4.

FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION

4.1 OBJECTIVE

To perform frequency modulation and demodulation process using audio frequency

signal with adjustable amplitude & frequency (300Hz-3.4 KHz) with the help of Trainer kit.

4.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

S.No Equipment/Component name Specifications/Value Quantity

1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0 20MHz) 1

Audio Frequency Oscillator (0-2) MHz 2
2

3 FM Trainer kit ST8203 1

4.3 THEORY

Frequency modulation is a process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in

accordance with the slowly varying base band signal. The main advantage of this modulation
is that it can provide better discrimination against noise. The frequency of the carrier is made
to increase as the voltage in the information signal increases and to decreases in frequency as
it reduces. Higher the amplitude gives increased frequency.

4.3.1 FREQUENCY MODULATOR

The FM modulator is used to combine the carrier wave and the information signal. The
varactor and reactance modulator are two different methods to perform frequency modulation
process. In varactor modulator when the information signal applied to the varactor diode, the
capacitance will be increased and decreased in sympathy with the incoming signal. The
changing value of capacitance causes the oscillator frequency to increase and decrease under
the control of the information signal. The output is therefore a FM signal. In reactance
modulator, the changing information signal being applied to the base has the same effect as
changing the bias voltage applied to the transistor and this would have the effect of increasing
and decreasing the value of this capacitance. As the capacitance is parallel with the tuned
circuit the variations in value will cause the frequency of resonance to change and hence the
carrier frequency will be varied in sympathy with the information signal input.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 Audio oscillator
O/p

Amplitude Frequency

Reactance
Modulator
Mixer/
FM o/p
Audio i/p Amplifier

Varactor
Modulator
Oscilloscope

Fig 4.1 Frequency Modulation

OBSERVATION

Parameter Amplitude Frequency Time period

Modulating signal
(input signal)

F1 F2 T1 T2
Modulated signal
(output signal)

4.3.2 FM DEMODULATOR
 The extraction of information signal from the modulated signal is done by
demodulators. The basic requirement of FM demodulator is therefore to convert frequency
changes into changes in voltage, with the minimum amount of distortion. The demodulator
converts FM into AM and then to the base band signal (information/audio signal). Foster
seeley uses double tuned RF transformer to convert frequency variations in the received FM
signal to amplitude variations. These amplitude variations are then rectified and filtered to
provide a dc output voltage. This voltage varies in both the amplitude and polarity as the
input signal varies in frequency.

The ratio detector converts the instantaneous frequency variation of the FM input to
instantaneous amplitude variations. These amplitude variations are then rectified to provide a
dc output voltage which varies in both the amplitude and polarity as the input signal varies in
frequency. This detector demodulates FM signals and suppresses the amplitude noise without
the need of limiter.

4.4 PRE LAB QUESTIONS

1. What are the different methods of generating FM signal?

2. A frequency modulated wave is given as s(t)=10sin (2x10 8t+5sin400t), identify carrier

frequency and maximum frequency deviation of the signal.

3. Give the Carsons rule to calculate bandwidth of the system

4. What is the commercial FM frequency range?

5. When a single tone modulating signal cos(1510 3t) frequency modulates a carrier of
10MHz and produces a frequency deviation of 75KHz calculate the modulation index of
FM?
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Audio oscillator
O/p

Amplitude Frequency

Foster Foster
seeley/ seeley o/p

Ratio
detector Ratio o/p
Reactance
Modulator

Audio i/p Mixer/ FM o/p

Amplifier
Varactor
Modulator
Low pass
filter/Amplifier

CRO output

Fig 4.2 Frequency demodulation

OBSERVATION

Demodulated signal

Detector Amplitude Frequency Time period

Foster seeley

Ratio detector
4.5 LAB PROCEDURE

4.5.1 FREQUENCY MODULATOR

1. Turn on power to the trainer kit and set the 5 volt amplitude and frequency of 1KHz in the
audio oscillator (i.e modulating signal) to the trainer kit-ST8203 module.

2. Connect the output socket of the audio oscillator block to the audio input socket of the
modulator circuits block.

3. Select reactance/varactor modulator switch in position. These switches the output of the
modulator through to the input of the mixer/amplifier block and the FM output appears once
it is connect to the display (Digital/Analog oscilloscope).

4. Adjust the audio oscillators amplitude pot throughout its range note time period of
modulated signal for one cycle as T1 and T2 using oscilloscope.

5. Measure the frequency of the FM output signal with F1 and F2 (using F=1/T).This is
because the audio information is contained entirely in the signals frequency and not in its
amplitude.

4.5.2 FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR

1. Make the connection as per the block diagram.

2. Turn on power to the ST8203 module.
3. FM output from mixer/amplifier block is connected to the input of foster seeley
detector or ratio detector block.
4. Select the foster seeley or ratio detector switch in position.
5. Connect the input of Low pass filter /amplifier block with the output from the foster
seeley/ratio detector block.
6. Measure the amplitude and frequency of audio signal (demodulated signal).
7. Adjust the audio oscillator blocks amplitude and frequency pots and compare the
original audio signal with the final demodulated signal.
MODEL GRAPH

FREQUENCY MODULATION

Fig 4.3 Frequency modulated waveforms

FREQUENCY DEMODULATION

Fig 4.4 Frequency demodulated waveforms

4.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. How FM wave can be converted to PM wave?

