The Brightest Stars

The Brightest Stars
A Detailed Guide
Contents
1 List of brightest stars 1

1.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Main table of the brightest stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Sun 3
2.1 Name and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Religious aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Sunlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.1 Singly ionized iron-group elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.2 Isotopic composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5.1 Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5.2 Radiative zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5.3 Tachocline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5.4 Convective zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5.5 Photosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5.6 Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5.7 Photons and neutrinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Magnetism and activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6.1 Magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6.2 Variation in activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6.3 Long-term change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Life phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7.1 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7.2 Main sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7.3 After core hydrogen exhaustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Motion and location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
i
ii CONTENTS
2.8.1 Orbit in Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.9 Theoretical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9.1 Coronal heating problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.9.2 Faint young Sun problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10 History of observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10.1 Early understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10.2 Development of scientic understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.10.3 Solar space missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11 Observation and eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12 Planetary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3 Sirius 25
3.1 Observational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.2 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.3 Discovery of a companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.4 Colour controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.1 Sirius A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.2 Sirius B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.3 Sirius star cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 Etymology and cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.1 Dogon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4.2 Serer religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.3 Modern signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.7.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Canopus 38
4.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
CONTENTS iii
4.4 Etymology and cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.4.1 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4.2 Role in navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.3 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5 Arcturus 44
5.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.1 Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.3.2 Element abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.3.3 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.3.4 Possible planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.1 In Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.2 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.3 Other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5.1 Historical cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5.2 Modern cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.7.1 Cited texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6 Alpha Centauri 50
6.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2 Nature and components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2.1 Alpha Centauri A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2.2 Alpha Centauri B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2.3 Alpha Centauri C (Proxima Centauri) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.5 Binary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.5.1 Proxima Centauri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.6 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.7 Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.7.1 Proxima Centauri b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
iv CONTENTS
6.7.2 Alpha Centauri Bb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6.7.3 Possible detection of another planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.7.4 Possible fourth stellar object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.7.5 Possibility of additional planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.7.6 Theoretical planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.7.7 Circumstellar discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.8 View from this system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.8.1 View from Proxima Centauri b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.8.2 View from a hypothetical A or B planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.9 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.10 Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.11 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.15.1 Hypothetical planets or exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7 Vega 66
7.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.2 Observation history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.4.1 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.4.2 Element abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.4.3 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.5 Planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.5.1 Infrared excess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.5.2 Debris disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.5.3 Possible planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8 Rigel 78
8.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.2.1 Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.3 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
CONTENTS v
8.4.1 Space photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

8.4.2 Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9 Procyon 83
9.1 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.1 Primary star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.2 White dwarf companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.3 X-ray emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10 Betelgeuse 87
10.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.2.1 Nascent discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.2.2 Imaging breakthroughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
10.2.3 Recent studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.3 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.3.1 Star system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
10.3.2 Distance measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
10.3.3 Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.3.4 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.4.1 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4.2 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4.3 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4.4 Circumstellar dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.5 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.5.1 So far . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.5.2 Approaching supernova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10.5.3 Remnant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.6 Ethnological attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.6.1 Spelling and pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.6.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.6.3 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
vi CONTENTS
10.6.4 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

10.6.5 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11 Achernar 109
11.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.1.1 Namesake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.3 Historical visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12 Beta Centauri 112

12.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
13 Capella (star) 114

13.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.2.1 Multiple status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.2.2 X-ray source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.3 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.4 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.5 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.5.1 Bright binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.5.2 Companion binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
13.5.3 Visual companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
13.7 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.8 In ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
13.10.1 Cited texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14 Altair 124
14.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
CONTENTS vii
14.2.1 Oblateness and surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

14.3 Etymology, mythology, and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.4 Visual companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15 Aldebaran 128
15.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.1.1 Names in other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.1.2 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.3 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.4 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.5 Double star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.6 Claims of a planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
16 Spica 133
16.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
16.4 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.5 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
17 Antares 136
17.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
17.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
17.2.1 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
17.2.2 Companion star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
17.2.3 Supernova progenitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
17.3 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
17.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
18 Pollux (star) 141

18.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18.2 Stellar characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
viii CONTENTS
18.3 Planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
19 Fomalhaut 144
19.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
19.2 Fomalhaut A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
19.2.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
19.2.2 Debris disks and planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
19.3 Fomalhaut B (TW Piscis Austrini) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.4 Fomalhaut C (LP 876-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
19.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
19.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
20 Deneb 150
20.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
20.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
20.2.1 Pole star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
20.3 Distance and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
20.3.1 Binary companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
20.3.2 Evolutionary state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
20.4.1 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
20.4.2 Deneb in ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
21 Beta Crucis 154

21.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
21.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
21.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
21.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
22 Regulus 156
22.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22.3 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22.4 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
22.5 Etymology and cultural associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
CONTENTS ix
22.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

22.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
22.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
23 Alpha Crucis 160

23.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
23.2 Stellar properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
23.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
23.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
23.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
24 Epsilon Canis Majoris 163

24.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24.1.1 Namesake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24.3 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
24.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
24.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
25 Lambda Scorpii 165

25.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
25.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
26 Gamma Crucis 167

26.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
26.2 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
26.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
26.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
26.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
26.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
27 Bellatrix 169
27.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
27.2 Standard star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
27.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
27.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
28 Beta Tauri 172

28.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
28.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
x CONTENTS
28.3 Double star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

28.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
28.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
28.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
29 Beta Carinae 174

29.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
29.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
30 Epsilon Orionis 176

30.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
30.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
30.3 Nomenclature and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
30.3.1 Orion's Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
30.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
30.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
30.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
31 Zeta Orionis 179

31.2 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
31.3.1 Orion's belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
31.4 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
31.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
31.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
31.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
32 Alpha Gruis 182

32.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
32.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
32.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
32.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
33 Epsilon Ursae Majoris 184

33.2 Name and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
33.3 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
33.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
33.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
34 Gamma Velorum 186

34.1 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
CONTENTS xi
34.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

34.3 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
34.4 Trivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
34.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
35 Epsilon Sagittarii 189

35.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
35.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
35.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
35.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
36 Alpha Persei 192

36.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
36.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
36.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
37 Delta Canis Majoris 194

37.1 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
37.2 History and naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
37.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
37.4 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
37.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
38 Eta Ursae Majoris 197

38.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
38.2 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
38.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
38.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
39 Theta Scorpii 199

39.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
39.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
39.3 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
39.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
39.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
40 Alpha Ursae Majoris 201

40.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
40.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
40.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
40.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
41 Gamma Geminorum 203

xii CONTENTS
41.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

41.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
41.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
41.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
42 Alpha Pavonis 205

42.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
42.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
42.3 Companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
42.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
42.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
43 Alpha Trianguli Australis 207

43.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
43.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
43.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
43.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
43.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
44 Castor (star) 209

44.1 The Castor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
44.2 Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
44.3 Etymology and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
44.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
44.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
45 Polaris 212
45.1 Stellar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
45.2 Variable star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
45.3 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
45.4 Role as pole star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
45.5 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
45.6 History of observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
45.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
45.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
45.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
46 Beta Canis Majoris 218

46.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
46.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
46.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
46.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
46.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
CONTENTS xiii
47 Alphard 220
47.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
47.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
47.3 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
47.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
48 Alpha Arietis 222

48.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
48.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
48.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
49 Delta Velorum 225

49.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
49.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
50 Beta Ceti 227

50.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
50.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
50.2.1 Namesake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
50.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
51 Kappa Orionis 229

51.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
51.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
51.3 Cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
51.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
52 Sigma Sagittarii 231

52.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
52.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
52.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
53 Theta Centauri 233

53.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
53.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
54 Alpha Andromedae 235

54.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
54.2 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
xiv CONTENTS
54.2.1 Chemical peculiarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

54.2.2 Variability of primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
54.3 Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
54.4 Optical companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
54.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
54.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
55 Beta Andromedae 239

55.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
55.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
55.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
55.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
55.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
56 Beta Ursae Minoris 242

56.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
56.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
56.2.1 Planetary companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
56.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
57 Alpha Ophiuchi 244

57.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
57.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
57.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
57.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
58 Algol 246
58.2 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
58.3 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
58.4 Cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
58.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
58.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
58.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
59 Beta Gruis 250

59.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
59.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
60 Denebola 251
60.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
60.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
60.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
60.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
CONTENTS xv
60.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

60.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
61 Zeta Puppis 254

61.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
61.1.1 Namesake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
61.2 Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
61.2.1 Helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
61.3 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
61.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
62 Lambda Velorum 257

62.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
62.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
62.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
63 Gamma Draconis 259

63.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
63.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
63.2.1 Namesake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
63.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
63.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
64 Alpha Coronae Borealis 261

64.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
64.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
64.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
64.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
65 Gamma Cygni 263

65.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
65.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
65.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
65.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
66 Alpha Cassiopeiae 265

66.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
66.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
66.2.1 Photometric variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
66.2.2 Angular analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
66.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
66.4 Depiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
66.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
66.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
xvi CONTENTS
66.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
67 Iota Carinae 269

67.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
67.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
67.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
68 Gamma Andromedae 271

68.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
68.3 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
68.4 Almach as a name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
68.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
68.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
68.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
69 Mizar and Alcor 274

69.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
69.2 Stellar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
69.3 Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.3.1 Military namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.4 Test of eyesight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
69.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
69.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
70 Beta Cassiopeiae 277

70.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
70.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
70.3 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
70.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
70.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
71 Epsilon Centauri 280

71.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
72 Gamma Leonis 282

72.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
72.2 Stellar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
72.3 Planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
72.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
72.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
73 Alpha Lupi 284

CONTENTS xvii
73.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

73.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
73.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
74 Delta Scorpii 286

74.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
74.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
74.2.1 Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
74.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
74.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
75 Epsilon Scorpii 288

75.1 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
75.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
75.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
76 Eta Centauri 290

76.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
76.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
76.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
77 Beta Ursae Majoris 292

77.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
77.2 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
77.3 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
77.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
78 Alpha Phoenicis 294

78.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
78.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
78.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
79 Kappa Scorpii 296

79.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
79.2 Modern legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
79.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
79.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
80 Gamma Cassiopeiae 298

80.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
80.1.1 X-ray emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
80.2 Companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
80.3 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
80.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
xviii CONTENTS
80.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
81 Epsilon Pegasi 301

81.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
81.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
81.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
81.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
82 Eta Canis Majoris 303

82.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
82.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
82.3 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
82.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
83 Epsilon Carinae 305

83.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
83.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
84 Beta Pegasi 307

84.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
84.2 Distance and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
84.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
85 Gamma Ursae Majoris 309

85.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
85.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
85.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
86 Alpha Cephei 311

86.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
86.2 Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
86.2.1 Pole star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
86.3 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
86.4 Etymology and cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
86.4.1 Namesakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
86.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
86.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
86.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
87 Kappa Velorum 313

87.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
87.2 Interstellar medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
87.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
87.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
CONTENTS xix
88 Alpha Pegasi 315

88.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
89 Epsilon Cygni 316

89.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
89.2 Traditional astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
89.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
89.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
89.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
89.5.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
89.5.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
89.5.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Chapter 1
List of brightest stars
This article is about apparent magnitude. For absolute can measure stellar magnitudes slightly dierently.
magnitude, see List of most luminous stars. This can change the apparent order of lists of bright
stars. The table shows V magnitudes, which are
This is a list of the brightest naked eye stars to +2.50 measured using a specic lter that closely approxi-
mates human vision. However, other kinds of mag-
magnitude, as determined by their maximum, total or
combined apparent visual magnitudes as seen from Earth. nitude systems do exist based on dierent wave-
lengths, some well away from the distribution of
Although several of the brightest stars are also known
close binary or multiple star systems, they do appear to the visible wavelengths of light, and apparent mag-
nitudes can vary dramatically in the dierent sys-
the naked eye as single stars. The given list below com-
bines/adds the magnitudes of bright individual compo- tems.* [2] For example, Betelgeuse has a K-band
nents. Proper names in this list are those approved by the (infra-red) apparent magnitude of 4.05.* [3]
Working Group on Star Names
1.1 Measurement Some stars, like Betelgeuse and Antares, are variable
stars, changing their magnitude over days, months
Apparent visual magnitudes of the brightest star can also or years. In the table, the range of variation is in-
be compared to non-stellar objects in our Solar System. dicated with var. Single magnitude values quoted
Here the maximum visible magnitudes above the bright- for variable stars come from a variety of sources.
est star, Sirius (1.46), are as follows. Excluding the Magnitudes are expressed within the table are when
Sun, the brightest objects are the Moon (12.7), Venus the stars are either at maximum brightness, which is
(4.89), Jupiter (2.94), Mars (2.91), Mercury (2.45), repeated for every cycle, e.g., the eclipsing binary
and Saturn (0.49). Algol; or, if the variations are small, as a simple
average magnitude. For all red variable stars, de-
Any exact order of the visual brightness of stars is not scribing a single maximum brightness is often di-
perfectly dened for a number of reasons: cult because each cycle produces a dierent maxi-
mum brightness, which is thought to be caused but
Stellar brightness were traditionally based on the poorly understood pulsations in stellar evolution pro-
apparent visual magnitude as perceived by the hu- cesses. Such quoted stellar brightness is sometimes
man eye, from the brightest stars of 1st magnitude to based on the average maximum apparent magnitude
the faintest at 6th magnitude. Since the invention of *
[4] from estimated maximums over many observed
the telescope and the discovery of double or binary light-curve cycles, sometimes spanning across cen-
stars meant that star brightness could be expressed turies. Results often quoted in the literature are not
as either individual (separate) or total (combined). necessarily straight forward and may dier in ex-
The table is ordered by combined magnitude of all pressing an alternate value for a singular maximum
components that appear to the naked eye as if it were brightness or as a range of values.
a single star, with the magnitudes of any individ-
ual components bright enough to make a detectable
contribution included in parentheses. For example,
the total or combined magnitude of the double star
Alpha Centauri is 0.27, while its two component A number of stars, thought to be non-variable, are
stars have magnitudes of +0.01 and +1.33.* [1] used as standard stars and their magnitudes are care-
fully determined. These standard stars can then be
New or more accurate photometry, standard lters, used as comparisons to determine the magnitude of
or adopting diering methods using standard stars other stars on a consistent scale.* [5]
1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIST OF BRIGHTEST STARS
1.2 Main table of the brightest [6] Harper, Graham M.; Brown, Alexander; Guinan, Edward
F. (April 2008). A New VLA-Hipparcos Distance
stars to Betelgeuse and its Implications. The Astronom-
ical Journal. IOP Publishing. 135 (4,): 14301440.
The source of magnitudes cited in this list is the linked Bibcode:2008AJ....135.1430H. doi:10.1088/0004-
Wikipedia articles - this basic list is simply a catalog of 6256/135/4/1430.
what Wikipedia itself documents. References can be [7] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
found in the individual articles. the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
1.3 See also 6361:20078357.
88 modern constellations by area

1.6 External links
Historical brightest stars: the brightest star in Earth's
night sky at each period within the last or next 5 mil-
25 Brightest Stars, as Seen from the Earth
lion years
The Brightest Stars at An Atlas of the Universe
List of largest stars
The Magnitude system
List of most luminous stars
About stellar magnitudes
List of nearest bright stars
List of nearest galaxies
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs
Lists of constellations
Lists of stars
Lists of stars by constellation
Stars and planetary systems in ction
1.4 Notes
1.5 References
[1] Hoeit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991).The Bright star
catalogue. New Haven. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
[2] Bessell, Michael S. (2005). Standard Photometric

Systems. Annual Review of Astronomy & Astro-
physics. 43: 293. Bibcode:2005ARA&A..43..293B.
doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.082801.100251.
[3] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-

logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
[4] Macmillan Dictionary of Astronomy (Illingworth, Va-

lerie, 1985)". Dictionary Series (Second ed.). Springer.
p. 237. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
[5] Landolt, Arlo U. (2009). UBVRI Photometric Stan-

dard Stars Around the Celestial Equator: Updates and
Additions. The Astronomical Journal. 137 (5): 4186.
arXiv:0904.0638 . Bibcode:2009AJ....137.4186L.
doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/5/4186.
Chapter 2
Sun
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Sun 2.1 Name and etymology
(disambiguation).
The English proper name Sun developed from Old En-
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It glish sunne and may be related to south. Cognates to En-
is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma,* [13]* [14] with glish sun appear in other Germanic languages, including
internal convective motion that generates a magnetic eld Old Frisian sunne, sonne, Old Saxon sunna, Middle Dutch
via a dynamo process.* [15] It is by far the most important sonne, modern Dutch zon, Old High German sunna,
source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about modern German Sonne, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic
109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 sunn. All Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto-
times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the Germanic *sunnn.* [19]* [20]
total mass of the Solar System.* [16] About three quarters The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old En-
of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest glish (Sunnandg;Sun's day, from before 700) and is
is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin
of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and dies solis, itself a translation of the Greek
iron.* [17] (hmra hlou).* [21] The Latin name for the Sun, Sol, is
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2V) based not common in general English language use; the adjecti-
on its spectral class. As such, it is informally re- val form is the related word solar.* [22]* [23] The term sol
ferred to as a yellow dwarf. It formed approximately is also used by planetary astronomers to refer to the dura-
4.6 billion* [lower-alpha 1]* [9]* [18] years ago from the tion of a solar day on another planet, such as Mars.* [24] A
gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours, whereas
molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the cen- a mean Martian 'sol' is 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244
ter, whereas the rest attened into an orbiting disk that seconds.* [25]
became the Solar System. The central mass became so
hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in
its core. It is thought that almost all stars form by this
2.1.1 Religious aspects
process.
The Sun is roughly middle-aged; it has not changed Main article: Solar deity
dramatically for more than four billion* [lower-alpha 1]
years, and will remain fairly stable for more than another
Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout
ve billion years. After hydrogen fusion in its core has di-
most of recorded history in various forms, including the
minished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic
Egyptian Ra, the Hindu Surya, the Japanese Amaterasu,
equilibrium, the core of the Sun will experience a marked
the Germanic Sl, and the Aztec Tonatiuh, among others.
increase in density and temperature while its outer layers
expand to eventually become a red giant. It is calculated From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun
that the Sun will become suciently large to engulf the was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-
current orbits of Mercury and Venus, and render Earth headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and sur-
uninhabitable. rounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the
Sun became identied with the dung beetle, whose spher-
The enormous eect of the Sun on Earth has been rec-
ical ball of dung was identied with the Sun. In the
ognized since prehistoric times, and the Sun has been
form of the Sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resur-
regarded by some cultures as a deity. The synodic ro-
gence during the Amarna Period when it again became
tation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis
the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh
of the solar calendar, which is the predominant calendar
Akhenaton.* [26]* [27]
in use today.
The Sun is viewed as a goddess in Germanic pagan-
3
4 CHAPTER 2. SUN
ism, Sl/Sunna.* [20] Scholars theorize that the Sun, as sity decreases exponentially with increasing height above
a Germanic goddess, may represent an extension of an the photosphere.* [37] For the purpose of measurement,
earlier Proto-Indo-European Sun deity because of Indo- however, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance
European linguistic connections between Old Norse Sl, from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the appar-
Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saul, and ent visible surface of the Sun.* [38] By this measure, the
Slavic Solntse.* [20] Sun is a near-perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated
In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun at about 9 millionths,* [39] which means that its polar di-
god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who ameter diers from its equatorial diameter by only 10
kilometres (6.2 mi).* [40] The tidal eect of the planets
did not have a Jewish background. The symbol of light
was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps is weak and does not signicantly aect the shape of the
Sun.* [41] The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its
the most important one that did not come from Jewish tra-
ditions. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving poles. This dierential rotation is caused by convective
motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due
warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of
a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference dened by
the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days
to catch the rst rays of sunshine as they prayed. The cel-
ebration of the winter solstice (which inuenced Christ- at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from
mas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period
(Sol Invictus). Christian churches were built with an ori- of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days.* [42]
entation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise
in the East.* [28]
2.3 Sunlight
Main article: Sunlight
2.2 Characteristics
The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star that comprises deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight.
about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. The The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2
Sun has an absolute magnitude of +4.83, estimated to (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical
be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth).* [43]
Way, most of which are red dwarfs.* [29]* [30] The Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's
Sun is a Population I, or heavy-element-rich,* [lower- atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface
alpha 2] star.* [31] The formation of the Sun may have (closer to 1,000 W/m2 ) in clear conditions when the Sun
been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby is near the zenith.* [44] Sunlight at the top of Earth's at-
supernovae.* [32] This is suggested by a high abundance mosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50%
of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet
uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in light.* [45] The atmosphere in particular lters out over
so-called Population II, heavy-element-poor, stars. The
70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wave-
heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced lengths.* [46] Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's
by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova,
dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically con-
or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a ducting ionosphere.* [47]
massive second-generation star.* [31]
The Sun's color is white, with a CIE color-space index
The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the
sky, with an apparent magnitude of 26.74.* [33]* [34] Sun is high in the sky. When measuring all the photons
This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next emitted, the Sun is actually emitting more photons in the
brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitudegreen portion of the spectrum than any other.* [48]* [49]
of 1.46. The mean distance of the Sun's center to When the Sun is low in the sky, atmospheric scattering
Earth's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about
renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta. De-
150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance spite its typical whiteness, most people mentally picture
varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to the Sun as yellow; the reasons for this are the subject
aphelion in July.* [35] At this average distance, light trav-
of debate.* [50] The Sun is a G2V star, with G2 indi-
els from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about cating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K
8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the clos- (5,505 C, 9,941 F), and V that it, like most stars, is
est points of the Sun and Earth takes about two sec- a main-sequence star.* [51]* [52] The average luminance
onds less. The energy of this sunlight supports almost of the Sun is about 1.88 giga candela per square metre,
all life* [lower-alpha 3] on Earth by photosynthesis,* [36]
but as viewed through Earth's atmosphere, this is lowered
and drives Earth's climate and weather. to about 1.44 Gcd/m2 .* [lower-alpha 4] However, the lu-
The Sun does not have a denite boundary, but its den- minance is not constant across the disk of the Sun (limb
2.5. STRUCTURE 5
darkening). 2.4.1 Singly ionized iron-group elements
In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances

