July 2005 33
Indigenous groups such as the Mok
Mokenen
(sea gypsies), on the other hand,
past zoning policies in Thailand and
escaped the tsunami by heeding their elsewhere, it may actually mean less
livelihood security among fisherfolks
ancestral signs and the wisdom of the as access to the sea is reduced.
34 Tropical Coasts
The uneasiness of fishers is also shared
The uneasiness of fishers is also by small vendors and small shop owners
shared by small vendors and small
shop owners serving the tourists. They serving the tourists. They should be
should be allowed to continue to offer
their goods and services rather than be
allowed to continue to offer their goods
replaced with a more regimented,
and services rather than be replaced
strip-mall planning approach in
tourism reconstruction which is with a more regimented, strip -mall
strip-mall
advocated by some big businesspeople
and hotel owners (Katharangsiporn, planning approach in tourism
2005).
reconstruction which is advocated by
Sustainable Redevelopment some big businesspeople and hotel
An emerging overarching owners (K atharangsiporn, 2005).
(Katharangsiporn,
framework for the reconstruction has
been proposed by NGOs, funding
agencies, international agencies and However, the call for out by government officials.
the media. The United Nations redevelopment in the reconstruction is However, the needs of the affected
Development Programme (UNDP) calls easier said than done. The lack of communities are not well-articulated.
this reconstruction framework agreement over how to rebuild the six With the facilitation of the
"sustainable redevelopment." tsunami-hit provinces among different Community Organization
Sustainable redevelopment links the actors explains the several disputes Development Institute (CODI) and the
environment, sustainable livelihood and conflicts in the reconstruction NGOs coalition, 900 tsunami-
and economy and the need for early process. What will be the priority? How affected communities met in Phang
warning and disaster preparedness will funds and manpower be allocated? Nga on 26 January 2005 to discuss
systems. As a framework for How will the plans be implemented? their conditions, problems and
reconstruction, it addresses the Who will be the main agency and actors issues. The emerging problems can
concerns for the revitalization of the in the recovery? The lack of platform to be classified into four categories: 1)
economy, the restoration of the discuss the goals and vision of resettlement and livelihood
ecology and livelihood of the people reconstruction as well as the lack of restoration; 2) resource
and security of the region. For leadership to undertake the negotiated rehabilitation; 3) security and safety;
instance, the UNDP Tsunami Impacts rebuilding process contributes to the and 4) participation (Table 3).
Relief and Community Livelihood conflict (Bangkok Post, 24 January
Restoration Project links coastal 2005, Editorial). Resettlement Disputes
conservation and livelihood
restoration. Likewise, aside from the Resettlement is a critical issue
call for a little re-ordering in the Negotiating for livelihood restoration. It
rebuilding process, the 24 January Reconstruction determines access to sources of
2005 Bangkok Post editorial argues for livelihood — the sea and the tourism
a recovery path that addresses the Emerging Issues industry. The Asian Coalition for
issues of economy, safety and security, Housing Rights (ACHR) documented
coastal resources integrity and A resettlement plan and the complicated land tenure situation
peoples’ participation. livelihoods recovery has been drawn and land status in several coastal
July 2005 35
communities. Most of these lands Post reported that around 100 Moken overlapping land claims (ACHR,
are de facto public lands families from Ban Muang marched 2005).
administered by different back to their tsunami-wrecked village.
government ministries and They encircled their land in Bang However, as indicated by CODI,
departments (e.g., national parks). Niang with a rope in a symbolic there are several land dispute cases
Some of the lands where given on ceremony to mark their land between affected coastal
concession to the private sector ownership (Wongruang, 2005). The communities and private
(e.g., tin mining companies, land, however, will be used to build a entrepreneurs or between
tourism), and some of these new hospital according to Phang Nga communities and conservation
concessions were sold to a new governor Anuwat Maytheewibulwut. groups which have not been resolved
generation of speculators and yet. And it may take several months,
entrepreneurs. Though without land The land negotiation involving if not years, before these disputes
titles, several coastal communities the Ban Thoong Wa Moken would be resolved.
have been occupying their villages community, the National Land
for several generations. Department, the local administrative Support for Livelihood Restoration
authority and the provincial governor
For example, the residents of resulted to a practical scheme of land Many fishing communities have
Ban Thoong Wa in Takua Pa, Phang sharing. The community will get 16 already returned to their ravaged
Nga, were prevented from going rai (2.56 hectares) of the land to villages without waiting for more
back to their old village by the Office rebuild their village, while the comprehensive support from the
of Social Development and Social provincial government gets 10 rai government. They realized that
Welfare on the grounds that the land (1.6 hectares). The land sharing getting their livelihood back quickly
has been identified as the site for the scheme is a practical alternative to a is critical. But for others the wait for
provincial hospital. The Bangkok contentious long process of resolving material and financial support with
2. Livelihood Financial and material support for Establish community shipyard and community
Restoration repair revolving funds
3. Coastal Resource Damaged coral and coastal Propose to the government to make artificial coral
Rehabilitation environment reefs to become fish nurseries and mangrove
reforestation.
5. Early Warning Villagers are not confident with the Set up an early warning system
System government information system.
July 2005 37
bases of ownership. According to the livelihood should be applauded. negotiated solution and, thus avoids
Coalition Network for Andaman Plans which use a crisis as a cover to the long and time-consuming
Coastal Community Support, more re-allocate access to critical coastal litigious way of resolving conflicting
than 30 villages in the six tsunami-hit areas to the wealthy should be property rights claims (ACHR, 2005).
provinces are now facing eviction exposed for what they are: the best The post-tsunami coastal master
(Ekachai, 2005). Though the National way to reproduce the conditions for plan promises to provide arenas for
Human Rights Commission provides the next disaster. local participation. In collaboration
assistance in checking the legality of with Chulalongkorn University, CODI
claims, there seems to be no clear has offered to assist in the process of
mechanism to address this issue in a Conclusion getting communities and various
manner that protects the most local groups involved in developing
vulnerable sector before and after Disasters provide an the master plan (ACHR, 2005). The
tsunamis. opportunity for the recovery efforts first test for the participatory coastal
to avoid reconstructing the pre- planning process was on Koh Lanta
The path to redevelopment that disaster risks and address the Island. A policy in which villages
the post-tsunami recovery brings is a underlying causes of vulnerability, adopt NGOs, instead of NGOs
highly contentious one. It is especially among the poor. This has adopting villages, has been practiced
therefore important that all voices, not happened so far in southern in Tamil Nadu, India. The affected
especially the poor be heard. Whether Thailand. Vulnerable poor fisherfolks communities lobbied with the
these efforts will be successful in and coastal communities have been government for a policy in which
securing livelihoods against serious largely marginalized from major every NGO that wants to work with a
future challenges is uncertain as the decisionmaking processes about particular village has to get the
vision, the goals and process of post-tsunami recovery. We see four endorsement of the villagers.
reconstruction are contested and key areas where actions are urgently
negotiated. We believe that it is crucial needed. Secondly, the focus of the
for the voices of affected people, in reconstruction program should be
particular socially marginalized Firstly, platforms are needed to more firmly on securing the
groups, in the reconstruction encourage broader participation in livelihoods of poor and socially
process both because it is the right decisionmaking about post-disaster vulnerable groups rather than just
thing to do and because it means programs. This is especially upon assisting businesses recover,
interventions are more likely to be important as many new allocations, something they are capable of doing
effective and supported by people infrastructure, zoning options are well themselves given just modest
who ultimately will have to carry them being considered and for which the incentives like "time to pay back
out and live with the consequences. electorate has had no real chance to loans." There is a need for alternative
But rarely have we heard of small- express their views by other means. economies in traditional fishing
scale fisherfolks, Burmese immigrant It is easy to rush things post- communities as the younger
workers, or women and men working disaster so as to give the appearance generation may not be inclined to do
for the tourism sex industry. of getting things done, but this is fishing (ACHR, 2005). For example,
often at the expense of listening and entrepreneurial options of traditional
Recovery plans that explore with thus meeting real needs. In southern fishing villages may be expanded
a sense of social justice and goodwill Thailand, it has been a scramble. through "home-stay" programs and
the diverse needs, interests and Though ad hoc as of this writing, the eco-tourism. Fishing communities
capacities of those with the least "land sharing scheme" strategy has might also be a major agency in the
resources from which to rebuild a been proven to be a practical protection of sensitive coastal
38 Tropical Coasts
environmental areas or the primary environment, sustainable of the people, especially the
force in the regeneration of damaged livelihood, the economy and the survivors, any recovery effort may
coastal ecosystems. need for early warning and not truly and meaningfully address
disaster preparedness systems. their true needs and well-being.
Thirdly, greater emphasis on The outcomes of reconstructions Allowing the survivors to speak and
community-based disaster risk are a negotiated one, and it is participate affirms our trust on their
management is needed. The tsunami important that social spaces for ability to navigate their own future
illustrated again and again the dialogue and negotiations are and create more secure, safe and
importance of non-state actors in created. Without hearing the voices sustainable realities.
places where state capacities are very
limited. Rather than bemoaning their
lack of state capacity, government References
agencies should see their roles in
Achakulwisut, A. 2005. “All in the Same Boat.” Paper Series No. 0218, Social Protection
training, capacity building and
Bangkok Post, 21 February 2005. Unit, Human Development Network, The
coordination. Prepared communities World Bank.
have a lot to offer in reducing risks Adger, N. 1999. “Social Vulnerability to Climate
Change and Extremes in Coastal Vietnam.” Isaacs, J. 2005. “Tsunami Meeting: Action Plan
and effective responses when major World Development, 27(2): 249–269. Adopted in Phuket.” The Nations. 3 February
challenges strike. 2005.
ACHR (Asian Coalition for Housing Rights).
2005. A People’s Centered Perspective on Kasperson, J. X. and R.E. Kasperson. 2001. SEI
Fourthly, analyses are needed the Tsunami Rehabilitation Effort. Risk and Vulnerability Programme Report
about the underlying causes of www.achr.net/000ACHRTsunami/index.htm 2001-01. Stockholm Environment Institute,
Stockholm, Sweden.
disaster that go beyond immediate Bunyamanee, S. 2005. “New Zoning Plan Now
and obvious practice, like "they were Being Drawn Up.” Bangkok Post. 17 Katharangsiporn, K. 2005. “Patong’s Future in
January 2005. Balance.” Bangkok Post. 10 January 2005.
sleeping on the sand" or "houses were
on the beach." If zoning principles and Bangkok Post. 24 January 2005. “A Little Order Sachs, J. D. 2005. “The Class System of
regulations exist why are they so in Rebuilding.” Editorial. Catastrophe.“ Time Special Report on
Tsunami. 10 January 2005.
easily circumvented or manipulated Chantanusornsiri, W. 2005. “B 30 bn in Soft
by tourist entrepreneurs? Can fishing Loans for Six Provinces.” Bangkok Post. 2 Sukrung, K. 2005. “Wisdom of the Sea.” Bangkok
villages be built in ways in which good
January 2005. Post. 17 January 2005.
access to coastal resources is Chinvarakorn, V. 2005. “Sand Dune Saviour: The Nations. 28 December 2004. “Lessons Must Be
maintained while vulnerability is How One Community Survived the Learned from This.” Editorial.
Tsunami?” Bangkok Post. 15 February
reduced and the environmental
2005. UNEP. 2005. After the Tsunami: Rapid
protection functions of mangroves Environmental Assessment Report. UNEP
and other coastal vegetation is Chuenniran, A. and N. Chuenniran. 2005. Asian Tsunami Disaster Task Force Report
“Resort Renewal Plan Pushes Ahead.” w w w. u n e p . o r g / t s u n a m i / r e p o r t s /
maintained? Bangkok Post. 3 January 2005. TSUNAMI_report_complete.pdf
July 2005 39
Ensuring 'Green
Ghislaine Llewellyn
WWF International
Gland, Switzerland
Mubariq Ahmed
Chief Executive Officer
Ian Kosaih
Reconstruction' in
Forest Program Director
Fathi Hanif
Policy and Legal Officer
Post-Tsunami
Lida Pet
Senior Advisor
Acting Marine Director
Rehabilitation Efforts
World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia
in Indonesia
Introduction
negative impacts of reconstruction A diesel power station barge has been transported inland
by the tsunami. To minimize the ecological footprint of
on the environment and reconstruction, governments should consider 'cleaner'
energy production options.
maintaining the biological
Post-tsunami reconstruction gears. Healthy ecosystems underpin
diversity and productivity of
efforts face the challenge of meeting healthy and safe communities and
immediate humanitarian need, whilst durable prosperous economies.
natural systems."
balancing longer term natural disaster Those impacted by the tsunami will
mitigation and planning for be looking to healthy marine
development and poverty alleviation. ecosystems as a source of livelihood
Across the Indian Ocean, where the and food security, and as a potential
greatest loss of life occurred, literally first line of defense against future
tens of thousands of families are left natural disasters. With such a strong
without homes, boats or fishing connection between the role of a well-
40 Tropical Coasts
With such a strong connection between the
managed environment and the well- role of a well-managed environment and
being of many of the most
vulnerable individuals in the post-
the well-being of many of the most
tsunami recovery process (women,
children and those dependent on
vulnerable individuals in the post-tsunami
subsistence activities), it is recovery process (women, children and
important that the principles of
sustainable development, integrated those dependent on subsistence activities),
coastal zone management and
ecosystem-based management of
it is important that the principles of
fisheries underpin actions and
sustainable development, integrated
choices.
coastal zone management and ecosystem-
To be of benefit to donors and
practitioners, reconstruction advice based management of fisheries underpin
needs to provide a means of
discriminating among available
actions and choices.
options and provide guidance on mainstreaming of environment in give them social stability;
approaches to ensure that the end development and effective • To restore the system of local
result of reconstruction is enduring participation of local governance, that represents
and supported by local stakeholders. communities in resource people's aspirations; and
With the generous outpouring of governance. • To re-establish the province as
funds and assistance from aid politically stable and
agencies and humanitarian economically vibrant and one
organizations, the decisionmakers in Green Reconstruction which is resilient and protected
the donor and aid sectors and within Principles against new disasters.
government agencies responsible
for reconstruction are faced with a Within the context of In addition World Wide Fund for
potentially bewilderingly large array national recovery and restoration Nature (WWF) promotes the
of options for how to rebuild. The strategies, the following five following additional goals:
goal of this paper is to provide goals are proposed, representing
guidance to those involved in a modified version of the goals • To minimize negative
reconstruction efforts on those proposed by the Indonesian externalities of reconstruction
aspects that link most closely to Government and the donor on livelihoods and the natural
natural resources. By highlighting community to Indonesia environment;
these areas, the aim is to minimize (BAPPENAS, 2005): • To ensure rehabilitation,
any negative environmental impacts reconstruction and future
of reconstruction and promote • To restore people's lives and development of Aceh follows a
positive choices that optimize fulfil their needs; sustainable path;
environmental goods and services, • To restore the economy and • To ensure long-term improved
development and livelihood provide work opportunities, quality of life; and
opportunities. The resulting 'Green markets and incentives; • To ensure long-term human
Reconstruction' aims at long-term • To rebuild communities and harmony with nature through
July 2005 41
Coral reefs are themselves effective
natural breakwaters; during Putting Green
reconstruction and creation of defenses Reconstruction into
Practice
against future impacts, efforts should
The preceding sections
focus on strengthening natural defenses focused on a set of overarching
42 Tropical Coasts
Box 1. General Goals, Best Practice Actions and Indicators for
Construction Materials.
