MAT093

PUSAT ASASI
UiTM PUNCAK ALAM
JUNE 2013

CHAPTER 8 EVENTS AND PROBABILITY

Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of this chapter, readers should be able to:
1. Determine the probability of events.
2. Determine the probability using the probability rules.
3. Differentiate between independent and conditional events; and determine the
probability.
4. Find the probability from counting rules.
5. Determine the probability of permutation or combination situation.

8.1 PROBABILITY OF EVENTS

Basic Concepts
Probability in general can be defined as the chance of an event occurring. Probability theory
is used in the field of insurance, investments, weather forecasting and various other areas.

Probability: A value between zero and one, inclusive, describing the relative possibility
(chance or likelihood) an event will occur.

Key words used in the study of probability:

A probability experiments is a process involving chance that leads to one of the several
outcomes.

Example: tossing coin, rolling dice and testing a product for defects

An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment

A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment. The sample
space is denoted by S. The individual outcomes in a sample space are called sample points.
n(S) is the number of sample points in sample space.

Example:
Experiment: toss one coin
Possible out come: head(H), tail(T).
Sample space: {H,T}

Example 1
Given the following experiments
(a) Rolling a die once
(b) Taking a driving test
(c) Tossing a coin twice

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Determine the outcomes of each experiment and state their respective sample space.

Solution:
Experiment Outcomes Sample Space
a) Rolling a die once 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b) Taking a driving test Pass, Fail S = {Pass, Fail}
c) Tossing a coin twice HT, HH, TT, TH S = {HT, HH, TT, TH}

Example 2
Find the sample space for rolling two dice.

Solution
S = {(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)}

An event consists of a set of outcomes of a probability experiment. An event is a subset of a

sample space.

Example:
Experiment: rolling a die once.
Possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Event of getting an odd numbers: {1, 3, 5}

Example 3
A box contains a certain number of computer parts, a few of which are defective. Two parts
are selected at random from the box and inspected to determine if they are good or
defective. List all the outcomes in each of the following events:
(i) exactly one part is defective,
(ii) the first part is good and the second one is defective,
(iii) at least one part is good.

Solution:
G = Good
D = Defective

1st part 2nd part

G
G
D
Box
G
D
D

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 (i) GD, DG
(ii) GD
(iii) GG, GD, DG

Tree Diagram:
A tree diagram is a device consisting of line segments emanating from a starting point and
also from the outcome point. It is used to determine the outcomes of a probability event.

Example 4
(a) Use a tree diagram to find the sample space for the gender of three children in a
family. Use B for boys and G for girl.
(b) A bag contains 3 blue balls, 4 yellow balls and 3 red balls. Draw a tree diagram for
the experiment of choosing two balls from the bag.

Solution:
a)
B
B G
B B
G
G n(S) = 8
B
B G
G B
G
G
S = { BBB , BBG , BGB , BGG, GBB , GBG , GGB , GGG }

b) B
B R
Y
B
Box R R choosing two balls
Y
B
Y R
Y

S = { BB, BR, BY, RB, RR, RY, YB, YR, YY }

n(S) = 9

8.2 RULES OF PROBABILITY: COMPLEMENTARY RULE, ADDITION RULE

The probability of an event may be obtained in 3 different ways: (1) theoretically (classical),
(2) empirically, and (3) subjectively.

Classical Probability:
The classical definition applies when there are n equally likely outcomes.

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 Number of outcomes in event E
Probability of any event E =
Total number of outcomes in sample space
n(E)
The probability is denoted by P(E) =
n(S)
Example 5
(a) Find the probability of obtaining a head for one toss of coin.
(b) Find the probability of obtaining an even number in one roll of a die.

Solution:

a) S = {H,T} ; E = {H}
n(S) = 2 n(E) = 1
n(E ) 1
P(E) = =
n(S ) 2

b) S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} ; E = {2,4,6}
n(S) = 6 n(E) = 3

n(E ) 3 1
P(E) = =
n(S ) 6 2

Example 6
(a) A club has 100 members, 60 men and 40 women. Suppose one of these members is
randomly selected to be president of the club. What is the probability that a woman is
selected?
(b) Ten cards labelled A, B,, J are placed inside a bag. If one card is drawn at random,
what is the probability that it is a vowel card?

Solution:

a)
M = 60
100 W is selected
W = 40

n(S) = 100
n(E) = 40

n(E ) 40 2
P(E) = =
n(S ) 100 5

b) S = { A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J } , E ={ A, E, I }
n(S) = 10 n(E) = 3

n(E ) 3
P(E) = =
n(S ) 10

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Example 7
(a) If a family has three children, find the probability that all children are girls.
(b) A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability of getting at least one tail?

Solution:
a) S = {GGG, GGB, GBG, GBB, BGG, BGB, BBG, BBB}
E = {GGG}
n(S) = 8 , n(E) = 1

n(E ) 1
P(E) = =
n(S ) 8

b) S = {HH, TT, HT, TH} ; E = {TT, TH, HT}

n(S) = 4 , n(E) = 3

n(E ) 3
P(E) = =
n(S ) 4

Empirical Concept:
The empirical definition applies when the number of times the event happens is divided by
the number of observations.

frequency for the class f

Probability of event happening =
total frequencie s n

Note that relative frequencies are not probabilities but approximate probabilities.

Laws of Large Numbers: If an experiment is repeated again and again, the probability of
an event obtained from relative frequency approaches the actual or theoretical probability.

Example 8
New England Commuter Airways recently supplied the following information on their
commuter flights from Boston to New York:

Arrival Early On time Late Cancelled Total

Frequency 100 800 75 25 1000

If A is the event that a flight arrives early, and B is the event that a flight arrives late, find
P(A) and P(B).

Solution:

frequency for the class 100 1

P (A) =
total frequencies 1000 10

frequency for the class 75 3

P (B) =
total frequencies 1000 40

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Example 9
In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had type A blood, 5 had type B blood and
2 had type AB blood. Set a frequency distribution and find the following probability:
(a) a person has Type O blood (b) A person has type AB blood

Solution:

frequency for the class 21

a) P (O) =
total frequencies 50
frequency for the class 2
b) P (AB) =
total frequencies 50

Subjective probability

Subjective probability is based on whatever information is available. Subjective probability

assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely to occur.