of iron-group elements in the Sun.* [59]* [60] Although
signicant research was done, until 1978 it was dicult to
determine the abundances of some iron-group elements
2.4 Composition (e.g. cobalt and manganese) via spectrography because
of their hyperne structures.* [59]
See also: Molecules in stars The rst largely complete set of oscillator strengths of
singly ionized iron-group elements were made avail-
able in the 1960s,* [61] and these were subsequently im-
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical ele-
proved.* [62] In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized
ments hydrogen and helium; they account for 74.9% and
elements of the iron group were derived.* [59]
23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respec-
tively.* [53] All heavier elements, called metals in astron-
omy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxy-
gen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon
2.4.2 Isotopic composition
(0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant.* [54]
Various authors have considered the existence of a gra-
The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the dient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary
interstellar medium out of which it formed. The hydro- noble gases,* [63] e.g. correlations between isotopic com-
gen and helium in the Sun were produced by Big Bang positions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the plan-
nucleosynthesis, and the heavier elements were produced ets.* [64]
by stellar nucleosynthesis in generations of stars that com-
Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has
pleted their stellar evolution and returned their mate-
the same composition as the solar atmosphere.* [65] In
rial to the interstellar medium before the formation of
1983, it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun
the Sun.* [55] The chemical composition of the photo-
itself that caused the isotopic-composition relationship
sphere is normally considered representative of the com-
between the planetary and solar-wind-implanted noble
position of the primordial Solar System.* [56] However,
gases.* [65]
since the Sun formed, some of the helium and heavy ele-
ments have gravitationally settled from the photosphere.
Therefore, in today's photosphere the helium fraction is
reduced, and the metallicity is only 84% of what it was in 2.5 Structure
the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core
started). The protostellar Sun's composition is believed 2.5.1 Core
to have been 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5%
heavier elements.* [53]
Main article: Solar core
Today, nuclear fusion in the Sun's core has modied the The core of the Sun extends from the center to about
composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the
innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60% helium,
with the abundance of heavier elements unchanged. Be-
cause heat is transferred from the Sun's core by radia-
tion rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below),
none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the
photosphere.* [57]
The reactive core zone of hydrogen burning, where
hydrogen is converted into helium, is starting to surround
an inner core of helium ash. This development will
continue and will eventually cause the Sun to leave the The structure of the Sun
main sequence, to become a red giant.* [58]
The solar heavy-element abundances described above are 2025% of the solar radius.* [66] It has a density of up
typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun's to 150 g/cm3* [67]* [68] (about 150 times the density of
photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins
that have never been heated to melting temperatures. (K).* [68] By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is
These meteorites are thought to retain the composition approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mis-
of the protostellar Sun and are thus not aected by set- sion data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than
tling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree in the radiative zone above.* [66] Through most of the
well.* [17] Sun's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion
6 CHAPTER 2. SUN
in the core region through a series of steps called the p the top of the radiative zone.* [78]
p (protonproton) chain; this process converts hydrogen
into helium.* [69] Only 0.8% of the energy generated
in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle, though this 2.5.3 Tachocline
proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes
older.* [70] Main article: Tachocline
The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an ap-
preciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated
of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's ra- by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region
dius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly where the sharp regime change between the uniform ro-
entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this entation of the radiative zone and the dierential rotation of
ergy as it is transferred outwards through many succes- the convection zone results in a large shear between the
sive layers, nally to the solar photosphere where it es- twoa condition where successive horizontal layers slide
capes into space as sunlight or the kinetic energy of par- past one another.* [79] Presently, it is hypothesized (see
ticles.* [51]* [71] Solar dynamo) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer
generates the Sun's magnetic eld.* [68]
The protonproton chain occurs around 9.21037 times
each second in the core, converting about 3.710* 38 pro-
tons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out
2.5.4 Convective zone
of a total of ~8.910* 56 free protons in the Sun), or about
6.210* 11 kg/s.* [51] Fusing four free protons (hydro-
Main article: Convection zone
gen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus)
releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy,* [72]
so the Sun releases energy at the massenergy conver- The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii
sion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second (which (200,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the so-
requires 600 metric megatons of hydrogen * [73]), for lar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to trans-
384.6 yottawatts (3.8461026 W),* [1] or 9.19210* 10 fer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation.
megatons of TNT per second. Theoretical models of the Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to al-
Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately low convective currents to develop and move the Sun's
276.5 W/m3 ,* [74] a value that more nearly approximates energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at
that of reptile metabolism or a compost pile* [75] than of the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reduc-
a thermonuclear bomb.* [lower-alpha 5] ing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an
orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells
The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilib-
that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's
rium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core
photosphere above. Once the material diusively and ra-
to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of
diatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its
the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fu-
density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convec-
sion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly
tion zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the
lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly,
radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the
increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and
photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and
again reverting it to its present rate.* [76]* [77]
the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/6,000 the density of
air at sea level).* [68]
2.5.2 Radiative zone The thermal columns of the convection zone form an im-
print on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appear-
Main article: Radiative zone ance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and
supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection
From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radi- in this outer part of the solar interior sustains small-
ation is the primary means of energy transfer.* [78] The scaledynamo action over the near-surface volume of
temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 mil- the Sun.* [68] The Sun's thermal columns are Bnard cells
lion kelvins with increasing distance from the core.* [68] and take the shape of hexagonal prisms.* [80]
This temperature gradient is less than the value of the
adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection,
which explains why the transfer of energy through this
2.5.5 Photosphere
zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection.* [68]
Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel Main article: Photosphere
only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other
ions.* [78] The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the
g/cm3 to 0.2 g/cm3 ) from 0.25 solar radii to the 0.7 radii, layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible
2.5. STRUCTURE 7
The eective temperature, or black body temperature, of the Sun

(5,777 K) is the temperature a black body of the same size must
have to yield the same total emissive power.
light.* [81] Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free During a total solar eclipse, the solar corona can be seen with the
to propagate into space, and almost all of its energy es- naked eye, during the brief period of totality.
capes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to
the decreasing amount of H* ions, which absorb visible
region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere,
light easily.* [81] Conversely, the visible light we see is
and has a temperature of about 4,100 K.* [81] This part
produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to pro-
of the Sun is cool enough to allow the existence of simple
duce H* ions.* [82]* [83] The photosphere is tens to hun-
molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can
dreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than
be detected via their absorption spectra.* [86]
air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere
is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun ap- The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are
pears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of much hotter than the surface of the Sun.* [81] The reason
the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darken- is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvn
ing.* [81] The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.* [87]
spectrum of a black-body radiating at about 6,000 K, in- Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about
terspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission
layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a par- and absorption lines.* [81] It is called the chromosphere
ticle density of ~1023 m* 3 (about 0.37% of the particle from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the
number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). chromosphere is visible as a colored ash at the beginning
The photosphere is not fully ionizedthe extent of ion- and end of total solar eclipses.* [78] The temperature of
ization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, rang-
atomic form.* [84] ing up to around 20,000 K near the top.* [81] In the up-
During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photo- per part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially
*
sphere, some absorption lines were found that did not cor- ionized. [88]
respond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km)
In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these ab- transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from
sorption lines were caused by a new element that he around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal
dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty- temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K.* [89] The tempera-
ve years later, helium was isolated on Earth.* [85] ture increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium
in the transition region, which signicantly reduces ra-
diative cooling of the plasma.* [88] The transition region
2.5.6 Atmosphere does not occur at a well-dened altitude. Rather, it forms
a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as
See also: Corona and Coronal loop spicules and laments, and is in constant, chaotic mo-
During a total solar eclipse, when the disk of the Sun is tion.* [78] The transition region is not easily visible from
covered by that of the Moon, parts of the Sun's surround- Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by
ing atmosphere can be seen. It is composed of four dis- instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of
tinct parts: the chromosphere, the transition region, the the spectrum.* [90]
corona and the heliosphere. The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona,
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around
8 CHAPTER 2. SUN
after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission hap-

pens in a random direction and usually at a slightly lower
energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions,
it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's sur-
face. Estimates of the photon travel time range between
10,000 and 170,000 years.* [97] In contrast, it takes only
2.3 seconds for the neutrinos, which account for about
2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach
the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a pro-
cess that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium
with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun
is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the
time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state, if
Taken by Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope on 12 January 2007, the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly
this image of the Sun reveals the lamentary nature of the plasma changed.* [98]
connecting regions of dierent magnetic polarity. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the
core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with mat-
1015 m* 3 to 1016 m* 3.* [88]* [lower-alpha 6] The av- ter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.
erage temperature of the corona and solar wind is about For many years measurements of the number of neutri-
1,000,0002,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions nos produced in the Sun were lower than theories pre-
it is 8,000,00020,000,000 K.* [89] Although no com- dicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved
plete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of in 2001 through the discovery of the eects of neutrino
the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos pre-
magnetic reconnection.* [89]* [91] The corona is the ex- dicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing
2
tended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much 3 of them because the neutrinos had changed avor by
larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. the time they were detected.* [99]
A ow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplane-
tary space is the solar wind.* [91]
The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of
2.6 Magnetism and activity
the Sun, is lled with the solar wind plasma. This out-
ermost layer of the Sun is dened to begin at the distance 2.6.1 Magnetic eld
where the ow of the solar wind becomes superalfvnic
that is, where the ow becomes faster than the speed See also: Stellar magnetic eld, Sunspots, List of solar
of Alfvn waves,* [92] at approximately 20 solar radii cycles, and Solar phenomena
Position and area of sunspots
(0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the helio- 90N
sphere cannot aect the shape of the solar corona within,
% of Sun's visible hemisphere

30N 0.5
because the information can only travel at the speed of 0.4

Latitude
EQ
0.3
Alfvn waves. The solar wind travels outward continu- 30S 0.2
ously through the heliosphere,* [93]* [94] forming the so- 0.1
90S
lar magnetic eld into a spiral shape,* [91] until it impacts 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Date
0 11
Area in relation to the visible hemisphere 1870 18
the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In Decem- < 80 ppm < 600 ppm 600 ppm
ber 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock

front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.* [95]
In late 2012 Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in
cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy
particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the
probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the
interstellar medium.* [96]
2.5.7 Photons and neutrinos
See also: solar irradiance
High-energy gamma-ray photons initially released with Visible light photograph of sunspot, 13 December 2006
fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately ab-
sorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually diagram showing paired sunspot pattern. Graph is of
2.6. MAGNETISM AND ACTIVITY 9
sunspot area. photosphere, and, so, they appear dark. At a typical

The Sun has a magnetic eld that varies across the solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasion-
ally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are
at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses to-
wards its maximum, sunspots tend form closer to the so-
lar equator, a phenomenon known as Sprer's law. The
largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers
across.* [103]
An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year Babcock
Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscilla-
tory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal so-
lar magnetic elds. At solar-cycle maximum, the external
poloidal dipolar magnetic eld is near its dynamo-cycle
minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar
eld, generated through dierential rotation within the
tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point
in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the con-
vective zone forces emergence of toroidal magnetic eld
through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots,
In this false-color ultraviolet image, the Sun shows a C3-class roughly aligned eastwest and having footprints with op-
solar are (white area on upper left), a solar tsunami (wave-like posite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of
structure, upper right) and multiple laments of plasma following sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon
a magnetic eld, rising from the stellar surface. known as the Hale cycle.* [104]* [105]
During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts
from the internal toroidal magnetic eld to the external
poloidal eld, and sunspots diminish in number and size.
At solar-cycle minimum, the toroidal eld is, correspond-
ingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare,
and the poloidal eld is at its maximum strength. With
the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, dierential ro-
tation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to
the toroidal eld, but with a polarity that is opposite to the
previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and
in an idealized, simplied scenario, each 11-year sunspot
cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity
of the Sun's large-scale magnetic eld.* [106]* [107]
The solar magnetic eld extends well beyond the Sun it-
self. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma car-
ries the Sun's magnetic eld into space, forming what
The heliospheric current sheet extends to the outer reaches of is called the interplanetary magnetic eld.* [91] In an
the Solar System, and results from the inuence of the Sun's approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics,
rotating magnetic eld on the plasma in the interplanetary
plasma particles only move along the magnetic eld lines.
medium.* [100]
As a result, the outward-owing solar wind stretches the
interplanetary magnetic eld outward, forcing it into a
surface of the Sun. Its polar eld is 12 gauss (0.0001
roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar mag-
0.0002 T), whereas the eld is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3
netic eld, with opposite hemispherical polarities on ei-
T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10100
ther side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current
gauss (0.0010.01 T) in solar prominences.* [1]
sheet is formed in the solar wind.* [91] At great distances,
The magnetic eld also varies in time and location. The the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic eld
quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spi-
variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes ral structure called the Parker spiral.* [91] The interplane-
and wanes.* [15]* [101]* [102] tary magnetic eld is much stronger than the dipole com-
Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's ponent of the solar magnetic eld. The Sun's dipole mag-
photosphere, and correspond to concentrations of magnetic eld of 50400 T (at the photosphere) reduces
netic eld where the convective transport of heat is in- with the inverse-cube of the distance to about 0.1 nT at
hibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a re- the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft
sult, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding observations the interplanetary eld at Earth's location is
10 CHAPTER 2. SUN
around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater.* [108] The provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the
dierence is due to magnetic elds generated by electri- Milankovitch cycles.* [114]* [115]
cal currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun.
2.6.2 Variation in activity

2.7 Life phases
Main articles: Formation and evolution of the Solar
System and Stellar evolution
The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable

part of its life. It has not changed dramatically for over
four billion* [lower-alpha 1] years, and will remain fairly
stable for more than ve billion more. However, after hy-
drogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo
severe changes, both internally and externally.
2.7.1 Formation
Measurements of solar cycle variation during the last 30 years The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the col-
lapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted
The Sun's magnetic eld leads to many eects that are mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave
collectively called solar activity. Solar ares and coronal- birth to many other stars.* [116] This age is estimated
mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly using computer models of stellar evolution and through
changing high-speed streams of solar wind are emitted nucleocosmochronology.* [9] The result is consistent with
from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material,
coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar at 4.567 billion years ago.* [117]* [118] Studies of ancient
wind carry plasma and interplanetary magnetic eld out- meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-
ward into the Solar System.* [109] The eects of solar lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that form only in explod-
activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high lating, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more
itudes and the disruption of radio communications and supernovae must have occurred near the location where
electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby super-
a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar nova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by
System. compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and
causing certain regions to collapse under their own grav-
With solar-cycle modulation of sunspot number comes a ity.* [119] As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also
corresponding modulation of space weather conditions, began to rotate because of conservation of angular mo-
including those surrounding Earth where technological mentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much
systems can be aected. of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas
the rest attened out into a disk that would become the
2.6.3 Long-term change planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pres-
sure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as
Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, even-
by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change tually triggering nuclear fusion. Thus, the Sun was born.
in solar irradiance,* [110] which, in turn, might inuence
Earth's long-term climate.* [111] For example, in the 17th
2.7.2 Main sequence
century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely
for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence
period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core
in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four
experienced unusually cold temperatures.* [112] Earlier million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within
extended minima have been discovered through analysis the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation.
of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower- At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times
than-average global temperatures.* [113] the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total
A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabil- mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approx-
ities in the core of the Sun that cause uctuations with imately 10 billion years as a main-sequence star.* [121]
periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time
2.7. LIFE PHASES 11
2.0
Even before it becomes a red giant, the luminosity of the
Luminosity
1.8
Radius
Sun will have nearly doubled, and Earth will receive as
Temperature much sunlight as Venus receives today. Once the core
1.6
hydrogen is exhausted in 5.4 billion years, the Sun will
Ratio with current Sun
1.4
expand into a subgiant phase and slowly double in size
over about half a billion years. It will then expand more
1.2
rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two
1.0
Now hundred times larger than today and a couple of thou-
sand times more luminous. This then starts the red-giant-
0.8 branch phase where the Sun will spend around a billion
years and lose around a third of its mass.* [125]
0.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Age (billions of years)
Evolution of the Sun
from main sequence to end of fusion
Evolution of the Sun's luminosity, radius and eective tempera- 10,000

Fusion ends
ture compared to the present Sun. After Ribas (2010)* [120] Planetary nebula Helium shell burning
Asymptotic Giant Branch
Towards white dwarf
(<1 million years)
1,000
on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the Core helium ignition
Luminosity [L]
(ash)
core occupy less volume than the hydrogen atoms that
100
Core helium burning
were fused. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing Horizontal branch Shell hydrogen burning
(100 million years) Red Giant
the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre (1 billion years)
and experience a stronger gravitational force, according 10
to the inverse-square law. This stronger force increases Core hydrogen burning
the pressure on the core, which is resisted by a gradual Zero (9 billion years)
1 Age
increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process Mai
n Seq
speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. It is uen
ce
estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the 0.1
8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000
last 4.5 billion years.* [122] At present, it is increasing in Temperature [K]
brightness by about 1% every 100 million years.* [123]
Evolution of a Sun-like star. The track of a one solar mass star
on the HertzsprungRussell diagram is shown from the main se-
2.7.3 After core hydrogen exhaustion quence to the post-asymptotic-giant-branch stage.
After the red-giant branch the Sun has approximately 120

million years of active life left, but much happens. First,
the core, full of degenerate helium ignites violently in the
helium ash, where it is estimated that 6% of the core, it-
The Sun as a red giant self 40% of the Sun's mass, will be converted into carbon
(diameter 2 AU)
within a matter of minutes through the triple-alpha pro-
cess.* [127] The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its
current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a tempera-
ture a little lower than today. It will then have reached
the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the
Sun's mass does not evolve blueward along the horizontal
The Sun as a main-sequence star branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and
(diameter 0.01 AU)
more luminous over about 100 million years as it contin-
ues to burn helium in the core.* [125]
When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the
expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was
The size of the current Sun (now in the main sequence) compared exhausted, except that this time it all happens faster, and
to its estimated size during its red-giant phase in the future the Sun becomes larger and more luminous. This is the
asymptotic-giant-branch phase, and the Sun is alternately
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a burning hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell.
supernova. Instead it will exit the main sequence in ap- After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic gi-
proximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a red ant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with
giant.* [124]* [125] As a red giant, the Sun will grow so rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size
large that it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and probably and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000
Earth.* [125]* [126] years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time,
12 CHAPTER 2. SUN
with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much or the Gould Belt, at a distance of 7.58.5 kpc
as 5,000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 (25,00028,000 light-years) from the Galactic Cen-
AU.* [128] According to a 2008 model, Earth's orbit is ter.* [131]* [132] * [133]* [134]* [135]* [136] The Sun is
shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from contained within the Local Bubble, a space of rareed
the lower chromosphere), so that it will be engulfed by hot gas, possibly produced by the supernova remnant
the Sun near the tip of the red giant branch phase, 1 and Geminga.* [137] The distance between the local arm and
3.8 million years after Mercury and Venus have respec- the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-
tively suered the same fate. Models vary depending on years.* [138] The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found
the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone. The
mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction
luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, that the Sun travels relative to other nearby stars. This
perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 motion is towards a point in the constellation Hercules,
times the radius.* [125] For the Sun, four thermal pulses near the star Vega. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems
are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the
and starts to make a planetary nebula. By the end of that red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-
phase lasting approximately 500,000 years the Sun years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass.* [139]
will only have about half of its current mass. The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way, and it
The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even is presently moving in the direction of constellation of
faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as Cygnus. The Sun's orbit around the Milky Way is roughly
the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the elliptical with the orbital perturbations due to the non-
Sun's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as uniform mass distribution in Milky Way, such that in the
the exposed core reaches 30,000 K. The nal naked core, galactic spiral arms. In addition, the Sun oscillates up
a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7
K, and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present times per orbit.* [140] It has been argued that the Sun's
day mass.* [125] The planetary nebula will disperse in passage through the higher density spiral arms often co-
about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for incides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to
trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black increased impact events.* [141] It takes the Solar Sys-
dwarf.* [129]* [130] tem about 225250 million years to complete one orbit
through the Milky Way (a galactic year),* [142] so it is
thought to have completed 2025 orbits during the life-
time of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar Sys-
2.8 Motion and location tem about the center of the Milky Way is approximately
251 km/s (156 mi/s).* [143] At this speed, it takes around
2.8.1 Orbit in Milky Way 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1
light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU.* [144]
The Milky Way is moving with respect to the cosmic mi-
crowave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of
the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, and the
Sun's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about
370 km/s in the direction of Crater or Leo.* [145]
2.9 Theoretical problems
Illustration of the Milky Way, showing the location of the Sun
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Map of the full Sun by STEREO and SDO spacecraft
Way's Orion Arm, in the Local Interstellar Cloud
2.10. HISTORY OF OBSERVATION 13
2.9.1 Coronal heating problem sating for the lower solar output.* [150]
Main article: Corona