Emergency Response and subsequent
Reconstruction of Nanggroe Aceh GOAL: Reconstruction is sensitive to local traditions and cultures, supports
Darussalam ranges from around 4 local businesses, builds local capacity and minimizes impact on local
million to a maximum of 8 million natural resources through using recycled or sustainably-sourced
cubic meters. A survey of some materials wherever possible.
potential domestic timber sources
RECONSTRUCTION STRATEGY
(stolen, found, seized and donated
timber, as well as those from timber • Assess damage to infrastructure (houses, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges,
plantations, community-owned airports, ports, etc) and determine most appropriate reconstruction method.
forests and crop plantations) shows • Assess quantity and type of materials required for reconstruction.
that these are very limited and • Assess quantity of required materials available from recycled (e.g., from debris) or
inadequate to meet the anticipated other sustainable sources in affected country.
demand. • If there is insufficient material available from recycled or other sustainable sources
in-country, assess feasibility of supplying needs by importing from sustainable
The use of imported, sources.
sustainably-produced timber is • In particular, avoid exacerbating existing pressures on local natural resources
recommended in order to avoid the (e.g., avoid timber supply from stressed forest systems, avoid aggregate supply
opportunistic practices that could from stressed coastal or river systems, etc.).
occur, should traders of illegal timber • Use materials suited to local conditions (e.g., durable in local climate).
use the "attractive" opportunities sure • As far as possible, do not create new (or expand existing) processing industries
to be provided by the great beyond the long-term capacity of the relevant natural resource to supply them.
reconstruction need. This imported
timber could be supplied free as in-
INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
kind assistance by donor-states or by • Local natural resources are used in reconstruction in a sustainable manner.
global corporations involved in the • Natural resources are imported from sustainable sources to fill any shortfall in
trade of such timber. The Indonesian local availability.
Government should expedite the • Replanting programs initiated where specialty woods are required such as for
import process for such timber by boat-building components.
ensuring there are no bureaucratic
barriers that would delay imported
timber reaching its intended Example 2: Rehabilitation substantial damage where corals
destinations and by providing special of Coral Reefs have been smothered by sediment
facilities to ensure a transparent, legal or blanketed by debris. If the
route. The Government is advised to Based on preliminary damage picture that emerges is similar to
use local and international NGOs assessments by the Government of Thailand, then areas of significant
within existing forestry networks to Indonesia and international agencies, a damage will be extremely localized,
assist in lobbying and in the necessary significant percentage of mangroves, exposed shallow fringing reefs will
technical preparations, e.g., directing up to 30 percent of reefs, and up to 20 have suffered most, and coral with
the flow of donated timber. percent of seagrass beds may have delicate and intricate structures
been damaged in Aceh. The damage to (such as gorgonian fans) will be
General goals, strategies and coral reefs is likely to range from most susceptible to impact. Aceh
indicators for construction materials relatively minor physical damage such was the landmass nearest the
are illustrated further in Box 1. as breakage of coral, to more quake's epicenter and there may
July 2005 43
using destructive methods such as
dynamite and cyanide can be
minimized, then the natural
processes of recruitment will lead
to new corals quickly settling on
damaged and dead portions of the
reef. Depending on the degree of
damage to reefs and mangroves,
recovery may take from a few
months to up to 20 years or longer
in severe cases. Regardless of the
extent of damage, it is now even
more important to remove other
threats to coral reef health, such as
destructive fishing, to provide the
best possible conditions for
recovery.
The majority of the fishing boats that were damaged or
destroyed by the tsunami were made of wood. Reconstruction
efforts should focus on supporting local industries through the To ensure optimal conditions
repair of damaged boats, rebuilding new boats and
for the natural recovery of coral
strengthening management to ensure sustainability.
reefs in Aceh, efforts should focus
on removing all pre-existing
have been permanent physical Another type of impact of threats to coral reef health and
changes to the coastline in many tsunamis on reefs is the smothering integrity, especially illegal and
areas and this may have long-term of living coral by mud that is destructive fishing practices, such
effects on the distribution of corals deposited as the floodwaters recede as fishing using homemade bombs
and reefs. and by debris being caught on the and cyanide. Of equal concern is
reefs. Coral polyps are delicate that all coastal and nearshore
The ecological effects are an creatures preferring warm, clear rehabilitation, reconstruction, and
overall loss of live coral cover and a water and high sediment levels reclamation activities be carefully
loss of habitat for the creatures that trigger a stress reaction and can screened to prevent introducing
live in and around the reef. Reefs are eventually kill the living tissue. The new impacts to recovering reef
crowded natural environments where impact and recovery here will depend systems through the disturbance
every last inch of 'living space' is on local oceanographic conditions of current regimes, sedimentation
occupied. The sheltered spaces in and which will determine whether the mud or, in the worst case, physical
around branching coral provide a is washed away before the corals die removal or burial under
safe haven from predators for and how quickly recruitment can take breakwaters or other engineering
numerous small fish and place if there has been a coral die-off. structures. Coral reefs are
invertebrates and so a loss of themselves effective natural
branching types of corals means a Coral reefs are, in general, breakwaters; during reconstruction
loss of these associated highly resilient and if other threats and creation of defenses against
communities. such as high nutrients and fishing future impacts, efforts should
44 Tropical Coasts
Box 2. General Goals, Best Practice Actions and Indicators for
the Rehabilitation of Coral Reefs and Seagrass Beds
focus on strengthening natural GOAL: To have tsunami-damaged coral reefs and seagrass beds fully
defenses and should seek 'soft' recovered and coral reef and seagrass health optimized to contribute
solutions rather than 'hard' to fisheries, coastal defence, tourism potential and to be resilient
engineering structures. against future impacts such as climate change.
RECONSTRUCTION STRATEGY
Box 2 presents strategies and
indicators for the rehabilitation of • Prioritize the removal of any external threats to the reef system, including bomb
coral reefs and seagrass beds. and cyanide fishing, and seek to minimize land-based threats such as pollution
and destructive fishing, in order to maximize recovery and if active rehabilitation
is deemed necessary, choose a methodology appropriate to the type and scale of
Example 3: Rebuilding damage.
Coastal and • Initiate a broad education and outreach program targeting communities and
Subsistence Fisheries policymakers to highlight the need to urgently remove external threats, especially
those linked to illegal activities, to help ensure rapid recovery.
Before the tsunami, an • Sites of importance for ecological processes such as those providing new recruits
estimated 100,000 people were to fish populations and those identified as having long-term resilience, prioritized
involved in fishing in Aceh, with for high levels of protection as insurance against future natural impacts.
58,000 being employed fulltime. • Engage full range of stakeholder and institutions and ensure full environmental
Most members of the fishing impact assessments are carried out on any proposed structure that would have
community were artisanal fishers, direct or indirect impacts on reefs and seagrasses.
which explains the large numbers
of canoes (15,000) compared to the INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
small-scale nearshore crafts • Percentage recovery of reef and seagrass damaged by tsunami and area of reef and
(5,600). In the disaster, an seagrass under high form of protection.
estimated 65 percent of boats and • Health of coral reef and seagrass ecosystems as measured by trophic structure,
gear were lost, and 15-20 percent population size frequency and trends on abundance of indicator species.
of fisherfolk lives were lost. • Reduction of illegal activities impacting coral reef and seagrass ecosystems.
Especially in coastal villages along • No further damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds from reconstruction activities.
the west coast, fishing is primarily
beach-based, carried out by
families or groups of individuals. local communities, rebuilding the in Box 3). During the process of
fisheries sector is seen as a priority rebuilding the lives and livelihoods
Those who were engaged in from a variety of perspectives. of fishing communities, care
subsistence fisheries before the should be taken not to introduce
tsunami, and who have lost boats, It is recommended that over-capacity, to only equip fishers
gear or materials for processing rebuilding of the artisanal with non-destructive gears, and to
catch, are considered a high subsistence fisheries be done not by safeguard sites critical for future
priority for rebuilding livelihoods. introducing new fleets and new recruitment and replenishment of
Given the importance of fisheries as technologies but by providing the fish populations and
a source of livelihood, as a source sustainably-sourced materials to ecosystems. Technical support,
of regional economy and as a rebuild boats and crafts similar to training and expertise should be
source of tradition and culture for those lost (More recommendations provided to establish an overall
July 2005 45
The option of careful rebuilding for ecosystem-based framework within
considered far preferable to the access to markets and incentives for best
practice, is considered far preferable to
other more technological options. It the other more technological options. It
avoids creating increased capacity over
avoids creating increased capacity the situation prior to the tsunami and
tsunami and therefore lessens the fisheries. For example, The European
Union should not transfer EU boats due
risks of exacerbating the pressure to be scrapped to tsunami-hit areas, as
the boats are not suitable for local fishing
on coastal fisheries. communities and that the EU should
support domestic boat-building
industries instead. As part of the EU
response to help tsunami-hit countries,
the European Commission has proposed
to transfer European decommissioned
fishing boats (under 12 m and between
5–20 years old) to the countries
devastated by the tsunami. European
fishing boats are very different from
Indonesian coastal vessels and this would
lead to serious changes in local fishing
practices. For example, in the tsunami-
affected region most fishers operate
individually in small boats, not in crews.
Therefore the use of European vessels
would require different systems of
working with owners and workers.
46 Tropical Coasts
Box 3. Rebuilding Marine Fisheries • Provide incentives and access to markets for products passing a
certification standard to encourage best practice, and if appropriate,
GOAL: A fisheries sector is re-established that is
develop infrastructure and trade networks and seek markets to
sustainably managed, operates according to best
support such ventures.
practices within a precautionary framework, is
• Invest in reconstruction of strong local formal and informal
equipped with appropriate gears, and supported
institutions and human capacity for management, including
by efficient post-harvesting technology and
monitoring and enforcement. This should be coupled with efforts
infrastructure.
to rebuild infrastructure.
• Ensure that commercial and large-scale fisheries do not deplete
RECONSTRUCTION STRATEGY
fish populations or impact ecosystems that will have negative
• Develop an overall sustainable fisheries reconstruction plan, consequences for small-scale fisheries.
focusing on creating an overarching sustainable fisheries
management framework, sustaining target fish populations,
INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
conserving sites critical for replenishment, rebuilding boats,
gears, supporting infrastructure and markets. • Reduction in use of unsustainable and destructive fishing gears
• Focus on the reconstruction of sustainably managed small- and reduction in illegal fishing activities.
scale fisheries involving those impacted by the tsunami as a • Marine trophic structure of target ecosystems, size-frequency
priority, including strengthening local institutions involved distribution of indicator species, abundance and population
in small-scale fisheries and strengthening small-scale fisheries structure of target species, and catch per unit effort.
governance. • Maintenance of traditional fishing grounds, traditional access rights
• Where possible, promote community-led reconstruction and traditional mechanisms for sustaining healthy fish populations,
efforts, invest in local industries and local capacity for including integration of traditional fisheries knowledge and
rebuilding boats and infrastructure (under the guidance of management into management frameworks and effective
capacity limits), promote the use of recycled or sustainable participation of local institutions representing fisher communities
sourced materials and re-equip with appropriate gears in the governance process.
according to a sustainable fisheries management plan. • Average income of small-scale fishing households, access to
• Take care not to allow the introduction of inappropriate or markets for best practice fisheries products, and numbers of fisher
unfamiliar technologies and critically evaluate donor or households engaged in enterprise schemes.
national government-driven initiatives to provide substantially • Percentage of fisheries production sourced from sustainably-
different boats or gears. managed fish populations, access to markets for best practice
• Ensure effective surveillance, enforcement and compliance fisheries products and percentage of fisheries products conforming
mechanisms are in place to prevent over-exploitation of fish to best practice standards.
populations and other targeted components of the ecosystems, • Fisheries management plan supported by local stakeholders and
and to prevent other activities from having significantly developed under an ecosystem-based management framework with
damaging impacts on the health of the ecosystems. clear catch limits under a precautionary framework.
July 2005 47
Dr. Ampai Harakunarak
Director
Environmental Education and Human
Life-Saving Belts: Post-
Tsunami Reassessment
Resources Development Center
and
Introduction
48 48 Tropical Coasts
In most instances, sustainability is
forms, plants and animals, as well as
physical and biological processes dependent upon functioning natural
and values, help protect the coast's
natural qualities, which directly and
processes that support the region's
indirectly support national economic natural character
character.. Increasing
development and often are the major
sources of income in coastal modifications of the coastal ecosystems
communities. Mangrove areas, for
example, are home to thousands of by human activities, including
families. The coastal people,
particularly those along the
industrial, commercial, residential and
Andaman coast, have long cherished agricultural development, have altered
mangroves as a source of food,
medicine and fuel and as areas for the functional integrity of the
recreational activities. In most
instances, sustainability is dependent
ecosystem, which can seriously reduce
upon functioning natural processes
that support the region's natural
the level of goods and services that they
character. Increasing modifications normally generate.
of the coastal ecosystems by human
activities, including industrial,
commercial, residential and
agricultural development, have
altered the functional integrity of the
ecosystem, which can seriously
reduce the level of goods and
services that they normally generate.
The Existence of
Natural Character:
An Intrinsic V alue of
Value
Mangroves
July 2005 49
Along the shoreline in RRanong
anong
asetsart
P rovince, where KKasetsart number of casualties (Christian
Science Monitor, 2005). The damages
50 Tropical Coasts
Mangroves Are
Disappearing in
Southern Thailand
In southern Thailand,
mangroves cover an area of around
2,093 km2, which account for 85
percent of the country's total
mangrove area (RFD, 2003).
According to Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) data, Thailand
lost about 15 percent of its
mangrove area in the period of
1980-2000, which was due largely In Ranong Province, Thailand, a mangrove species, the Avicennia
to high population pressure and alba were uprooted by the December 2004 tsunami.
conversion of mangroves for pond
culture, mining and infrastructure
development.
