The Comma (,) would know why the duck scared your friend.

Clauses that begin

a. The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to: with "that" are usually essential to the sentence and do not require
pause before proceeding commas.
add a phrase that does not contain any new subject 4. Use commas to separate items in a series.
separate items on a list For example, "I saw a duck, a magician, and a liquor store when I
went running."
use more than one adjective (a describing word, like
That last comma, known as the serial comma, Oxford comma, or
beautiful)
Harvard comma, causes serious controversy. Although many
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause
consider it unnecessary, others, including Business Insider, insist on
between the commas gives us more information behind the actions
its use to reduce ambiguity.
of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
There's an Internet meme that demonstrates its necessity perfectly.
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly
The sentence, "We invited the strippers, JFK, and Stalin," means the
towards the opening door.
speaker sent three separate invitations: one to some strippers, one
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence
to JFK, and one to Stalin. The version without the Oxford comma,
would still make sense although there would be a loss of
however, takes on an entirely different meaning, potentially
information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:
suggesting that only one invitation was sent to two strippers
The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his
named JFK and Stalin. Witness: "We invited the strippers, JFK and
mother was about to arrive.
Stalin."
5. Use a comma after introductory adverbs.
B. Commas are also used to separate items in a list.
"Finally, I went running."
For example:
"Unsurprisingly, I saw a duck when I went running."
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit,
Many adverbs end in "ly" and answer the question "how?" How did
vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of milk.
someone do something? How did something happen? Adverbs that
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word and
don't end in "ly," such as "when" or "while," usually introduce a
rather than by a comma.
dependent clause, which rule number two in this post already
Commas are used to separate adjectives.
covered.
For example:
Also insert a comma when "however" starts a sentence, too. Phrases
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his
like "on the other hand" and "furthermore" also fall into this
summer holiday.
category.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your
Starting a sentence with "however," however, is discouraged by
writing out loud and listen to where you make natural pauses as you
many careful writers. A better method would be to use "however"
read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma
within a sentence after the phrase you want to negate, as in the
should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the rules of where a
previous sentence.
comma needs to be placed should also be followed.
6. Use a comma when attributing quotes.
For example:
The rule for where the comma goes, however, depends on where
However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
attribution comes.
If attribution comes before the quote, place the comma outside the
1. Use a comma before any coordinating conjunction (and, but, for,
quotations marks. The runner said, "I saw a duck."
or, nor, so, yet) that links two independent clauses.
If attribution comes after the quote, put the comma inside the
Example: "I went running, and I saw a duck."
quotation marks. "I saw a duck," said the runner.
You may need to learn a few grammatical terms to understand this
7. Use a comma to separate each element in an address. Also use a
one.
comma after a city-state combination within a sentence.
An independent clause is a unit of grammatical organization that
"I work at 257 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10010."
includes both a subject and verb and can stand on its own as a
"Cleveland, Ohio, is a great city."
sentence. In the previous example, "I went running" and "I saw a
8. Also use a comma to separate the elements in a full date
duck" are both independent clauses, and "and" is the coordinating
(weekday, month and day, and year). Also separate a combination
conjunction that connects them. Consequently, we insert a comma.
of those elements from the rest of the sentence with commas.
If we were to eliminate the second "I" from that example, the
"March 15, 2013, was a strange day." Even if you add a weekday,
second clause would lack a subject, making it not a clause at all. In
keep the comma after "2013."
that case, it would no longer need a comma: "I went running and
"Friday, March 15, 2013, was a strange day."
saw a duck."
"Friday, March 15, was a strange day."
2. Use a comma after a dependent clause that starts a sentence.
You don't need to add a comma when the sentence mentions only
Example: "When I went running, I saw a duck."
the month and year. "March 2013 was a strange month."
A dependent clause is a grammatical unit that contains both subject
9. Use a comma when the first word of the sentence is
and verb but cannot stand on its own, like "When I went running ..."
freestanding "yes" or "no."
Commas always follow these clauses at the start of a sentence. If a
"Yes, I saw a duck when I went running."
dependent clause ends the sentence, however, it no longer requires
"No, the duck didn't bite me."
a comma. Only use a comma to separate a dependent clause at the
10. Use a comma when directly addressing someone or something
end of a sentence for added emphasis, usually when negation
in a sentence.
occurs.
My editor often asks, "Christina, is that article up yet?"
3. Use commas to offset appositives from the rest of the sentence.
Another clever meme shows the problem with incorrect placement
Appositives act as synonyms for a juxtaposed word or phrase. For
of this comma. "Stop clubbing baby seals" reads like an order to
example, "While running, I saw a mallard, a kind of duck." "A kind of
desist harming infant mammals of the seal variety. The version with
duck" is the appositive, which gives more information about "a
a comma, however, instructs them to stop attending hip dance
mallard."
clubs. "Stop clubbing, baby seals."
If the appositive occurs in the middle of the sentence, both sides of
11. Use a comma between two adjectives that modify the same
the phrase need a comma. As in, "A mallard, a kind of duck, attacked
noun.
me."