2.10 History of observation
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately
6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches The enormous eect of the Sun on Earth has been rec-
1,000,0002,000,000 K.* [89] The high temperature of ognized since prehistoric times, and the Sun has been
the corona shows that it is heated by something other than regarded by some cultures as a deity.
direct heat conduction from the photosphere.* [91]
It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona 2.10.1 Early understanding
is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone
below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have
been proposed to explain coronal heating.* [89] The rst
is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or mag-
netohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence
in the convection zone.* [89] These waves travel up-
ward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their en-
ergy in the ambient matter in the form of heat.* [146]
The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic en-
ergy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and
released through magnetic reconnection in the form of
large solar ares and myriad similar but smaller events
nanoares.* [147]
Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an ecient
heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvn waves have
been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the The Trundholm sun chariot pulled by a horse is a sculpture be-
corona.* [148] In addition, Alfvn waves do not easily dis- lieved to be illustrating an important part of Nordic Bronze Age
sipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore mythology. The sculpture is probably from around 1350 BC. It
is displayed at the National Museum of Denmark.
shifted towards are heating mechanisms.* [89]
See also: The Sun in culture
2.9.2 Faint young Sun problem The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cul-
tures throughout human history. Humanity's most fun-
Main article: Faint young Sun paradox damental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous
disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon cre-
Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that ates day and whose absence causes night. In many pre-
3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the historic and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be
Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a solar deity or other supernatural entity. Worship of
a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient
water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of
been able to develop. However, the geological record what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the
demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant Sun is still considered a god. Many ancient monuments
temperature throughout its history, and that the young were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for ex-
Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One the- ample, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or
ory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths
Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at
gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-
today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the win-
smaller amount of solar energy reaching it.* [149] ter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichn Itz in
However, examination of Archaean sediments appears Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of ser-
inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse con- pents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal
centrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range equinoxes.
may be explained by a lower surface albedo brought about The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried
by less continental area and the lack of biologically in- across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser
duced cloud condensation nuclei. This would have led gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a char-
to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compen- iot drawn by ery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus
14 CHAPTER 2. SUN
in the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a hol- Arabic astronomical contributions include Albatenius'
iday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally Unconquered discovery that the direction of the Sun's apogee (the place
Sun) soon after the winter solstice, which may have in the Sun's orbit against the xed stars where it seems to
been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the xed be moving slowest) is changing.* [159] (In modern helio-
stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a centric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the
year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek aphelion of the Earth's orbit). Ibn Yunus observed more
astronomers categorized it as one of the seven planets than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years
(Greek planetes, wanderer); the naming of the days using a large astrolabe.* [160]
of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman
era.* [151]* [152]* [153]
2.10.2 Development of scientic under-

standing
In the early rst millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers

observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not
uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known
that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic
orbit around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is
nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when
it is farther away at aphelion.* [154]
One of the rst people to oer a scientic or philosoph- Sol, the Sun, from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber as-
ical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher tronomiae.
Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of
Helios, but instead a giant aming ball of metal even From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the
larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Persian astronomer and polymath Avicenna concluded
Moon reected the light of the Sun.* [155] For teach- that Venus is closer to Earth than the Sun.* [161] In 1672
ing this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the dis-
sentenced to death, though he was later released through tance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the dis-
the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the tance to the Sun.
distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using
BC as of stadia myriads 400 and 80000, the trans- a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of
lation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 many colors.* [162] In 1800, William Herschel discov-
stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 ered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar
million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value spectrum.* [163] The 19th century saw advancement in
is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century AD,
spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer
Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spec-
of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515
trum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as
AU).* [156] Fraunhofer lines. In the early years of the modern scien-
The theory that the Sun is the center around which the tic era, the source of the Sun's energy was a signicant
planets orbit was rst proposed by the ancient Greek puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually
Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, and later cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of
adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). heat.* [164] Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then pro-
This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical posed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain
model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only
Nicolaus Copernicus. 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least
Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han 300 million years suggested by some geological discov-
Dynasty (206 BCAD 220) by Chinese astronomers, who eries of that time.* [164]* [165] In 1890 Joseph Lockyer,
maintained records of these observations for centuries. who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a
Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of
12th century.* [157] The invention of the telescope in the Sun.* [166]
the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of Not until 1904 was a documented solution oered.
sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other as- Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could
tronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the sur- be maintained by an internal source of heat, and sug-
face of the Sun rather than small objects passing between gested radioactive decay as the source.* [167] However,
Earth and the Sun.* [158] it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the es-
2.10. HISTORY OF OBSERVATION 15
sential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output craft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion.* [176] The Sky-
with his mass-energy equivalence relation E = mc2 .* [168] lab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included
In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pres- a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope
sures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the
produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydro- station.* [90] Skylab made the rst time-resolved obser-
gen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a pro- vations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet
duction of energy from the net change in mass.* [169] emissions from the solar corona.* [90] Discoveries in-
The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was concluded the rst observations of coronal mass ejections,
rmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization then called coronal transients, and of coronal holes,
theory developed by Meghnad Saha, an Indian physi- now known to be intimately associated with the solar
cist. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed wind.* [176]
in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chan- In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by
drasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the
NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma
details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reac- rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar ares during
tions that power the Sun.* [170]* [171] In 1957, Margaret
a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just
Burbidge, Georey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred a few months after launch, however, an electronics fail-
Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe ure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it
have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984
some like the Sun.* [172] Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the
satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it
into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently ac-
2.10.3 Solar space missions
quired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-
entering Earth's atmosphere in June 1989.* [177]
See also: Solar observatory
The rst satellites designed to observe the Sun were Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite
observed solar ares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data
allowed scientists to identify several dierent types of
ares, and demonstrated that the corona away from re-
gions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active
than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed
an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when
an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on
the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in
2005.* [178]
One of the most important solar missions to date has been
the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by
the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on
2 December 1995.* [90] Originally intended to serve a
two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was
approved in October 2009.* [179] It has proven so useful
that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory
(SDO), was launched in February 2010.* [180] Situated at
the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which
the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has pro-
The Sun giving out a large geomagnetic storm on 1:29 pm, EST, vided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths
13 March 2012 since its launch.* [90] Besides its direct solar observation,
SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of
NASA's Pioneers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as
between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun they pass the Sun.* [181]
at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the rst
All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane
detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar
of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial
magnetic eld. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long
regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in
time, transmitting data until May 1983.* [174]* [175]
1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It rst travelled
In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo to Jupiter, to slingshotinto an orbit that would take
Telescope Mount provided scientists with signicant new it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was
data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind
1 and 2 probes were U.S.German collaborations that and magnetic eld strength at high solar latitudes, nd-
studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the space-
16 CHAPTER 2. SUN
A solar prominence erupts in August 2012, as captured by SDO
The Sun, as seen from low Earth orbit overlooking the

ing that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving International Space Station. This sunlight is not ltered by the
at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and lower atmosphere, which blocks much of the solar spectrum
that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high
latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays.* [182]
brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated
Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known
eyes.* [187]* [188] Looking directly at the Sun causes
from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the
phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blind-
interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar
ness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to
wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to al-
the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing dam-
low astronomers to directly measure the composition of
age in eyes that cannot respond properly to the bright-
solar material.* [183]
ness.* [189]* [190] UV exposure gradually yellows the
The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) lens of the eye over a period of years, and is thought
mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this de-
spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to pends on general exposure to solar UV, and not whether
(respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually be- one looks directly at the Sun.* [191] Long-duration view-
hind Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the ing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to
Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejec- cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina
tions.* [184]* [185] after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions
The Indian Space Research Organisation has scheduled where the *
UV light from the Sun is intense and well
*
the launch of a 100 kg satellite named Aditya for 2017 focused; [192] [193] conditions are worsened by young
18. Its main instrument will be a coronagraph for study- eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than
*
ing the dynamics of the Solar corona. [186] aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and ob-
serving locations at high altitude.
Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such
2.11 Observation and eects as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the
retina without an appropriate lter that blocks UV and
substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuat-
ing lter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a
lter specically designed for that use. Some improvised
lters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at
high brightness levels.* [194] Herschel wedges, also called
Solar Diagonals, are eective and inexpensive for small
telescopes. The sunlight that is destined for the eyepiece
is reected from an unsilvered surface of a piece of glass.
Only a very small fraction of the incident light is reected.
The rest passes through the glass and leaves the instru-
ment. If the glass breaks because of the heat, no light at
all is reected, making the device fail-safe. Simple lters
During certain atmospheric conditions, the Sun becomes clearly made of darkened glass allow the full intensity of sunlight
visible to the naked eye, and can be observed without stress to to pass through if they break, endangering the observer's
the eyes. Click on this photo to see the full cycle of a sunset, as eyesight. Unltered binoculars can deliver hundreds of
observed from the high plains of the Mojave Desert. times as much energy as using the naked eye, possibly
causing immediate damage. It is claimed that even brief
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from look- glances at the midday Sun through an unltered telescope
ing at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for can cause permanent damage.* [195]
2.12. PLANETARY SYSTEM 17
sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sun-

rise. The ash is caused by light from the Sun just be-
low the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature
inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wave-
lengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of
longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet
and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is per-
ceived as green.* [199]
Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties
and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes
sunburn, and has other biological eects such as the pro-
duction of vitamin D and sun tanning. Ultraviolet light
is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the
amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been
Halo with sun dogs partially responsible for many biological adaptations, in-
cluding variations in human skin color in dierent regions
*
Partial solar eclipses are hazardous to view because the of the globe. [200]
eye's pupil is not adapted to the unusually high visual con-
trast: the pupil dilates according to the total amount of
light in the eld of view, not by the brightest object in the 2.12 Planetary System
eld. During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by
the Moon passing in front of the Sun, but the uncovered Main article: Solar System
parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness
as during a normal day. In the overall gloom, the pupil
expands from ~2 mm to ~6 mm, and each retinal cell ex- The Sun has eight known planets. This includes four
posed to the solar image receives up to ten times more terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars),
light than it would looking at the non-eclipsed Sun. This two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants
can damage or kill those cells, resulting in small perma- (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has ve
nent blind spots for the viewer.* [196] The hazard is in- dwarf planets, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a
sidious for inexperienced observers and for children, be- large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of
cause there is no perception of pain: it is not immediately Neptune.
obvious that one's vision is being destroyed.
2.13 See also

Advanced Composition Explorer
Antisolar point
List of brightest stars
Solar energy
Sun dogs
Sun path
A sunrise Sun-Earth Day
During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because Sunday