July 2005 51
A study on indirect values of
mangroves in southern Thailand was a Following the government
52 Tropical Coasts
R ecognizing the need to bring policy
capacity on coastal management
were also launched during the
and legislation in line with the
1990s, introducing an integrated,
integrated, holistic approach to coastal
holistic approach. Project activities
were piloted in many coastal management, the Department of
provinces, gradually building up
the ICM capacity of government Marine and Coastal RResources
esources has
officials at the national and local
levels. The government's policy
initiated the process of formulating a
on crosscutting issues and national marine and coastal policy that
planning in coastal areas has been
carried over to local authorities, tak es into consideration kkey
takes ey principles
taking into account the needs of
all stakeholders. To date, many
of sustainable development,
local authorities in Thailand are
well aware of the potential for
precautionary action and polluter pays.
coastal development through the
ICM approach. There has also
been significant advance in the
adoption of projects/activities for
ICM in Thailand. A successful
example is the improvement of
Koh Loy for recreation and
commercial activities by the
Sriracha municipality in Chonburi
Province, which is one of PEMSEA's
demonstration sites. Another
recent effort to promote
integrated management of
mangrove plantations for
development of coastal resources
was carried out through a series Replanting mangroves for coastal protection by fishers in Nakhon Si
of knowledge-based research in Thammarat Province, Thailand.
July 2005 53
Specifically
Specifically,, coastal management in the
hazard-prone areas, and indeed The idea is to allow a fair share of
beyond dealing with coastal management people share. This may not
necessarily involve large-scale public
issues on a case -by-
case-by- case basis to an
-by-case purchase of coastal land1, but instead,
depend primarily on public
approach that proactively focuses on regulatory methods and economic
larger
larger-- scale issues at both the coastline incentives to prevent undue
conversion of the mangroves.
1
It has been suggested that, in order for the
mangroves to effectively provide protection
against the actions of waves, the width of the
forest should not be less than 100 m from coastal
shores (Aksornkoae and Hawanon, 2005). The
extent to which the mangrove belts contribute to
protecting coastal areas against tidal waves also
depends on other factors such as wave height
Rehabilitation of mangroves in abandoned shrimp ponds in and velocity and coastline topography and
Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand. orientation.
54 Tropical Coasts
Conclusion
The failure to adequately been recognized mainly for their mangrove ecosystems.
regulate coastal development and direct-use values. This erroneous Meanwhile, stricter national and
the rush to transform coastal areas understanding has made it easier to local governmental regulations
into economic zones without exploit mangrove areas as cheap and enforcement are crucial to
considering their natural character sources of food and as wastelands, ensure the protection of
are major factors contributing to undervaluing shoreline protection mangroves. For sustainable
human loss and damage to property services that mangroves provide. management and protection of
from the December 2004 tsunami. coastal resources and areas,
While there is no guarantee that In Thailand's coastal areas including the nearby mangroves,
replanting mangroves will prevent affected by the tsunami, as well as in the improvement of coastal
another tsunami tragedy, coastal other hazard-prone coastal areas, resource information system and
communities need many more life- there are opportunities to adopt the awareness as well as the
saving belts to help filter the energy life-saving belt concept to effectively involvement of local communities
of strong winds and tidal waves. Until address coastal hazard issues and to in coastal planning and
recently, mangrove forests have demonstrate the protective value of implementation are essential.
References
Aksornkoae, S. and S. Hawanon. 2005. "Mangrove Forests: Natural Coastal MAP (Mangrove Action Project). 2005. www.earthisland.org/map/sstal.htm
Fort – Thailand's Mangroves Help Protect Against Large Tsunami."
(An article in Thai). Nordstrom, K. 1990. “The Concept of Intrinsic Value and Depositional Coastal
Landforms.” Centre for Coastal and Environmental Studies, Rutgers
Aksornkoae, S., et.al. 1999. "Introduction: Status and Management of University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA. Quoted from
Mangrove Resources." Rehabilitation and Development of Mangrove www.ew.govt.nz
Resources for Thailand's Sustainable Social and Economic
Development. Thailand Research Fund, Bangkok, Thailand. pp. 3– RFD (Royal Forest Department). 2003. "Forestry Statistical Data 2003."
24. (in Thai). www.forest.go.th/stat/stat46/stat2546.htm
Aksornkoae, S., et.al. 2004. Integrated Management of Mangrove Sathirathai, S. and E.B. Barbier. 2001. "Valuing Mangrove Conservation in
Plantations for Development of Coastal Resources and Environment Southern Thailand." Contemporary Economic Policy, 19: 109–122.
of Thailand. Thailand Research Fund, Bangkok, Thailand. (in Thai).
UNEP. 2005a. National Rapid Environmental Assessment – Thailand. United
Chong, J. 2005. “Protective Values of Mangrove and Coral Ecosystems: A Nations Environment Programme. www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/
Review of Methods and Evidence.” www.iucn.org/tsunami/docs/pr- TSUNAMI_THAILAND_LAYOUT.pdf
values-mangrove-coral-ecosystems-methods-evidence.pdf
UNEP. 2005b. "Shoreline Protection Abstract." United Nations Environment
Christian Science Monitor. 2005. "A Natural,Low-Tech Solution to Tsunamis: Programme. www.unep.org/tsunami/reports/Shoreline_protection.doc
Mangroves." www.csmonitor.com/2005/0110/p07s01-wosc.htm
Worldchanging. 2005a. "Restoring Mangroves." www.worldchanging.com/
IUCN. 2005. "Early Observations of Tsunami Effects on Mangroves and archives/001835.htm
Coastal Forests." The World Conservation Union (IUCN). www.iucn.org/
info_and_news/press/water-wetlands-statement.pdf Worldchanging. 2005b. "When the Tsunami Struck, Mangroves and Reefs
Saved Lives." www.worldchanging.com/archives/001898.ht
July 2005 55
The Disasters The Hyogo Framework for Action 2000–2015: Building
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters is predicated
on the fact that risk from disasters has become commonplace
That Did Not Happen that greatly erodes development gains. This awareness is
coupled with the appreciation that disasters are not only isolated
extreme events managed by warning systems, humanitarian
relief and rescue operations and structural reconstruction.
“Building a culture of prevention is not easy. Disasters can also result from slow-onset, series of successive
While the costs of prevention have to be paid in man-made decisions and actions (or inactions) that increases
the present, the benefits lie in distant future. peoples’ vulnerability to disasters.
Moreover, the benefits are not tangible; they It is clear that vulnerability must be central to risk reduction
are the disasters that did not happen.” strategies. The actions to reduce vulnerability must be tied at
– Kofi Annan identifying and strengthening the individual, institutional and
In Memoriam
“It turned out to be his last mission to save lives,” a widespread lahar
Philippine daily bannered, in deference to Dr. around the volcano’s
Raymundo Punongbayan and four other Filipino vicinity. Only about 300
scientists who perished last April in a helicopter crash perished although a
while conducting an aerial survey on two eastern million were displaced
Luzon provinces. The new data will form the basis for while several towns were
a flashflood and earthquake hazard map of the buried in lahar;
vulnerable communities. Widely-known internationally, hundreds of millions of
Dr. Punongbayan was best recognized as the scientist dollars were lost from
from a then poorly funded and poorly equipped destroyed properties and
institution, who led thousands of people from Central infrastructures (Newhall AP Photo
Luzon to escape the foreboding disaster of the June and Punongbayan, Dr. Raymundo Punongbayan
1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption (Orejas, 2005). It was the 1996). Highlighted from
world’s worst volcanic eruption of the 20th century; reports is the significant impact when Dr. Punongbayan
spewed volcanic materials reached as far as Russia heeded the concern of an indigenous tribal group — the
and North America and caused subsequent Aetas — who became restless when their beloved
mountain started showing steams and frequent
earthquakes. Lessons abound on successful forecasting
of eruptions and lahar flows; of warnings coupled with
intensive educational campaigns and of international
partnerships and coordination.
Ten years after the eruption, the same volcano, this time
having formed a crater lake from its blown-off top, has
dangerously accumulated enough water that could
breach the crater walls. The impacts could inundate
and possibly kill 40,000 people downslope the small
coastal town of Botolan, Zambales. A 5-m deep drainage
channel was dug from the side of Mt. Pinatubo to spill off
a quarter of the lake’s water; a major effort heralded as
the first of such operations done anywhere in the world
(BBC, 2001). No one died and no property was
damaged as result of this operation. Dr. Punongbayan
BBC, 2001.
was ecstatic when he said “It’s a good success story —
Diagram from BBC (available at
something we can be proud of.”
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/
1530182.stm)
56 Tropical Coasts
societal capacities and coping mechanisms. This is at the heart of People - Centric
acting proactively — of instituting mitigations during lull periods Early W arning Systems
Warning
when disasters are not wreaking havoc. This is the time of building
the culture of safety and prevention. As always the case with Early warning saves lives. That’s the very obvious lesson
rhetoric, this is easier said than done. from the 2004 tsunami event. But it has to be people-centric
because an overly expensive technology is of no use when
Here are running accounts from case studies that embody some warnings are not heeded by soon-to-be affected
of the significant components of disaster risk reduction. They communities. A warning has to be sent fast and accurately,
form but a small part of a wider body of experience in East Asia. and received and responded to appropriately. As in the
They are examples of best practices and also form probably the case of the instructive early warning system established in a
best argument for supporting specific activities that are coastal community in Indonesia (Bildan, 2003).
recommended in the Hyogo Framework and why mainstreaming
risk reduction to development policies can lead to sustainable Mirit, in the southern coast of Kebumen, central Java,
development. Indonesia, is prone to prolonged riverine flooding from heavy
monsoon rains because a number of their villages are located
below sea level. The years 1992, 1999 and 2000 saw
damages to their irrigation network, roads, houses, a school
and health center. A community-based early warning system
was installed with the help of their upland villages and Oxfam
GB. The latter provided two 2-way radios while the
community matched the contribution. The villages upstream
were tasked to provide information on rainfall level and
duration via the radios. During a monsoon in 2001, and
with torrential rains threatening, the process of hazard
detection and dissemination was set into motion. The quick
2-way radios
warning from upland villages and quick response
from the lowland villages, while coordinating their
efforts with government officials, meant evacuation
of villagers before flooding occurred. Lives were
saved and losses were significantly lessened.
July2005 57
Life-Saving Belts
Recently, UNEP (2005) released interim results so far been planted with different mangrove
of environmental assessments done in species. They now protect 110 km of the 3,000-
Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Somalia, Sri km sea-dyke system that snakes down Vietnam’s
Lanka, Thailand and Yemen. Immediate findings coastline. During the 2001 Typhoon Wukong,
validate the claims that coastal habitats including three northern provinces took a beating, but no
coral reefs, mangroves, vegetated sand dunes death was reported. And the dykes have been
and other coastal vegetation buffeted the effects protected by the mangroves. In the past, waves
IFRC, 2002
of the tsunami. For example, Naluvedapathy from storm surges destroy the dykes causing
Tamil Nadu, India, is protected by a kilometer- deaths and flooding. As an additional benefit,
thick forest composed of Casuarina, coconut and the communities generate income from selling
other tree varieties. The village lies adjacent to crabs and shrimps as well as supplemental food
areas worst-affected by the tsunami. The trees from the now abundant mangrove fauna.
saved them because as early as 2002, they
planted 80,244 saplings in the hope of entering
into the Guinness Book of World Records
(Raman, 2005).
Land-Use Planning
Naga City, in the Philippines, experiences flooding from flood-prone central business district to less risky areas.
river swelling and coastal storm surges. As one of the New growth areas were developed in accordance
ten demonstration sites under the Asian Urban Disaster with their five-year development plan, land-use
Mitigation Program (AUMD), the local government regulations and economic incentives. By doing so,
became cognizant of the link between hazard mitigation economic activities will not stop, even during calamities,
and land-use planning to address multiple hazards. lessening economic loss and ensuring that regular
They put in place strategies that included (UN-ISDR, community activities can resume earlier. Included are
2004): the creation of new markets, new roads and additional
social service facilities away from the urban center.
Hazard mapping and risk assessment – A hazard
map was developed using data from the weather To address problems on informal settlers, the Naga
forecasting office vis-à-vis community-based surveys. Kaantabay sa Kauswagan (Partners in Progress
All information was translated to the geographical Programme) relocated, to date, more than 12,500
information system (GIS) platform, significantly refining households to safer areas with basic social service
areas which could easily be flooded and which specific facilities.
households, in times of emergencies, need to be
evacuated immediately. Safer building construction – Local building
ordinances were refined based on the existing
Relocating centers of economic activities – national building code. The new ordinances,
Centers of economic activities and settlements received appropriately suited for Naga, expedited enforcements
further focus after the most vulnerable areas were and prosecution of violators. In turn, this has
delineated. The goal is to shift activities away from the dramatically improved compliance.
continued on page 106
58 Tropical Coasts
Harakunarak, A.
Management-Based Research communities interact and find solutions given
knowledge of multi-hazards affecting them. A research
Research is fundamental to risk reduction strategies. project in La Union, Philippines, about coastal erosion
Recent research agendas have become articulated both the natural processes and human
multidisciplinary, which look not only at comprehensive actions that aggravated the hazard (Siringan, et al.,
knowledge about hazards per se, but also on how 2005). Several local government actions have since
been instituted as a response to the data and
Coastal erosion. information generated by the research.
July2005 59
Prof. Dr. Noraini Mohd. Tamin
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Ecological Restoration:
Engineering Mangrove
Selangor
Selangor,, Malaysia
President
International Erosion Control
Rehabilitation in
Association, Malaysian Chapter
degradation, and their vegetative cover and subjected to estuaries or bays. Most foresters know
impounding wave action and erosion. that mangroves do not grow well on
rehabilitation are difficult to
This issue has serious implications on erosion-prone coastlines.
quantify in monetary terms. mangrove planting activities, if we are
to rely solely on conventional Another post-tsunami concern is
techniques as practiced by state the proposal by the Indian Government
forestry departments in all tsunami- to build about 1,000 km of concrete
hit countries. The common method is seawall as protective barrier along the
to collect viviparous propagules east coast of the Indian Sub-Continent.
The author served as Consultant Ecologist for
the main contractor, Datar Raya Sdn Bhd. (seeds) from selected mother trees, This issue was highlighted during a
She and her students at the Master of Science
select healthy stock and either push Special Tsunami Session, in conjunction
and Bachelor of Science levels at Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, were thus given them directly into the ground or into with the Asian Wetlands International
the opportunity to conduct studies related to
nursery polyethylene bags for growth Symposium, on 9 February 2005, at
mangrove establishment and monitoring
from 1999 until 2004. up to one meter before enrichment Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India.