2. Consider when two modulating signal produces a modulation index of 100 with same
frequency deviation of 75KHz. Find its frequency and amplitude of modulating signal
assume Kf =15KHz per volt.

3. List the applications of FM technique.

4. What is the difference between ratio detector and foster seeley discriminator circuit?
 5. A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 5 KHz sine wave, the resultant FM
signals have a frequency deviation of 40 KHz. calculate the carrier swing & highest and
lowest frequencies attained by FM signal.

4.7 LAB RESULT

Thus the Frequency modulation and demodulation process using audio frequency signal in a
trainer kit has been performed.

5.2. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEX1NG AND DEMULTIPLEXING

5.1 OBJECTIVE

To generate the two different signals with the following specifications:

Amplitude Frequency
Signal 1: 4V 500Hz
Signal 2: 5V 1 KHz
Transmit both the signals simultaneously in different time slots in the same channel. Recover
the individual signal at the receiver end and observe the amplitude and time period of the
individual signal.

5.2 HARDWARE REQUIRED

S.No Equipment/Component name Specifications/Value Quantity

1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0 20MHz) 1

2 TDM Trainer kit ST2102 1

5.3 THEORY

An important feature of pulse-amplitude modulation is conservation of time. That is,

for a given message signal, transmission of the associated PAM wave engages the
communication channel for only a fraction of the sampling interval on a periodic basis.
Hence, some of the time interval between adjacent pulses of the PAM wave is cleared for use
by the other independent message signals on a time-shared basis. By this, we obtain a time-
division multiplex system (TDM), which enables the joint utilization of a common channel
by a plurality of independent message signals without mutual interference.

Each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass pre-alias filter
to remove the frequencies that are nonessential to an adequate signal representation. The pre-
alias filter outputs are then applied to a commutator, which is usually, implemented using
electronic switching circuitry. The function of the commutator is two-fold: (1) to take a
narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate f s that is slightly higher than 2W,
where W is

BLOCK DIAGRAM
 Fig 5.1 TDM Trainer Kit ST2102 Block Diagram

MODEL GRAPH - TRANSMITTER SECTION

Fig.5.2 Time Division Multiplexed Signal

the cut-off frequency of the pre-alias filter, and (2) to sequentially interleave these N samples
inside a sampling interval Ts = 1/fs. Indeed, this latter function is the essence of the time-
division multiplexing operation. Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal
is applied to a pulse-amplitude modulator, the purpose of which is to transform the
multiplexed signal into a form suitable for transmission over the communication channel.

At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse- amplitude
demodulator, which performs the reverse operation of the pulse amplitude modulator. The
short pulses produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the appropriate low-
pass reconstruction filters by means of a decommutator, which operates in synchronism with
the commutator in the transmitter. This synchronization is essential for satisfactory operation
of the TDM system, and provisions have to be made for it.

5.4 PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. In what situation multiplexing is used?

2. Mention the types of multiplexing?

3. Why sync pulse is required in TDM?

4.What is the function of commutator switch?

5. Give the advantages of multiplexing.

5.5 LAB PROCEDURE

1. Signals from the function generator are given to the channels (CH0 ... CH3) present in
the transmitter using patch chords. Note down the amplitude and time period of each
signal.

2. Measure the amplitude and time period at the transmitter output point.

3. Using a patch chord, connect transmitter output to receiver input.

4. For synchronization purpose, connect the transmitter clock and receiver clock and also
transmitter CH0 and receiver CH0.

5. Observe the output before the filter and after filter for all the channels connected.
6. Plot all the observed signals in graph sheet
RECEIVER SECTION

Fig. 5.3 TDM Demultiplexed Signal

OBSERVATION

Transmitter Section Receiver Section

Signal 1 Demultiplexed Signal 1

Amplitude Time Period Amplitude Time Period

Signal 2 Demultiplexed Signal 2

 Amplitude Time Period Amplitude Time Period

Transmitter Output Filtered Demultiplexed Signal 1

Amplitude Time Period Amplitude Time Period

Filtered Demultiplexed Signal 2

Amplitude Time Period

5.6 POST LAB QUESTIONS

1. How is synchronization achieved in TDM?

2. What is the limitation of synchronous TDM?

3. How to overcome the limitation in synchronous TDM?

4. Define bandwidth expansion factor.

5. What is the difference between TDM and FDM?

6. Two signals g1(t) and g2(t) are to be transmitted over a common channel by means of
time division multiplexing. The highest frequency of g 1(t) is 1 KHz and that g2(t) is 1.5
KHz. What is the minimum value of the permissible sampling rate? Justify your answer.

5.7 LAB RESULT

Two signals have been transmitted simultaneously in different time slots over the
same channel and it has been recovered in the receiver end.

6. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

6.1 OBJECTIVE

To modulate a carrier square wave signal has a duty cycle 50% with sinusoidal signal
amplitude of 1.5V and a frequency less than 1KHz using transistor as a switch circuit and
reconstruct the message signal by using a low pass filter.