Rules of Probability
In order to investigate the rules of probabilities, we will consider the situation in the classical
definition - that of a finite probability space with equally likely outcomes. However, the
results apply in general and will be used in other situations in the problems.

Probability Rule 1
The probability of any event E is a number between and including 0 and 1. This is denoted
by 0 P(E) 1

Let the number of sample points in the probability space be n, so that n(S) =n. Let the event
E have r sample points, so that n(E) = r.

n(E ) r
P(E) = =
n(S ) n
r
Now, since E S, 0 r n, i.e 0 1
n
Hence, 0 P(E) 1

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Probability Rule 2
If an event E cannot occur (i.e. the event contains no member in the sample space), its
probability is zero.

In other words, if P (E) = 0 then the event cannot possibly occur.

Probability Rule 3
If an event E is certain to occur, then the probability of E is one.
In other words, if P (E) = 1 then the event is certain to occur.

Probability Rule 4
The sum of probabilities of the outcomes in the sample space is one.

Complementary Events: The complementary of event A with respect to S is the set of all
elements of S that are not in A. The complementary of event A is denoted by A or A .

A
A

Rules for Complementary Event

If P(E) is the probability of event E and E is the complement of E,

P(E) + P(E) = 1 or P(E) = 1 - P(E) or P(E) = 1 - P(E)

Let E' denote the event E does not occur,

n(E' ) n r r
Now P(E) = = = 1- = 1 P(E)
n(S ) n n
Therefore, P(E') = 1- P(E) or P(E) + P(E') = 1

Example 10
If the probability that a person lives in an industrialized country of the world is 1/5, find the
probability that a person does not live in an industrialized country.

Solution:
Let E = person lives in an industrialized country
P (E) = 1/5
P (E') = 1- P(E) = 1 1/5 = 4/5

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Example 11
(a) The probability that an adult reads a newspaper every day is 0.65. What is the
complementary event? What is the probability of this complementary event?
(b) The probability that a student is late for school is 1/5 for each day. What is the
probability that the student is not late for school?

Solution:

a) The complementary event is an adult does not read a newspaper every day.
E' = an adult does not read a newspaper every day.
P (E) = 0.65
P (E') = 1- P(E) = 1 0.65 = 0.35

b) E' = student is not late for school.

P (E) = 1/5
P(E') = 1- P(E) = 1 1/5 = 4/5

Union of events: The union of events A and B consists of all elements that are in A or B or
both. It is denoted by

A or B OR AB

A B

Intersection Events:: The intersection of events A and B is the event that occurs when
both A and B occur. It is denoted by

A and B OR A B

A B

The Additional Rules for Probability

Additional Rule 1
If A and B are any two events of the same experiment such that P(A) 0, and
P(B) 0 , then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

Writing the result in set notation we have

P(A B) = P(A) +P(B) - P(A B)

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Example 12
Events A and B are such that
(a) P(A) = 0.3 , P(B) = 0.45 and P(A B) = 0.58 .Find P(A B).
(b) P(A) = 4/5 , P(B) = 3/10 and P(A B) = 1/10 .Find P(A B).

Solution:

a) P(A B) = P(A) +P(B) P(A B)

= 0.3 + 0.45 0.58
= 0.17

b) P(A B) = P(A) +P(B) P(A B)

= 4/5 + 3/10 1/10 = 1

Example 13
For the sample space S it is given that: P(A) =0.5, P( A B ) = 0.6 , P(A B) = 0.2. Find
(a) P(B) (b) P(A B) (c) P(A B) (d) P(A B) (e) P( A B )

Solution:

a) P(B) = P(A B) P(A) + P(A B) = 0.6 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.3

b) P(A B) = P(B) P(A B) = 0.3 0.2 = 0.1

c) P(A B) = P(A) P(A B) = 0.5 0.2 = 0.3

d) P(A B) = P(A B)' = 1 P(A B) = 1 0.6 = 0.4

e) P( A B ) = P(A B)' = 1 P(A B) = 1 0.2 = 0.8

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Example 14
A coin and a die are thrown together. Draw a possibility space diagram and find the
probability of obtaining
a) a tail, b) a number greater than 2,
c) a tail and a number greater than 2, d) a tail or a number greater than 2.

Solution:
die
6 T: tail
5 H: head
4 N: no. > 2
3
2
1
0 coin
H T
S = { 1H, 1T, 2H, 2T, 3H, 3T, 4H, 4T, 5H, 5T, 6H, 6T }
n(S) = 12
a) A = obtaining a tail
A = { 1T, 2T, 3T, 4T, 5T, 6T}
n(A) = 6
n( A ) 6 1
P(A) = =
n(S) 12 2

b) B = obtaining a number greater than 2

B = {3T, 3H, 4T, 4H, 5T, 5H, 6T, 6H }
n(B) = 8
n(B) 8 2
P(B) = =
n(S) 12 3

c) C = obtaining a tail and a number greater than 2

C = { 3T, 4T, 5T, 6T }
n(C) = 4
n(C) 4 1
P(C) = =
n(S) 12 3

d) P(TN) = 4/12
P(TN) = P(T) + P(N) P(TN) = 6/12 + 8/12 4/12 = 5/6
or
D = obtaining a tail or a number greater than 2
D = { 1T, 2T, 3H, 3T, 4H, 4T, 5H, 5T, 6H, 6T }
n(D) = 10
n(D) 10 5
P(D) = =
n(S) 12 6

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Example 15
A total of 655 persons have multiple jobs in a city. Among them, 381 are male, 299 are
married, and 168 are male and married. Find the probability that a randomly selected person
with multiple jobs is a male or married.

Solution:
B: male is selected
M: the person selected is married

Total - 655 , boy - 381 , married - 299 , male and married -168
n(S) = 655 , n(B) = 381 , n(M) = 299 , n(BM) = 168

P(B) = 381/655 , P(M) = 299/655 , P(BM) = 168/655

P(BM) = P(B) + P(M) P(BM) = 381/655 + 299/655 168/655 = 512/655

8.3 MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events A and B are mutually exclusive or disjoint if
A B = , where denotes the empty set. This means that events A and B have no
common element, or events A and B cannot occur together.

A B

Example 16
Determine which events are mutually exclusive and which are not when a single die is
rolled.