For example: "I saw the big, mean duck when I went running."
Don't let the length of an appositive scare you. As long as the phrase
Only coordinate adjectives require a comma between them. Two
somehow gives more information about its predecessor, you usually
adjectives are coordinate if you can answer yes to both of these
need a comma.
questions: 1. Does the sentence still make sense if you reverse the
"A mallard, the kind of duck I saw when I went running, attacked
order of the words? 2. Does the sentence still make sense if you
me."
insert "and" between the words?
There's one exception to this rule. Don't offset a phrase that gives
Since "I saw the mean, big duck " and "I saw the big and mean duck"
necessary information to the sentence. Usually, commas surround a
both sound fine, you need the comma.
non-essential clause or phrase. For example, "The duck that
Sentences with non-coordinate adjectives, however, don't require a
attacked me scared my friend" doesn't require any commas. Even
comma. For example, "I lay under the powerful summer sun."
though the phrase "that attacked me" describes "the duck," it
"Powerful" describes "summer sun" as a whole phrase. This often
provides essential information to the sentence. Otherwise, no one
occurs with adjunct nouns, a phrase where a noun acts as an
adjective describing another noun like "chicken soup" or "dance
club."
12. Use a comma to offset negation in a sentence.
For example: "I saw a duck, not a baby seal, when I went running."
In this case, you still need the comma if the negation occurs at the
end of the sentence. "I saw a baby seal, not a duck."
Also use commas when any distinct shift occurs in the sentence or
thought process. "The cloud looked like an animal, perhaps a baby
seal."
13. Use commas before every sequence of three numbers when
writing a number larger than 999. (Two exceptions are writing
years and house numbers.)
For example, 10,000 or 1,304,687.
Using Semicolons
Semicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style
mark stronger than a comma is needed. By using semicolons
effectively, you can make your writing sound more sophisticated.
Connect closely related ideas
Link two independent clauses to connect closely related
ideas
Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen
or pencil.
Link clauses connected by conjunctive
adverbs or transitional phrases to connect closely related
ideas
But however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their
own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing
methods.
Link lists where the items contain commas to avoid
confusion between list items
There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is
inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which
is more expensive but quick and neat.
Link lengthy clauses or clauses with commas to avoid
confusion between clauses
Some people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a
computer; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a
pen or pencil.
Rules for Using Semicolons
A semicolon is most commonly used to link (in a single
sentence) twoindependent clauses that are closely related
in thought.
When a semicolon is used to join two or more ideas (parts) in a
sentence, those ideas are then given equal position or rank.
Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen
or pencil.
Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that
are connected by conjunctive adverbs or transitional
phrases.
But however they choose to write, people are allowed to make their
own decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing
methods.
Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if any of
the items contain commas.
There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is
inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which
is more expensive but quick and neat.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by
a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are already
punctuated with commas or if the clauses are lengthy.
Some people write with a word processor, typewriter, or a
computer; but others, for different reasons, choose to write with a
pen or pencil.
Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed:
Incorrect: The cow is brown, it is also old.
Correct: The cow is brown; it is also old.
What's going on here? Both parts of the sentence are independent
clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent
clauses if there is no coordinating conjunction. This mistake is
known as a comma splice.
Incorrect: I like cows, however, I hate the way they smell.
Correct: I like cows; however, I hate the way they smell.
What's going on here? The conjunctive adverb however signals a
connection between two independent clauses, and commas
should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is
no coordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good, they give
us beef, which also tastes good, and they give us leather, which is
used for shoes and coats.
Correct: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good; they give
us beef, which also tastes good; and they give us leather, which is
used for shoes and coats.
What's going on here? It's unclear what the three list items are,
since the items are separated by commas.
Incorrect: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane
in recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this planet,
domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we humans pass
tumultuously by.
Correct: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in
recent millenia, are still one of the great species of this
planet; domesticated, yet proud, they ruminate silently as we
humans pass tumultuously by.
What's going on here? It's unclear where the first independent
clause ends and the second independent clause begins.
Avoid using a semicolon when a comma is needed:
Incorrect: Because cows smell; they offend me.
Correct: Because cows smell, they offend me.
Colon
A colon introduces an element or series of elements that illustrates
or amplifies the information that preceded the colon. While a
semicolon normally joins two independent clauses to signal a close
connection between them, a colon does the job of directing you to
the information following it.
Many people are confused about using colons, but their function is
actually quite straightforward. Think of it as a flashing arrow that
points to the information following it. When a colon appears in a
sentence, it usually gives the silent impression of as follows,
which is/are, or thus.
There are three types of muscle in the body: cardiac, smooth, and
skeletal.
The colon in this sentence signals that you are about to learn the