of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particu- Sungazing
larly long passage through Earth's atmosphere,* [197] and
the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed com- Timeline of the far future
fortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (pro-
vided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appear-
ing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, 2.14 Notes
atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this at-
mospheric attenuation.* [198]
[1] All numbers in this article are short scale. One billion is
An optical phenomenon, known as a green ash, can 109 , or 1,000,000,000.
18 CHAPTER 2. SUN
[2] In astronomical sciences, the term heavy elements (or met- [10] Connelly, JN; Bizzarro, M; Krot, AN; Nordlund, ;
als) refers to all elements except hydrogen and helium. Wielandt, D; Ivanova, MA (2 November 2012).
The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of
[3] Hydrothermal vent communities live so deep under the Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk. Science.
sea that they have no access to sunlight. Bacteria in- 338 (6107): 651655. Bibcode:2012Sci...338..651C.
stead use sulfur compounds as an energy source, via doi:10.1126/science.1226919. PMID 23118187. Re-
chemosynthesis. trieved 17 March 2014.(registration required)
[4] 1.88 Gcd/m2 is calculated from the solar illuminance of [11] Seidelmann, P. K.; et al. (2000). Report Of The
128000 lux (see sunlight) times the square of the distance IAU/IAG Working Group On Cartographic Coordinates
to the center of the Sun, divided by the cross sectional area And Rotational Elements Of The Planets And Satellites:
of the Sun. 1.44 Gcd/m2 is calculated using 98000 lux. 2000. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
[5] A 50 kg adult human has a volume of about 0.05 m3 , [12] The Sun's Vital Statistics. Stanford Solar Center. Re-
which corresponds to 13.8 watts, at the volumetric power trieved 29 July 2008. Citing Eddy, J. (1979). A New Sun:
of the solar center. This is 285 kcal/day, about 10% of The Solar Results From Skylab. NASA. p. 37. NASA
the actual average caloric intake and output for humans in SP-402.
non-stressful conditions.
[13] How Round is the Sun?". NASA. 2 October 2008. Re-
[6] Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of trieved 7 March 2011.
about 210* 25 m* 3.
[14] First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun. NASA.
6 February 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
2.15 References [15] Charbonneau, P. (2014). Solar Dynamo Theory
. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics.
[1] Williams, D. R. (1 July 2013).Sun Fact Sheet. NASA 52: 251290. Bibcode:2014ARA&A..52..251C.
Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved 12 August 2013. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040012.
[2] Zombeck, Martin V. (1990). Handbook of Space Astron- [16] Woolfson, M. (2000). The origin and evolu-
omy and Astrophysics 2nd edition. Cambridge University tion of the solar system. Astronomy & Geo-
Press. physics. 41 (1): 12. Bibcode:2000A&G....41a..12W.
doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x.
[3] Asplund, M.; Grevesse, N.; Sauval, A. J. (2006).
The new solar abundances Part I: the observations [17] Basu, S.; Antia, H. M. (2008).Helioseismology and So-
. Communications in Asteroseismology. 147: 7679. lar Abundances. Physics Reports. 457 (56): 217283.
Bibcode:2006CoAst.147...76A. doi:10.1553/cia147s76. arXiv:0711.4590 . Bibcode:2008PhR...457..217B.
doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002.
[4] Eclipse 99: Frequently Asked Questions. NASA. Re-
trieved 24 October 2010. [18] Connelly, James N.; Bizzarro, Martin; Krot, Alexan-
der N.; Nordlund, ke; Wielandt, Daniel; Ivanova,
[5] Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2009). Five-year Wilkinson Mi- Marina A. (2 November 2012). The Absolute
crowave Anisotropy Probe observations: data processing, Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in
sky maps, and basic results. The Astrophysical Journal the Solar Protoplanetary Disk. Science. 338
Supplement Series. 180 (2): 225245. arXiv:0803.0732 (6107): 651655. Bibcode:2012Sci...338..651C.
. Bibcode:2009ApJS..180..225H. doi:10.1088/0067- doi:10.1126/science.1226919. PMID 23118187.
0049/180/2/225.
[19] Barnhart, R. K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictio-
[6] Mamajek, E.E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; et, al., IAU nary of Etymology. HarperCollins. p. 776. ISBN 0-06-
2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conver- 270084-7.
sion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties,
[20] Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans:
arXiv:1510.07674
Language, Archaeology and Myth. Thames & Hudson. p.
[7] Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Fig- 129. ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
ures. NASA. Archived from the original on 2 January
[21] Barnhart, R. K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictio-
2008.
nary of Etymology. HarperCollins. p. 778. ISBN 0-06-
[8] Ko, M. (1999). Elert, G., ed.Density of the Sun. The 270084-7.
Physics Factbook.
[22] Little, W; Fowler, H. W.; Coulson, J.Sol. Oxford Uni-
[9] Bonanno, A.; Schlattl, H.; Patern, L. (2008). versal Dictionary on Historical Principles (3rd ed.). ASIN
The age of the Sun and the relativistic correc- B000QS3QVQ.
tions in the EOS. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
[23] Sol. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
390 (3): 11151118. arXiv:astro-ph/0204331 .
Bibcode:2002A&A...390.1115B. doi:10.1051/0004- [24] Opportunity's View, Sol 959 (Vertical)". NASA. 15
6361:20020749. November 2006. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
2.15. REFERENCES 19
[25] Allison, M.; Schmunk, R. (8 August 2012). Techni- [42] Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge
cal Notes on Mars Solar Time as Adopted by the Mars24 University Press. pp. 7879. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
Sunclock. NASA/GISS. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
[43] Construction of a Composite Total Solar Irradiance
[26] Teeter, Emily (2011). Religion and Ritual in Ancient (TSI) Time Series from 1978 to present. Retrieved 5
Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN October 2005.
9780521848558.
[44] El-Sharkawi, Mohamed A. (2005). Electric energy. CRC
[27] Frankfort, Henri (2011). Ancient Egyptian Religion: an Press. pp. 8788. ISBN 978-0-8493-3078-0.
Interpretation. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486411389.
[45] Solar radiation
[28] Owen Chadwick (1998). A History of Christianity. St.
Martin's Press. p. 22. [46] Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5.
Retrieved 12 November 2009.
[29] Than, K. (2006). Astronomers Had it Wrong: Most
Stars are Single. Space.com. Retrieved 1 August 2007. [47] Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 1415, 3438. ISBN 978-0-521-
[30] Lada, C. J. (2006). Stellar multiplicity and the initial 39788-9.
mass function: Most stars are single. Astrophysical Jour-
nal Letters. 640 (1): L63L66. arXiv:astro-ph/0601375 [48] What Color is the Sun?". Universe Today. Retrieved
. Bibcode:2006ApJ...640L..63L. doi:10.1086/503158. 23 May 2016.
[31] Zeilik, M. A.; Gregory, S. A. (1998). Introductory As- [49] What Color is the Sun?". Stanford Solar Center. Re-
tronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Pub- trieved 23 May 2016.
lishing. p. 322. ISBN 0-03-006228-4.
[50] Wilk, S. R. (2009). The Yellow Sun Paradox. Optics
[32] Falk, S. W.; Lattmer, J. M.; Margolis, S. H. (1977). & Photonics News: 1213.
Are supernovae sources of presolar grains?". Nature.
270 (5639): 700701. Bibcode:1977Natur.270..700F. [51] Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge
doi:10.1038/270700a0. University Press. pp. 4753. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
[33] Burton, W. B. (1986). Stellar parameters [52] Karl S. Kruszelnicki (17 April 2012). Dr Karl's Great
. Space Science Reviews. 43 (34): 244250. Moments In Science: Lazy Sun is less energetic than com-
doi:10.1007/BF00190626. post. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 25
February 2014. Every second, the Sun burns 620 million
[34] Bessell, M. S.; Castelli, F.; Plez, B. (1998). Model tonnes of hydrogen...
atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric correc-
tions and temperature calibrations for OM stars [53] Lodders, Katharina (July 10, 2003). Solar System
. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 333: 231250. Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the
Bibcode:1998A&A...333..231B. Elements (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. The
American Astronomical Society. 591 (2): 12201247.
[35] Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000 Bibcode:2003ApJ...591.1220L. doi:10.1086/375492.
2020. US Naval Observatory. 31 January 2008. Re- Lodders, K. (2003). Abundances and Conden-
trieved 17 July 2009. sation Temperatures of the Elements (PDF).
[36] Simon, A. (2001). The Real Science Behind the X-Files : Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 38 (suppl.): 5272.
Microbes, meteorites, and mutants. Simon & Schuster. pp. Bibcode:2003M&PSA..38.5272L.
2527. ISBN 0-684-85618-2. [54] Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stel-
[37] Beer, J.; McCracken, K.; von Steiger, R. (2012). lar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
Cosmogenic Radionuclides: Theory and Applications in (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 1920. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
the Terrestrial and Space Environments. Springer Sci-
[55] Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stel-
ence+Business Media. p. 41. ISBN 978-3-642-14651-0.
lar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
[38] Phillips, K. J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 7778. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
[56] Aller, L.H. (1968). The chemical composition
[39] Godier, S.; Rozelot, J.-P. (2000). The solar oblateness of the Sun and the solar system. Proceedings
and its relationship with the structure of the tachocline and of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 1: 133.
of the Sun's subsurface (PDF). Astronomy and Astro- Bibcode:1968PASAu...1..133A.
physics. 355: 365374. Bibcode:2000A&A...355..365G.
[57] Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stel-
[40] Jones, G. (16 August 2012). Sun is the most perfect lar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
sphere ever observed in nature. The Guardian. Re- (2nd ed.). Springer. 9.2.3. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
trieved 19 August 2013.
[58] Iben, I Jnr (1965) Stellar Evolution. II. The Evolution
[41] Schutz, B. F. (2003). Gravity from the ground up. of a 3 M_{sun} Star from the Main Sequence Through
Cambridge University Press. pp. 9899. ISBN 978-0- Core Helium Burning. (Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142,
521-45506-0. p.1447)
20 CHAPTER 2. SUN
[59] Biemont, E. (1978). Abundances of singly ion- [75] Lazy Sun is less energetic than compost. 17 April
ized elements of the iron group in the Sun. 2012.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
184: 683694. Bibcode:1978MNRAS.184..683B. [76] Haubold, H. J.; Mathai, A. M. (1994). So-
doi:10.1093/mnras/184.4.683. lar Nuclear Energy Generation & The Chlorine So-
lar Neutrino Experiment. AIP Conference Pro-
[60] Ross and Aller 1976, Withbroe 1976, Hauge and Engvold
ceedings. 320: 102. arXiv:astro-ph/9405040 .
1977, cited in Biemont 1978.
Bibcode:1995AIPC..320..102H. doi:10.1063/1.47009.
[61] Corliss and Bozman (1962 cited in Biemont 1978) and
Warner (1967 cited in Biemont 1978) [77] Myers, S. T. (18 February 1999). Lecture 11 Stel-
lar Structure I: Hydrostatic Equilibrium. Introduction to
[62] Smith (1976 cited in Biemont 1978) Astrophysics II. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
[63] Signer and Suess 1963; Manuel 1967; Marti 1969; [78] Sun. World Book at NASA. NASA. Archived from the
Kuroda and Manuel 1970; Srinivasan and Manuel 1971, original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
all cited in Manuel and Hwaung 1983
[79] Tobias, S. M. (2005). The solar tachocline: Forma-
[64] Kuroda and Manuel 1970 cited in Manuel and Hwaung
tion, stability and its role in the solar dynamo. In A.
1983:7
M. Soward; et al. Fluid Dynamics and Dynamos in Astro-
[65] Manuel, O. K.; Hwaung, G. (1983). Solar abundances physics and Geophysics. CRC Press. pp. 193235. ISBN
of the elements. Meteoritics. 18 (3): 209222. 978-0-8493-3355-2.
Bibcode:1983Metic..18..209M. doi:10.1111/j.1945-
5100.1983.tb00822.x. [80] Mullan, D. J (2000).Solar Physics: From the Deep Inte-
rior to the Hot Corona. In Page, D.; Hirsch, J.G. From
[66] Garca, R.; et al. (2007). Tracking solar grav- the Sun to the Great Attractor. Springer. p. 22. ISBN
ity modes: the dynamics of the solar core. Science. 978-3-540-41064-5.
316 (5831): 15911593. Bibcode:2007Sci...316.1591G.
doi:10.1126/science.1140598. PMID 17478682. [81] Abhyankar, K. D. (1977). A Survey of the Solar Atmo-
spheric Models. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of
[67] Basu, S.; et al. (2009). Fresh insights on India. 5: 4044. Bibcode:1977BASI....5...40A.
the structure of the solar core. The Astrophysi-
cal Journal. 699 (2): 14031417. arXiv:0905.0651 [82] Gibson, E. G. (1973). The Quiet Sun. NASA. ASIN
. Bibcode:2009ApJ...699.1403B. doi:10.1088/0004- B0006C7RS0.
637X/699/2/1403.
[83] Shu, F. H. (1991). The Physics of Astrophysics. 1.
[68] NASA/Marshall Solar Physics. Marshall Space Flight University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-64-4.
Center. 18 January 2007. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
[84] Rast, M.; Nordlund, .; Stein, R.; Toomre, J. (1993).
[69] Broggini, C. (2003). Physics in Collision, Proceedings of Ionization Eects in Three-Dimensional Solar Gran-
the XXIII International Conference: Nuclear Processes at ulation Simulations. The Astrophysical Journal Let-
Solar Energy. XXIII Physics in Collisions Conference. ters. 408 (1): L53L56. Bibcode:1993ApJ...408L..53R.
Zeuthen, Germany. p. 21. arXiv:astro-ph/0308537 . doi:10.1086/186829.
Bibcode:2003phco.conf...21B.
[85] Parnel, C.Discovery of Helium. University of St An-
[70] Goupil, M. J.; Lebreton, Y.; Marques, J. P.; Samadi, drews. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
R.; Baudin, F. (2011). Open issues in probing in-
teriors of solar-like oscillating main sequence stars 1. [86] Solanki, S. K.; Livingston, W.; Ayres, T.
From the Sun to nearly suns. Journal of Physics: (1994). New Light on the Heart of Dark-
Conference Series. 271 (1): 012031. arXiv:1102.0247 ness of the Solar Chromosphere. Science. 263
. Bibcode:2011JPhCS.271a2031G. doi:10.1088/1742- (5143): 6466. Bibcode:1994Sci...263...64S.
6596/271/1/012031. doi:10.1126/science.263.5143.64. PMID 17748350.
[71] Zirker, J. B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. [87] De Pontieu, B.; et al. (2007). Chromospheric Alfvnic
Princeton University Press. pp. 1534. ISBN 978-0-691- Waves Strong Enough to Power the Solar Wind. Science.
05781-1. 318 (5856): 157477. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1574D.
doi:10.1126/science.1151747. PMID 18063784.
[72] Shu, F. H. (1982). The Physical Universe: An Introduction
to Astronomy. University Science Books. p. 102. ISBN [88] Hansteen, V. H.; Leer, E.; Holzer, T. E. (1997).
0-935702-05-9. The role of helium in the outer solar atmosphere
[73] https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_sun.html . The Astrophysical Journal. 482 (1): 498509.
Bibcode:1997ApJ...482..498H. doi:10.1086/304111.
[74] Cohen, H. (9 November 1998). Table of tempera-
tures, power densities, luminosities by radius in the Sun. [89] Erdlyi, R.; Ballai, I. (2007). Heating of the so-
Contemporary Physics Education Project. Archived from lar and stellar coronae: a review. Astron. Nachr.
the original on 29 November 2001. Retrieved 30 August 328 (8): 726733. Bibcode:2007AN....328..726E.
2011. doi:10.1002/asna.200710803.
2.15. REFERENCES 21
[90] Dwivedi, B. N. (2006). Our ultraviolet Sun (PDF). [107] Phillips, T. (15 February 2001). The Sun Does a Flip
Current Science. 91 (5): 587595. . NASA. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
[91] Russell, C. T. (2001). Solar wind and interplanetary [108] Wang, Y.-M.; Sheeley, N. R. (2003). Model-
magnetic led: A tutorial. In Song, Paul; Singer, Howard ing the Sun's Large-Scale Magnetic Field during the
J.; Siscoe, George L. Space Weather (Geophysical Mono- Maunder Minimum. The Astrophysical Journal.
graph) (PDF). American Geophysical Union. pp. 7388. 591 (2): 124856. Bibcode:2003ApJ...591.1248W.
ISBN 978-0-87590-984-4. doi:10.1086/375449.
[92] A. G, Emslie; J. A., Miller (2003). Particle Accelera- [109] Zirker, J. B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun.
tion. In Dwivedi, B. N. Dynamic Sun. Cambridge Uni- Princeton University Press. pp. 120127. ISBN 978-0-
versity Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-521-81057-9. 691-05781-1.
[93] A Star with two North Poles. Science @ NASA. NASA. [110] Willson, R. C.; Hudson, H. S. (1991). The Sun's
22 April 2003. luminosity over a complete solar cycle. Nature.
351 (6321): 424. Bibcode:1991Natur.351...42W.
[94] Riley, P.; Linker, J. A.; Miki, Z. (2002). Mod- doi:10.1038/351042a0.
eling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle varia-
tions (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 107 [111] Eddy, John A. (June 1976). The Maun-
(A7): SSH 81. Bibcode:2002JGRA..107.1136R. der Minimum. Science. 192 (4245):
doi:10.1029/2001JA000299. CiteID 1136. 11891202. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1189E.
doi:10.1126/science.192.4245.1189. JSTOR 17425839.
[95] The Distortion of the Heliosphere: Our Interstellar Mag- PMID 17771739.
netic Compass(Press release). European Space Agency.
[112] Lean, J.; Skumanich, A.; White, O. (1992). Es-
2005. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
timating the Sun's radiative output during the Maun-
[96] Anderson, Rupert W. (2015). The Cosmic Compendium: der Minimum. Geophysical Research Letters. 19
Interstellar Travel. pp. 1634. (15): 15911594. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19.1591L.
doi:10.1029/92GL01578.
[97] Ancient sunlight. Technology Through Time. NASA.
2007. Retrieved 24 June 2009. [113] Mackay, R. M.; Khalil, M. A. K (2000). Greenhouse
gases and global warming. In Singh, S. N. Trace Gas
[98] Stix, M. (2003). On the time scale of en- Emissions and Plants. Springer. pp. 128. ISBN 978-0-
ergy transport in the sun. Solar Physics. 7923-6545-7.
212 (1): 36. Bibcode:2003SoPh..212....3S.
doi:10.1023/A:1022952621810. [114] Ehrlich, R. (2007). Solar Resonant Diu-
sion Waves as a Driver of Terrestrial Climate
[99] Schlattl, H. (2001). Three-avor oscilla- Change. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-
tion solutions for the solar neutrino problem. Terrestrial Physics. 69 (7): 759766. arXiv:astro-
Physical Review D. 64 (1): 013009. arXiv:hep- ph/0701117 . Bibcode:2007JASTP..69..759E.
ph/0102063 . Bibcode:2001PhRvD..64a3009S. doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2007.01.005.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.013009.
[115] Clark, S. (2007). Sun's ckle heart may leave us cold
[100] The Mean Magnetic Field of the Sun. Wilcox Solar . New Scientist. 193 (2588): 12. doi:10.1016/S0262-
Observatory. 2006. Retrieved 1 August 2007. 4079(07)60196-1.
[101] Zirker, J. B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. [116] Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the
Princeton University Press. pp. 119120. ISBN 978-0- Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 78. ISBN 978-0-
691-05781-1. 691-05781-1.
[117] Amelin, Y.; Krot, A.; Hutcheon, I.; Ulyanov, A.

[102] Lang, Kenneth R. (2008). The Sun from Space. Springer-
(2002). Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and
Verlag. p. 75. ISBN 978-3540769521.
calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions. Science. 297
[103] The Largest Sunspot in Ten Years. Goddard Space (5587): 16781683. Bibcode:2002Sci...297.1678A.
Flight Center. 30 March 2001. Archived from the original doi:10.1126/science.1073950. PMID 12215641.
on 23 August 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
[118] Baker, J.; Bizzarro, M.; Wittig, N.; Connelly, J.; Haack,
[104] Hale, G. E.; Ellerman, F.; Nicholson, S. B.; Joy, H. (2005). Early planetesimal melting from an age of
A. H. (1919). The Magnetic Polarity of Sun- 4.5662 Gyr for dierentiated meteorites. Nature. 436
Spots. The Astrophysical Journal. 49: 153. (7054): 11271131. Bibcode:2005Natur.436.1127B.
Bibcode:1919ApJ....49..153H. doi:10.1086/142452. doi:10.1038/nature03882. PMID 16121173.
[119] Williams, J. (2010). The astrophysi-