(a) Getting an odd number and getting an even number.

(b) Getting a 1 and getting an odd number.
(c) Getting an odd number and getting a number less than 5.
(d) Getting a number greater than 3 and getting a number less than 3.

Solution:

(a) A = getting an odd number

B = getting an even number
A = { 1, 3, 5 }
B = { 2, 4, 6 }
AB=
Therefore, A and B are mutually exclusive events

(b) C = getting a 1
D = getting an odd number
C ={1}

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 D = { 1, 3, 5 }
CD={1}
Therefore, C and D are not mutually exclusive events

(c) E = getting an odd number

F = getting a number less than 5
E = { 1, 3, 5 }
F = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
E F = { 1, 3 }
Therefore, E and F are not mutually exclusive events

(d) G = getting a number greater than 3

H = getting a number less than 3
G = { 4, 5, 6 }
H = { 1. 2 }
GH=
Therefore, G and H are mutually exclusive events

Additional Rule 2
If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the probability of A or B occurring
equals the sum of their respective probabilities:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Note: Additional Rule 1 can also be used when the events are mutually exclusive, since
P(A and B) will always equal 0 i.e. P(A B) = 0. However, it is important to make a
distinction between the two situations.

Example 17
A machine fills plastic bags with a mixture of beans, broccoli and other vegetables. Most of
the bags contain the correct weight, but because of the size of the beans and other
vegetables, a package might be slightly overweight or underweight. The probability that a
particular package will be overweight, satisfactory, underweight is 0.025, 0.9 and 0.075
respectively; find the probability that a particular package will be either underweight or
overweight.

Solution:
A = package will be overweight , P(A) = 0.025
B = package will be satisfactory , P(B) = 0.9
C = package will be underweight , P(C) = 0.075

P(CA) = 0 P(C A) = P(C) + P(A) P(CA)

= 0.075 + 0.025 0
= 0.1

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EXERCISE 8.1

1. A die is rolled once. What is the probability that

(a) number less than 5 is obtained ? (Ans: 2/3)
(b) a number 3 to 6 is obtained? (Ans: 2/3)

2. In a group of 50 executives, 29 have a type A personality. If one executive is

selected at random from this group, what is the probability that this executive has a
type A personality? (Ans: 0.58)

3. Out of the 3000 families who live in an apartment complex in New York City, 600
paid no income tax last year. What is the probability that a randomly selected family
from these 3000 families paid income tax last year? (Ans: 4/5)

4. A hat contains 40 marbles. Of them, 18 are red and 22 are green. If one marble is
randomly selected out of this hat, what is the probability that this marble is
(a) red (b) green? (Ans: 9/20, 11/20)

5. A researcher asked 25 people if they like the taste of a new soft drink, the results
were categorized in a frequency distribution as follows:

Response Yes No Undecided Total

Frequency 15 8 2 25

(a) Find the probability of selecting a person who likes the taste.
(b) Find the probability of selecting a person who responded no.

6. A sales representative who visits customers at home finds she sells 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4

items according to the following frequency distribution.

Items sold Frequency

0 8
1 10
2 3
4 1
Find the probability that she sells the following.
(a) Exactly one item (Ans: 5/11)
(b) More than two items (Ans: 1/22)
(c) At least one item (Ans: 7/11)
(d) At Most three items (Ans: 21/22)

7. The following distribution represents the length of time a patient spends in a hospital.
Days Frequency
0-- 3 2
4 --7 15
8 --11 8
12 --15 6
16 + 9

If a patient is selected, find these probabilities.

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 (a) The patient spends 3 days or less, in the hospital. (Ans: 1/20)
(b) The patient spends less than 8 days in the hospital. (Ans: 17/40)
(c) The patient spends 16 or more days in the hospital. (Ans: 9/40)
(d) The patient spends a maximum of 11 days in the hospital.(Ans: 5/8)

8. The probability of a student getting an A grade in an economics class is 0.24 and

that of getting a B grade is 0.28. What is the probability that a randomly selected
student from this class will get an A or a B in this class? Explain why this probability
is not equal to 1.0. (Ans: 0.52)

9. The probability that a family owns a washing machine is 0.68 that it owns a VCR is
0.81, and that it owns both a washing machine and a VCR is 0.58. What is the
probability that a randomly selected family owns a washing machine or a VCR. (Ans:
0.91)

10. The probability that a person has a checking account is 0.74; a savings account is
0.31, and both accounts is 0.22. Find the probability that a randomly selected person
has a checking or a savings account. (Ans: 0.83)

11. A statistical experiment has eight equally likely outcomes that are denoted by 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. Let event A = {2, 5, 7} and event B = {2, 4, 8 }

(a) Are events A and B mutually exclusive events? (Ans: No.)

(b) What are the complements of events A and B, respectively, and their
probabilities? (Ans: 5/8, 5/8)

12. For the events A and B it is known that P(A) = 2/3, P(A B) = 7/12 and P(A B) =
5/12. Find P(B). (Ans: 1/3)

13. Two ordinary dice are thrown. Find the probability of

(a) getting a total of 8, (Ans.5/36)
(b) getting at most a total of 5, (Ans 5/18)
(c) getting a 1,2,3,or 4 on the first toss and 4, 5 or 6 on the second toss (Ans 1/3)
(d) not getting a total of 6 or 11 on the two tosses of the dice.( Ans 29/36)

14. Given that P(A') = 2/3, P(B) = 1/2, and P( A B) = 1/12, find P(A B). (Ans 3/4)

For the sample space it is given that P( A B)=3/7, P( A B) = 2/7,

P( A B)=1/7, find P( A B), P(A) and P(B).(Ans: 1/7, 3/7, 4/7)

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8.4 INDEPENDENT AND CONDITIONAL EVENTS

Conditional Probability
If A and B are two events and P(A) 0, and P(B) 0, then the probability of A, given that B
P(A B)
has already occurred is written P(A B) and P(A B) =
P(B)
The result is often written P(A B) = P(A B).P(B)

Note: If A and B are mutually exclusive events then, as P(A B) = 0 and P(B) 0 , it follows
that P(A B) = 0

Example 18
When a die is thrown, an odd number occurs. What is the probability that the number is
prime?