60 Tropical Coasts
In exposed and erosion-prone sites,
Environmental experts from
government and non-governmental
mangrove propagules are easily
organizations (NGOs), engineers, washed away by strong tidal waves, and
eco-engineers and planners have
voiced their concerns that such thus cannot become established on
concrete structures will not sustain
marine flora and fauna and can muddy or sandy substrates. A more
ultimately lead to depleting incomes
for coastal fishers. Instead they have
technically challenging approach is
proposed the replanting of coastal needed for vegetation establishment,
vegetation, as effective and
sustainable coastal barriers. At the under such circumstances. An innovative
end of the Symposium,
representatives of the Indian
technique incorporating ecological
Government were impressed by
various data and slides presented,
engineering has to be adopted for
and have decided to review the above successful vegetation establishment,
proposal, and probably limit their
construction only to severely eroding including mangroves.
coastlines.
accordingly locate future coastal research institutes and humanitarian
villages, towns, resorts and coastal and donor groups. The main
Paradigm Shift highways further away from the high objectives of this initiative are to
seawater level. complement existing activities and
The bitter experience from the provide an open-ended framework to
recent Asian tsunami should compel bring together key stakeholders to
relevant authorities to review past Asian TTsunami
sunami Coastal collaborate in supporting the
perceptions and practices on coastal Greenbelt Initiative protection and rehabilitation of
zone management. We should open coastal forests in the region. It is
up our minds to new issues and Findings and recommendations heartening to know that this initiative
innovative technologies in coastal from the Asian Wetlands International supports the use of ecological-
habitat rehabilitation. There is a need 2005 Symposium are now being fine- engineering technologies in
to involve relevant experts tuned for the Asian Tsunami/Coastal rehabilitation works and the
(particularly restoration ecologists) in Greenbelt Initiative. This effort involves involvement of local communities in
the rehabilitation processes, technical and financial inputs from the planting of coastal vegetation.
including the inputs of non-foresters environmental NGOs (e.g., Global
and local communities in planting Environmental Centre, Wetlands
mangroves and other coastal International, Mangrove Action Project, Soft or Hard Engineering
vegetation as effective coastal IUCN), intergovernmental Coastal Erosion Control
barriers. organizations (e.g., UNEP, FAO, IFAD, Measures
ASEAN Secretariat), government
In the long term, local forestry departments, coastal In exposed and erosion-prone
authorities should accord due communities, coastal wetland sites, mangrove propagules are
respect to coastal zone reserves and restoration ecologists and experts, easily washed away by strong tidal
July 2005 61
Post-tsunami coastal habitat
restoration and rehabilitation is a engineers, ecologists, scientists,
planners, architects, contractors and
62 Tropical Coasts
Pilot Mangrove Eco-Engineering in Malaysia
Project Site wave energy and allow water but not sediment to pass through. These
bags were very effective in retaining sediments from tidal backflows. In the
The project site was to the south of the Sala River mouth, near Kuala Sala, (in long term, mud-laden bags that have settled on the seafloor acted as
the northeastern state of Kedah, in Peninsular Malaysia) and along a kilometer artificial reefs and prevented the scouring of the seafloor at high tide.
of erosion-prone coastline. The area supports two abandoned prawn ponds
each measuring 20 m x 20 m and 2 m deep, and two other damaged ponds Mangrove Nursery Management
already exposed to the sea and thus resembled coastal swamps. The coastline
here was severely eroding and threatened nearby paddy fields with saltwater The success of producing vegetated coir logs depends on the location of
intrusions if no remedial measures were undertaken. the brackish water nursery (Photo 3). The site should receive daily influxes
of seawater and freshwater to enable mangrove propagules to grow into 1-
Methodology m tall seedlings. Initially, each propagule was prepared as ‘mangrove plug’
when it was wrapped in loose coir and tied with a biodegradable jute string.
There are five major components in the methodology: (i) the determination The mangrove plug was then inserted into holes made in the coir log, a
of physical properties on site (including tidal flows, soil and seawater meter apart. Each 3-m long coir log carried three mangrove plugs. Several
physical and chemical properties, fauna and flora); (ii) installation of wave mangrove species (Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata,
breakers (fascines and mud bags) to initiate soil stabilization on site; (iii) Sonneratia alba, Avicennia alba, Bruguiera cylindrica, Nypa fruticans,
setting up of brackish water mangrove nursery to produce vegetated coir Xylocarpus molluccensis) were used as test species. Local fishers were
logs (coir logs with mangrove seedlings grown one meter high); also engaged in various income-generating activities related to mangrove
(iv) installation of vegetated coir logs on recently stabilized site; and (v) nursery construction and management.
monitoring.
At the initial stage, brush fascines were cost-effective Photo 3. Vegetated coir logs in Photo 4. Vegetated coir logs
geo-materials that can function as wave breakers and nursery. installed on site.
sediment traps. These were bundles of tree trunks and
branches — each measuring 30 cm in diameter and 3 m long — tightly Mangrove Transplanting
bound by nylon strings and stacked 3-5 bundles high. The fascines were
installed on mudflats on site (using poles and nylon strings) about 50 m from In 2000, after a year in the wetlands nursery, vegetated coir logs
the high seawater level (Photo 1). Local fishers were trained to produce were transported by crane to the planting site and installed using
and install brush fascines on site, as an income-generating activity. poles and nylon strings. The roots of the meter-tall mangrove
seedlings were already well-established
within the coir substrate. These seedlings
would stand better chances of surviving the
harsh environment, predators and pests on
site. The large coir logs (30 cm in diameter)
were laid out in grids and acted as secondary
wave breakers and sediment traps (Photo
4).
Project Monitoring
Photo 1. Brush fascine as wave Photo 2. Mud bags as wave breaker.
The growth of mangrove seedlings was
breaker. monitored for the next four years until December
Another effective, but costlier, wave breaker and sediment trap is the 2004. The accumulation of beach materials within the project site was
commercially produced mud bag made of non-woven geo-textile. For this monitored, as well as the number and species of plant recruits that
project, 30 mud bags were used, each measuring 10 m x 2 m. The bags were established on site. The types of mangrove predators and pests
were one-third filled with the local beach material (mud) using a pump, were also noted. Plant cover and density on site were assessed
sealed and then installed 5 m apart along the coastline, and about 90 m over the monitoring period, as a measure of successful vegetation
from the high water level mark (Photo 2). The mud bags can dissipate establishment.
July 2005 63
Pre-Tsunami Plant Performance citrifolia and Solanum torvum) were established on site. Major seedling
predators were goats and mud crabs, while other less serious pests
The incoming waves near the project site were strong, with crests were leaf-eating beetles, insects and ants.
ranging from 0.6 m to 1 m in height. Initially the project site was devoid
of vegetation and only supported mud skippers and crabs. It took The newly established mangrove vegetation was more than 3-m tall,
about a year for the wave breakers to be effective in depositing beach with an average density of one per square meter, average growth rate
materials on site (Figure 1), and another year to fill up the disused (height) of a meter per year and already covering 95 percent of the study
prawn ponds (Photo 5) with sediments. By 2003, the abandoned site, when the tsunami hit the area on 26th December 2004 (Photo 7 and
prawn ponds were about 90 percent covered with Eragrostis sp. (salt Photo 8).
tolerant grass) and planted mangrove test species (R. apiculata showed
the best performance). Post-Tsunami Mangrove Performance
Mangrove recruits established on site were A. officinalis (migrant After the tsunami, about 30 percent of the 3-m tall mangroves seaward of
pioneer), Ceriops tagal and R. apiculata, X. molluccensis and N. the study site were destroyed (Photo 8). However the mangroves had
fruticans. Others were mangrove associates (for example Excoecaria dissipated strong wave energy and protected nearshore structures including
agallocha, Aegeratum conyzoides, Vitex pubescens, Acanthus six units of port-cabins that function as site office, laboratory and dormitory.
bracteatus, Eupatorium odaratum, Ipomoea pes caprae, Eragrostis Nearby paddy fields were also saved from saltwater intrusion, as the
sp., Paspalum sp. and Cyperus sp.), that were established on drier seawater only rose 0.5 m from the high water level.
ground on site. Between 2001 and 2004, a total of 12 species of
migrant plants and 10 species of migrant wildlife were observed on Unfortunately an area to the north of the river mouth, about half a kilometer
site (Photo 6). In contrast, no vegetation was established on the away from the project site, was badly damaged by the tsunami. A bridge
control sites where mangrove propagules were planted using was torn in half while a nearby concrete seawall was broken to pieces.
conventional planting techniques. The coastline here became severely The shoreline was severely eroded. However, no lives were lost here.
eroded.
It was also observed that as the ground became drier and more stable,
other mangrove associates (for example Hibiscus tileaceus, Morinda
64 Tropical Coasts
Finally
Finally,, managers of large tsunami
Conclusion
funds should consider the
Mangrove and coastal
vegetation establishment on
establishment of coastal greenbelts, in
erosion-prone coastlines using addition to cash or material donations
ecological engineering approach is a
technically challenging effort that to tsunami-hit countries. They should
requires regular professional advice
from specialist consultants. It
work closely with relevant experts to
requires hard work from
consultants, project managers,
ensure that the planting of coastal
contractors and local communities vegetation be implemented under the
on the ground. An important
success factor is the full supervision of experienced experts in
understanding of tidal dynamics,
ecological succession, and the
collaboration with local governments
establishment of pioneer and seral
plant communities, because coastal
and communities.
vegetation establishment is site-
specific. The physical and chemical communities are struggling to
soil composition may change with rebuild their lives, efforts must be
time and there is a need to identify intensified to involve them in the
suitable plant species for different planting of coastal vegetation, References
soil conditions on site. including mangroves. Replanted Noraini, M.T., S.M. Lau and Nor Hisham Ghazali.
mangroves can entice the return of 2002. “Mangrove Establishment Using Eco-
Engineering Techniques for Coastal Zone
Results from the Malaysian fish and prawns for breeding
Protection,” 641–649 pp. In Proceedings of
study has shown that 3-m tall purposes, and thus help jump-start Conference 33, Orlando, Florida, USA. February
mangrove stands were effective in the return of sustainable livelihoods 25-March 1, 2002. International Erosion
Control Association.
dissipating strong tidal surges and resources for coastal fishers.
brought about by the December Noraini, M.T., S.M. Lau, D. H. Barker and N.G. Bayfield.
2004 tsunami. Recent reports from
1999. “The Application of Eco-Engineering
Finally, managers of large
Techniques in Gully Restoration on Hill Slopes,”
other tsunami-hit countries, e.g., tsunami funds should consider the 201–211 pp. In Khairul Anuar Kassim, Za'ba
Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka and establishment of coastal greenbelts, Ismail, Kamarudin Ahmad, Azman Kassim and
Mohd For Mohd Amin (eds.). Geotechnical
Thailand, also showed that in addition to cash or material Engineering Conference. Proceeding of the Fifth
mangroves were effective coastal donations to tsunami-hit countries. Geotechnical Engineering Conference. Penerbit
protective barriers against tsunami. They should work closely with
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru.
Therefore, these countries should relevant experts to ensure that the Noraini, M.T., S.M. Lau, D.H. Barker and N.G. Bayfield.
initiate large-scale planting of planting of coastal vegetation be 2000. “Eco-Engineering Techniques to Control
Landslides in Peninsular Malaysia,” 1,117–
coastal vegetation immediately. implemented under the supervision
1,122 pp. In Bromhead E., Dixon N. and Ibsen
of experienced experts in M (eds.). Landslides, Research, Theory and
Furthermore, in tsunami-hit collaboration with local Practice 3: 1,117–1,122. Britain: Thomas
Telford Books.
countries, where many coastal local governments and communities.
July 2005 65
Zenaida G. Delica-Willison
Center for Disaster Preparedness
Philippines
Community-Based
Disaster Risk
Introduction Management: Local
It is a recognized fact that disasters
have a tremendous negative impact
Level Solutions to
on efforts at all levels on poverty
reduction and sustainable Disaster Risks
development programmes.
Disasters continue to be a major
threat to the survival, dignity,
livelihood and security of people
and communities, most specially
the poor. This point has been
proven once again by the December
26, 2004 earthquake in Sumatra,
which triggered a tsunami that
killed thousands, damaged the
environment and destroyed
Emergency Operations Center and Networking of Buklod Tao in Bgy.
people's livelihood in several Banaba, San Mateo, Rizal, Philippines.
countries in Asia and Africa. The
Though the primary Community-based organizations,
cycle of damage, dislocation, loss of
responsibility of protecting people individuals and nongovernmental
life and recovery/rehabilitation
and property from hazards rest with organizations (NGOs) working in
places a severe strain on the
the national and local governments; disaster areas have been lobbying and
resources of the countries. usually it is the individuals, advocating for community
Repeated disasters severely hamper households and communities that involvement in risk reduction to
efforts for economic development are in the forefront of either governments and UN agencies,
and cause a continuing cycle of escaping from or fighting against specifically during the International
poverty. Reducing risks to hazards disasters. Though the national Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
is therefore a necessary and an programs for disaster preparedness or IDNDR (1989-1999), a UN-initiated
important step towards preserving and mitigation are essential, not all strategy to reduce disasters worldwide.
disaster preparedness activities to Finally, the urgency of addressing
economic gains and maintaining
save lives and to protect livelihoods disaster risks at the local level has
the level of development a society
can be achieved at the national level. become one of the main concerns of
has attained.
This underscores the need for the World Conference on Disaster
*Delica-Willison is currently a South-South Response managing disaster risks at the Reduction held in Kobe, Japan last 18-
Advisor at the Regional Centre in Bangkok Serving Asia
and the Pacific of the United Nations Development community level. 22 January (ISDR, 2005). This
Programme in Thailand.