names of the three types of muscles the sentence already
mentioned. We might silently read the sentence this way.
There are three types of muscle in the body (and they are): cardiac,
smooth, and skeletal.
Colons are often used with lists, as in the example above. They can
also be used to signal further clarification.
We have two options here: stay and fight, or run like the wind.
One might silently read this as:
We have two options here (and they are as follows): stay and fight,
or run like the wind.
Colons can also introduce a quotation:
He ended with the immortal words of Neil Young: Rock and Roll can
never die.
Colons Separating Independent Clauses
A colon can be used to separate two independent clauses when a)
the second clause is directly related to the first clause (not just
vaguely related) and b) when the emphasis is on the second clause.
While you can also use a semicolon or a period between two
independent-yet-related clauses, the colon is a little softer than the
period, but a little harder than the semicolon.
A dolphin is not fish: it is a warm-blooded mammal.
The research is conclusive: climate change is a reality.
In British English, the word following a colon is not capitalized unless
it is a proper noun or an acronym. In American English, styles differ,
but it is best to capitalize the first word after a colon if what follows
forms two or more complete sentences.
I have several plans for my immediate future: First, Im going to win
the lottery. Second, Im going to buy a unicorn. Third, I will marry
Brad Pitt.
Misuse of Colons
A colon should not separate a noun from its verb, a verb from its
object or subject complement, a preposition from its object, or a
subject from its predicate.
To illustrate, here is one of our sentences from above rewritten
incorrectly.
The three types of muscle in the body are: cardiac, smooth, and
skeletal.
Putting the colon here separates the verb are from its subject
complements (cardiac, smooth, and skeletal).
When I graduate, I want to go to: Rome, Israel, and Egypt.
The colon should be removed from this sentence because it
separates the preposition to from its objects (Rome, Israel, and
Egypt). To write this sentence correctly, the colon should be
removed.
When I graduate, I want to go to Rome, Israel, and Egypt.
How to Use Quotation Marks
Summary:
A rundown of the general rules of when and where to use quotation
marks.
Contributors:Sean M. Conrey, Mark Pepper, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2013-04-18 08:14:53
Using Quotation Marks
The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent
exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from
somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech
acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use
them when working with outside sources, successful use of
quotation marks is a practical defense against accidental plagiarism
and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The following rules of
quotation mark use are the standard in the United States, although
it may be of interest that usage rules for this punctuation do vary in
other countries.
The following covers the basic use of quotation marks. For details
and exceptions consult the separate sections of this guide.
Direct Quotations
Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact
words into your own writing.
Indirect quotations are not exact wordings but rather rephrasings or
summaries of another person's words. In this case, it is not
necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still
require proper citations, and you will be commiting plagiarism if you
fail to do so.
Mr. Johnson, a local farmer, reported last night that he saw an alien
spaceship on his own property.
Many writers struggle with when to use direct quotations versus
indirect quotations. Use the following tips to guide you in your
choice.
Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that
is particularly striking or notable. Do not rob such language of its
power by altering it.
Martin Luther King Jr. believed that the end of slavery was important
and of great hope to millions of slaves done horribly wrong.
The above should never stand in for:
Martin Luther King Jr. said of the Emancipation Proclamation, "This
momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions
of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering
injustice."
Use an indirect quotation (or paraphrase) when you merely need to
summarize key incidents or details of the text.
Use direct quotations when the author you are quoting has coined a
term unique to her or his research and relevant within your own
paper.
When to use direct quotes versus indirect quotes is ultimately a
choice you'll learn a feeling for with experience. However, always try
to have a sense for why you've chosen your quote. In other words,
never put quotes in your paper simply because your teacher says,
"You must use quotes."

1. Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation

and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material.

2. Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted

material is a complete sentence.

Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The
alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
3. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment
or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.

Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he

stated that the spaceship "certainly takes the cake" when it comes
to unexplainable activity.
4. If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize
the second part of the quotation.

"I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure
wish I had."
5. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma
punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is
important to realize also that when you are using MLA or some
other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should

transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert
the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in
brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just
as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact
reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.

Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "It's made me reconsider the

existence of extraterestials [sic]."
6. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep
them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will
get you accused of not producing original thought or material (they
may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU have
to say on the subject).

Indirect Quotations