Solution:

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A = odd number occurred A : {1 , 3 , 5} A B = {3 , 5}
B = prime number occurred B : {2 , 3 , 5}

P( A B) 2 / 6 2
P(B|A) =
P( A ) 3/6 3

Example 19
Two tetrahedral dice, with faces labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4, are thrown and the number on which
each land is noted. The 'score' is the sum of these two numbers. Find the probability that
a) the score is even, given that at least one die lands on a 3,
b) at least one die lands on a 3, given that the score is even.

Solution:

S = { (1 1) , (1 2) , (1 3) , (1 4)
(2 1) , (2 2) , (2 3) , (2 4)
(3 1) , (3 2) , (3 3) , (3 4)
(4 1) , (4 2) , (4 3) , (4 4) }

n(S) = 16

A = Score is even
= { (1 1) (1 3) (2 2) (2 4) (3 1) (3 3) (4 2) (4 4) } , n(A) = 8

B = At least one die lands on a 3

= { (1 3) (2 3) (3 1) (3 2) (3 3) (3 4) (4 3) } , n(B) = 7

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n(A B) = 3
P( A B) 3 / 16 3
a) P(A|B) =
P(B) 7 / 16 7
P( A B) 3 / 16 3
b) P(B|A) =
P( A ) 8 / 16 8

Example 20
The probability that a worker in company X gets a pay increase is 0.7, the probability that he
gets a job promotion is 0.5 and the probability that he gets both is 0.3.

(a) Pn. Zubaidah has been given a pay increase. What is the probability that she is
getting a job promotion?

(b) Mr. Ravi has been promoted. What is the probability that he is also getting a pay
rise?

Solution:

A = Pay increase P(A) = 0.7

B = Job promotion P(B) = 0.5
P(A B) = 0.3

P( A B) 0.3
a) P(B|A) = 0.43
P( A ) 0.7
P( A B) 0.3
b) P(A|B) = 0.6
P(B) 0 .5

Example 21
The table below shows the salaries of the employees of a factory.

Less than RM500 RM500 to less than RM1000 RM1000 or more

Male 30 35 40
Female 25 20 50

An employee is selected at random from this factory. Find the probability that this employee
(a) earns a salary less than RM1000,
(b) is a male given that this employee earns a salary of at least RM1000.

Solution:

A B C
Less than RM500 to less than RM1000 or more Total
RM500 RM1000
Male, M n(M A) = 30 n(M B) = 35 n(M C) = 40 n(M) = 105
Female, F n(F A) = 25 n(F B) = 20 n(F C) = 50 n(F) = 95
Total n(A) = 55 n(B) = 55 n(C) = 90 n(S) = 200

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a) D = employee who earns a salary less than RM1000 :
n( A ) n(B) 55 55 110 11
P(D) = = 0.55
n(S) 200 200 20

40
P(MC) 4
b) P(M|C) = 200 0.44
P(C) 90 9
200

The Multiplication Rules

The multiplication rules can be used to find the probability of two or more events that occur
in sequence.

Dependent event: When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the
outcome or occurrence of the second event in such a way that the probability is changed,
the events are said to be dependent event.

Multiplication Rule 1:
When two events are dependent, the probability of both occurring is
P(A B) = P(A B).P(B)

Example 22
The World Wide Insurance Company found that 53% of the residents of a city had
homeowners insurance with the company. Of these clients, 27% also had automobile
insurance with the company. If a resident is selected at random, find the probability that the
resident has both homeowners and automobile insurance with the World Wide Insurance
Company

Solution:

53% of the residents of a city had homeowners insurance

27% also had automobile insurance

H = residents had homeowners insurance

A = residents had automobile insurance

P(H) = 53/100 P(A|H) = 27/100

P(A H) = P( A|H ) . P(H)
= (27 / 100 ) (53/100)
= 0.1431

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Independent Events: When the occurrence or non-occurrence of an event A does not
influence in any way the probability of an event B occurring, the event B is said to be
independent of A and P(B A) = P(B). Similarly, P (A B) = P(A) .

Multiplication Rule 2:
When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is
P(A B) = P(A).P(B)

Example 23
A bag contains 3 red marbles, 4 black marbles and 5 white marbles. A marble is drawn at
random from the bag, the colour is noted and the marble is replaced. A second marble is
drawn. Find the probability that the first marble is red and the second marble is black.

Solution:

Bag contains 3 red marbles n(R) = 3 P(R) = 3/12

4 black marbles n(B) = 4 P(B) = 4/12
5 white marbles n(W) = 5 P(W) = 5/12
Total = 12 = n(S)

P(R1 B2) = ( 3/12 ) ( 4/12 )

= 1/12

Example 24
Three patients have flu and are given the same medicine. If the probability of a patient get
well after taking the medicine is 0.6, what is the probability that
(a) all three patients still have flu after taking the medicine?
(b) At least one patient still have flu after taking the medicine

Solution:

A = Patient get well , P(A) = 0.6

A' = Patient still have flu , P(A') = 1 0.6 = 0.4

0.6 A

A 0.4 A
0.6 0.6 A
A 0.4 A 0.4 A
0.6 A 0.6 A
0.4 0.6 0.4
A 0.4 A
A 0.6 A
0.4
A

18
 a) P(A'1 A'2 A'3) = P(A1)P(A2)P(A3) = (0.4)(0.4)(0.4) = 0.064

b) P(A1 A2 A'3) + P(A1 A'2 A3) + P(A1 A'2 A'3) + P(A'1 A2 A3) +
P(A'1 A2 A'3) + P(A'1 A'2 A3) + P(A'1 A'2 A'3)
= P(A1)P(A2)P(A3) + .
= (0.6)(0.6)(0.4) + (0.6)(0.4)(0.6) + (0.6)(0.4)(0.4) + (0.4)(0.6)(0.6) + (0.4)(0.6)(0.4) +
(0.4)(0.4)(0.6) + (0.4)(0.4)(0.4)
= 0.784

Example 25
A and B are two events in a sample space, S. Given P(A) = 0.8, P(B) = 0.5 and
P(A B) = 0.9.
a) Are A and B mutually exclusive events? Why?
b) Are A and B independent events? Why?
Solution:

a) P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B)

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B)
= 0.8 + 0.5 0.9
= 0.4
Since P(A B) = 0.4 0 , then A and B are not mutually exclusive events.

b) P(A B) = P(A) P(B)

= (0.8)(0.5)
= 0.4

From (a), P(A B) = 0.4 = P(A) P(B) implies A and B are independent events.