66 66 Tropical Coasts
Though the primary responsibility of
conference is another UN initiative to
continue the gains of the IDNDR.
protecting people and property from hazards
Delegates from governments and civil rest with the national and local governments;
society concurred that strengthening
communities' capacities to reduce usually it is the individuals, households and
disaster risks is particularly needed. It
was accepted that appropriate disaster
communities that are in the forefront of either
reduction measures at the local level
enable the communities and
escaping from or fighting against disasters.
individuals to reduce significantly their Though the national programs for disaster
vulnerability to hazards.
preparedness and mitigation are essential,
This article will highlight the
value of disaster prevention,
not all disaster preparedness activities to save
mitigation, preparedness and
lives and to protect livelihoods can be
response at the community or local
level. This will present examples on achieved at the national level. This
how some communities have
managed risks by developing their underscores the need for managing disaster
internal capacity and collaborating
with external resource to strengthen
risks at the community level.
themselves. Good practice from geophysical hazards that visit the located in seismic, coastal, mountain
community-based disaster risk region include volcanic eruption and slopes and urban centers that are
reduction activities can be replicated in earthquakes that could lead to vulnerable to natural and
equally hazard-prone coastal tsunamis and landslides, which may technological hazards.
localities. also be triggered by excessive
rainfall. By and large, while the
timetable of occurrence of some of Community-Based
Hazardous Region these hazards is predictable, the Disaster Risk
force of their impacts is not. Management (CBDRM)
Asian countries are prone to a
number of natural events, which either A combination of human- Despite people's many
demonstrate their effects on a cyclical made and natural hazards like vulnerabilities, it is their natural
basis such as meteorological hazards, environmental degradation, urban tendency to protect themselves from
or on an entirely unpredictable basis and forest fires, pest infestation, the harm and danger posed by
such as geophysical hazards. health and sanitation-related various types of hazards, be they
Examples of meteorological hazards problems and food insecurity are natural or human-sourced or a
which occur within a relatively also a common source of disasters combination of both. If only there
predictable timetable include typhoons in the region. On top of these were ways to go back in history and
and tropical storms, extreme climatic natural phenomena, some countries rebuild communities away from
events such as excessive rainfall in the region are also beset with hazardous areas and plan the use of
leading to flooding or drought; human-sourced hazards such as land better, then there would be a big
damaging wind effects, storm surges political and violent conflicts. Most chance of ensuring public safety and a
and coastal area flooding. Examples of poor communities in Asia are healthy socioeconomic life. But since it
July 2005 67
Therefore it is paramount that the
capacity of the community be built so and readiness. Then a disaster
situation occurs. This concept of risk
that they are able to assess the risk, is compatible with the definition of
to crises and emergencies. that they are able to assess the risk,
identify risk reduction measures and
is impossible to go back, the choice is vulnerabilities and with less or no plan and implement these measures.
for those communities located in capacity. In this equation, the These include activities that will
areas with many risks to strengthen following are the factors of risks: if prevent disasters, mitigate hazards
themselves and undertake risk capacity (skills, resources, and prepare the community to
reduction measures that they readiness) is insufficient, if respond to crises and emergencies.
themselves can implement. vulnerabilities (weaknesses) are too This process is called community risk
great and if the scale of hazard management or community-based
To appreciate the meaning of (both natural and human sourced) disaster risk management.
CBDRM, it is best to understand the is too big, then the risk is too high.
concept of risk and its relation to Emergencies resulting from these When emergencies occur and the
disaster. Simply put, risk is the hazards cannot be managed locally; community is well prepared, then it can
probability that a very negative the communities cannot cope manage the emergencies well. This is
consequence may happen if hazard because the extent of destruction is the reason why it is important to have a
strikes a community with many beyond the communities' capacity community preparedness plan.
However, when the impact of the
hazard is so great that the
emergencies resulting from it are
beyond the capacity of the community,
then the community requires external
assistance. This is what is called
disaster management.
68 Tropical Coasts
based on a 30-year record compiled by
the International Federation of Red Cross
(IFRC, 2003).
Ideal Characteristics of
CBDRM:
July 2005 69
Community risk management is the
single most important tool thorough analysis of the
situation is undertaken. During
available for us today in reducing and after implementation,
people reflect on what went
the increasing cost related to wrong and what went well in the
• Utilizing participatory
methodologies. CBDRM utilizes
participatory tools such as
participatory risk assessment,
participatory identification of
risk reduction measures,
participatory planning,
community-managed risk
reduction programmes and
participatory monitoring and
Bringing disaster preparedness to neighboring communities. evaluation.
CBDRM Practice
reduction programmes and to the international level, to Currently there are many
monitoring and evaluation. Public address the complexity of organizations implementing CBDRM
awareness and capacity building are disaster risks. Networking and in various developing countries like
important aspects of community building partnerships at all the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos,
organizing. Organizing is essential levels is crucial in social Cambodia, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka
in sustainability. mobilization. Advocacy, and Bangladesh. However, the
lobbying and campaigning for practice is not widespread yet. The
• Social Mobilization. CBDRM brings favorable policy formulation following are two examples of
together the multitude of and legislation on CBDRM are community-based disaster risk
community stakeholders for important activities for management: one in Cambodia and
disaster risk reduction to expand mobilizing various sectors. one in the Philippines. Lessons from
its resource base. The local these two cases can be applied in
community level links up with • Analysis-Action-Reflection. other areas, particularly those
intermediate and national, even up Before implementing the plan a frequented by floods.
70 Tropical Coasts
NGO Initiative on CBDRM flooding. The people identified and their agricultural produce to local
in Cambodia implemented community-level markets. New, enlarged or rebuilt
solutions, such as water-control culverts increased the community's
Due to its location, Cambodia is structures including repairing dams control over the water flow, enabling
susceptible to flooding from two and dikes; cleaning irrigation them to increase their rice crop yield,
major watersheds, the Mekong River ditches, culverts, and water gates; and, for some communities, even
and Tonle Sap. To address the raising of road levels; and. harvest a second crop. The
situation, the Cambodian Red Cross constructing small bridges. The community-based effort also
with the support of NGOs working in raised road project in Bang Sang enhanced community cohesion. "As
Cambodia such as the International Lech Village in Kampong Cham we completed our project, our
Federation of Red Cross and Red District reduced the speed of flood community become closer. This is
Crescent Societies and PACT jointly onset to the houses further inland, something, I have not seen for a long
implemented the Cambodian provided elevated ground for the time," shared Mr. Peng Eourn, a 63-
Community-Based Flood Mitigation safety of the villagers and their year old villager (ADPC, 2002).
and Preparedness Program (CBFMP). livestock and provided road access.
This project was also supported by the
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center The program, while addressing Environmental PPeople's
eople's
(ADPC). the flood risk, also dealt with ak
Organization TTak es on
akes
livelihood options, increased the CBDRM
The Cambodian Red Cross community's awareness about
started the project by organizing and flood, employed participatory In 1996, residents of Doña
mobilizing volunteers. These methodologies and made volunteers Pepeng Subdivision and informal
volunteers, who were chosen from and local people understand settlers of North and South Libis,
flood-prone communities, were community dynamics. Barangay Banaba, San Mateo, in the
trained on disaster preparedness. province of Rizal in the Philippines,
They in turn conducted community Their experience of the flood in organized themselves formally into
meetings and explained the need for 2001 prompted the community Buklod Tao (United People). The
flood preparedness to the community. members to plan the construction coming together into one people's
This approach to manage the flood of higher wells to prevent water organization (PO) was triggered by an
risk challenged the communities to act contamination during such events environmental issue that wrought
concertedly in building safer and the building of safe areas for havoc to the village residents' lives
communities. The program has families. The people in each village and livelihood. A construction
initially covered 5,496 households in are proud of what has been attained company built a high wall that served
23 most hazard-prone villages in 3 and acknowledge the ownership of as a dam aimed to protect the
flood-prone districts within 3 the project's outcomes. They also company from flooding, at the
provinces. The project was realized that the benefits are not expense of the people living
implemented through a core of limited in times of disaster. For downstream. A storm hit and flooded
community volunteers who were example, the raising of roads and the area that caused damage to
trained in participatory risk the construction of bridges properties and almost drowned some
assessment and facilitation of provided a reliable transportation children when they were trapped by
identification and implementation of route and increased accessibility, the flood waters. The initial step of the
community-level disaster risk allowing children to travel to school PO was to lobby and file a case against
management activities addressed to and allowing traders to transport the company. The result was a
July 2005 71
Never underestimate local capacity
capacity..
No matter how poor a community is, rescue and evacuation was put
together.
it can still generate resources
through networking and provision of Two months after the seminar, a
typhoon hit the community. Although
72 Tropical Coasts
in community-based disaster risk
management. For example, a one-day
Disaster Management Orientation
followed by a two-day Disaster
Preparedness Training in January
2002 in Bgy. Banaba Extension
resulted to the formation of a DRC.
Buklod also helped this DRC by
passing on its old but still serviceable
preparedness logistics. To date,
Buklod Tao has assisted in the
formation of Disaster Management
Committees in rural communities in
Antipolo City, some 40 km from
Manila and in the neighboring villages.
capacity. No matter how poor a IFRC. 2003. World Disaster Report. The
Whatever the scale of hazards, community is, it can still generate International Federation of Red Cross
big or small, it is the local community and Red Crescent Societies, Geneva,
resources through networking and
Switzerland.
that either suffers the brunt of or provision of labor and local
survives from hazards' devastating materials. Sustainability of efforts ISDR. 2005. Kyoto Declaration, World
effects. The population at the local
Conference on Disaster Reduction.
requires the cooperation of all International Strategy for Disaster
community is the one affected and, as stakeholders. There is a need to Reduction, Kobe, Japan.
July 2005 73
Fe Farida A. Bajarias
Head, Marine Biotoxin Monitoring Unit
and
Mitigating the
Sandra Victoria R. Arcamo
Division Chief
Impact of Harmful
Fisheries Resource Management Division
Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources
Department of Agriculture
Algal Blooms in the
Quezon City, Philippines
Philippines
Introduction
significance. They cause poisoning especially fish and shellfish as source valued at Php119.9 billion (about
of cheap protein and source of income. US$2.2 billion). The aquaculture
syndromes such as paralytic shellfish
fisheries subsector accounted for 40.2
poisoning (PSP), amnesic shellfish
This paper presents the current percent (1,454.5 MT) of the total
poisoning (ASP), diarrhetic shellfish
status of harmful algal occurrence in production, commercial fisheries
poisoning (DSP), neurotoxic shellfish the Philippines, and the approaches to contribution was 30.7 percent (1,109.6
poisoning (NSP), and ciguatera address growing threats and problems MT), and municipal fisheries was 29.1
poisoning. associated with harmful algae. percent (1,055.1 MT). Aquaculture
74
74 Tropical Coasts
Shellfish poisoning syndrome,
particularly PSP
PSP,, has been and
includes production from activities
continues to be considered as one of the
such as brackish water and marine resource management issues in
freshwater fishponds, freshwater
and marine fish pens, freshwater the country
country.. PSP is disastrous in coastal
and marine fish cages, culture of
oysters, mussels and seaweeds.
communities where people are
Fisheries contribution to Gross
Value Added in the Agriculture,
primarily dependent on shellfish for
Fishery and Forestry Group, food and income. This phenomenon has
calculated at Php95,487 million
(about US$1.7 million; 14.5 percent) occurred in the country for more than
at current prices and Php44, 857
million (about US$800,000; 20.9
three decades now
now..
percent) at constant prices, is
considered the second largest share
next to agricultural crops.
July 2005 75
The impact on humans caused by
The HAB Problem
HABs in the Philippines extends
beyond human illness — that is Occurrence of Pyrodinium
bahamense var. compressum bloom was
economic losses and social first recorded in Philippine coastal waters
in 1983. Since then, the annual
displacement are also incurred. The recurrence of Pyrodinium was observed.
are not easily assessed due to the 20 localities in the country (Figure 1).
Moreover, records showed that shellfish-
broad range of sectors in society poisoning episodes due to Pyrodinium
Socioeconomic
Implication
76 Tropical Coasts
Figure 2. PSP Cases Recorded from 1983-2004.
in the seafood industry are often (US$40,000), and there was a banned shrimp imports from the
not released to the public and in dramatic decline in demand for Philippines. Shellfish closures
many cases these losses are not fishery products in 1988 particularly resulted to unemployment for both
quantified. in Manila Bay. It caused extensive fishers and secondary industries
economic damage since prices of all such as processing, middlemen and
Nevertheless, the occurrence seafood dropped to almost 40 suppliers. In the 1992 outbreak in
of HABs has been responsible for percent of the normal price. Manila Bay around 38,500 municipal
the economic losses in the fisheries Subsequently, shellfish bans during fishers were displaced from their
sector of the country particularly outbreaks was considered a problem livelihood for almost four months.
the shellfish industry. The 1983 in relation to international trade.
outbreak in central Philippines During the 1988, 1992 and 1993 When HABs contaminate coastal
resulted to losses of Php2.2 million outbreaks, Japan and Singapore resources, the livelihoods, social
July 2005 77
Figure 4. HAB Occurrence Associated with Fish Kills in the Philippines.
structure of local residents and food losses of resources and economic surveillance to predict or detect
security of artisanal fishers are values, and minimize human health occurrence of toxic causative
threatened contributing to possible risks that occur as a result of HABs. organisms responsible for PSP (Box
collapse of the local fishing These include better monitoring and 1). MBMU undertake phytoplankton
communities. surveillance to reduce the risk of and PSP toxicity monitoring through
ingestion or exposure to toxins, both water and shellfish meat
improved forecasting to allow more samples. Samples are collected
Mitigation of HAB time to protect resources and avoid fortnightly from areas with histories
Effects risks, restoration of affected of Pyrodinium blooms. Plankton
resources and a variety of alternative samples are collected by vertical
Management strategies and actions to minimize effects which haul with 20 µm mesh plankton net
options for mitigation or impact might occur. from near the bottom to the sea
prevention and control of HABs are surface. The samples are brought to
necessary to protect public health, The Bureau of Fisheries and the central laboratory in Metro
ecosystem health and fisheries Aquatic Resources (BFAR) through the Manila for qualitative and
resources. Marine Biotoxins Monitoring Unit quantitative analyses. Plankton
(MBMU) of the Fisheries Resource counts are the basis for the
Strategies for mitigation are Management Division undertake numerical estimates of the plankton
actions undertaken to reduce the systematic monitoring and population, taking into
78 Tropical Coasts
consideration the mouth diameter of to harvesting are primarily based on regional offices as well as some
the net, sampling depth and volume the results of the monitoring of provincial laboratories operated by
of plankton sample. Determination of phycotoxin levels in shellfish rather the local government units (LGUs).
shellfish toxicity is by mouse than on the cell density of causative Monitoring and analysis for PSP
bioassay. Harvesting closures are phytoplankton in seawater. toxins are carried out only in the
initiated when PSP toxins is 40 µg STX BFAR central office laboratory and
eq/100g of shellfish tissue are Phytoplankton monitoring is LGU laboratories in the province of
detected. Closures of shellfish areas carried out by BFAR central and Leyte and Bacolod. Preserved water
Bo
Boxx 1. Phytoplankton TToo xicity Monitoring through Water and Shellfish Sampling
Water Sampling..