[105] NASA Satellites Capture Start of New Solar Cycle.
cal environment of the solar birthplace.
PhysOrg. 4 January 2008. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
Contemporary Physics. 51 (5): 381396.
[106] Sun ips magnetic eld. CNN. 16 February 2001. arXiv:1008.2973 . Bibcode:2010ConPh..51..381W.
Retrieved 11 July 2009. doi:10.1080/00107511003764725.
22 CHAPTER 2. SUN
[120] Ribas, Ignasi (February 2010). Proceedings of the [137] Gehrels, Neil; Chen, Wan; Mereghetti, S. (25 February
IAU Symposium 264 'Solar and Stellar Variability Im- 1993).The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the
pact on Earth and Planets': The Sun and stars as the pri- local interstellar bubble. Nature. 361 (6414): 706707.
mary energy input in planetary atmospheres. Proceed- Bibcode:1993Natur.361..704B. doi:10.1038/361704a0.
ings of the International Astronomical Union. 264: 3
[138] English, J. (2000). Exposing the Stu Between the
18. arXiv:0911.4872 . Bibcode:2010IAUS..264....3R.
Stars (Press release). Hubble News Desk. Retrieved
doi:10.1017/S1743921309992298.
10 May 2007.
[121] Goldsmith, D.; Owen, T. (2001). The search for life in the
universe. University Science Books. p. 96. ISBN 978-1- [139] Adams, F. C.; Graves, G.; Laughlin, G. J. M. (2004).
891389-16-0. Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence(PDF).
Revista Mexicana de Astronoma y Astrofsica. 22: 46
[122] The Sun's Evolution. 49. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22...46A. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 26 July 2011.
[123] Earth Won't Die as Soon as Thought. 22 January 2014.
[140] Moore, Patrick; Rees, Robin (16 January 2014). Patrick
[124] Nola Taylor Redd.Red Giant Stars: Facts, Denition &
Moore's Data Book of Astronomy. Cambridge: Cam-
the Future of the Sun. space.com. Retrieved 20 February
bridge University Press. ISBN 1139495224.
2016.
[125] Schrder, K. -P.; Connon Smith, R. (2008). Distant [141] Gillman, M.; Erenler, H. (2008). The galactic cy-
future of the Sun and Earth revisited. Monthly No- cle of extinction. International Journal of Astrobi-
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386: 155163. ology. 7 (1): 1726. Bibcode:2008IJAsB...7...17G.
doi:10.1017/S1473550408004047.
arXiv:0801.4031 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. [142] Leong, S. (2002). Period of the Sun's Orbit around the
Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved
[126] Boothroyd, A. I.; Sackmann, I. J. (1999). The
10 May 2007.
CNO Isotopes: Deep Circulation in Red Giants and
First and Second Dredgeup. The Astrophysical Jour- [143] Croswell, K. (2008). Milky Way keeps tight grip
nal. 510: 232250. Bibcode:1999ApJ...510..232B. on its neighbor. New Scientist. 199 (2669): 8.
doi:10.1086/306546. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(08)62026-6.
[127] The End Of The Sun. [144] Garlick, M.A. (2002). The Story of the Solar System.
[128] Vassiliadis, E.; Wood, P. R. (1993). Evolution of low- Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-521-80336-
and intermediate-mass stars to the end of the asymp- 5.
totic giant branch with mass loss. The Astrophysi-
[145] Kogut, A.; et al. (1993). Dipole Anisotropy in the
cal Journal. 413: 641. Bibcode:1993ApJ...413..641V.
COBE Dierential Microwave Radiometers First-Year
doi:10.1086/173033.
Sky Maps. Astrophysical Journal. 419: 1. arXiv:astro-
[129] Bibcode: 1995A&A...297..727B ph/9312056 . Bibcode:1993ApJ...419....1K.
doi:10.1086/173453.
[130] Bibcode: 1995A&A...299..755B
[131] Our Local Galactic Neighborhood, NASA Archived 7 [146] Alfvn, H. (1947). Magneto-hydrodynamic waves,
November 2015 at the Wayback Machine. and the heating of the solar corona. Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 107
[132] Into the Interstellar Void. Centauri Dreams. (2): 211219. Bibcode:1947MNRAS.107..211A.
doi:10.1093/mnras/107.2.211.
[133] Reid, M.J. (1993). The distance to the center of the
Galaxy. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. [147] Parker, E.N. (1988). Nanoares and the solar X-
31 (1): 345372. Bibcode:1993ARA&A..31..345R. ray corona. Astrophysical Journal. 330 (1): 474.
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002021. Bibcode:1988ApJ...330..474P. doi:10.1086/166485.
[134] Eisenhauer, F.; et al. (2003). A Geometric Determina- [148] Sturrock, P.A.; Uchida, Y. (1981). Coronal heat-
tion of the Distance to the Galactic Center. Astrophysical ing by stochastic magnetic pumping. Astrophysical
Journal. 597 (2): L121L124. arXiv:astro-ph/0306220 Journal. 246 (1): 331. Bibcode:1981ApJ...246..331S.
. Bibcode:2003ApJ...597L.121E. doi:10.1086/380188. doi:10.1086/158926.
[135] Horrobin, M.; et al. (2004).First results from SPIFFI. I: [149] Kasting, J.F.; Ackerman, T.P. (1986). Climatic Con-
The Galactic Center(PDF). Astronomische Nachrichten. sequences of Very High Carbon Dioxide Levels in the
325 (2): 120123. Bibcode:2004AN....325...88H. Earth's Early Atmosphere. Science. 234 (4782): 1383
doi:10.1002/asna.200310181. 1385. doi:10.1126/science.11539665. PMID 11539665.
[136] Eisenhauer, F.; et al. (2005). SINFONI in [150] Rosing, Minik T.; Bird, Dennis K.; Sleep, Norman
the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares H.; Bjerrum, Christian J. (April 1, 2010). No cli-
in the Central Light-Month. Astrophysical Jour- mate paradox under the faint early Sun. Nature.
nal. 628 (1): 246259. arXiv:astro-ph/0502129 . 464 (7289): 744747. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..744R.
Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..246E. doi:10.1086/430667. doi:10.1038/nature08955. PMID 20360739.
2.15. REFERENCES 23
[151] Planet. Oxford Dictionaries. December 2007. Re- [170] Bethe, H.; Critcheld, C. (1938). On the Formation of
trieved 22 March 2015. Deuterons by Proton Combination. Physical Review.
54 (10): 862862. Bibcode:1938PhRv...54Q.862B.
[152] Goldstein, Bernard R. (1997). Saving the phenomena : doi:10.1103/PhysRev.54.862.2.
the background to Ptolemy's planetary theory. Journal
for the History of Astronomy. Cambridge (UK). 28 (1): [171] Bethe, H. (1939). Energy Produc-
112. Bibcode:1997JHA....28....1G. tion in Stars. Physical Review. 55 (1):
434456. Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..434B.
[153] Ptolemy; Toomer, G. J. (1998). Ptolemy's Almagest. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00260-6.
[172] Burbidge, E.M.; Burbidge, G.R.; Fowler, W.A.;
[154] Leverington, David (2003). Babylon to Voyager and be-
Hoyle, F. (1957). Synthesis of the Elements
yond: a history of planetary astronomy. Cambridge Uni-
in Stars. Reviews of Modern Physics. 29
versity Press. pp. 67. ISBN 0-521-80840-5.
(4): 547650. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B.
[155] Sider, D. (1973). Anaxagoras on the Size of the doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.
Sun. Classical Philologys. 68 (2): 128129.
doi:10.1086/365951. JSTOR 269068. [173] Phillips, T. (2007). Stereo Eclipse. Science@NASA.
NASA. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
[156] Goldstein, B.R. (1967). The Arabic Version of
Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses. Transactions of [174] Wade, M. (2008). Pioneer 6-7-8-9-E. Encyclopedia
the American Philosophical Society. 57 (4): 912. Astronautica. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
doi:10.2307/1006040. JSTOR 1006040.
[175] Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our
[157] Ead, Hamed A. Averroes As A Physician. University of Solar System: Past: Pioneer 9. NASA. Retrieved 30
Cairo. October 2010. NASA maintained contact with Pioneer 9
until May 1983
[158] Galileo Galilei (15641642)". BBC. Retrieved 22
March 2006. [176] Burlaga, L.F. (2001). Magnetic Fields and plasmas
in the inner heliosphere: Helios results. Plan-
[159] A short History of scientic ideas to 1900, C. Singer, Ox- etary and Space Science. 49 (1415): 161927.
ford University Press, 1959, p. 151. Bibcode:2001P&SS...49.1619B. doi:10.1016/S0032-
0633(01)00098-8.
[160] The Arabian Science, C. Ronan, pp. 201244 in The
Cambridge Illustrated History of the World's Science, Cam-
[177] Burkepile, C.J. (1998). Solar Maximum Mission
bridge University Press, 1983; at pp. 213214.
Overview. Archived from the original on 5 April 2006.
[161] Goldstein, Bernard R. (March 1972). Theory and Ob- Retrieved 22 March 2006.
servation in Medieval Astronomy. Isis. University of
Chicago Press. 63 (1): 3947 [44]. doi:10.1086/350839. [178] Result of Re-entry of the Solar X-ray Observatory
Yohkoh(SOLAR-A) to the Earth's Atmosphere(Press
[162] Sir Isaac Newton (16431727)". BBC. Retrieved 22 release). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 2005.
March 2006. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
[163] Herschel Discovers Infrared Light. Cool Cosmos. Re- [179] Mission extensions approved for science missions. ESA
trieved 22 March 2006. Science and Technology. 7 October 2009. Retrieved 16
February 2010.
[164] Thomson, W. (1862). On the Age of the Sun's Heat.
Macmillan's Magazine. 5: 388393. [180] NASA Successfully Launches a New Eye on the Sun
. NASA Press Release Archives. 11 February 2010. Re-
[165] Stacey, Frank D. (2000).Kelvin's age of the Earth para-
trieved 16 February 2010.
dox revisited. Journal of Geophysical Research. 105
(B6): 1315513158. Bibcode:2000JGR...10513155S. [181] Sungrazing Comets. LASCO (US Naval Research
doi:10.1029/2000JB900028. Laboratory). Retrieved 19 March 2009.
[166] Lockyer, J.N. (1890). The meteoritic hypothesis; a
[182] JPL/CALTECH (2005). Ulysses: Primary Mission Re-
statement of the results of a spectroscopic inquiry into
sults. NASA. Retrieved 22 March 2006.
the origin of cosmical systems. Macmillan and Co.
Bibcode:1890mhsr.book.....L. [183] Calaway, M.J.; Stansbery, Eileen K.; Keller, Lind-
[167] Darden, L. (1998). The Nature of Scientic Inquiry. say P. (2009). Genesis capturing the Sun: So-
lar wind irradiation at Lagrange 1. Nuclear In-
[168] Hawking, S. W. (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Ban- struments and Methods in Physics Research B. 267
tam Books. ISBN 0-553-80202-X. (7): 11011108. Bibcode:2009NIMPB.267.1101C.
doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2009.01.132.
[169] Studying the stars, testing relativity: Sir Arthur Edding-
ton. Space Science. European Space Agency. 2005. [184] STEREO Spacecraft & Instruments. NASA Missions.
Retrieved 1 August 2007. 8 March 2006. Retrieved 30 May 2006.
24 CHAPTER 2. SUN
[185] Howard, R. A.; Moses, J. D.; Socker, D. G.; Dere, [196] Espenak, Fred (26 April 1996).Eye Safety During Solar
K. P.; Cook, J. W. (2002). Sun Earth Connection Eclipses. NASA.
Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI)".
[197] Haber, Jorg; Magnor, Marcus; Seidel, Hans-Peter
Advances in Space Research. 29 (12): 20172026.
(2005). Physically based Simulation of Twilight
Bibcode:2008SSRv..136...67H. doi:10.1007/s11214-
Phenomena. ACM Transactions on Graphics.
008-9341-4.
24 (4): 13531373. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.67.2567 .
[186] Laxman, Srinivas; Rhik Kundu, TNN (9 September doi:10.1145/1095878.1095884.
2012). Aditya 1 launch delayed to 201516. The
Times of India. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. [198] Piggin, I. G. (1972). Diurnal asymme-
tries in global radiation. Springer. 20
[187] White, T.J.; Mainster, M.A.; Wilson, P.W.; Tips, J.H. (1): 4148. Bibcode:1972AMGBB..20...41P.
(1971). Chorioretinal temperature increases from solar doi:10.1007/BF02243313.
observation. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. 33
[199] The Green Flash. BBC. Archived from the original
(1): 117. doi:10.1007/BF02476660.
on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
[188] Tso, M.O.M.; La Piana, F.G. (1975).The Human Fovea [200] Barsh, G.S. (2003). What Controls Variation in
After Sungazing. Transactions of the American Academy Human Skin Color?". PLoS Biology. 1 (1): e7.
of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology. 79 (6): OP788
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000027. PMC 212702 .
95. PMID 1209815.
PMID 14551921.
[189] Hope-Ross, M.W.; Mahon, GJ; Gardiner, TA; Archer,
DB (1993). Ultrastructural ndings in solar retinopa-
thy. Eye. 7 (4): 2933. doi:10.1038/eye.1993.7. PMID 2.16 Further reading
8325420.
[190] Schatz, H.; Mendelblatt, F. (1973). Solar Retinopa- Cohen, Richard (2010). Chasing the Sun: the Epic
thy from Sun-Gazing Under Inuence of LSD. Story of the Star that Gives us Life. Simon & Schus-
British Journal of Ophthalmology. 57 (4): 2703. ter. ISBN 1-4000-6875-4.
doi:10.1136/bjo.57.4.270. PMC 1214879 . PMID
Thompson, M. J. (2004). Solar interior: Helio-
4707624.
seismology and the Sun's interior. Astronomy &
[191] Chou, B.R. (2005). Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses Geophysics. 45 (4): 2125.
. "While environmental exposure to UV radiation is known
Solar Activity Scholarpedia Hugh Hudson
to contribute to the accelerated aging of the outer layers of
the eye and the development of cataracts, the concern over 3(3):3967. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967
improper viewing of the Sun during an eclipse is for the
development of eclipse blindnessor retinal burns."
2.17 External links
[192] Ham, W.T. Jr.; Mueller, H.A.; Sliney, D.H. (1976).
Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wave-
length light. Nature. 260 (5547): 153155. Nasa SOHO (Solar & Heliospheric Observatory)
Bibcode:1976Natur.260..153H. doi:10.1038/260153a0. satellite
[193] Ham, W.T. Jr.; Mueller, H.A.; Ruolo, J.J. Jr.; Guerry, National Solar Observatory
D. III (1980). Solar Retinopathy as a function of Wave- Astronomy Cast: The Sun
length: its Signicance for Protective Eyewear. In
Williams, T.P.; Baker, B.N. The Eects of Constant Light A collection of spectacular images of the Sun from
on Visual Processes. Plenum Press. pp. 319346. ISBN various institutions (The Boston Globe)
0-306-40328-5.
Satellite observations of solar luminosity
[194] Kardos, T. (2003). Earth science. J.W. Walch. p. 87.
ISBN 978-0-8251-4500-1. Sun|Trek, an educational website about the Sun
[195] Macdonald, Lee (2012). 2. Equipment for Observ- The Swedish 1-meter Solar Telescope, SST
ing the Sun. How to Observe the Sun Safely. New An animated explanation of the structure of the Sun
York: Springer Science + Business Media. p. 17.
(University of Glamorgan)
doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3825-0_2. NEVER LOOK DI-
RECTLY AT THE SUN THROUGH ANY FORM OF Animation The Future of the Sun
OPTICAL EQUIPMENT, EVEN FOR AN INSTANT.
A brief glimpse of the Sun through a telescope is enough Solar Conveyor Belt Speeds Up NASA images,
to cause permanent eye damage, or even blindness. Even link to report on Science
looking at the Sun with the naked eye for more than a sec-
ond or two is not safe. Do not assume that it is safe to look
NASA 5-year timelapse video of the Sun
at the Sun through a lter, no matter how dark the lter Sun in Ultra High Denition NASA 11/1/2015
appears to be.
Chapter 3
Sirius
Sirius Bredirects here. For other uses of Sirius B, see tion around the Pacic Ocean.
Sirius B (disambiguation). For other uses of Sirius, see
Sirius (disambiguation).
3.1 Observational history
Sirius (/sri.s/, a romanization of Greek ,
Seirios, lit. glowingor scorching) is a star sys-
tem and the brightest star in the Earth's night sky. With
a visual apparent magnitude of 1.46, it is almost twice
as bright as Canopus, the next brightest star. The sys-
tem has the Bayer designation Alpha Canis Majoris (
CMa). What the naked eye perceives as a single star is a
binary star system, consisting of a white main-sequence
star of spectral type A1V, termed Sirius A, and a faint
white dwarf companion of spectral type DA2, called Sir-
ius B. The distance separating Sirius A from its compan-
ion varies between 8.2 and 31.5 AU.* [24]
Sirius appears bright because of its intrinsic luminosity
and its proximity to Earth. At a distance of 2.6 parsecs
(8.6 ly), as determined by the Hipparcos astrometry satel-
lite,* [2]* [25]* [26] the Sirius system is one of Earth's near Sirius (bottom) and Orion (right). Together, the three brightest
stars of the northern winter skySirius, Betelgeuse (top right),
neighbours. Sirius is gradually moving closer to the Solar
and Procyon (top left)can also be understood as forming the
System, so it will slightly increase in brightness over the
Winter Triangle.
next 60,000 years. After that time its distance will begin
to increase and it will become fainter, but it will continue The brightest star in the night sky, Sirius is recorded in
to be the brightest star in the Earth's night sky for the next the earliest astronomical records. Every year, it disap-
210,000 years.* [27] pears for seventy days* [28] before returning to the night
Sirius A is about twice as massive as the Sun (M ) and sky just before sunrise. Its displacement from the ecliptic
has an absolute visual magnitude of 1.42. It is 25 times causes this heliacal rising to be remarkably regular com-
more luminous than the Sun* [12] but has a signicantly pared to other stars, with a period of almost exactly
lower luminosity than other bright stars such as Canopus 365.25 days holding it constant relative to the solar year.
or Rigel. The system is between 200 and 300 million This occurs at Cairo on 19 July (Julian), placing it just
years old.* [12] It was originally composed of two bright prior to the summer solstice and the onset of the annual
bluish stars. The more massive of these, Sirius B, con- ooding of the Nile during antiquity.* [29]
sumed its resources and became a red giant before shed- Owing to the ood's own irregularity, the extreme pre-
ding its outer layers and collapsing into its current state cision of the star's return made it important to the
as a white dwarf around 120 million years ago.* [12] ancient Egyptians,* [29] who worshipped it as the goddess
Sirius is also known colloquially as the "Dog Star", re- Sopdet (Egyptian: Spdt, Triangle";* [lower-alpha 1]
ecting its prominence in its constellation, Canis Major Greek: , Sthis), guarantor of the fertility of their
(Greater Dog).* [18] The heliacal rising of Sirius marked land.* [lower-alpha 2] The Egyptian civil calendar was ap-
the ooding of the Nile in Ancient Egypt and the "dog parently initiated to have its New Year Wep Renpet co-
days" of summer for the ancient Greeks, while to the incide with the appearance of Sirius, although its lack of
Polynesians in the Southern Hemisphere the star marked leap years meant that this congruence only held for four
winter and was an important reference for their naviga- years until its date began to wander backwards through
the months. The Egyptians continued to note the times
25
26 CHAPTER 3. SIRIUS
of Sirius's annual return, which may have led them to the meha (also Kaulanomeha),Standing-alone-and-sacred
discovery of the 1460-year Sothic cycle and inuenced ,* [39]* [40] Hiki-kauelia or Hiki-kauilia (the navigational
the development of the Julian and Alexandrian calendars. name), Hiki-kau-lono-meha (star of solitary Lono,
*
The ancient Greeks observed that the appearance of Sir- the astrological name), [41] Kaulua *(also Kaulua-ihai-
ius heralded the hot and dry summer and feared that it mohai, ower of the heavens), [42] Hiki-kauelia,
caused plants to wilt, men to weaken, and women to be- Hoku-hoo-kele-waa (star which* causes the canoe to
come aroused.* [30] Due to its brightness, Sirius would sail, a marine navigation
*
name), [43] and Kaulua-lena
have been noted to twinkle more in the unsettled weather (yellow star). [42] The people of the Society Is-
lands called Sirius variously Taurua-fau-papa, Taurua-
conditions of early summer. To Greek observers, this
signied certain emanations which caused its malignant nui-te-amo-aha, and Taurua-e-hiti-i-tara-te-feiai. Other
names for Sirius included Palolo-mua (Futuna), Mere
inuence. Anyone suering its eects was said to be
star-struck(, astrobltos). It was de- (Mangaia), Apura (Manihiki), Taku-ua (Marquesas Is-
* lands), and Tokiva (Pukapuka).* [39] In the cosmology
scribed as burningor amingin literature. [31]
The season following the star's reappearance came to be of the Tuamotus, Sirius had various names, includ-
* ing Takurua-te-upuupu,* [39] Te Kaha (coconut bre
known as the dog days. [32] The inhabitants of the is- * * *
land of Ceos in the Aegean Sea would oer sacrices ), [44] Te Upuupu, [45] Taranga, [46]* and Vero-ma-
to Sirius and Zeus to bring cooling breezes, and would torutoru (aming and diminishing). [47]
await the reappearance of the star in summer. If it rose The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria
clear, it would portend good fortune; if it was misty or named Sirius as Warepil.* [48]
faint then it foretold (or emanated) pestilence. Coins re-
trieved from the island from the 3rd century BC feature
dogs or stars with emanating rays, highlighting Sirius' im- 3.1.1 Kinematics
portance.* [31] The Romans celebrated the heliacal set-
ting of Sirius around April 25, sacricing a dog, along In 1718, Edmond Halley discovered the proper motion of
with incense, wine, and a sheep, to the goddess Robigo the hitherto presumed xedstars* [49] after compar-
so that the star's emanations would not cause wheat rust ing contemporary astrometric measurements with those
on wheat crops that year.* [33] given in Ptolemy's Almagest. The bright stars Aldebaran,
Ptolemy of Alexandria mapped the stars in Books VII and Arcturus and Sirius were noted to have moved signi-
VIII of his Almagest, in which he used Sirius as the loca- cantly; Sirius had progressed 30 arc minutes (about the
*
tion for the globe's central meridian. He depicted it as one diameter of the Moon) southwards in 1,800 years. [50]
of six red-coloured stars (see the Red controversy section In 1868, Sirius became the rst star to have its velocity
below). The other ve are class M and K stars, such as measured, the beginning of the study of celestial radial
Arcturus and Betelgeuse.* [34] velocities. Sir William Huggins examined the spectrum
Bright stars were important to the ancient Polynesians of the star and observed a red shift. He concluded that
for navigation between the many islands and atolls of Sirius was receding from the Solar System at about 40
* *
the Pacic Ocean. Low on the horizon, they acted as km/s. [51] [52] Compared to the modern value of 5.5
stellar compasses. They also served as latitude mark- km/s, this was an overestimate and had the wrong sign;
ers; the declination of Sirius matches the latitude of the minus means it is approaching the Sun.
the archipelago of Fiji at 17S and thus passes di-
rectly over the islands each night.* [35] Sirius served
as the body of a Great Birdconstellation called 3.1.2 Distance
Manu, with Canopus as the southern wingtip and Procyon
the northern wingtip, which divided the Polynesian In his 1698 book Cosmotheoros, Christiaan Huygens es-
night sky into two hemispheres.* [36] Just as the ap- timated the distance to Sirius at 27664 times the dis-
pearance of Sirius in the morning sky marked sum- tance of the Earth to the Sun (about 0.437 light years,
mer in Greece, it marked the onset of winter for the translating to a parallax of roughly 7.5 arcseconds).* [53]
Mori, whose name Takurua described both the star and There were several unsuccessful attempts to measure the
the season. Its culmination at the winter solstice was parallax of Sirius: by Jacques Cassini (6 seconds); by
marked by celebration in Hawaii, where it was known some astronomers (including Nevil Maskelyne)* [54] us-
as Ka'ulua, Queen of Heaven. Many other Poly- ing Lacaille's observations made at the Cape of Good
nesian names have been recorded, including Tau-ua in Hope (4 seconds); by Piazzi (the same amount); using
the Marquesas Islands, Rehua in New Zealand, and Lacaille's observations made at Paris, more numerous and
Ta'urua-fau-papaFestivity of original high chiefsand certain than those made at the Cape (no sensible paral-
Ta'urua-e-hiti-i-te-tara-te-feiaiFestivity who rises with lax); by Bessel (no sensible parallax).* [55]
prayers and religious ceremoniesin Tahiti.* [37] The Scottish astronomer Thomas Henderson was the rst to
Hawaiian people had many names for Sirius, including gain some meaningful value using his observations made
Aa (glowing),* [38] Hoku-kauopae,* [39] Kau-ano- in 18321833 and South African astronomer Thomas
3.1. OBSERVATIONAL HISTORY 27
Maclear's observations made in 18361837, and was pub- spectrum of Sirius B and determined that it was a faint
lished in 1839. The value of the parallax was 0.23 whitish star.* [64] This led astronomers to conclude that
arcseconds, and error of the parallax was estimated not it was a white dwarf, the second to be discovered.* [65]
to exceed a quarter of a second, or in Henderson's The diameter of Sirius A was rst measured by Robert
words,"On the whole we may conclude that the parallax Hanbury Brown and Richard Q. Twiss in 1959 at Jodrell
of Sirius is not greater than half a second in space; and Bank using their stellar intensity interferometer.* [66] In
that it is probably much less..* [56] Astronomers adopted 2005, using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers
a value of 0.25 arcseconds for much of the 19th cen- determined that Sirius B has nearly the diameter of the
tury.* [57] It is now known to have a parallax of 0.3792 Earth, 12,000 kilometres (7,500 mi), with a mass 98%
0.0016 arcseconds, showing Henderson's measurement of the Sun's.* [67]
to be accurate.
3.1.4 Colour controversy