Example 26
Two events A and B are such that P(A) = , P(B) = 1/3 , P(A B) = and another event C
is such that P (B C) = ,
(a) Find (i) P(A B) (ii) P(A B) (iii) P( A B )
(b) Given that B and C mutually exclusive, find P(C).
1
(c) Given that P(A C) = and P(A) = 1/2 , are events A and C independent,? Why?
12

Solution:

P(A) = , P(B) = 1/3

P( A B) 1
P( A | B)
P(B) 4

a) (i) P(A B) = P(A|B) P(B) = (1/4)(1/3) = 1/12

(ii) P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B) = 1/2 + 1/3 1/12 = 3/4

19
 ' ' P( A ' B' ) P( A B)' 1P( A B)
(iii) P( A B ) = P( A | B )
P(B' ) 1P(B) 1P(B)
1 3 4
1
3
4
1 13 2 3 8

b) B and C are mutually exclusive P(B C) = 0

P(B C) = P(B) + P(C) P(B C)

1
/2 = 1/3 + P(C) 0
P(C) = 1/2 1/3 = 1/6

c) P(A C) = 1/12
P(A) P(C) = (1/2)( 1/6) = 1/12
Since P(A C) = P(A) P(C),
A and C are independent events

Example 27
Two thousand employees were selected and they were asked whether they have any
retirement benefits provided by the company. Based on the information, the two ways
classification table was prepared.

Have retirement benefits

Yes No
Men 200 600
Women 300 900

a) If one employee were selected at random from these 2000 employees, find the
probability that this employee

i) Is a woman

ii) Has retirement benefits

iii) Has retirement benefits given that the employee is a man

iv) Is a woman given that she does not have retirement benefits.

b) Are the events man and having retirement benefits mutually exclusive?

c) Are the events woman and having retirement benefits independent?

Solution

Have retirement benefits Total

Yes (Y) No (N)
Men (M) n(M Y) = 200 n(M N) = 600 n(M) = 800
Women (W) n(W Y) = 300 n(W N) = 900 n(W) = 1200
Total n(Y) = 500 n(N) = 1500 n(S) = 2000

20
 () 1200 3
a) i) () = ()
= 2000 = 5

() 500 1
ii) () = () = 2000 = 4

(|) 200/2000 1
iii) (|) = ()
= 800/2000 = 4

() 900/2000 3
iv) (|) = ()
= 1500/2000 = 5

() 200 1
b) ( ) = ()
= 2000 = 10 0

the events man and having retirement benefits are not mutually exclusive
1200 500 3
c) ( ) = (). () = 2000 . 2000 = 20

3 3
=
20 20

the events woman and having retirement benefits are independent.

Conditional Probability and Tree Diagrams

A tree diagram can be used to

i) Illustrate the multiplication principle,

ii) Calculate probabilities involving independent events and

iii) Relate conditional probabilities with probabilities of other events.

Tree diagram also used show the probabilities of the outcomes occurring when two or
more outcomes take place in succession. The outcome of the trial is written at the end of
the branch and the probability of the outcome occurring is written on the branch. The
number of possible outcomes of each trial is equal to the number of the last branches.

First trial Second trial

outcome outcome The probabilities of the
outcomes of the first and
second trials
P(A2 |A1)
A2 P(A1 A2)= P(A1) x P(A2 |A1)

P(A1) A1
P(B2 |A1)
B2 P(A1 B2)= P(A1)x P(B2 |A1)

P(B1) P(A2 |B1)

A2 P(B1 A2)= P(B1)x P(A2 |B1)
B1
`
P(B2 |B1) P(B1 B2)= P(B1) x P(B2 |B1)
B2

21
Example 28
Consider a bag containing 8 white marbles and 4 blue marbles. Two marbles are drawn one
after another without replacement. Draw a tree diagram showing the probabilities of all the
possible draws on each branch. Hence find the probability that the marbles are
(a) both blue , (b) of different colors (c), of the same colors.

Solution:

Bag 8 white marbles 12 marbles

4 blue marbles

7 W2 P(W 1W 2) = (8/12)(7/11) = 14/33

P(W2|W1) =
11
W1
8 P(B2|W1) = 4/11
P(W1) =
12
B2 P(W 1 B2) = (8/12)(4/11) = 8/33

W2 P(B1 W 2) = (4/12) (8/11) = 8/33

4 P(W2|B1) = 8/11
P(B1) =
12

B1
P(B2|B1) = 3/11
B2 P(B1 B2) = (4/12) (3/11) = 1/11

P(W 1 W 2) = P(W 1) P(W2|W 1)

= (8/12) (7/11)
= 14/33

P(W 1 B2) = P(W 1) P(B2|W 1)

= (8/12) (4/11)
= 8/33

P(B1 W 2) = P(B1) P(W2|B1)

= (4/12) (8/11)
= 8/33

P(B1 B2) = P(B1) P(B2|B1)

= (4/12) (3/11)
= 1/11

1
a) P(B1 B2) =
11
8 8 16
b) P(B1 W 2) + P(W 1 B2) = + =
33 33 33
1 14 17
c) P(B1 B2) + P(W 1 W 2) = + =
11 33 33

22
Example 29
Among passengers arriving at KLIA, 50% fly on MAS, 30% fly on SIA and 20% fly on other
airlines. For passengers arriving on MAS, 50% are travelling on business, while passengers
arriving on SIA and other airlines, 60% and 90% respectively are travelling for the same
reasons. If a passenger is randomly selected from a group of arrivals, find the probability
that the passenger
(a) is travelling on MAS and on business,
(b) is travelling on business,
(c) is travelling on other airlines given that he is travelling on business.