Microscopic analysis
July 2005 79
A decentralized management regime is
being look ed at as probably the more
looked samples and/or frozen shellfish meat
from the regions and provinces
effective way of addressing PSP as well without capability to do analysis are
country since the local people and with recurrent PSP episodes submit
reports of plankton sampling activities
resource users will be empowered to to the central office at least once a
month. (Box 2).
manage their own resources. Immediate
response will hopefully be assured since The BFAR notifies the National
Red Tide Task Force (NRTTF) that in
the local people and fishers are turn recommends to the Secretaries of
the Departments of Agriculture (DA)
physically close to the area where PSP and Health (DOH) to impose shellfish
or any other phycotoxin occurs, thus ban in PSP-affected areas; and lift said
ban when HABs have dissipated from
80 Tropical Coasts
b. DOH diagnoses, treats PSP, and physically close to the area where burden on the part of the national
investigates problems related PSP or any other phycotoxin occurs, agency. Presently, the fishing
to the medical aspects of PSP, thus confusion and non- industry, particularly the aquaculture
and provides funds for NRTTF coordination during PSP episodes sector, is very dependent on the
activities; will be avoided since immediate national government in terms of
decisions can be made. industry development. However, a
c. DENR provides water quality few LGUs have offered relief in terms
data in areas they monitor; of operating and maintaining local
Control of HABs HAB-testing laboratories to assist the
d. PCG assists in monitoring marine authority in its monitoring
activities through provision of Techniques/methods to activities.
floating assets; control HABs, such as absorption by
clay particles, ozonization, removal
References
e. DOST coordinates, provides by chemicals and macromolecular
funds and technical support to flocculants, are not yet applied in the Bajarias, F.F. and J. Relox Jr. 1996.
“Hydrobiological and Climatological
research activities; Philippines since these HAB-control Parameters Associated with Pyrodinium Red
methods are still limited in scope Tides in Manila Bay, Philippines,” 49–52
pp. In Yasomoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y.
f. DILG supports implementation and remain largely untested in major
(eds.). Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms.
of shellfish ban; blooms. It is still premature to UNESCO-IOC.
conclude whether control methods
Bajarias, F. and J. Relox Jr. 2002. “Fish Kill in
g. LGU conducts regular PSP- are feasible, applicable and advisable
Balayan Bay.” Unpublished travel report
monitoring locally; and due to lack of knowledge on the side submitted to the Director, Bureau of
effects of such methods. Moreover, Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, 10 June
10, 2002. 4 pp.
h. PIA conducts information research studies are needed to
dissemination. validate these methods. Bajarias, F.F.A., L.T. Cabella, and Y. Fukuyo. 2003.
“Overview of Managing Harmful Algae in
Southeast Asia: The Philippines’
The highly centralized and top- The costs of monitoring Perspective.” Paper presented during the
down approach of management of PSP potentially toxic areas, and 5th United Nations University–Ocean
Research Institute–Japan Society for
has its downside considering the inspection and analysis of marine Promotion of Science International
presence of other phycotoxins, the products can be limiting factors to Workshop on Marine Pollution, Japan, 3–
10 November 2004.
archipelagic nature of the country, an efficient and effective HAB-
remoteness of the regional offices to control system. Regular shellfish BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources).
the central authority, and logistical monitoring programs are expensive. 2002. Unpublished. Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines.
constraints. A decentralized The fees that are generated from
management regime is being looked BFAR laboratory services go back to BFAR. 2003. Philippine Fisheries Profile. Bureau
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon
at as probably the more effective way National Treasury and thereby
City, Philippines.
of addressing PSP as well as other cannot be utilized for the operation
phycotoxin problems in the country and maintenance of the agency's HABSEA Portal. 2003. portal.unesco.org/habsea.
(Modified 22 September 2003).
since the local people and resource monitoring program. On the other
users will be empowered to manage hand, partnerships with the Relox, J.R. Jr. and F.F.A. Bajarias. 2003. “Harmful
their own resources. Immediate aquaculture sector in monitoring Algal Blooms (HABs) in the Philippines,” 65–
68 pp. In Proceedings of Workshop on Red
response will hopefully be assured activities, i.e., collecting of shellfish Tide Monitoring in Asian Coastal Waters,
since the local people and fishers are and water samples, can ease up the 10–12 March 2003, University of Tokyo,
Japan. 65–68 pp.
July 2005 81
Capt. Daniel Chan Kok Peng
Principal Oil Spill Specialist
Port Facility Security Officer
Contingency Planning —
The Global Alliance
East Asia Response Pte Ltd
Jalan Samulun, Singapore
The Key to Response
Introduction Preparedness
Oil spill contingency planning and
response can be traced to the
Torrey Canyon incident off the
coast of England, back in 1967.
Since the publication of the first
National Contingency Plan circa
1968, a series of corresponding
international conventions and
national legislations aimed at
reducing and limiting the massive
environmental damage have
already been held.
decline in spills can be attributed the International Petroleum Industry spills will not be eliminated totally and we
to the successful implementation Environmental Conservation Association must be prepared for it.
(IPIECA), the International Association of
of international conventions and
Oil and Gas Producers (OGP), the Oil
proactive preventive actions of
Companies International Marine Forum Background
the International Maritime
(OCIMF), The International Tanker
Organization (IMO) and the oil Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) and Great strides have been taken
and shipping industry. the International Association of around the world through close
Independent Tanker Owners cooperation among the stakeholders.
(INTERTANKO) and the United Nations Implementations of such initiatives are
*
The opinions and views expressed in this paper Environment Programme (UNEP) and not homogenous throughout the world.
are solely those of the author and do not
necessarily represent the views of any other party. IMO, designed and broadcast numerous Understandably, there are competing
means to prevent spills, enhance interests and finite resources available
Email: danielchan@earl.com.sg
preparedness and response, improve that many countries need to address.
82 Tropical Coasts
Emergency preparedness is an established
Operating under the framework
risk reduction strategy for mitigating the
of the Oil Pollution Preparedness,
potential disastrous effects of an oil spill.
Response and Cooperation (OPRC)
Convention, countries and the However
However,, every attempt must be made to
industry are working hand in hand in
realizing the objectives of mitigating achieve this without incurring too
the impact of an oil spill incident to a
coastal community. It is through this
exorbitant costs which essentially will be
concern and to reaffirm social passed down to the public. Hence, the oil
responsibility and environmental
protection that the oil companies are companies have set aside funds to
working together to enhance their own
capabilities in dealing with an oil spill
establish a few tier 3 response centers
incident.
strategically across the world.
Emergency preparedness is an Contingency was proactively developed by EARL
established risk reduction strategy for Mechanisms and shared with the local government
mitigating the potential disastrous agency as part of cooperation and
effects of an oil spill. However, every While emphasizing on the information sharing.
attempt must be made to achieve this importance of contingency planning,
without incurring too exorbitant costs the crucial key to a successful 2. Equipment
which essentially will be passed down mitigation strategy comes from
to the public. Hence, the oil companies developing customized operational To complement the contingency
have set aside funds to establish a few strategies and deployment of all plan, sufficient and suitable
tier 3 response centers (see endnote) suitable resources identified by the equipment are available. Hence, EARL
strategically across the world. contingency plan. EARL constantly has close to US$10 million worth of
turns challenges into opportunities to equipment stockpile that could be
The Global Alliance is an example ensure that it remains at the forefront mobilized on short notice to respond
of an industry-funded cooperative. of oil spill preparedness in the Asia- to any oil spill in the region. Stockpiles
The alliance consists of two tier 3 Pacific region. are continually being improved and
response centers which was merged renewed with the latest technology in
in 2001 between Oil Spill Response Ltd A few of the initiatives oil spill response, hence ensuring
(OSRL) and East Asia Response Pte Ltd undertaken over the past few years cutting edge oil spill equipment
(EARL). EARL in particular has incorporating the latest challenges and technology.
undertaken activities to continually lessons learnt around the world are as
enhance its contingency mechanisms, follows: 3. Viscous Oil Strategy
emergency preparedness and
monitoring for its operating area. 1. Singapore Boom Plan From the perspective of a
EARL is contributing positively as a response organization, responding to
center of excellence for oil spill The Singapore Boom Plan was an oil spill involving viscous oil
preparedness and response in Asia- developed for pre-identified sensitive presents the most operational
Pacific to the benefit of the sites around Singapore to deal with an challenge. EARL has effectively
governments and the industry alike. oil spill affecting these areas. This plan positioned itself from incorporating
July 2005 83
Hence, waste management is always a
main link to any oil spill response, tremendous pool of professional
responders collectively adds up to 200
2 . Logistics Requirements
84 Tropical Coasts
cannot be totally eliminated, EARL
actively cuts this down by working
closely with members and
government agencies to inform EARL
of any unsubstantiated incidents that
may result in activation. EARL will,
covering its own cost, mobilize the
corresponding resource
commensurate with the incident.
4 . Ramping up the
Response
There is every possibility in Delivering IMO Oil Spill training courses, such as those in partnership
over-responding to an incident
with PEMSEA and the regional government, increases operational
flexibility in responding to oil spills.
during the initial response phase of
an activation. EARL factors and reacts 6 . Operational Readiness arrangements required, what EARL
to an incident based on worst-case and the members must do to ensure
scenarios during the initial phase of a Operational readiness is an an effective response, and everyone's
response. The rationale is that it is intrinsic part of emergency preparedness. Contingency plans
very easy to scale down the response preparedness. This is where EARL's were reviewed, when available, to
once spill magnitude is established. resources are invested in. This identify potential roadblocks for
However, as a response organization, translates into a regimented approach further action. More work in this area
under-responding to such an incident in following religiously a planned will be done in the future.
would be unacceptable. maintenance program for its oil spill
response equipment. As airborne
5 . External Resources capability is a main part of being a tier Monitoring
3 response center, EARL emphasizes
EARL maintains a pool of pre- the importance of having the L-382 EARL will do everything within its
identified external resources which ready and available. operational capabilities to ensure the
serve to increase operational most effective use and deployment of
flexibility in responding to a spill. 7 . Regional all resources under its disposal.
This is achieved through the Responsiveness However, to assume that EARL will
conduct of regular training to a undertake every spill incident by itself
group of personnel of a In 2003 EARL took its 'new' is a great overstatement. Hence, EARL
participating shipping company on a philosophy into the region. is constantly seeking out
monthly basis, resulting in an Familiarization Workshops cum opportunities with industry and
additional pool of deployable and operational visits were completed with governments to leverage on each
trained manpower during a spill. members in India, Indonesia and other's capabilities and strengths in
EARL also has identified a range of China. Completed were seven mitigating the potential impacts of an
response vessels suitable for the Familiarization Workshops that oil spill.
deployment of various oil spill explained the Service Level
response equipment as part of its Agreement (SLA), lead times required In the spirit of the OPRC
strategies. to reach locations, logistical Convention, it also encourages
July 2005 85
ownership of a potential hazard EARL is also involved with
associated to the utilization of regional tier 2 centers, which
petroleum by all stakeholders. complement each other in providing
coverage in respective countries.
ADDS Pack conducting low-level
While the setup specifically deals Understanding the unique
spraying exercise.
with tier 3 response incidents, EARL is operational arrangements will help in
cooperation among stakeholders. often approached for advice in tier 1- determining what EARL is expected
There are many contributing factors to type spills. Also, members are given to do. While EARL has a superior
a successful implementation of advice, through EARL's Training and equipment stockpile, however the
building up local, regional and Consultancy Department, in local tier 2 center brings with it
international capabilities in dealing developing tier 1 capabilities as valuable local knowledge in the event
with an oil spill. The catalyst to this required by most OPRC Convention of a spill. Hence, investment in
paradigm shift in developing the right countries. Hence, EARL is involved in developing a meaningful
approach in oil spill contingency capacity building among local professional relationship facilitates
planning and response represents the population in the operating countries. cooperation better.
Dispersant spray system on work boat on landing craft. Skid tanks and booms loaded.
The Helibucket assembled by external manpower. Skid tank installed on an EARL boat.
86 Tropical Coasts
Over the years, EARL has been capacity building is an ongoing Investing resources in response
very actively engaged in the area of project to facilitate and play an preparedness is definitely important
advocacy for oil spill response and advisory role working alongside the and worth committing to. The benefits
preparedness within its region of project task team of Cambodia to of increasing the ability in emergency
coverage. This is inline with the assist in the development and management has positive spill over
objectives of a global initiative that implementation of the National affects in utilizing the contingency
the International Petroleum Industry Contingency Plan. mechanism to adapt to any form of
Environmental Conservation emergency both natural or man-
Association (IPIECA) spearheads. made. Stakeholders must therefore
Every opportunity in raising the Conclusion ensure that the identified processes
awareness level for oil spill response remain relevant and that it undergoes
among stakeholders in the region Contingency planning is a vital regular reviews to maintain a high level
has been taken. This resulted in key to emergency preparedness and of efficiency.
establishing good rapport regionally management. By developing a sound
that will give EARL a good platform in contingency plan, operational
carrying out the necessary oil spill capabilities with available resources Reference
response activities. and, more importantly, being able to
IMO (International Maritime Organization).
mobilize it in good time are essentially 1995. Contingency Planning. Section II,
EARL enjoys a close and fruitful defined. It provides objectivity and Manual on Oil Pollution. International
Maritime Organization, London, United
working relationship in the area of clarity in the event of an emergency; Kingdom.
capacity building, partnering with no country or organization in this
organizations such as the Global world is spared from some kind of Notes
Environment Facility/United Nations emergency or another. More
Development/International Maritime importantly, being able to identify The Tier response is an operational
concept that provides a convenient
Organization Regional Programme available regional and international
categorization of response levels and a
on Partnerships in Environmental assistance and having a chance to practical basis for planning. Tier 1 is
Management for the Seas of East work out issues that may arise provide concerned with preparedness and
Asia (PEMSEA). A fine example of a realistic picture of the strengths and response to a small spill within the
capabilities of an individual facility or
PEMSEA and EARL cooperation in weaknesses before any incident.
harbor authority. The Upper limit of
tier 1 is often cited as 700 tons. The
tier 2 response to a spill requires the
coordination of more than one source
of equipment and personnel.
Assistance can come from a number of
entities within a port area or from
sources outside the immediate
geographic area. Tier 2 describes a
wide range of spill sizes and potential
scenarios. Tier 3 is concerned with
major spills requiring the mobilization
of all available national resources,
and will likely involve mobilization of
regional and international systems. It
is this tier of response where positive
advance customs arrangements are
critical to facilitate a successful effort
(IMO, 1995).
Exercise in deploying booms in Karimun.