3.1.3 Discovery of a companion
Around AD 150, the Greek astronomer of the Roman pe-
riod Claudius Ptolemy described Sirius as reddish, along
with ve other stars, Betelgeuse, Antares, Aldebaran,
Arcturus and Pollux, all of which are of orange or red
hue.* [68] The discrepancy was rst noted by amateur
astronomer Thomas Barker, squire of Lyndon Hall in
Rutland, who prepared a paper and spoke at a meeting of
the Royal Society in London in 1760.* [69] The existence
of other stars changing in brightness gave credence to the
idea that some may change in colour too; Sir John Her-
schel noted this in 1839, possibly inuenced by witness-
ing Eta Carinae two years earlier.* [70] Thomas Jeerson
Jackson See resurrected discussion on red Sirius with the
publication of several papers in 1892, and a nal sum-
mary in 1926.* [71] He cited not only Ptolemy but also the
poet Aratus, the orator Cicero, and general Germanicus
A simulated image of Sirius A and B using Celestia as calling the star red, though acknowledging that none
of the latter three authors were astronomers, the last
In 1844, the German astronomer Friedrich Bessel de- two merely translating Aratus' poem Phaenomena.* [72]
duced from changes in the proper motion of Sirius that Seneca had described Sirius as being of a deeper red
it had an unseen companion.* [58] On January 31, 1862, than Mars.* [73] Not all ancient observers saw Sirius as
American telescope-maker and astronomer Alvan Gra- red. The 1st-century poet Marcus Manilius described it
ham Clark rst observed the faint companion, which is as sea-blue, as did the 4th century Avienus.* [74] It
now called Sirius B, or aectionately the Pup.* [59] was the standard white star in ancient China, and multi-
This happened during testing of an 18.5-inch (470 mm) ple records from the 2nd century BC up to the 7th century
aperture great refractor telescope for Dearborn Observa- AD all describe Sirius as white.* [75]* [76]
tory, which was the largest refracting telescope lens in ex- In 1985, German astronomers Wolfhard Schlosser and
istence at the time, and the largest telescope in the United
Werner Bergmann published an account of an 8th-
States.* [60] Sirius B's sighting was conrmed on March century Lombardic manuscript, which contains De cursu
8 with smaller telescopes.* [61]
stellarum ratio by St. Gregory of Tours. The Latin text
The visible star is now sometimes known as Sirius A. taught readers how to determine the times of nighttime
Since 1894, some apparent orbital irregularities in the prayers from positions of the stars, and Sirius is described
Sirius system have been observed, suggesting a third very within as rubeola reddish. The authors proposed
small companion star, but this has never been conrmed. this was further evidence Sirius B had been a red giant at
The best t to the data indicates a six-year orbit around the time.* [77] Other scholars replied that it was likely St.
Sirius A and a mass of 0.06 M . This star would be Gregory had been referring to Arcturus.* [78]* [79]
ve to ten magnitudes fainter than the white dwarf Sir- The possibility that stellar evolution of either Sirius A
ius B, which would make it dicult to observe.* [62] Ob- or Sirius B could be responsible for this discrepancy has
servations published in 2008 were unable to detect either been rejected by astronomers on the grounds that the
a third star or a planet. An apparent third starob- timescale of thousands of years is too short and that there
served in the 1920s is now believed to be a background is no sign of the nebulosity in the system that would be
object.* [63] expected had such a change taken place.* [73] An inter-
In 1915, Walter Sydney Adams, using a 60-inch (1.5 action with a third star, to date undiscovered, has also
m) reector at Mount Wilson Observatory, observed the been proposed as a possibility for a red appearance.* [80]
Alternative explanations are either that the description as Sirius can be observed in daylight with the naked eye un-
red is a poetic metaphor for ill fortune, or that the dra- der the right conditions. Ideally, the sky should be very
matic scintillations of the star when rising left the viewer clear, with the observer at a high altitude, the star pass-
with the impression that it was red. To the naked eye, it ing overhead, and the Sun low down on the horizon.* [87]
often appears to be ashing with red, white and blue hues These observing conditions are more easily met in the
when near the horizon.* [73] southern hemisphere, due to the southerly declination of
Sirius.
The orbital motion of the Sirius binary system brings
3.2 Visibility the two stars to a minimum angular separation of 3
arcseconds and a maximum of 11 arcseconds. At the
closest approach, it is an observational challenge to dis-
tinguish the white dwarf from its more luminous com-
panion, requiring a telescope with at least 300 mm (12
in) aperture and excellent seeing conditions. A periastron
occurred in 1994* [lower-alpha 3] and the pair have since
been moving apart, making them easier to separate with
a telescope.* [88]
At a distance of 2.6 parsecs (8.6 ly), the Sirius system
contains two of the eight nearest stars to the Solar System
(not including the Sun),* [89] and is the fth closest stellar
system to ours (again not including the Sun).* [89] This
proximity is the main reason for its brightness, as with
other near stars such as Alpha Centauri and in contrast
to distant, highly luminous supergiants such as Canopus,
Rigel or Betelgeuse.* [90] It is still around 25 times more
luminous than the Sun.* [12] The closest large neigh-
bouring star to Sirius is Procyon, 1.61 parsecs (5.24 ly)
away.* [91] The Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977
to study the four Jovian planets in the Solar System, is
expected to pass within 4.3 light-years (1.3 pc) of Sirius
The image of Sirius A and Sirius B taken by the Hubble Space in approximately 296,000 years.* [92]
Telescope. The white dwarf can be seen to the lower left.* [81]
The diraction spikes and concentric rings are instrumental ef-
fects.
3.3 System
With an apparent magnitude of 1.46, Sirius is the bright-
est star system in the night sky, almost twice the bright-
ness of the second brightest star, Canopus.* [82] It is
not as bright as the Moon, Venus, or Jupiter; at times,
Mercury and Mars are also brighter than Sirius.* [83] Sir-
ius can be seen from almost everywhere on Earth, with
only observers north of 73 degrees latitude unable to
see it, and it does not rise very high when viewed from
some northern cities, reaching only 13 above the horizon
from Saint Petersburg.* [84] Sirius, along with Procyon
and Betelgeuse, forms one of the three vertices of the
Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemi-
sphere.* [85] Due to its declination of roughly 17, Sir-
ius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73 S.
From the Southern Hemisphere in early July, Sirius can
be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun,
and in the morning where it rises before the Sun.* [86]
A Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the Sirius star system,
Due to precession (and slight proper motion), Sirius will where the spike-like pattern is due to the support structure for
move further south in the future. Starting in 9000, Sirius the transmission grating. The bright source is Sirius B. Credit:
will not be visible any more from northern and central Eu- NASA/SAO/CXC.
rope, and in 14000 its declination will be 67 and thus it
will be circumpolar throughout South Africa and in most Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white
parts of Australia. stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20
3.3. SYSTEM 29
AU* [lower-alpha 4] (roughly the distance between the Stellar models suggest that the star formed during the col-
Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter lapsing of a molecular cloud, and that after 10 million
component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of years, its internal energy generation was derived entirely
spectral type A1V, with an estimated surface tempera- from nuclear reactions. The core became convective and
ture of 9,940 K.* [13] Its companion, Sirius B, is a star used the CNO cycle for energy generation.* [98] It is pre-
that has already evolved o the main sequence and be- dicted that Sirius A will have completely exhausted the
come a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less lu- store of hydrogen at its core within a billion (109 ) years
minous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the of its formation. At this point it will pass through a red
more massive of the two.* [93] The age of the system giant stage, then settle down to become a white dwarf.
has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early Sirius A is classed as an Am star because the spectrum
in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish
shows deep metallic absorption lines,* [101] indicating an
white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit ev- enhancement in elements heavier than helium, such as
ery 9.1 years.* [93] The system emits a higher than ex-
iron.* [91]* [98] When compared to the Sun, the propor-
pected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS tion of iron in the atmosphere of Sirius A relative to hy-
space-based observatory. This may be an indication of
drogen is given by ,* [14] which is equivalent to 10* 0.5,
dust in the system, and is considered somewhat unusual meaning iron is 316% as abundant as in the Sun's atmo-
for a binary star.* [91]* [94] The Chandra X-ray Observa- sphere. The high surface content of metallic elements is
tory image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as unlikely to be true of the entire star; rather the iron-peak
it is a brighter X-ray source.* [95] and heavy metals are radiatively levitated towards the sur-
In 2015, Vigan and colleagues used the VLT Survey Tele- face.* [98]
scope to search for evidence of substellar companions,
and were able to rule out the presence of giant planets 11
times more massive than Jupiter at 0.5 au distance from 3.3.2 Sirius B
Sirius A, 67 times the mass of Jupiter at 12 au distance,
and down to around 4 times the mass of Jupiter at 10 au
distance.* [96]
3.3.1 Sirius A
The orbit of Sirius B around A as seen from Earth (slanted el-

lipse). The wide horizontal ellipse shows the true shape of the
orbit (with an arbitrary orientation) as it would appear if viewed
straight on.
With a mass nearly equal to the Sun's, Sirius B is one

of the more massive white dwarfs known (0.98 M ); it
is almost double the 0.50.6 M average. This mass is
*
An artist's impression of Sirius A and Sirius B. Sirius A is the packed into a volume roughly equal to the Earth's. [67]
*
larger of the two stars. The current surface temperature is 25,200 K. [12] Be-
cause there is no internal heat source, Sirius B will
Sirius A has a mass of 2 M . [12] [97] The radius of this steadily cool as the remaining heat
* *
*
is radiated into space
star has been measured by an astronomical interferome- over more than two billion years. [102]
ter, giving an estimated angular diameter of 5.9360.016 A white dwarf forms only after the star has evolved from
mas. The projected rotational velocity is a relatively low the main sequence and then passed through a red-giant
16 km/s,* [15] which does not produce any signicant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half
attening of its disk.* [98] This is at marked variance with its current age, around 120 million years ago. The orig-
the similar-sized Vega, which rotates at a much faster 274 inal star had an estimated 5 M * [12] and was a B-type
km/s and bulges prominently around its equator.* [99] A star (roughly B45)* [103]* [104] when it was still on the
weak magnetic eld has been detected on the surface of main sequence. While it passed through the red giant
Sirius A.* [100] stage, Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its
companion. 3.4 Etymology and cultural signif-

This star is primarily composed of a carbonoxygen mix- icance
ture that was generated by helium fusion in the progenitor
star.* [12] This is overlaid by an envelope of lighter ele- See also: Winter Triangle
ments, with the materials segregated by mass because of
the high surface gravity.* [105] The outer atmosphere of
Sirius B is now almost pure hydrogenthe element with The most commonly used proper name of this star comes
the lowest massand no other elements are seen in its from the Latin Srius, from the Ancient Greek
spectrum.* [106] (Seirios,glowingorscorcher),* [112] although the
Greek word itself may have been imported from else-
where before the Archaic period,* [113] one authority
suggesting a link with the Egyptian god Osiris.* [114] The
name's earliest recorded use dates from the 7th century
3.3.3 Sirius star cluster BC in Hesiod's poetic work Works and Days.* [113] In
2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a
In 1909, Ejnar Hertzsprung was the rst to suggest that Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [115] to catalog
Sirius was a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group, and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst
based on his observations of the system's movements bulletin of July 2016* [116] included a table of the rst
across the sky. The Ursa Major Group is a set of 220 two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
stars that share a common motion through space and cluded Sirius for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU
were once formed as members of an open cluster, which Catalog of Star Names.* [117]
has since become gravitationally unbound.* [107] Analy-
Sirius has over 50 other designations and names attached
ses in 2003 and 2005 found Sirius's membership in the
to it.* [82] In Georey Chaucer's essay Treatise on the As-
group to be questionable: the Ursa Major Group has an
trolabe, it bears the name Alhabor, and is depicted by
estimated age of 500100 million years, whereas Sir-
a hound's head. This name is widely used on medieval
ius, with metallicity similar to the Sun's, has an age that
astrolabes from Western Europe.* [19] In Sanskrit it is
is only half this, making it too young to belong to the
known as Mrgavyadha deer hunter, or Lubdhaka
group.* [12]* [108]* [109] Sirius may instead be a mem-
hunter. As Mrgavyadha, the star represents Rudra
ber of the proposed Sirius Supercluster, along with other
(Shiva).* [118]* [119] The star is referred as Makarajyoti
scattered stars such as Beta Aurigae, Alpha Coronae
in Malayalam and has religious signicance to the pil-
Borealis, Beta Crateris, Beta Eridani and Beta Serpen-
grim center Sabarimala.* [120] In Scandinavia, the star
tis.* [110] This is one of three large clusters located within
has been known as Lokabrenna (burning done by Loki
500 light-years (150 pc) of the Sun. The other two are the
, orLoki's torch).* [121] In the astrology of the Middle
Hyades and the Pleiades, and each of these clusters con-
Ages, Sirius was a Behenian xed star,* [122] associated
sists of hundreds of stars.* [111]
with beryl and juniper. Its astrological symbol
was listed by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa.* [123]
Many cultures have historically attached special signi-
cance to Sirius, particularly in relation to dogs. It is often
colloquially called the Dog Staras the brightest star
of Canis Major, the Great Dogconstellation.
It was classically depicted as Orion's dog. The Ancient
Greeks thought that Sirius's emanations could aect dogs
adversely, making them behave abnormally during the
dog days,the hottest days of the summer. The Romans
knew these days as dies caniculares, and the star Sirius
was called Canicula, little dog.The excessive panting
of dogs in hot weather was thought to place them at risk
of desiccation and disease. In extreme cases, a foaming
dog might have rabies, which could infect and kill hu-
mans they had bitten.* [31] Homer, in the Iliad, describes
the approach of Achilles toward Troy in these words:
Sirius rises late in the dark, liquid sky

On summer nights, star of stars,
A bust of Sopdet, Egyptian goddess of Sirius and the fertility of Orion's Dog they call it, brightest
the Nile, syncretized with Isis and Demeter
Of all, but an evil portent, bringing heat
And fevers to suering humanity.* [1]
3.4. ETYMOLOGY AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 31
1. ^ Cite error: The named reference 3.4.1 Dogon

Homer was invoked but never dened
(see the help page).
See also: Nommo
In Iranian mythology, especially in Persian mythology The Dogon people are an ethnic group in Mali, West
and in Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Persia, Sir- Africa, reported by some researchers to have traditional
ius appears as Tishtrya and is revered as the rain-maker astronomical knowledge about Sirius that would normally
divinity (Tishtar of New Persian poetry). Beside passages be considered impossible without the use of telescopes.
in the sacred texts of the Avesta, the Avestan language According to Marcel Griaule's books Conversations with
Tishtrya followed by the version Tir in Middle and New Ogotemmli and The Pale Fox they knew about the fty-
Persian is also depicted in the Persian epic Shahnameh year orbital period of Sirius and its companion prior to
of Ferdowsi. Due to the concept of the yazatas, powers western astronomers. They also refer to a third star ac-
which are worthy of worship, Tishtrya is a divinity companying Sirius A and B. Robert Temple's 1976 book
of rain and fertility and an antagonist of apaosha, the de- The Sirius Mystery, credits them with knowledge of the
mon of drought. In this struggle, Tishtrya is depicted as four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the rings of Saturn.
a white horse.* [124]* [125]* [126]* [127] This has been the subject of controversy and speculation.
In Chinese astronomy the star is known as the star
of the celestial wolf(Chinese and Japanese:
Chinese romanization: Tinlng; Japanese romanization:
Tenr;* [128]) in the Mansion of Jng (). Many na-
tions among the indigenous peoples of North America
also associated Sirius with canines; the Seri and Tohono
O'odham of the southwest note the star as a dog that fol-
lows mountain sheep, while the Blackfoot called itDog-
face. The Cherokee paired Sirius with Antares as a dog-
star guardian of either end of the Path of Souls. The
Pawnee of Nebraska had several associations; the Wolf
(Skidi) tribe knew it as the Wolf Star, while other
branches knew it as the Coyote Star. Further north,
the Alaskan Inuit of the Bering Strait called it Moon
Dog.* [129]
Several cultures also associated the star with a bow and
arrows. The ancient Chinese visualized a large bow and
arrow across the southern sky, formed by the constella-
tions of Puppis and Canis Major. In this, the arrow tip
is pointed at the wolf Sirius. A similar association is de-
picted at the Temple of Hathor in Dendera, where the Yoonir, symbol of the universe in Serer religion.* [135]* [136]
goddess Satet has drawn her arrow at Hathor (Sirius).
Known as Tir, the star was portrayed as the arrow
itself in later Persian culture.* [130]
Sirius is mentioned in Surah, An-Najm (The Star), of Doubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule
the Qur'an, where it is given the name ( translitera- and Dieterlein's work.* [137]* [138] In a 1991 article in
Current Anthropology anthropologist Walter van Beek
tion: a-ir or ash-shira; the leader).* [131] The verse
concluded after his research among the Dogon that,
is: " " ,
That He is the Lord of Sir- Though they do speak about sigu tolo [which is what Gri-
ius (the Mighty Star).(An-Najm:49)* [132] Ibn Kathir aule claimed the Dogon called Sirius] they disagree com-
said in his commentary that it is the bright star, named pletely with each other as to which star is meant; for some
Mirzam Al-Jawza' (Sirius), which a group of Arabs used it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu
to worship.* [133] The alternate name Aschere, used by [festival], for another it is Venus that, through a dierent
Johann Bayer, is derived from this.* [18] position, appears as sigu tolo. All agree, however, that
In Theosophy, it is believed the Seven Stars of the Pleiades they learned about the star from Griaule.* [139]
transmit the spiritual energy of the Seven Rays from the Noah Brosch explained in his book Sirius Matters that the
Galactic Logos to the Seven Stars of the Great Bear, then cultural transfer of relatively modern astronomical infor-
to Sirius. From there is it sent via the Sun to the god mation could have taken place in 1893, when a French
of Earth (Sanat Kumara), and nally through the seven expedition arrived in Central West Africa to observe the
Masters of the Seven Rays to the human race.* [134] total eclipse on April 16.
3.4.2 Serer religion Astronomer Noah Brosch has speculated that the
name of the character Sirius Black from the Harry
Main articles: Serer religion and Saltigue Potter stories, who owns a unique ability to trans-
form into a black dog, might have been inspired by
In the religion of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gam- Sirius B.* [142]
bia and Mauritania, Sirius is called Yoonir from the
Sirius is one of the 27 stars on the ag of Brazil,
Serer language (and some of the Cangin language speak-
where it represents the state of Mato Grosso.* [149]
ers, who are all ethnically Serers). The star Sirius is
one of the most important and sacred stars in Serer
religious cosmology and symbolism. The Serer high Vehicles:
priests and priestesses, (Saltigues, the hereditary rain
priests* [140]) chart Yoonir in order to forecast rain
Seven ships of Great Britain's Royal Navy have been
fall and enable Serer farmers to start planting seeds. In
called HMS Sirius since the 18th century, with the
Serer religious cosmology, it is the symbol of the uni-
rst being the agship of the First Fleet to Australia
verse.* [135]* [136]
in 1788.* [150]
The Royal Australian Navy subsequently named a

3.4.3 Modern signicance vessel HMAS Sirius in honor of the agship.* [151]
See also: Sirius in ction American vessels include the USNS Sirius as well as
a monoplane modelthe Lockheed Sirius, the rst
Sirius is a frequent subject of science ction,* [141] and of which was own by Charles Lindbergh.* [152]
has been the subject of poetry.* [142] Dante and John The name was also adopted by Mitsubishi Motors
Milton reference the star, while Tennyson's poem The for the Mitsubishi Sirius engine in 1980.* [153]
Princess describes the star's scintillation:
..the ery Sirius alters hue 3.5 See also

And bickers into red and emerald.* [1]
1. ^ LacusCurtius Allen's Star Names Sothic cycle
Canis Major
Other modern references: 3.6 Notes