Solution:
MAS = M, SIA = S , Others = T , B = travelling on business

P(M) = 50/100
P(S) = 30/100
P(T) = 20/100

0.5 B P(M B) = (0.5)(0.5) = 0.25

M
0.5 B' P(M B) = (0.5)(0.5) = 0.25
0.5

0.3 0.6 B P(S B) = (0.3)(0.6) = 0.18

S
0.4 B' P(S B) = (0.3)(0.4) = 0.12
0.2
0.9 B P(T B) = (0.2)(0.9) = 0.18
T
0.1 B' P(T B) = (0.2)(0.1) = 0.02

(a) P(M B) = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25

(b) P(B) = P(M B) + P(S B) + P(T B)

= (0.5 x 0.5) + (0.3 x 0.6) + (0.2 x 0.9)
= 0.25 + 0.18 + 0.18
= 0.61

P(T B) 0 .2 x 0 . 9 0.18
(c) P(T | B) = = = 0.2951
P(B) 0.61 0.61

EXERCISE 8.2

1. Find the joint probability of A and B for the following.

(a) P(A)=0.40 and P(B/A)=0.25 (Ans:0.1)

(b) P(B)=0.65 and P(A/B)=0.36 (Ans:0.234)

23
2. Given that A and B are two independent events, find their joint probability for the
following

(a) P(A) = 0.61 and P(B) = 0.27 (Ans:0.1647)

(b) P(A) = 0.39 and P(B) = 0.63 (Ans:0.2457)

3. Given that A and B are two independent events, find their joint probability for the
following.

(a) P(A) = 0.20 and P(B) = 0.76 (Ans: 0.152)

(b) P(A) = 0.57 and P(B) = 0.32 (Ans: 0.1824)

4. A bag contains 4 red marbles and 6 black marbles. A marble is picked at random
from the bag and not replaced. A second marble is then picked. Find the probability
that
(a) he second marble is red, given that the first marble is red, (Ans:1/3)
(b) both marbles are red, (Ans:2/15)
(c) he marbles are of different colours.( Ans:8/15)

5. Two men fire at a target. The probability that Ali hits the target is 1/2 and the
probability that Badul does not hit the target is 1/3. Ali fires at the target first, then
Badul fires at the target. Find the probability that
(a) both Ali and Badul hit the target, (Ans:1/3)
(b) only one hits the target, (Ans:1/2)
(c) neither hits the target (Ans:1/6)

6. Events A and B are such that P(A) = 2/5, and P(B) = 1/4. If A and B are independent
events, find
(a) P(A B), (b) P(A B'), (c) P(A' B').
(Ans:1/10, 3/10, 1/6)

7. If events A and B are such that they are independent and p(A') = 0.7, P(B) = 0.5,
Find
(a) P(A B), (b) P(A B). (Ans: 0.35, 0.15)

Are events A and B mutually exclusive? (Ans: no.)

8. A and B are two events in a sample space, S. Given P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.7,
find P( A B) when
(a) A and B mutually exclusive events,
(b) A and B independent events.

9. Given P(X) = 1/2, and P(Y) = and that X and Y are mutually exclusive, find
(a) P(X Y)
(b) P(Y X')

24
10. A company has 100 salespersons, 40% of them are males and the rest are females.
Sixteen of the male salespersons are bachelors. From all the female salespersons,
36 are married. A salesperson is selected at random from the company. It is known
that the salespersons selected is single , what is the probability that the salesperson
is male? (Ans: 2/5)

11. In a large shopping mall, a marketing agency conducts a survey on credit cards
ownership. The results are shown in the table:

Employment status Owns a credit card Does not own a credit card
Employed 18 29
Unemployed 28 34

If a person is selected at random, find these probabilities.

(a) The person owns a credit card, given that the person is employed.
(Ans: 18/47)
(b) The person is unemployed, given that the person owns a credit card.
(Ans: 14/23)

12. A firm has 100 employees who have been classified according to sex and marital
status as follows:

Gender Marital Status

Single Married
Female 24 36
Male 16 24

If an employee is selected at random, what is the probability that

a) He/she is single?

b) The person is single knowing that a male employee is selected?

13. In a market survey, 200 respondents are asked whether they prefer perfume brand
AA or brand BB. The results are shown as follows:

Gender Prefer brand AA Prefer brand BB

Male 40 60
Female 20 80
If a respondent is selected at random from the sample, find the probability that the
respondent selected
a) Is a female

b) Is a female who prefers brand BB

c) Is a male if it is known that the respondent selected prefers brand AA.

14. In a group of 10 persons, 4 have a type A personality and 6 have a type B

personality. If 2 persons are selected at random from this group, what is the
probability that the first of them has a type A personality and the second has a type B
personality? (Ans: 4/15)

25
 5 1 7
15. If A and B are two event such that P( A ) = , P( A /B) = and P(A or B) = ,
8 4 8
(a) find
(i) P(B),
(ii) P(A B),
(iii) P(A B),
(iv) P(A/B) (Ans: 1/3,1/12,1/8,13/16)

(b) Are A and B mutually exclusive? (Ans: no)

16. The following table gives the two-way classification of 2000 randomly selected
employees from a city based on gender and commuting time from home to work.

Commuting Time from Home to Work

Less than 30 Minutes 30 Minutes to One Hour More than One Hour
Men 524 455 221
Women 413 263 124

(a) If one employee is selected at random from these 2000 employees, find the
probability that this employee
(i) commutes for more than one hour, (Ans: 0.1725)
(ii) commutes for less than 30 minutes, (Ans: 0.4685)
(iii) is a man given that he commutes for 30 minutes to one hour,
(Ans: 0.6337)
(iv) commutes for more than one hour given the employee is a
woman.(Ans: 0.155)

(b) Are the events "man" and "more than one hour' mutually exclusive? What
about the events less than 30 minutes" and "more than one hour'? Why or
why not?

(c) Are the events "woman" and '30 minutes to one hour" independent? Why or
why not?