July 2005 87
Sri Lanka and the
Simon Harris
Director
Peace Studies Programme
Social Scientists' Association
Post-Tsunami Coastal
Colombo
Introduction
criticized as both a knee-jerk Sri Lanka's post-disaster coastal coastal erosion and a heightened
reaction and a top-down approach conservation strategy is largely emergency preparedness and
predicated on the decision voiced by awareness following Sri Lanka's
which is inherently ethnically biased,
President Chandrika Bandaranaike previous worst natural disaster, a
anti-poor and fails to consider local
Kumaratunga in her first address to the cyclone in 1978 which claimed some
level needs or realities.
nation a few days after the tsunami 1,000 lives. The Act aimed to arrest the
The author worked at the Sri Lankan Government's struck, to re-institute strict degradation rate of valuable yet
Center for National Operations during the initial enforcement of coastal protection vulnerable coastal habitats such as
post-tsunami emergency relief phase and is currently
studying at the Refugees Study Center, University of legislation that had been routinely naturally protective corals, sand dunes
Oxford, United Kingdom. flouted for decades. This pre-existing and mangrove forests. It also aimed to
Email: simon.harris@qeh.ox.ac.uk legislation in the form of the Coast protect coastal communities in areas
88
88 Tropical Coasts
where unpredictable tidal patterns
Although Sri Lank a's post-tsunami
Lanka's
resulted in the perennial hazard of response has now embraced the
flooding and where cyclones posed a
potential risk. It regulated private provisions of the Coast Conservation
ownership, prohibited construction
within 100 m of the mean high tide
Act, it is incorporated as part of a
mark, and restricted other coastal
construction to those projects
wider recovery and reconstruction
approved by the Coast Conservation strategy
strategy.. This strategy is headed by a
Department.
new administrative body
body,, the "Task
"Task
However, the 24 years following
the enactment of this legislation
Force for RRebuilding
ebuilding the Nation"
through to the recent tsunami
witnessed a proliferation of coastal
(T AFREN), which is mandated to
(TAFREN),
construction and the consequent "rebuild damaged and destroyed
erosion of coastal resources despite
the development of a comprehensive houses and relocate people living in
national coastal zone management
plan during the interim. Construction
unsafe areas."
has primarily comprised of illegal
encroachment on state lands by the
poor and marginalized, the growth of administrative corruption at both "rebuild damaged and destroyed
unregulated shrimp farming, the national and local levels, the need to houses and relocate people living in
militarization of significant coastal stimulate the economy by unsafe areas." TAFREN's plan has four
areas as a result of the protracted encouraging inward investment key components: 1) resurrection of
conflict since 1983 in the north and through tourism, and shifting 100-m exclusion zone with possible
east, and an expansion of the tourist national priorities following two extension of up to 300 m in some
industry mainly along the southeast, violent insurgencies and years of areas; 2) urgent relocation of
southern and western coasts. Where civil war between the Sri Lankan displaced people currently living in
approval has been granted for hotel Government and the secessionist temporary welfare centers to
construction, this has invariably been Tamil movement, the Liberation temporary shelters; 3) provision of
followed by the rapid development of a Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). suitable accommodation in designated
tacitly condoned informal tourist- 'safe' inland resettlement sites for
service sector around beachfront Although Sri Lanka's post- people displaced from residences
tourist sites. tsunami response has now lying within the coastal no-build zone;
embraced the provisions of the and 4) allocation of resettlement sites
The main reasons for the Coast Conservation Act, it is from state land. Where no state land is
widespread disregard or incorporated as part of a wider available the Government will make
circumvention of the Coast recovery and reconstruction compulsory purchases.
Conservation Act were a lack of strategy. This strategy is headed by
capacity and political will to implement a new administrative body, the "Task This article assesses the social,
coastal policies, successive changes in Force for Rebuilding the Nation" economic and environmental
the Government, political and (TAFREN), which is mandated to implications of this strategy for the
July 2005 89
Linking human security and
environmental conservation, the significant risk following further
earthquakes in March 2005 off the
90 Tropical Coasts
and their families. Tourism, which implementation of coastal than human security and
accounts for between 2 to 4 percent of conservation policies, the environmental protection needs.
GDP was also badly affected with Government's strategy is unlikely to While public-private partnerships can
approximately half of the hotels be sustainable over the long term. be vital to effective and efficient
located in the disaster zones damaged reconstruction, there is some
and many others unable to function Livelihoods: Fishing suspicion over the high level of
due to the disruption of local services communities are concerned that representation in TAFREN by Sri
(ADB, et al., 2005). The implementation proposals to relocate coastal villages Lankan conglomerates with
of coastal management policies would to designated safe inland areas will significant tourism and construction
provide the opportunity to control, profoundly disrupt their livelihoods' industry interests.
regularize and modernize both the sense of community. Already
tourism and fishing industries with displaced, they are concerned about Land Rights: The tsunami
the introduction of designated zoning. access to their boats and nets, the resulted in the displacement of
financial implications of fishing approximately half a million people.
regularization and the social Many of these have lost their title
The Opponents’ consequences of changes to their deeds and other documentation such
Argument traditional way of life. as identity cards, savings passbooks,
birth and marriage certificates.
The Government/TAFREN's Pro-Poor Development: Critics point out that policies
proposals have been criticized on There are concerns that the coastal preventing people from returning to
various levels by numerous parties exclusion zone is a thinly veiled their homes complicate the process
including fishing community groups, excuse to gentrify the nation's of establishing ownership, which is a
local and international non- beaches for foreigners and the prerequisite for claiming
governmental organizations (NGOs) tourism industry by transferring compensation. For many of the
and human rights advocates. This shanty-type dwellings and informal displaced, their properties were
section summarizes six key areas of structures to the hinterland. There is inextricably linked to their
commonly expressed concerns drawn a fear that beyond removal there is a livelihoods, either as workplaces or
from a Sri Lankan newspaper and local lack of consideration for the needs of as tangible assets and collateral for
academic articles, reports of this sector. Unless reconstruction loans. Many of the displaced can no
international and local NGOs and purposefully addresses the issues of longer obtain the credit needed to
interviews with commentators and sustainable livelihoods, access to finance their livelihoods. The more
practitioners on the ground: employment, education and housing, marginalized communities
1) participation and consultation; the already marginalized encroaching or squatting on state
2) livelihoods and community; 3) pro- communities will be further lands and have no property claims
poor development; 4) corruption; disadvantaged. are unlikely to receive any
5) land rights; and 6) peace compensation.
implications. Corruption: With aid and
investment amounting to billions of Peace Implications: The
Participation and dollars there are concerns regarding extent of the exclusion zone is one of
Consultation: The reconstruction how transparency and accountability the most ambiguous and contentious
process has so far failed to adequately will be ensured in the reconstruction elements of the Government's
account for the opinions and process. Some question whether the coastal policy. A buffer zone of up to
perspectives of local stakeholders. coastal-exclusion zones have more 300 m has been advocated for parts
Without their input in the design and to do with large corporate interests of the east coast while 100 m is
July 2005 91
appropriate. Although there are many
aspects of the Act, including the 100-m
exclusion zone that may be essential to
both coastal conservation and human
security, Sri Lanka's shoreline is a very
different place to the one which
originally informed this strategy. The
challenge now is to develop a new
strategy that takes into account the
different dynamics and stakeholders of
the coastal region. This strategy needs
to balance environmental protection,
human security and economic
development in such a way that is both
just and equitable for all those involved
in the disaster. It needs to promote
For the poorest communities, relocation could entail being provided peace and improve the conditions and
with better quality residences than their shanty-type dwellings
livelihoods for poor and conflict-
built along many parts of the coast and which were destroyed by
the tsunami. affected communities alike. Central to
achieving these goals are participation,
recommended for most of the previously affected by the conflict will consultation, transparency and
southern and western coastlines. be overlooked. Such an omission accountability.
Although the Government argues would inevitably exacerbate tensions
that this reflects the enhanced and the potential for conflict.
vulnerabilities of certain areas, References
others point out that, with the east
ADB, et al. 2005 January. Sri Lanka 2005 Post-
being home to large numbers of the Conclusion Tsunami Recovery Program: Preliminary Damage
minority Tamil and Muslim and Needs Assessment. Asian Development
communities, the policy resonates of The current controversy Bank, Japan Bank for International
Cooperation and World Bank: Colombo.
ethnic discrimination. In a post- surrounding the Government of Sri www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/
conflict, as well as, post-disaster Lanka's coastal conservation policy Ts u n a m i / s r i - l a n k a - t s u n a m i -
assessment.pdf
context the tainting of clearly demonstrates the long-term
reconstruction policies as biased folly of failing to adequately Harakunarak, A. n. d. Sri Lanka Case Study,
have the potential to undermine an implement a technically competent Integrated Coastal Management. Center
for the Study of Marine Policy.
already fragile peace process. and comprehensive strategy. Had the www.globaloceans.org/country/srilanka/
provisions established under the srilanka.html
Another major peace-related Coast Conservation Act been
TAFREN. 2005. Action Plan Draft. Task Force for
implication is how pre-existing systematically adhered to over the Rebuilding the Nation, Government of
conflict induced internally in past two decades countless lives may Sri Lanka: Colombo. www.tafren.govf.lk/
docs/Action%20Plan%20Draft.pdf
displaced communities will be have been saved. However, in current
accommodated. Many analysts are post-disaster context, a rigid after- Uyangoda, J. 2005. “Post-Tsunami Recovery
concerned that with the focus on the the-fact insistence on compliance of in Sri Lanka.” Polity 2(3): 4-7. Social
Scientists’ Association: Colombo.
tsunami-affected population, those this Act is neither helpful nor
92 Tropical Coasts
July 2005 93
Risk Management vs.
Ian M. Johnstone-Bryden
Managing Editor
Broadly Boats
Introduction
Scientific Fashion
The amazing advances in
communications and information
technology, during the last 60 years,
has brought beneficial changes, but
has introduced new risks. As we
become saturated with information,
our attention span shortens, making
us vulnerable to deliberate, or
accidental, manipulation. For
hundreds of years academia has
depended on funding that is
triggered by academic debate,
through presentation of provoking
new theses. Before the explosion in
information, this necessary debate
was conducted within a closed
community that understood the
limitations and qualifications. Today,
Scientific fashion claims that our profligate use of resources is
a researcher presents a revolutionary carrying us towards disaster. This infrared satellite photograph
new concept and, in a matter of of heat generated by a major population center creates an
illusion of human power.
days, the concept has been broadcast
around the world, interpreted by the
This can have some serious provoke debate, never anticipating the
news media in ways that the
implications. When Fred Cohen way the global warming industry has
researcher never originally intended.
presented a paper on self-replicating developed. What is healthy and
code, he used the standard academic necessary debate, within the closed
Johnstone-Bryden is a consultant and author with approach to provoking debate, coining community of academic specialists,
more than 30 years experience of building command the term computer virus — never becomes a costly, destructive debate
and control solutions for military and civil emergency
use. He has contributed to the development of anticipating that he would father a in a wider community that does not
information security criteria and has been a pioneer destructive industry of malicious code have the time to study all claims and
of holistic risk management. He has been widely
published, with articles and white papers covering writers and a costly industry of anti- proofs. The great risk is that a new
communications, information technology and risk virus programmers. When scientists fashion is begun, that takes on a life of
management. His book Managing Risk was the first
holistic risk management title when it was published first discovered the ozone hole above its own, consuming vast amounts of
in 1995. He has been closely involved in the the Antarctic they wanted funds to resource, while more pressing issues
development of electronic publishing and has written
a number of eBooks for Nighthawk Publishing, study the phenomena, needing to are left unattended and unheard. As
www.nighthawk.firetrench.com.
94 Tropical Coasts
Holistic risk management has
damaging would be the backlash that
sets in when some of the wilder claims
developed over a period of 30 years
of the latest scientific fashion fail to and is still relatively rare. Where it has
result in tangible result.
been employed faithfully
faithfully,, it has
Risk management follows a
different path to that of scientific produced extremely good results.
fashion. Derived from the
methodologies developed by German
Unfortunately
Unfortunately,, it has become an abused
insurance companies more than a term, with many organizations talking
hundred years ago, risk management
is now applied to many aspects of about risk management, when they
human activity. The concept is based
on the analysis of historic data, to
really mean risk avoidance.
produce mathematical trends, on
which can be based the assessment of
spread of plague, specifically smoke subject becomes increasingly
risk probability and impact. Holistic
produced by charcoal burning. We fashionable, more scientists
risk management has developed over
now know better but, at the time, it concentrate on the subject. Any team
a period of 30 years and is still
was very comforting to have presenting a case for research
relatively rare. Where it has been
someone else to blame. We may be funding supporting the current
employed faithfully, it has produced
following a very similar path today in fashionable theories is more likely to
extremely good results. Unfortunately,
the way in which we are approaching be funded. Any team offering an
it has become an abused term, with
issues of climate change. Scientists unfashionable view may have difficulty
many organizations talking about risk
report the results of their research, in finding funds for their research.
management, when they really mean
attempting to draw conclusions. The They will be savaged by their
risk avoidance. Potentially, risk
management provides the counter
balance to scientific fashion. The
enemy of risk management is the
human instinct to bury bad news and
to develop a blame culture.
Governments are particularly guilty in
this respect, many spending more
time on massaging statistics, to
produce a politically acceptable result,
than they do on learning from
mistakes.
July 2005 95
colleagues, who fear them as heretic some scientists claim that all should improve, with increasing
revolutionaries. The Internet speeds temperatures are rising, some that base data. For example, 30 years
the process towards an extreme, the average temperature is rising, ago, one university research team
because it is very easy to cut and and others claim that there are predicted a coming ice age. Their
paste information from massive rising temperatures in parts of the model suggested expanding polar
online information resources. globe while some temperatures are ice caps and falling sea levels. The
Governments find this a beneficial falling. There may be considerable same university more recently
source of data to be manipulated, debate between research teams embraced global warming,
supporting their particular political about the real meaning and predicting shrinking ice caps and
views, some even going to war on the implications for the future. rising sea levels. They are now
basis of this misuse of information. However it has become fashionable attempting to merge their original
What started as a provoking thesis to blame all weather conditions on thesis with the global warming thesis
soon becomes an established fact, global warming, and blaming this to produce a concept of differential
supported and moulded by news on pollution. temperature change.
media and governments. The global
population sees the headline data, Computer models are Given fashionable scientific
which may be distorted and have ill- developed, predicting future theory that global warming is taking
formed conclusions, and they either trends, but a computer model is place, but considerable variation in
blindly accept the latest fashion or only as good as the programmer's detailed views of how quickly, or how
cynically dismiss it as lies that pre-conceived notions. That can high, temperatures are going to rise,
politicians tell. mean that the model has identifying a cause is even more
dangerous bias. The model difficult. Global warming has been
We are now firmly in the grip of depends on the same base as risk cheerfully blamed entirely on
the global warming fashion. The management. It has to have initial pollution from chlorofluorocarbon
majority scientific position is that data, which may be a dangerously (CFC) release and the consumption
global temperatures are rising, but small sample. Over time, accuracy of fossil fuels, particularly from
If the more extreme global warming claims become However much human activity contributes to
reality, many Pacific islands will be submerged, climate change it is insignificant against the
along with 80 percent of the world's populated zones. contribution of the Sun. Solar activity, together
The relatively slow rate of sea-level rise would allow with the orbital path of the Earth, are the
time to move urban centres to higher ground. primary influences.
96 Tropical Coasts
Potentially
otentially,, risk management provides
vehicles with combustion engines. the counter balance to scientific fashion.