Plans for using solar sail propulsion for interstellar [1] Compare the meaning of the Egyptian name with Sir-
travel have targeted Sirius as the star system fastest ius's completion of the Winter Triangle asterism, joining
to arrive at from Earth.* [143] While Alpha Centauri the other two brightest stars of the northern winter sky,
and others are closer, the brightness of Sirius pro- Betelgeuse and Procyon.
vides the best braking power to arrive with the least
travel time. [2] As Sirius is visible together with the constellation of
Orion, the Egyptians worshipped Orion as the god Sah, the
Sirius is featured on the coat of arms of Macquarie husband of Sopdet, with whom she had a son, the sky god
University, and is the name of its alumnae jour- Sopdu. The goddess Sopdet was later syncretized with the
*
nal. [144] goddess Isis, Sah was linked with Osiris, and Sopdu was
linked with Horus. The joining of Sopdet with Isis would
The name of the North American satellite radio allow Plutarch to state thatThe soul of Isis is called Dog
company, Satellite CD Radio, Inc., was changed by the Greeks, meaning Sirius worshipped as Isis-Sopdet
to Sirius Satellite Radio in November 1999, being by Egyptians was named the Dog by the Greeks and Ro-
mans. The 70-day period of the absence of Sirius from
named after the brightest star in the night sky
the sky was understood as the passing of Sopdet-Isis and
.* [145] Sah-Osiris through the Egyptian underworld.* [28]
Composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, who wrote a
[3] Two full 50.09-year orbits following the periastron epoch
piece called Sirius, has been claimed to have said of 1894.13 gives a date of 1994.31.
on several occasions that he came from a planet in
the Sirius system.* [146]* [147] To Stockhausen, Sir- [4] Semi-major axis in AU = semimajor axis in seconds / par-
ius stood for 'the place where music is the highest of allax = 7.56 / 0.37921 = 19.8 AU; as the eccentricity
vibrations' and where music had been developed in is 0.6, the distance uctuates between 40% and 160% of
the most perfect way.* [148] that, roughly from 8 AU to 32 AU.
3.7. REFERENCES 33
3.7 References [12] Liebert, J.; Young, P. A.; Arnett, D.; Holberg, J.
B.; Williams, K. A. (2005). The Age and Pro-
genitor Mass of Sirius B. The Astrophysical Jour-
3.7.1 Citations nal. 630 (1): L69L72. arXiv:astro-ph/0507523 .
Bibcode:2005ApJ...630L..69L. doi:10.1086/462419.
[1] Sirius. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random
House, Inc. Retrieved 6 April 2008. [13] Adelman, Saul J. (July 813, 2004).The Physical Prop-
erties of normal A stars. Proceedings of the International
[2] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation Astronomical Union. Poprad, Slovakia: Cambridge Uni-
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and versity Press. pp. 111. Bibcode:2004IAUS..224....1A.
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
[14] Qiu, H. M.; Zhao, G.; Chen, Y. Q.; Li, Z. W.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
(2001). The Abundance Patterns of Sirius and Vega
6361:20078357
. The Astrophysical Journal. 548 (2): 953965.
Bibcode:2001ApJ...548..953Q. doi:10.1086/319000.
[3] Hoeit, D.; Warren, Jr., W. H. (1991). Entry for HR
2491. Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Prelimi- [15] Royer, F.; Gerbaldi, M.; Faraggiana, R.; Gmez, A. E.
nary Version). CDS. ID V/50. (2002). Rotational velocities of A-type stars. I. Mea-
surement of v sin i in the southern hemisphere. Astron-
[4] Fabricius, C.; Hg, E.; Makarov, V. V.; Mason, B. omy and Astrophysics. 381 (1): 105121. arXiv:astro-
D.; Wyco, G. L.; Urban, S. E. (2002). The Ty- ph/0110490 . Bibcode:2002A&A...381..105R.
cho double star catalogue. Astronomy and Astro- doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011422.
physics. 384: 180. Bibcode:2002A&A...384..180F.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011822. [16] Holberg, J. B.; Barstow, M. A.; Bruhweiler, F. C.;
Cruise, A. M.; Penny, A. J. (1998). Sirius B: A
[5] Holberg, J. B.; Oswalt, T. D.; Sion, E. M.; Barstow, New, More Accurate View. The Astrophysical Jour-
M. A.; Burleigh, M. R. (2013). Where are all nal. 497 (2): 935942. Bibcode:1998ApJ...497..935H.
the Sirius-like binary systems?". Monthly Notices of doi:10.1086/305489.
the Royal Astronomical Society. 435 (3): 2077.
[17] Sweeney, M. A. (1976). Cooling times, lumi-
arXiv:1307.8047 . Bibcode:2013MNRAS.435.2077H.
nosity functions and progenitor masses of degenerate
doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1433.
dwarfs. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 49: 375.
Bibcode:1976A&A....49..375S.
[6] Gianninas, A.; Bergeron, P.; Ruiz, M. T. (2011).
A Spectroscopic Survey and Analysis of Bright, [18] Hinckley, Richard Allen (1899). Star-names and Their
Hydrogen-rich White Dwarfs. The Astrophysi- Meanings. New York: G. E. Stechert. pp. 11725.
cal Journal. 743 (2): 138. arXiv:1109.3171
. Bibcode:2011ApJ...743..138G. doi:10.1088/0004- [19] Gingerich, O. (1987). Zoomorphic Astrolabes
637X/743/2/138. and the Introduction of Arabic Star Names into Eu-
rope. Annals of the New York Academy of Sci-
[7] Adelman, Saul J. (2005). The physical prop- ences. 500: 89104. Bibcode:1987NYASA.500...89G.
erties of normal A stars. Proceedings of doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37197.x.
the International Astronomical Union. 2004
[20] Singh, Nagendra Kumar (2002). Encyclopaedia of Hin-
(IAUS224): 1. Bibcode:2004IAUS..224....1A.
duism, A Continuing Series. Anmol Publications PVT.
doi:10.1017/S1743921304004314. ISSN 1743-9213.
LTD. p. 794. ISBN 81-7488-168-9.
[8] McCook, G. P.; Sion, E. M.Entry for WD 0642-166. [21] Spahn, Mark; Hadamitzky, Wolfgang; Fujie-Winter,
A Catalogue of Spectroscopically Identied White Dwarfs Kimiko (1996). The Kanji dictionary. Tuttle language li-
(August 2006 version). CDS. ID III/235A.) brary. Tuttle Publishing. p. 724. ISBN 0-8048-2058-9.
[9] Gontcharov, G. A. (2006). Pulkovo Compi- [22] Sirius A. SIMBAD Astronomical Database. Centre
lation of Radial Velocities for 35 495 Hipparcos de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 20
stars in a common system. Astronomy Letters. October 2007.
32 (11): 759771. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G.
doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065. ISSN 1063-7737. [23] Sirius B. SIMBAD Astronomical Database. Centre
de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 23
October 2007.
[10] Brosch, Noah (2008).Modern optical measurements.
Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Astrophysics and [24] Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars. Hoboken, New
Space Science Library. 354: 89117. doi:10.1007/978- Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 94. ISBN 0-471-70410-5.
1-4020-8319-8_5. ISBN 978-1-4020-8318-1. ISSN Retrieved 2010-07-23.
0067-0057.
[25] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky,
[11] van den Bos, W. H. (1960). The Orbit of Sir- J.; et al. (July 1997), The Hipparcos Cata-
ius. Journal des Observateurs. 43: 145151. logue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 323: L49L52,
Bibcode:1960JO.....43..145V. Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P
[26] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of His- [52] Huggins, W. (1868). Further observations on the
tory's Greatest Star Map, Astronomers' Universe, spectra of some of the stars and nebulae, with an at-
AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, tempt to determine therefrom whether these bodies are
Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P, doi:10.1007/978-3-642- moving towards or from the Earth, also observations
11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8 on the spectra of the Sun and of Comet II. Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
[27] Sky and Telescope, April 1998 (p60), based on computa- 158 (0): 529564. Bibcode:1868RSPT..158..529H.
tions from Hipparcos data. doi:10.1098/rstl.1868.0022.
[28] Holberg 2007, pp. 45 [53] Huygens, Christiaan, , sive De terris
clestibus (The Hague, 1698), p. 137.
[29] Wendorf, Fred; Schild, Romuald (2001). Holocene Settle-
ment of the Egyptian Sahara: Volume 1, The Archaeology
[54] Maskelyne, Nevil (1761). A Proposal for Discovering
of Nabta Plain (Google Book Search preview). Springer.
the Annual Parallax of Sirius; by the Rev. Nevil Maske-
p. 500. ISBN 0-306-46612-0. Retrieved 2008-05-16.
lyne, a. M. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and F.
[30] Holberg 2007, p. 19 R. S.. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
51 (2): 889895. Bibcode:1759RSPT...51..889M.
[31] Holberg 2007, p. 20 doi:10.1098/rstl.1759.0080. Google Books id:
zBdWAAAAYAAJ page 889
[32] Holberg 2007, pp. 1617
[55] Henderson, T. (1840). On the Parallax of Sirius.
[33] Ovid. Fasti IV, lines 901942. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. 11: 239.
Bibcode:1840MmRAS..11..239H.
[34] Holberg 2007, p. 32
[56] Henderson, T. (1839). On the parallax of Sir-
[35] Holberg 2007, p. 25
ius. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
[36] Holberg 2007, pp. 2526 Society. 5 (2): 5. Bibcode:1839MNRAS...5....5H.
doi:10.1093/mnras/5.2.5.
[37] Henry, Teuira (1907). Tahitian Astronomy: Birth of
Heavenly Bodies. The Journal of the Polynesian Society. [57] Holberg 2007, p. 45
16 (2): 10104. JSTOR 20700813.
[58] Bessel, F. W.; communicated by Herschel, J.
[38] Makemson 1941, p. 198. F. W. (December 1844). On the Variations
of the Proper Motions of Procyon and Sirius".
[39] Makemson 1941, p. 280. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety. 6: 136141. Bibcode:1844MNRAS...6..136..
[40] Makemson 1941, p. 218. doi:10.1093/mnras/6.11.136a.
[41] Makemson 1941, p. 207.
[59] Flammarion, Camille (August 1877). The Companion
[42] Makemson 1941, p. 219. of Sirius. The Astronomical Register. 15 (176): 186
189. Bibcode:1877AReg...15..186F.
[43] Makemson 1941, p. 209.
[60] Craig, John; Gravatt, William; Slater, Thomas; Rennie,
[44] Makemson 1941, p. 214. George. The Craig Telescope. craig-telescope.co.uk.
Retrieved 3 January 2011.
[45] Makemson 1941, p. 265.
[61] Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important
[46] Makemson 1941, p. 257. events of the year: 1862. New York: D. Appleton & Com-
pany. 1863. p. 176.
[47] Makemson 1941, p. 266.
[62] Benest, D.; Duvent, J. L.; Duvent (July 1995).Is Sirius a
[48] Hamacher, Duane W.; Frew, David J. (2010). An
triple star?". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 299: 621628.
Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of
Bibcode:1995A&A...299..621B. For the instability of
Eta Carinae (PDF). Journal of Astronomical History
an orbit around Sirius B, see 3.2.
& Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H. [63] Bonnet-Bidaud, J. M.; Pantin, E. (October 2008).
ADONIS high contrast infrared imaging of Sirius-B
[49] Aitken, R. G. (1942).Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper
. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 489 (2): 651655.
Motions. Astronomical Society of the Pacic Leaets. 4:
103112. Bibcode:1942ASPL....4..103A. arXiv:0809.4871 . Bibcode:2008A&A...489..651B.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078937.
[50] Holberg 2007, pp. 4142
[64] Adams, W. S. (December 1915). The Spectrum of
[51] Daintith, John; Mitchell, Sarah; Tootill, Elizabeth; Gjert- the Companion of Sirius. Publications of the As-
sen, D. (1994). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists. tronomical Society of the Pacic. 27 (161): 236237.
CRC Press. p. 442. ISBN 0-7503-0287-9. Bibcode:1915PASP...27..236A. doi:10.1086/122440.
3.7. REFERENCES 35
[65] Holberg, J. B. (2005). How Degenerate Stars [81] The Dog Star, Sirius, and its Tiny Companion. Hub-
Came to be Known as White Dwarfs. Bulletin of ble News Desk. 13 December 2005. Retrieved 4 August
the American Astronomical Society. 37 (2): 1503. 2006.
Bibcode:2005AAS...20720501H.
[82] Holberg 2007, p. xi
[66] Brown, R. Hanbury; Twiss, R. Q. (1958). Inter-
ferometry of the Intensity Fluctuations in Light. IV. [83] Espenak, Fred. Mars Ephemeris. Twelve Year Plane-
A Test of an Intensity Interferometer on Sirius A tary Ephemeris: 19952006, NASA Reference Publication
. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 248 1349.
(1253): 222237. Bibcode:1958RSPSA.248..222B.
doi:10.1098/rspa.1958.0240. [84] Holberg 2007, p. 82
[67] Barstow, M. A.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J. B.; [85] Darling, David. Winter Triangle. The Internet Ency-
Burleigh, M. R.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2005). Hub- clopedia of Science. Retrieved 20 October 2007.
ble Space Telescope spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in
Sirius B. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So- [86] Stories from the Stars. Stargazers Astronomy Shop.
ciety. 362 (4): 11341142. arXiv:astro-ph/0506600 . 2000. Retrieved 17 December 2008.
Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1134B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
[87] Henshaw, C. (1984). On the Visibility of Sirius in Day-
2966.2005.09359.x.
light. Journal of the British Astronomical Association.
[68] Holberg 2007, p. 157 94 (5): 221222. Bibcode:1984JBAA...94..221H.
[69] Ceragioli, R. C. (1995). The Debate Concerning 'Red' [88] Mullaney, James (March 2008). Orion's Splendid Dou-
Sirius. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 26 (3): ble Stars: Pretty Doubles in Orion's Vicinity. Sky &
187226. Bibcode:1995JHA....26..187C. Telescope. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
[70] Holberg 2007, p. 158 [89] Henry, Todd J. (1 July 2006).The One Hundred Nearest
Star Systems. RECONS. Retrieved 4 August 2006.
[71] Holberg 2007, p. 161
[72] Holberg 2007, p. 162 [90] The Brightest Stars. Royal Astronomical Society of
New Zealand. Retrieved 2007-12-14.
[73] Whittet, D. C. B. (1999). A physical interpreta-
tion of the 'red Sirius' anomaly. Monthly Notices [91] Sirius 2. SolStation. Retrieved 4 August 2006.
of the Royal Astronomical Society. 310 (2): 355359.
Bibcode:1999MNRAS.310..355W. doi:10.1046/j.1365- [92] Angrum, Andrea (25 August 2005). Interstellar Mis-
8711.1999.02975.x. sion. NASA/JPL. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
[74] Holberg 2007, p. 163 [93] Holberg 2007, p. 214
[75] (1992). . [94] Backman, D. E. (30 June 11 July 1986). IRAS obser-
(in Chinese). 33 (4). vations of nearby main sequence stars and modeling of ex-
cess infrared emission. In Gillett, F. C.; Low, F. J. Pro-
[76] Jiang, Xiao-Yuan (April 1993). The colour of ceedings, 6th Topical Meetings and Workshop on Cosmic
Sirius as recorded in ancient Chinese texts. Chi- Dust and Space Debris. Toulouse, France: COSPAR and
nese Astronomy and Astrophysics. 17 (2): 223228. IAF. Bibcode:1986AdSpR...6...43B. ISSN 0273-1177.
Bibcode:1993ChA&A..17..223J. doi:10.1016/0275-
1062(93)90073-X. [95] Brosch 2008, p. 126
[77] Schlosser, W.; Bergmann, W. (November 1985). An [96] Vigan A, Gry C, Salter G, Mesa D, Homeier D,
early-medieval account on the red colour of Sirius and its Moutou C, Allard F (2015). High-contrast imaging
astrophysical implications. Nature. 318 (6041): 4546. of Sirius A with VLT/SPHERE: looking for giant
Bibcode:1985Natur.318...45S. doi:10.1038/318045a0. planets down to one astronomical unit. Monthly
[78] McCluskey, S. C. (January 1987). The colour of Sir- Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 454
ius in the sixth century. Nature. 318 (325): 87. (1): 12943. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.454..129V.
Bibcode:1987Natur.325...87M. doi:10.1038/325087a0. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1928.
[79] van Gent, R. H. (January 1987). The colour of Sir- [97] Bragana, Pedro (15 July 2003).The 10 Brightest Stars
ius in the sixth century. Nature. 318 (325): 8789. . SPACE.com. Archived from the original on 16 June
Bibcode:1987Natur.325...87V. doi:10.1038/325087b0. 2009. Retrieved 4 August 2006.
[80] Kuchner, Marc J.; Brown, Michael E. (2000).A Search [98] Kervella, P.; Thevenin, F.; Morel, P.; Borde, P.; Di
for Exozodiacal Dust and Faint Companions Near Sir- Folco, E. (2003). The interferometric diameter and
ius, Procyon, and Altair with the NICMOS Coronagraph internal structure of Sirius A. Astronomy and Astro-
. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pa- physics. 407 (2): 681688. arXiv:astro-ph/0306604
cic. 112 (772): 827832. arXiv:astro-ph/0002043 . . Bibcode:2003A&A...408..681K. doi:10.1051/0004-
Bibcode:2000PASP..112..827K. doi:10.1086/316581. 6361:20030994.
[99] Aufdenberg, J.P.; Ridgway, S.T.; et al. (2006). First [112] Liddell, Henry G.; Scott, Robert (1980). Greek-English
results from the CHARA Array: VII. Long-Baseline In- Lexicon (Abridged ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
terferometric Measurements of Vega Consistent with a ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
Pole-On, Rapidly Rotating Star?" (PDF). Astrophysical
Journal. 645 (1): 664675. arXiv:astro-ph/0603327 [113] Holberg 2007, pp. 1516
. Bibcode:2006ApJ...645..664A. doi:10.1086/504149. [114] Brosch 2008, p. 21
Retrieved 2007-11-09.
[115] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
[100] Petit, P.; et al. (August 2011). Detection of a weak trieved 22 May 2016.
surface magnetic eld on Sirius A: are all tepid stars
magnetic?". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 532: L13. [116] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
arXiv:1106.5363 . Bibcode:2011A&A...532L..13P. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117573.
[117] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[101] Aurire, M.; et al. (November 2010). No detection
[118] Kak, Subhash. Indic ideas in the Greco-Roman world
of large-scale magnetic elds at the surfaces of Am and
. IndiaStar Review of Books. Retrieved 2010-07-23.
HgMn stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 523: A40.
arXiv:1008.3086 . Bibcode:2010A&A...523A..40A. [119] Shri Shri Shiva Mahadeva.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014848.
[120] Makarajyothi is a star: senior Thantri. The Hindu.
[102] Imamura, James N. (1995-10-02). Cooling of White 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2014-01-09.
Dwarfs. University of Oregon. Archived from the orig-
inal on December 15, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-03. [121] Rydberg, Viktor (1889). Rasmus Bjrn Anderson, eds.
Teutonic mythology. 1. S. Sonnenschein & co.
[103] Siess, Lionel (2000). Computation of Isochrones. In-
stitut d'Astronomie et d'Astrophysique, Universit libre de [122] Tyson, Donald; Freake, James (1993). Three Books of
Bruxelles. Retrieved 2007-03-24. Occult Philosophy. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 0-87542-
832-0.
[104] Palla, Francesco (May 1620, 2005). Stellar evolution
[123] Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1533). De Occulta
before the ZAMS. Proceedings of the international As-
Philosophia. ISBN 90-04-09421-0.
tronomical Union 227. Italy: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 196205. Bibcode:1976IAUS...73...75P. [124] Doostkhah, Jalil (1996). Avesta. Kohantarin Sordhye
Irnin. Tehran: Morvarid Publications. ISBN 964-
[105] Koester, D.; Chanmugam, G. (1990). Physics of white
6026-17-6.
dwarf stars. Reports on Progress in Physics. 53 (7): 837
915. Bibcode:1990RPPh...53..837K. doi:10.1088/0034- [125] West, E. W. (18951910). Pahlavi Texts. Routledge Cur-
4885/53/7/001. zon, 2004. ISBN 0-7007-1544-4.
[106] Holberg, J. B.; Barstow, M. A.; Burleigh, M. R.; Kruk, [126] Razi, Hashem (2002). Encyclopaedia of Ancient Iran.
J. W.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2004). FUSE observa- Tehran: Sokhan Publications. ISBN 964-372-027-6.
tions of Sirius B. Bulletin of the American Astronomical
Society. 36: 1514. Bibcode:2004AAS...20510303H. [127] Ferdowsi, A. Shahnameh e Ferdowsi. Bank Melli Iran
Publications, 2003. ISBN 964-93135-3-2.
[107] Frommert, Hartmut; Kronberg, Christine (April 26,
2003).The Ursa Major Moving Cluster, Collinder 285. [128] Holberg 2007, p. 22
SEDS. Archived from the original on 20 December 2007.
Retrieved 22 November 2007. [129] Holberg 2007, p. 23
[108] King, Jeremy R.; Villarreal, Adam R.; Soderblom, David [130] Holberg 2007, p. 24
R.; Gulliver, Austin F.; Adelman, Saul J. (2003). Stel- [131] Sta (2007). Sirius. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
lar Kinematic Groups. II. A Reexamination of the Retrieved 10 September 2007.
Membership, Activity, and Age of the Ursa Major
Group. Astronomical Journal. 125 (4): 19802017. [132] An-Najm (The Star), Surah 53. Translations of the
Bibcode:2003AJ....125.1980K. doi:10.1086/368241. Qur'an. University of Southern California, Center for
Muslim-Jewish Engagement. 2007. Retrieved 2009-08-
[109] Croswell, Ken (27 July 2005). The life and times of 08.
Sirius B. Astronomy, online. Retrieved 19 October 2007.
[133] Tafsir Ibn Kathir. 9 July 2012.
[110] Eggen, Olin J. (1992). The Sirius supercluster in the
FK5. Astronomical Journal. 104 (4): 14931504. [134] Baker, Douglas (1977). The Seven Rays: Key to the Mys-
Bibcode:1992AJ....104.1493E. doi:10.1086/116334. teries. Wellingborough, Herts.: Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-
87728-377-X.
[111] Olano, C. A. (2001). The Origin of the Local
System of Gas and Stars. The Astronomical Jour- [135] Gravrand, Henry, La civilisation sereer : Pangool", vol.
nal. 121 (1): 295308. Bibcode:2001AJ....121..295O. 2, Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Sngal, (1990)
doi:10.1086/318011. pp 2021, 149155, ISBN 2-7236-1055-1
3.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 37
[136] Clmentine Fak-Nzuji Madiya, Canadian Museum of [153] Mitsubishi Motors history. Mitsubishi Motors South
Civilization, Canadian Centre for Folk Culture Studies, Africa Ocial Website. Mercedes Benz. 2007. Archived
International Centre for African Language, Literature and from the original on 2007-12-30. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
Tradition (Louvain, Belgium). ISBN 0-660-15965-1. pp
5, 27, 115 [154] Homer (1997). Iliad. Trans. Stanley Lombardo. Indi-
anapolis: Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-352-5. 22.3337.
[137] Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano.The Dogon Revisited
. Retrieved 2007-10-13.
3.7.2 Bibliography
[138] Philip Coppens. Dogon Shame. Retrieved 2007-10-
13. Brosch, Noah (2008). Sirius Matters. Springer.
ISBN 1-4020-8318-1.
[139] van Beek, WAE; Bedaux; Blier; Bouju; Crawford; Dou-
glas; Lane; Meillassoux (1991). Dogon Restudied: A Holberg, J.B. (2007). Sirius: Brightest Diamond in
Field Evaluation of the Work of Marcel Griaule. Cur- the Night Sky. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing.
rent Anthropology. 32 (2): 13967. doi:10.1086/203932. ISBN 0-387-48941-X.
JSTOR 2743641.
Makemson, Maud Worcester (1941). The Morn-
[140] Galvan, Dennis Charles, The State Must be our Master of
ing Star Rises: An Account of Polynesian Astronomy.
Fire : How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Develop-
ment in Senegal, Berkeley, University of California Press,
Yale University Press.
(2004), pp 86135, ISBN 978-0-520-23591-5.
[141] The editors of Asimov's Science Fiction and Analog 3.8 External links
(1993). Writing Science Fiction & Fantasy. St. Martin's
Grin. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-312-08926-9.
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Sirius B in
[142] Brosch 2008, p. 33 x-ray (6 October 2000)
[143] Heller, Ren (2017).Optimized trajectories to the near- Discussion on Dogon issue
est stars using lightweight high-velocity photon sails.
Sirius time
arXiv:1704.03871 .
Barker, Tho.; Stukeley, W. (1760). Remarks on
[144] About Macquarie UniversityNaming of the Univer-
the Mutations of the Stars. Philosophical Trans-
sity. Macquarie University ocial website. Macquarie
University. 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-27. actions. 51: 498504. doi:10.1098/rstl.1759.0049.
JSTOR 105393.
[145] Sirius Satellite Radio, Inc. Company Prole, Informa-
tion, Business Description, History, Background Informa-
tion on Sirius Satellite Radio, Inc. Net Industries, LLC. Coordinates: 06* h 45* m 08.9173* s, 16 42
Retrieved 22 January 2008. 58.017
[146] McEnery, Paul (2001-01-16). Karlheinz Stockhausen

. Salon.com.
[147] Tom Service (13 October 2005).Beam Me up, Stocky

. The Guardian.
[148] Michael Kurtz, Stockhausen. Eine Biograe. Kassel,

Brenreiter Verlag, 1988: p. 271
[149] Duarte, Paulo Arajo. Astronomia na Bandeira

Brasileira. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.
Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved
9 July 2009.
[150] Henderson, G.; Stanbury, M. (1988). The Sirius: Past and

Present. Sydney: Collins. p. 38. ISBN 0-7322-2447-0.
[151]HMAS Sirius. Royal Australian Navy. Retrieved 2008-

09-13.
[152] van der Linden, F. R. (2000). Lockheed 8 Sirius.