6.2 HARDWARE required

S.No Equipment/Component name Specifications/Value Quantity

1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0 20MHz) 1

2 Audio Frequency Oscillator (0-2) MHz 2

3 Resistors 10K 1

1K 1

3.3K 1

4 capacitors 0.1 f 2

5 Semiconductor Device(Transistor) BC107 1

6.3 THEORY

The simple pulse modulation technique called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
proved to be more power efficient than the PWM and consumes constant power for
individual pulses like PPM. In PAM the amplitude of the individual pulses are varied
according to the amplitude of the modulating signals. The PAM modulator and demodulator
circuits simple compared to other kind of modulation and demodulation techniques. There are
two kinds of PAM one in which the pulses have the same polarity and the other in which the
pulses can have both positive and negative polarity according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

Pulse amplitude modulation is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of regularly

spaced rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous
message signal. Then amplitude of the modulated pulses represents the amplitude of the
intelligence.

A train of very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition rate is chosen the
amplitude of these pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of a slower modulating
signal the result is that of multiplying the train by the modulating signal the envelope of the
pulse height corresponds to the modulating wave.

PAM Modulator and Demodulator circuit

Fig 6.1 PAM Modulator and Demodulator circuit

MODEL GRAPH
 Fig. 6.2 PAM Modulated Waveform

Fig. 6.3 Pulse Amplitude Demodulated Waveform

The demodulated PAM waves, the signal is passed through a low pass filter having a
cut off frequencies equal to the highest frequency in the modulating signal. At the output of
the filter is available the modulating signal along with the DC component.

PAM has the same signal to noise ratio as AM and so it is not employed in practical
circuits. To implement PAM is to use transistor in switching mode technique. The flow of
current from collector to emitter in a bipolar junction transistor is controlled by the voltage at
its base.

Pulse amplitude modulation is kind of digital modulation technique in which analog

message signal is sampled at constant frequency carrier frequency .A pulse of specified
duration is used to sample the message signal. When the pulse is on, the message is sampled
and when it is off no message is sampled. This is a basic step in the digitization of analog
message signals. The circuits to be implemented in this experiment do a kind of natural
sampling.

The message is fed as input to a switch and the switch ON/OFF time is controlled by
the pulses at sampling frequency. The flow of current from collector to emitter in a bipolar
junction transistor is controlled by the voltage at its base.
 The demodulation of PAM waveform can be implemented by using a low pass filter
which passes message signal frequencies but blocks the carrier signal.

6.4 DESIGN

6.4.1 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATOR

The flow of current from collector to emitter in a bipolar junction transistor is controlled by
the voltage at its base, choose the transistor BC107 and apply the sinusoidal message signal
of frequency fm< 1 KHz and amplitude Em= 1.5Vpp at the collector .Apply a carrier at the
transistor base through a resistor 10K.The carrier pulse amplitude is set as Ec=3Vpp and
frequency fc =10KHz.

OBSERVATION

Modulating signal Carrier signal

Signal Amplitude Time Frequency Signal Amplitude Time Frequency

Type Period Type Period

Sine
pulse
wave

Modulated Output

Signal Type Amplitude Time Period Frequency

PAM

Demodulated output

Signal Type Amplitude Time Period Frequency

Sine Wave
6.4.2 PULSE AMPLITUDE DEMODULATOR

Demodulation is done using RC filter .Design the Low pass filter as per the given equation,
R=3.3K is obtained from PAM modulated frequency (fH ) as taken as cut off frequency for
RC filter(LPF) with standard value of capacitance C=0.1F.

fH=1/2RC

R=1/2 fHC

6.5 PRE LAB QUESTIONS

1. What is PAM?

2. Write the transmission bandwidth of PAM signal?

 3. What are the functions of reconstruction filter?

4. What is the purpose of Equalizer in PAM demodulator?

5. Draw Flat-top and natural sampling of PAM with respect to input signal.

6.6 LAB PROCEDURE

6.6.1 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Set the Carrier square wave of 3Vpp at 10 KHz using an AFO.

3. Set the modulating signal of 1.5Vpp, 500 Hz by using another AFO.

4. Observe the PAM modulated output wave from CRO across 1K load resistor

5. Plot the graph of the modulating signal, Carrier signal and PAM modulated
waveforms.

6.6.2 PULSE AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION

1. Connect modulator circuit output to RC filter circuit (LPF).

2. Measure the amplitude and frequency of the demodulated signal from the CRO and
verify with that of the modulating input.

3. Plot the demodulated waveform.

6.7 POST LAB QUESTIONS

1 Mention the applications of PAM signal.

2 Compare PAM signal with other Pulse modulation.

3 Which device is used to track PAM frequency variations in the clock recovery circuit?

4 What kind of switches is commonly used in PAM multiplexers?

5 What are the advantage and disadvantages of PAM?

6 Consider an analog signal x(t)= 30cos(2000t)+5sin(6000t)+10cos(12000t).

Find the Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval of this signal.

6.8 LAB RESULT

Thus the pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation has been performed and its
corresponding waveforms are plotted.