Based on these assumptions we
have charged off without much
The enemy of risk management is the
thought for the consequences of human instinct to bury bad news and to
our actions, taking the risk
avoidance approach of banning and develop a blame culture. Governments
constraining. Risk management is
based on identifying risks, are particularly guilty in this respect,
estimating the probability and the
impact of those risks, and relating
many spending more time on massaging
them to planned objectives, statistics, to produce a politically
essentially an enabling process.
That is much more flexible and acceptable result, than they do on
pragmatic an approach, allowing
some risks to be lightly moderated,
learning from mistak es.
mistakes.
or even left untouched, in the
interests of enabling objectives to Climate change and the level of cause of global warming, and a
be met at acceptable risk, rather earthquake and volcanic activity share suspicion that more powerful forces
than a theoretical nil risk. Ironically, a relationship, the nature of which is than human activity may be
some parts of the world depend on not yet known. The relationship responsible for climate change. Risk
tourists to fund conservation, yet between volcanic activity, or management requires the widest
these same tourists created earthquakes, and the generation of possible data over the greatest
pollution, flying to the area and tsunami is not well understood. The period for a broad sample.
damaging the environment by their risk manager should have a nagging Geological survey identifies events
presence. So far no alternate doubt about the fashionable in history at specific geographic
funding has been found. acceptance of traffic jams as the locations and points in history,
The Earth is subject to other external forces, of which Below the thin crust and oceans lay unimaginable
the most dramatic is the impact of an asteroid. A forces. As earthquakes, or as volcanic eruptions
relatively rare event, but one that potentially brings and explosions, these forces can both produce an
immediate and catastrophic climate change with the immediate catastrophe, with significant, longer
extinction of life. term, climatic effects.
July 2005 97
Risk management is based on
identifying risks, estimating the
suggesting long event cycles.
probability and the impact of those Real-time measurement and
98 Tropical Coasts
in the distant past. As much of the replacement material required to history and geology are a result of
world population lives near sea level, recover from an incident. The these massive natural forces, where
and evidence shows tsunami Sumatran experience demonstrates man may interfere to a minute
occurring throughout the oceans, how much time can be lost as extent. Scientific fashion is forcing
monitoring chains are a very logical governments attempt to respond, the wrong priorities, injecting far
precaution. and national pride, or political views more risk than is removed.
hinder the delivery of assistance.
To complete the risk Risk management demands an The impact of risks is easier to
management case it is necessary to international rapid reaction force respond to, a temperature rise of X
provide the means to respond when that will be admitted to devastated degrees, resulting in a sea-level rise
a warning is given. There are countries immediately and be able of Y meters, maps to contours
practical limits to how much to draw on supplies from unaffected showing the extent of loss at any
resource could be justified, against countries. That force requires an given level. Parts of the globe,
what may be a very long-term risk. integrated command and control depressed during the major Ice Ages
The Indian Ocean may have suffered structure that is able to identify very by weight of ice, have been slowly
its only tsunami for several million quickly: how bad the damage is; rising, producing the same effect
years, or the next one could strike where the relief supplies will come locally as a fall in sea level, islands
any day. Risk management may from, and; what transport is once connected to neighboring land-
accept that the most rapidly planned available to move supplies. The masses until water released from the
evacuation to safe high ground will best-suited organizations are melting ice caps caused land bridges
take one hour and that it will be military units, which requires to be inundated. The total rise in sea
impractical to conduct regular consideration in advance of political level, if all ice melted, can be
practice evacuations. That suggests and national factors, so that they will calculated, but estimating how long
inevitable loss of life near the not present an obstacle to saving life that would take, or what reversal will
epicenter, and that major damage will and enabling recovery. occur, is difficult to calculate.
be done to the infrastructure in all Although sea levels fluctuate, as
countries in the affected area. The While achievable risk water is released or returned to the
extent of damage will be in a series of management is ignored, we ice caps, tectonic plate movement
contours responding to different continue to focus major effort on causes landmasses to sink or be
heights of tsunami. It may become what is scientific fashion. We know forced up. Generally a slow
practical to permanently move that we live on a very thin shell that movement, some events happen very
populations from the lowest levels to contains a core and mantel suddenly, with new islands and
reduce the volume of evacuation producing huge forces and mountains created, causing major
traffic and the extent of temperatures, where: solids are changes to submarine contours.
infrastructure damage. plastic and flow; our central star
generates a fantastic heat output, Where scientific fashion can be
The other essential element is driving our environment; and our extreme, risk management is
for nations to agree in advance how star will expand as it ages, pragmatic, and holistic risk
they will respond, and what destroying our planet. The timetable management considers: the original
assistance they need and will accept. is beyond our appreciation. The risks; the control mechanisms; and
No single nation can store all the huge climate changes seen in the consequences of those controls
July 2005 99
Thera in 1500 B.C.
process reach by reach and The development of simple reconstruction process. Those
subsequently use these as a reference practical indicators for assessing engaged in the process will need
point for assessing progress and the progress towards goals and to work hard to create conditions
practice of adaptive management. monitoring the coastal that are better than those that
reconstruction and rehabilitation existed before the tsunami and
Coastal management principles process are crucial for adaptive make coastal communities —
are to be tailored to unique conditions management. Results of the particularly the poor — less
present in every coastal reach. This reconstruction processes and the vulnerable than they were before.
favors a decentralized approach and a lessons that emerge from the There will be major pressures to
co-management structure in which application of the principles must simply put things back as they
local institutions assume significant be documented for wider were before the disaster and to
roles in planning and decisionmaking. dissemination on a periodic basis. take advantage of the emergency
Measures to keep print, radio and to further individual interests
The governmental and non- television media involved in the rather than the common good.
governmental institutions with coastal reporting process should be done These pressures must be
management responsibilities should through website establishment resisted. The implementation of
establish dialogues and communication and updating and website the Cairo Principles will help
channels to refine their abilities to registration with main search grasp the opportunities
identify threats and their root causes, to engines. generated by such a calamity and
negotiate goals and strategies with a thereby create conditions that are
diversity of stakeholders, to practice more sustainable and more
Principle 12
conflict resolution and to prioritize their equitable than those before the
actions. tsunami.
Widely disseminate good
Use of economic assessment tools practices and lessons learned
that help set priorities for investments, as they emerge.
define and meet financing needs and References
sequence investments to maximize
inter-sectoral collaboration and the Experts and leaders from
advance towards sustainable the region and elsewhere must UNEP. 2005. “After The Tsunami – Rapid
development should be applied and Environmental Assessment.” United
meet to review progress,
Nations Environment Programme.
promoted. celebrate success and analyze www.unep.org/tsunami/
good practices for wider tsunami_rpt.asp.
References:
BBC. 7 September 2001. “Filipinos Return as Volcano Lake Drains.” BBC Newhall, C.G. and R.S. Punongbayan. (Editors). 1996. Fire and Mud: Eruptions
News. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/ and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. University of Washington Press.
1530182.stm. Seattle and London.
Berdin, R., C.T. Remotigue, P. Zamora, Y.Y. Yacat and F.P. Siringan. 2004. Orejas, T. 2005. “Punongbayan Finds Rest in Bosom of Mountains that
“Coastal Erosion Vulnerability Mapping along the Southern Coasts of La He Studied Well.” Philippine Daily Inquirer. 30 April 2005.
Union, Philippines,” pp. 51–67. In Global Symposium for Hazard Risk Reduction.
Lessons Learned from the Applied Research Grants for Disaster Risk Reduction Program. Raman, S. 2005. “Tsunami Villagers Give Thanks to Trees.” BBC News,
The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Tamil Nadu, India.
Bildan, L. 2003. Disaster Management in Southeast Asia – An Overview. Asian Siringan, F. P., R.D. Berdin, C.B. Jaraula, C.T. Remotigue, Y.Y. Yacat-Sta
Disaster Preparedness Center. Maria and P.B. Zamora. 2005. “A Challenge for Coastal Management:
Large and Rapid Shoreline Movements in the Philippines,” 218-219
CNNfyi.com. 2001. “Explain the formation and Possible Dangers of Crater pp. In Know Risk. Tudor Rose and the United Nations Secretariat for
Lakes. “ http://cnnstudentnews.cnn.com/2001/fyi/lesson.plans/09/06/ the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, United Kingdom/
crater.lake Switzerland.
Colville, A. n.d. “Geology 150: Earth Revealed.” California State University, UN. 2005. “Building the resilience of nations and communities to
Los Angeles, CA, USA. www.calstatela.edu/faculty/acolvil/volcanos.html. disasters: Hyogo Framework for action 2005–2015.” Advance copy
www.calstatela.edu/faculty/acolvil/volcanos/pinatubo_crater.jpg Report of the Conference A/CONF.206/6. United Nations, Geneva.
Delica-Willison, Z. 2005. “Community Awareness and Preparedness, A Key UNEP. 2005. After the Tsunami – Rapid Environmental Assessment. United Nations
for Managing Risks.” Environment Programme.
IFRC. 2002. World Disaster Report 2002—Focus on Reducing Risk. International UNGP-IPSD. 2005. United Nations Global Programme for the Integration
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Geneva, Switzerland. of Administration an dthe Science of Disasters. www.globalwatch.org/
ungp/ungp_home.htm
NDM–Partnership Newsletter. 2004 March. “A Community Solution to Save
Children.” National Disaster Mitigation Partnership to Mitigate Natural UN-ISDR. 2004. Living with Risk – A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives.
Disasters in Central Vietnam (NDM–Partnership). Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction.
Plans for Three New preserve Tabanan’s natural resources and habitat thus
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In Jembrana Regency, the stakeholder consultation meeting Melasti – A Festival of Hope (13 min) looks at
the environmental challenges in the marine and
recognized that linking forest and rivers with the coast and coastal areas of Bali, Indonesia, and the
marine waters should be the basic framework of Jembrana’s partnerships established for its conservation and
sustainable use. It offers a unique glimpse of
coastal management, considering that the regency holds 70 Balinese life, particularly on its three inseparable
percent of Bali Island’s forest cover. A major concern on Jembrana threads: faith, culture and the environment.
coast is beach erosion, mostly caused by natural processes and
worsened by sand and gravel mining and the construction of
coastal structures. The stakeholders agreed that the focus of their
VCD (PAL, NTSC)
NEWS
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BALI, INDONESIA –- Over 100 government leaders, consolidate lessons learned from the tsunami tragedy and
and coastal and marine experts from 22 PEMSEA identify effective strategies for reducing and mitigating natural
G
ICM sites and candidate parallel sites, along with and man-made coastal hazards. The forum recognized that ICM
representatives from international and regional was a useful framework for coastal hazard management.
organizations have called for strengthening the
O
implementation of integrated coastal management The Fourth RNLG Forum also saw the significant adoption of the
(ICM) to achieve sustainable coastal development in Bali Resolution on the establishment of the PEMSEA Network of
East Asia. The call came at the Fourth Annual Local Governments for Sustainable Coastal Development
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Forum of the Regional Network of Local (PNLG), which transforms the existing RNLG into the PNLG. The
Governments Implementing Integrated Coastal PNLG is a more self-sustaining and local government-driven
Management (RNLG) on 26-28 April, with the theme network.
P
Bohai Sea Environmental Port Klang Initial Risk Southeastern Coast of Bali Danang Initial Risk
Risk Assessment, Assessment, 96 pp. Initial Risk Assessment, Assessment, 130 pp.
114 pp. 100 pp.
Manila for Sustainable an international workshop that will gather various water
experts together to discuss the challenges of managing
interrelated river basins, estuaries and coastal seas.
Development Strategy The Workshop on Ecosystem Management for Interrelated River Basin,
Estuaries and Coastal Seas will be held 1-3 June in Masan, RO Korea. It will be
QUEZON CITY
CITY,, PHILIPPINES — Over 30 government attended by experts from the Seto Inland Sea (Japan), Bohai Sea (PR China),
experts from PEMSEA participating countries Jakarta Bay (Indonesia), Manila Bay (Philippines), and Masan-Chinhae Bay
convened in Manila to formulate operational details (RO Korea).
for implementing the Sustainable Development
Strategy for the Seas of East Asia (SDS-SEA). The Masan workshop aims to identify the major challenges to ecosystem
Organized by PEMSEA Regional Programme Office, management of interrelated river basins, estuaries and coastal seas,
the W orking Group Meeting was held 15-18 May
Working May,, and review experiences and lessons learned from the practices in tackling
was hosted by the Department of Environment and such challenges, and outline response strategies and a mode of
Natural Resources of the Philippines. implementation for the East Asian region. The workshop will focus on
three major areas of concern: a) policy, legal and other institutional
This Meeting is considered as a critical step in the arrangements; b) living resource restoration and ecological implications
transformation of the existing project-based PEMSEA and c) water pollution reduction relating to the integrated management of
arrangement into a long-term and effective regional mechanism river basins, estuaries and coastal seas.
for implementing the SDS-SEA. The draft documents prepared
for the Meeting were endorsed for consideration by the 11th The workshop proper will run for the first two days, and will be followed
PEMSEA Programme Steering Committee Meeting, to be held in by a half-day field excursion on 3 June to the Masan-Chinhae Bay and
Cambodia in August. Moon Island. The international event is part of MOMAF and PEMSEA’s
joint endeavor to build regional capacity in the sustainable development
The SDS-SEA was adopted by 12 governments of the East Asian of water bodies in East Asia.
Region in December 2003 with the signing of the Putrajaya
Declaration by Ministers and senior officials of PEMSEA As part of the preparations, MOMAF has launched a website on the
participating countries. workshop which can be visited at www.meps.info/pemsea.
Visit the PEMSEA Media Center at mediacenter.way.to or the online bookstore at pemseabookstore.way.to.
Putrajaya Declaration of Sustaining Benefits, Coastal Strategy of Nampho City, Manila Bay Refined Risk
Regional Cooperation for the 38 pp. DPR Korea, Assessment, 169 pp.
Sustainable Development of the 53 pp.
Seas of East Asia — Sustainable
Development Strategy for the
Seas of East Asia, 111 pp.
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Now Online
Cambodia
A
The web-based capability of IIMS was successfully tested by PEMSEA’s IIMS Regional Implementing Mechanism for the Sustainable
Team and the IIMS Technical Working Group of the Manila Bay Development Strategy for the Seas of East Asia (SDS-
Environmental Management Project (MBEMP) during field trials that ran SEA) submitted by the Working Group;
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from 1-7 March. The MBEMP PMO, its Site Management Offices (SMOs) and • Secure country support for the transformation of the
the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) of the Philippine Department Regional Programme Office into a country-supported
of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) served as test sites. PEMSEA Resource Facility;
P
PEMSEA is now working on linking IIMS among sites in the East Asian
region, to facilitate the sharing of information – this time on a regional Get monthly news updates on environmental
management in East Asia and on PEMSEA
scale. activities. Visit eupdates.way.to.