17. A factory has a machine shop in which the three machines A, B and C produce 100-
cm aluminium tubes. An inspector is equally likely to sample tubes from machine A
and machine B and three times as likely to select tubes from machine C as from
machine B. The defective rates from the three machines are 10%, 10% and 20%
from machines A, B and C respectively. Calculate the probability that a tube selected
by the inspector is
(a) from machine A , (Ans: 1/5)
(b) defective,(Ans: 4/25)
(c) comes from machine A given that it is defective.(Ans: 1/8)

18. An insurance company classifies drivers as low risk, medium-risk, and high-risk. Of
those insured, 60% are low-risk, 30% are medium-risk, and 10% are high risk. After
a study, the company finds that during one -year period, 1 % of the low-risk drivers
have an. accident, 5% of the medium-risk drivers have an accident, and 9% of the
high-risk drivers have an accident. If a driver is selected at random, find the
probability that the driver will have an accident during the year.(Ans: 0.03)

26
8.5 PROBABILITY AND COUNTING RULES (PERMUTATION AND
COMBINATION)

The fundamental counting rule

In a sequence of n events in which the first one has k 1 possibilities and the second one has
k2 possibilities and the third one has k3 possibilities and so forth, the total number of
possibilities of the sequence will be k1 x k2 x k3 x.x kn (multiplication principle).
Factorial Notation
The factorial notation n! (read as n factorial) is the product of all consecutive positive
integers less than or equal to n. For any counting n; n! = n(n-1)(n-2)..1

n! = n x (n-1)!
1! = 1 x 0! = 1
0! =1

Example 30
A shop stocks T-shirts in 4 sizes: small, medium, large and extra large. They are available in
3 colours: black, green and red. If the sizes are denoted by S, M, L and X, and the colours
by B, G and R, make a list of all the different labels needed to distinguish the T-shirts and
find the number of different labels.

Solution

A list of all the different labels: SB SG SR

MB MG MR
LB LG LR
XB XG XR
The number of different labels: 3 x 4 = 12

OR we can express using tree diagrams.

B
S
R
G

M B
R

G
L
B
R
G
X
B

R 4 x 3 = 12

27
Example 31

A briefcase has a combination lock with 3 wheels, each labelled with digits from 0 to 9. How
many combinations are possible to open the briefcase?

Solution:

First wheel 10 digits

Second wheel 10 digits
Third wheel 10 digits

The number of combinations are 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 combinations.

Permutation
A permutation of a set of n distinct objects is an arrangement of the objects in a specific
order without repetition.

The permutation formula

The total number of different arrangement of r objects selected from a group of n possible
object:
n!
n
Pr
(n r )!

Example 32
A shop has five different printers but there is spare for only 3 printers on the display shelf.
How many arrangements are possible?

Solution:

5! 120
5
P3= 60 or 5 x 4 x 3 = 60
(5 3)! 2

Example 33
How many words consisting of three letters can be formed from the word COMPUTER if
(a) none of the letters can be repeated?
(b) Every letters can only be used once in each word and no word starts with M.

28
Solution:

a) 8 x 7 x 6 = 336 or n=8

n!
n
Pr
(n r )!
8 8!
P3 =
(8 3)!
40320
=
120
= 336
b) 7 7 6

= 7 x 7 x 6 = 294

Permutation of Similar Objects

The number of ways of arranging in a line n objects of which p of one type are alike, q of a
second type are alike, r of a third type are alike, and so on is given by:
n!
p! q! r!..

Example 34
Find the number of arrangements of the following words:
(a) INFINITY (b) CALCULUS

Solution:

a) INFINITY
n=8
Letter N = 2
I=3
The number of arrangements = 8!
2! 3!
= 3360

b) CALCULUS
n=8
Letter C = 2
L=2
U=2

The number of arrangements = 8!

2! 2! 2!
= 5040

29
Example 35
A shopkeeper wishes to arrange 3 identical radios, 4 identical televisions, and 5 identical
amplifiers in a row. Find the number of ways he can make the arrangements.
Solution:
3 radios
n = 12 4 televisions
5 amplifiers
The number of arrangements = 3!12 !
4! 5!
= 27720

Combination
A selection of distinct objects without regard to the order of selection is called a combination.

The combination formula

The total number of ways of selecting r objects from a set of n objects:

n!
n
Cr
r! (n r )!

By using the fundamental counting rule, the permutations rules, and the combination rule,
one can compute the probability of outcomes of many experiments.

Example 36
A bicycle shop owner has 12 mountain bicycles in the showroom. The owner wishes to
select 5 of them to display in a bicycle show. How many ways can a group of five be
selected?
Solution:

12 12! 12!
C5 = = = 792
5!(12 5)! 5! 7!

Example 37
A storeowner receives: nine are model 900s and three are model 600s. If two computers are
sold are random, find the probability that one of each model was sold

Solution:
9 model 900s
n = 12
3 model 600s
2 sold
n(S) = 12 C 2
9 C x 3C
Probability that one of each model sold = 1 1 = 9x3 = 9
12 C 66 22
2

30
Example 38
A committee of 2 males and 4 females is randomly selected from 6 males and 8 females,
find the probability that a particular male and a particular female must be included.

Solution:

m=6 2 males needed, include 1 particular male

f=8 4 females needed, include 1 particular female

= 14 =6

C1 5C11C1 7C3
1
Probability = 6
= 1/6
C2 8C4

Example 39
Four balls are randomly selected from a box containing 5 red balls and 8 white balls.
(a) In how many ways can the four balls be chosen if (i) there is no restriction, (ii) white
balls must be more than red balls?
(b) Find the probability that of the four balls chosen there is only one white ball.

Solution:

(a) 4 balls 5 red balls 13 balls

8 white balls

13 C 13! 13!
(i) 4 = = = 715
4! (13 4)! 4! 9!

8 8! 5! 8! 5!
(ii) 4W 0R C 4 x 5C 0 = x = x
4! (8 4)! 0! (5 0)! 4! 4! 0! 5!
= 70 x 1
= 70

8 8! 5! 8! 5!
3W 1R C 3 x 5C 1 = x = x
3! (8 3)! 1! (5 1)! 3! 5! 1! 4!
= 56 x 5
= 280

Therefore, number of ways white balls more than red balls= 70 + 280 = 350

(b) Probability that of the four balls chosen there is only one white ball (1W 3R)
8 C x 5C
1 3 8 x 10
= = = 0.1119
13 C 715
4

31
EXERCISE 8.3

1. How many different ways can 6 radio commercials be played during a 1-hour radio
program? (Ans: 720)

2. There are 8 different statistics books, 6 different geometry books, and 3 different
trigonometry books. A student must select one book of each type. How many
different ways can be done? (Ans:144)

3. How many different 3- digit identification tags can be made if the digits can be used
more than once? If the first digits must be a 5 and repetitions are not permitted?
(Ans: 1000, 72)

4. How many different 4 -colour code stripes can be made on a sports car if each code
consists of the colours green, red, blue and white? All colours are used only once.
(Ans: 24)

5. An inspector must select 3 tests to perform in a certain order on a manufactured part.

He has a choice of 7 tests, how many ways can he performed 3 different tests?
(Ans: 210)

6. How many different signals can be made by using at least 3 distinct flags if there are
5 different flags from which to select? (Ans: 300)

7. A gymnastic team consists of 6 men and 4 women. In how many ways can all team
members be lined up if all women have to be together?(Ans: 120 960)

8. How many ways can a committee of 4 people be selected from a group 10 people?
(Ans: 210)

9. How many different tests can be made from a test bank of 20 questions if the test
consists of 5 questions? (Ans: 15504)

10. How many ways can 3 cars and 4 trucks be selected from 8 cars and 11 trucks to be
tested for a safety inspection? (Ans: 18480)

11. Parent-teacher committee consisting of 4 people is to be formed from 20 parents and

5 teachers. Find the probability that the committee will consists of these people.
(Assume that the selection will be random.)
(a) All teachers (Ans: 1/2530)
(b) 2 teachers and 2 parents (Ans: 38/253)
(c) All parents (Ans: 969/2530)
(d) 1 teacher and 3 parents (Ans: 114/253)

12. On the shelf there are 4 mathematics books and 8 English books.

(a) If the books are to be arranged so that the mathematics books are together,
in how many ways can this be done? (Ans: 4!9!)
(b) What is the probability that all the mathematics books will not be together?
(Ans: 54/55)

32
13. (a) In how many different ways can the letters in the word ARRANGEMENTS be
12!
arranged? (Ans: )
(2! ) 4
(b) Find the probability that an arrangement chosen at random begins with the
letters EE. (Ans: 1/66 )

14. In how many ways can 5 men and 2 women be arranged in a row if

(a) the two women must be side by side? (Ans: 1440)

(b) the two women must not be side by side? (Ans: 3600)

15. From a group of 10 boys and 8 girls, 2 pupils are chosen at random. Find the
probability that they are both girls. (Ans: 28/153)

16. From a group of 6 men and 8 women, 5 people are chosen at random. Find the
probability that there are more men chosen than women. (Ans: 49/143)

17. From a bag containing 6 white counters and 8 blue counters, 4 counters are chosen
at random. Find the probability that 2 white counters and 2 blue counters are chosen.
(Ans: 60/143)

18. A box contains 24 transistors, 4 of which are defective. If 4 are sold at random, find
the following probabilities:
(a) exactly 2 are defective, (Ans: 0.1073)
(b) none is defective, (Ans: 0.4560)
(c) all are defective, (Ans: 0.0000941)
(d) at least 1 is defective. (Ans: 0.5440)

SUMMARY

n( E )
1. Classical definition, P (E ) , where E is a subset of sample space, S,
n(S )
0 P (E ) 1
2. Additional Rules for Probability: P( A B) P( A) P(B) P( A B)
3. Mutually exclusive events, P( A B) 0, P( A B) P( A) P(B)
3. Exhaustive events, P (S ) P ( A B )
4. Complementary events, P (E ) 1 P (E )
6. If A and B are independent events, then
(a) P( A B) P( A) P(B)
(b) P( A | B) P( A)
(c) P(B | A) P(B)
P( A B)
7. Conditional probability, P ( A | B )
P (B )
8. Total probability of event A is, P( A) P( A B) P( A B' )

33
9. Multiplication principle
If for each of the m ways in the first event, there corresponds n ways in the second
event, then the number of ways for both events = m x n.

10. Permutations
a) Number of permutations of n distinct objects = n!
n!
b) Number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time = Pr (n r )!
n

n!
c) Number of permutations of n objects not all distinct = p! q! r !...

11. Combinations
n!
Number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time = nCr
(n r )! r !

SELECTED EXERCISE 8

1. A and B are two events with P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.7 and P ( A B ) 0.1 . Find
a) P( A B)

b) P ( A B )
c) P ( A | B )

3 1 2
2. Two events A and B are such that P( A) , P( A' | B) and P( A' B' ) ,
4 4 3
where A is the event that A does not occur.
i) Find P(B)
ii) Are A and B independent events? Why?
iii) Are A and B mutually exclusive events? Why?

1 1 3
3. Three events A, B and C are such that P(B) , P(C) , and P( A B) .
3 10 5
Given that events A and B are independent,

i) find P(A),
ii) determine whether the events A and C are mutually exclusive, given that
5
P(C' | A' ) .
6
(A is the event A does not occur and C is the event C does not occur)

4. The blood types of a group of students in Pusat ASASI are given as follows :

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 Blood A B O
Types
Gender
Boys 30 9 66
Girls 74 43 98

If a student is selected at random , find the probability that

i) the student has blood type either A or B.
ii) the student has blood type O given that she is a girl.

5. In a population, 1% of the people have a certain disease. There is a 99% chance of

a person who has the disease to be tested positive. There is a 2% chance of a
person who does not have the disease to be tested positive.
a) Draw a tree diagram to represent the above situation.
b) What is the probability that a person will be tests positive for the disease?
c) If a person tests is positive, what is the probability he/she has the disease?

6. ASASIGLASS has three machines to produce test tubes. The production capacities
for machines A, b and C are respectively, 25%, 35% and 40%. The rates of
defective tubes produced by machines A, B, C are 6%, 8% and 12%, respectively.

i) Sketch a tree diagram showing the outcomes and their probabilities, and
calculate the probability that a tube selected by random is defective.
ii) Calculate the probability that a tube selected at random comes from machine
A given that it is not defective.

7. There are 5 lecturers and 4 teachers in a committee. In how many ways can a group
of 4 people be formed from the committee if the 4 people should be of at least 1
lecturer?

8. Eight employees are to be chosen from 20 employees of a company to form a team

for volleyball competition. How many ways to select the employees if
a) Ahmad must be in the team
b) Ah Lee and Ravi must not be in the team.

9. A class consists of 12 boys and 18 girls. Find the number of ways to

a) arrange all students in a line.
b) choose four boys and eight girls for certain competition
c) choose nine students where at least seven of the selected students are girls.

10. i) Find the number of different arrangements that can be formed using all the
letters in the word INDEPENDENT.

ii) An arrangement is chosen at random from part i), find the probability that the
three letters N are side by side?

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