National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution.
Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved
2008-01-26.
Chapter 4
Canopus
For other uses, see Canopus (disambiguation). and Romans; it was, however, visible to the ancient
Canopus (/knops/), also designated Alpha Cari- Egyptians.* [9] Hence Aratus did not write of the star
as it remained below the horizon, while Eratosthenes
and Ptolemyobserving from Alexandriadid, calling
it Kanbos.* [10]
The Navajo named it Maii Biz.* [11]
The Bedouin people of the Negev and Sinai also knew
it as Suhayl, and used it and Polaris as the two principal
stars for navigation at night. Due to the fact that it dis-
appears below the horizon in those regions, it became as-
sociated with a changeable nature, as opposed to always-
visible Polaris, which was circumpolar and hence 'stead-
fast'.* [12] It is also referred to by its Arabic name:
(Suhayl, Soheil in Persian), given by Islamic scientists in
the 7th century AD.
Called the Old Man of the South Pole (in Chinese:
Canopus seen from Tokyo, Japan. The latitude is 3538N. ; pinyin: Nanji Lorn) in Chinese, Canopus appears
(albeit misplaced northwards) on the medieval Chinese
nae ( Carinae, abbreviated Alpha Car, Car), is manuscript the Dunhuang star chart, despite not being
the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina, visible from the Chinese capital of Chang'an.* [13] The
and the second brightest star in the night-time sky, after Chinese astronomer Yi Xing had journeyed south to chart
Sirius. Canopus's visual magnitude is 0.74, and it has Canopus and other far southern stars in 724 AD.* [14]
an absolute magnitude of 5.71. However, it was already mentioned by Sima Qian in the
Canopus is a bright giant of spectral type A9, so it is es- second century BC, drawing on sources from the Warring
sentially white when seen with the naked eye. It is located States period, as the southern counterpart of Sirius.* [13]
in the far southern sky, at a year 2000 declination of 52 Bright stars were important to the ancient Polynesians for
42 and a right ascension of 06* h 24.0* m. navigation between the many islands and atolls of the
Its name is generally considered to originate from Pacic Ocean. Low on the horizon, they acted as stel-
the mythological Canopus, who was a navigator for lar compasses to assist mariners in charting courses to
Menelaus, king of Sparta (see below). particular destinations. Canopus served as the southern
wingtip of a Great Birdconstellation called Manu,
with Sirius as the body and Procyon the northern wingtip,
which divided the Polynesian night sky into two hemi-
4.1 Observational history spheres.* [15] The Hawaiian people called Canopus Ke
Alii-o-kona-i-ka-lewa, The chief of the southern ex-
In Indian Vedic literature, the star Canopus is associated panse"; it was one of the stars used by Hawaii-loa and Ki
*
with the sage Agastya, one of the ancient rishis (the oth- when they traveled to the Southern Ocean. [16]
ers are associated with the stars of the Big Dipper).* [8] The Mori people of New Zealand/Aotearoa had several
Agastya, the star, is said to be the 'cleanser of waters' and dierent names for Canopus. Ariki (High-born), was
its rising coincides with the calming of the waters of the known as a solitary star that appeared in the east, prompt-
Indian Ocean. It is considered the son of Pulasthya, son ing people to weep and chant.* [17] They also named it
of Brahma. Atutahi, Aotahi or Atuatahi, Stand Alone.* [18] Its
Canopus was not visible to the mainland ancient Greeks solitary nature indicates it is a tapu star, as tapu people
38
4.3. PROPERTIES 39
are often solitary. Its appearance at the beginning of the pus is so far south in the sky, it never rises in mid- or far-
Maruaroa season foretells the coming winter; light rays to northern latitudes; in theory the northern limit of visibil-
the south indicate a cold wet winter, and to the north fore- ity is latitude 3718' north. This is just south of Athens,
tell a mild winter. Food was oered to the star on its ap- Richmond (USA), and San Francisco, and very close to
pearance.* [19] This name has several dierent mytholo- Seville and Agrigento. It is almost exactly the latitude
gies attached to it as well. One story tells of how Atu- of Lick Observatory on Mt. Hamilton, California, from
tahi was left outside of the basket representing the Milky which it is readily visible because of the eects of el-
Way when Tne wove it. Another related myth surround- evation and atmospheric refraction, which add another
ing the star says that Atutahi was the rst-born child of degree to its apparent altitude. Under ideal conditions
Rangi, who refused to enter the Milky Way and so turned it has been spotted as far north as latitude 3731' from
it sideways and rose before it. The same name is used for the Pacic coast.* [30] Another northernmost record of
other stars and constellations throughout Polynesia.* [20] visibility came from Mount Nemrut in Turkey, latitude
Kapae-poto,Short horizon, referred to the fact that it 3759'.* [31] It is more easily visible in places such as the
rarely sets from the vantage point of New Zealand;* [21] Gulf Coast and Florida, and the island of Crete (Greece)
Kauanga (Solitary) was the name for Canopus only where the best season for viewing it around 9 p.m. is dur-
when it was the last star visible before sunrise.* [22] ing late January and early February.* [28]
The Tswana people of Botswana knew Canopus as Naka. Canopus has a B-V color index of +0.15 where 0 is a
Appearing late in winter skies, it heralded increasing blue-white, indicating it is essentially white, although has
winds and a time when trees lose their leaves. Stock own- been described as yellow-white. Its spectral type has been
ers knew it was time to their sheep with rams.* [23] To the
recorded as F0 and more recently A9. It has less yellow
Xam-speaking Bushmen of South Africa, Canopus and than Altair or Procyon, whose color indexes have been
Sirius signalled the appearance of termites and ying ants.
measured at 0.22 and 0.42 respectively. It may be that
They also believed stars had the power to cause death and some observers have perceived it as yellow-tinged owing
misfortune, and they would pray to Sirius and Canopus in to its being located low in the sky and hence subject to
particular to impart good fortune or skill.* [24] atmospheric eects.* [32] Patrick Moore argued that it
*
The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil saw never appeared anything but white to him. [33]
Canopus and Procyon as Kofongo Duck, with Castor
and Pollux representing his hands. The asterism's appear-
ance signied the coming of the rainy season and increase 4.3 Properties
in manioc, a food staple fed to guests at feasts.* [25]
Canopus traditionally marked the rudder of the ship Argo Before the launch of the Hipparcos satellite telescope,
Navis.* [26] English explorer Robert Hues brought it to distance estimates for Canopus varied widely, from 96
the attention of European observers in his 1592 work light years to 1200 light years. Had the latter distance
Tractatus de Globis, along with Achernar and Alpha Cen- been correct, Canopus would have been one of the most
tauri, noting Now, therefore, there are but three Stars luminous stars in the Milky Way galaxy. Hipparcos es-
of the rst magnitude that I could perceive in all those tablished Canopus as lying 310 light years (96 parsecs)
parts which are never seene here in England. The rst of from the Solar System; this is based on its 2007 parallax
these is that bright Star in the sterne of Argo which they measurement of 10.43 0.53 mas.* [1]
call Canobus. The second is in the end of Eridanus. The
Canopus has an MK spectral type of A9 II, although it has
third is in the right foote of the Centaure.* [27]
also been classied as F0Ib (Ib referring toless luminous
supergiant) on account of its high luminosity,* [34] or
F0II.* [7] The eective temperature of Canopus has been
4.2 Visibility measured to be 6,998 K. Very long baseline interferome-
try has been used to calculate its angular diameter at 6.9
In the southern hemisphere, Canopus and Sirius are both mas. Combined with distance calculated by Hipparcos,
visible high in the sky simultaneously, and reach the this gives it a radius of 71 times that of the Sun.* [7] If
meridian just 21 minutes apart. Brighter than rst mag- it were placed at the centre of the Solar System, it would
nitude, Canopus can be seen by naked eye already in the extend 90% of the way to the orbit of Mercury.* [35] It is
early twilight. Most visible in the southern hemisphere over ten thousand times more luminous than the sun.
summer, Canopus culminates at midnight on December Canopus is a source of X-rays, which are probably pro-
27,* [28] and at 9PM on February 11.* [29] duced by its corona, magnetically heated to several mil-
It is a circumpolar star when seen from points that have lion K. The temperature has likely been stimulated by
latitude south of 3718' S; for example, Victoria and fast rotation combined with strong *
convection percolat-
Tasmania, Australia; Auckland and south of it, New ing through the star's outer layers. [36]
Zealand; Baha Blanca, Argentina; and Valdivia, Chile No star closer than Canopus is more luminous than it, and
and south of these cities in South America. Since Cano- it has been the brightest star in Earth's sky during three
40 CHAPTER 4. CANOPUS
dierent epochs over the past four million years.* [37] trieve Helen of Troy after she was taken by Paris.
Other stars appear brighter only during relatively tem-
porary periods, during which they are passing the Solar A second from the Egyptian Coptic Kahi Nub (
System at a much closer distance than Canopus. About Golden Earth), which refers how Canopus would
90,000 years ago, Sirius moved close enough that it behave appeared near the horizon in ancient Egypt,
came brighter than Canopus, and that will remain the case reddened by atmospheric extinction from that po-
for another 210,000 years. But in 480,000 years, Cano- sition.* [42] A ruined ancient Egyptian port named
pus will once again be the brightest, and will remain so Canopus lies near the mouth of the Nile, site of the
for a period of about 510,000 years. Battle of the Nile.
Canopus was previously claimed to be a member of the A third is its possible origin from the Semitic root
Scorpius-Centaurus Association, however it is not located G(C)-N-B (Gimmel-Nun-Beth), from which the
near the subgroups of that association, and has not been Arabic word for south, janb ( ) , is derived.
included as a Sco-Cen member in kinematic studies that The southeastern wall of the Kaaba in Mecca is
used Hipparcos astrometric data.* [38] At present, Cano- aligned with the rising point of Canopus, and is also
pus is not thought to be a member of any nearby young named Janb.* [43]
stellar groups.* [39] Its position in the H-R diagram indi-
cates that it is a massive giant star currently in the core-
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized
helium burning phase.* [7]
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [44] to cata-
In 2014, astronomer Eric Mamajek reported that an ex- log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's
tremely magnetically active M dwarf (having strong coro- rst bulletin of July 2016* [45] included a table of the rst
nal X-ray emission), situated 1.16 degrees south of Cano- two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
pus, appears to share common proper motion with the cluded Canopus for this star. It is now so entered in the
bright star. The projected separation of the M dwarf IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [46]
2MASS J06234738-5351131 ( Canopus B) is approxi-
mately 1.9 parsecs, however despite this large separation,
it is still within the estimated tidal radius (2.9 parsecs) for 4.4.1 Other names
the massive star Canopus.* [39]
Africa
4.4 Etymology and cultural signif- An Egyptian priestly poet in the time of Thutmose III
mentions the star as Karbana, the star which pours his
icance light in a glance of re, When he disperses the morning
dew.* [42]
Carinae (Latinised to Alpha Carinae) is the star's Bayer
Under the Ptolemies, the star was known as Ptolemaion
designation. It is also listed in the Bright Star Catalogue
(Greek: ) and its acronychal rising marked
as HR 2326, the Henry Draper Catalogue as HD 45348,
the date of the Ptolemaia festival, which was held every
and the Hipparcos catalogue as HIP 30438. Flamsteed
four years, from 262 to 145 BC.* [47]
did not number this southern star, but Gould gave it the
number 7 (7 G. Carinae) in his Uranometria Argentina. In the traditional Xhosa calendar, May is named UCanz-
ibe (the month of Canopus).
The name Canopus is a Latinisation of the Ancient
Greek name /Kanbos, recorded in Claudius
Ptolemy's Almagest (c150 AD). Eratosthenes used the Americas
same spelling.* [10] Hipparchos wrote it as .
John Flamsteed wrote Canobus,* [40] as did Edmond The Navajo observed the star and named it Maii Biz
Halley in his 1679 Catalogus Stellarum Australium.* [41] .* [11]
The name has two common derivations, both listed in
Richard Hinckley Allen's seminal Star Names: Their Lore
and Meaning;* [42] and one which is less common. All Asia
are matters of conjecture:
It is also personied as the Shou star.
One from the legend of the Trojan War, where In Japan, Canopus is known as Mera-boshi and Roujin-sei
the constellation Carina was once part of the now- (the old man star).* [48]
obsolete constellation of Argo Navis, which repre-
sented the ship used by Jason and the Argonauts. In Ancient Hindu astronomy and astrology, Canopus is
The brightest star in the constellation was given the named Agasti or Agastya.* [42]
name of a ship's pilot from another Greek legend: In traditional Tibetan astronomy and astrology, Canopus
Canopus, pilot of Menelaus' ship on his quest to re- is named Karma Rishi
4.5. SEE ALSO 41
Kalla o Damna, an inuential Pahlavi (Middle Persian) and Taurua-nui-o-te-hiti-apatoaGreat-festivity-of-the-

book of animal fables was later known as Anvar-i-Suhayli border-of-the-south,* [57] and the Tuamotu people
or The Lights of Canopus. called the star Te Tau-rari and Marere-te-tavahi, the latter
said to be the true name for the former,He-who-stands-
alone.* [58]
Australia
Among New Zealand Maori Canopus is a circumpolar
Canopus was identied as the moiety ancestor Waa star called Atutahi (variants include Autahi and Aotahi).
Crowto some Koori people in southeastern Aus- Atutahi was considered so sacred that he stood alone out-
tralia.* [49] The Boorong people of northwestern Victoria side the Milky Way, it was an important weather predictor
recalled that War (Canopus) was the brother of Warepil and indicated when soils were ready for planting. Te Taki
(Sirius), and that he brought re from the heavens and o Atutahi referred to the stars role in leading Te Punga
introduced it to mankind. His wife was Collowgullouric (the anchor) i.e. the Southern Cross.
War (Eta Carinae).* [50] The Pirt-Kopan-noot people of
western Victoria told of WaaCrowfalling in love with
a queen, GneeanggarWedge-tailed Eagle(Sirius) and 4.4.2 Role in navigation
her six attendants (the Pleiades). His advances spurned,
he hears that the women are foraging for grubs and so To anyone living in the northern hemisphere, but far
transforms himself into a grub. When the women dig him enough south to see the star, it served as a southern pole
out, he changes into a giant and carries her o.* [51] star. This lasted only until magnetic compasses became
common.
The Kulin people knew Canopus as Lo-an-tuka.* [50] Ob-
jects in the sky were also associated with states of be- In modern times, Canopus serves another navigational
ing for some tribes; the Wailwun of northern New South use. Canopus's brightness and location well o the eclip-
Wales knew Canopus as Wumba deaf, alongside tic make it popular for space navigation. Many space-
Mars as Gumbafatand Venus as Ngindigindoeryou craft carry a special camera known as a Canopus Star
are laughing.* [52] Tasmanian aboriginal lore held that Tracker" plus a Sun sensor for attitude determination.
Canopus was Dromerdene, the brother of Moinee; the two The eects of precession will take Canopus within 10 of
fought and fell out of the sky, with Dromerdene falling the south celestial pole around the year 14,000 CE.* [59]
into Louisa Bay in southwest Tasmania.* [53]
4.4.3 Modern legacy

Middle East
Canopus appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the
Canopus was known to the ancient Mesopotamians and
state of Gois.* [60]
given the name NUN-ki and represented the city of
Eridu in the Three Stars Each Babylonian star catalogues Two U.S. Navy submarine tenders have been named af-
and later MUL.APIN around 1100 BC.* [54] Today, the ter Canopus, the rst serving from 1922 to 1942 and the
star Sigma Sagittarii is known by the common name second serving from 1965 to 1994.
Nunki.* [55]
An occasional name seen in English is Soheil, or the
feminine Soheila; in Turkish is Sheyl, or the feminine 4.5 See also
Sheyla, from the Arabic name for several bright stars,
suhayl,* [42] and Canopus was known as Suhel in Canopus in ction
medieval times.* [56] Alternate spellings include Suhail,
Suhilon, Suheyl, Sohayl, Suhayil, Shoel, Sohil, Soheil,
Sahil, Suhayeel, Sohayil, Sihel, and Sihil.* [42] An alter- 4.6 Notes
nate name was Wazn weightor Haar ground,
possibly related to its low position near the horizon.* [42]
Hence comes its name in the Alphonsine Tables, Suhel 4.7 References
ponderosus, a Latinization of Al Suhayl al Wazn.* [42] Its
Greek name was revived during the Renaissance.* [56] [1] van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and Astro-
Polynesia physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. Vizier catalog entry
The people of the Society Islands had two names
for Canopus, as did the Tuamotu people. The [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002). Catalogue of Stellar Pho-
Society Islanders called Canopus Taurua-e-tupu-tai- tometry in Johnson's 11-color system. CDS/ADC
nanu, Festivity-whence-comes-the-ux-of-the-sea, Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
42 CHAPTER 4. CANOPUS
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. Vizier catalog entry [16] Makemson 1941, p. 198.
[17] Makemson 1941, p. 201.

[3] Gray, R. O.; Garrison, R. F. (1989). The early F-type
stars - Rened classication, confrontation with Strom- [18] p. 419, Mythology: Myths, Legends and Fantasies, Janet
gren photometry, and the eects of rotation. Astrophysi- Parker, Alice Mills, Julie Stanton, Durban, Struik Pub-
cal Journal Supplement Series (ISSN 0067-0049). 69: 301. lishers, 2007.
Bibcode:1989ApJS...69..301G. doi:10.1086/191315.
[19] Best, Elsdon (1922). Astronomical Knowledge of the
[4] Lopez-Cruz, O.; Garrison, R. F. (1993). A Spec- Maori: Genuine and Empirical. Wellington, New
troscopic Study of High Galactic Latitude F Supergiant Zealand: Dominion Museum. pp. 3435.
Stars. Luminous High-Latitude Stars. the International
[20] Makemson 1941, pp. 200-202.
Workshop on Luminous High-Latitude Stars. 45: 59.
Bibcode:1993ASPC...45...59L. [21] Makemson 1941, p. 217.
[5] Gontcharov, G. A. (2007). Pullkovo Compi- [22] Makemson 1941, p. 218.
lation of Radial Velocities for 39495 Hipparcos
stars in a common system. Astronomy Letters. [23] Clegg, Andrew (1986). Some Aspects of Tswana Cos-
32 (1): 759771. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G. mology. Botswana Notes and Records. 18: 3337.
doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065. Vizier catalog entry JSTOR 40979758.
[6] Smiljanic, R.; et al. (April 2006). CNO in [24] Hollman, J. C. (2007). ""The Sky's Things, |xam
evolved intermediate mass stars. Astronomy and As- Bushman 'Astrological Mythology' as recorded in the
trophysics. 449 (2): 655671. arXiv:astro-ph/0511329 Bleek and Lloyd Manuscripts. African Sky. 11: 8.
. Bibcode:2006A&A...449..655S. doi:10.1051/0004- Bibcode:2007AfrSk..11....8H.
6361:20054377.
[25] Basso, Ellen B. (1987). In Favor of Deceit: A Study of
[7] Cruzalbes, P.; Jorissen, A.; Rabbia, Y.; Sacuto, S.; Tricksters in an Amazonian Society. Tucson, Arizona:
Chiavassa, A.; Pasquato, E.; Plez, B.; Eriksson, K.; University of Arizona Press. p. 360. ISBN 0816510229.
Spang, A.; Chesneau, O. (2013). Fundamental pa-
[26] Knobel, E. B. (1917). On Frederick de Hout-
rameters of 16 late-type stars derived from their angu-
man's Catalogue of Southern Stars, and the Origin
lar diameter measured with VLTI/AMBER. Monthly
of the Southern Constellations. Monthly No-
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 434: 437.
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 77 (5):
arXiv:1306.3288 . Bibcode:2013MNRAS.434..437C. 41432 [422]. Bibcode:1917MNRAS..77..414K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1037. doi:10.1093/mnras/77.5.414.
[8] Frawley, David (1993). Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Se- [27] Knobel, p. 416.
crets of Ancient Civilization. New Delhi, India: Motilal
Banarsidass. [28] Motz, Lloyd; Nathanson, Carol (1991). The Constella-
tions: An Enthusiast's Guide to the Night Sky. London,
[9] Schaaf, p. 107. United Kingdom: Aurum Press. pp. 37677. ISBN 1-
[10] Ridpath, Ian. Carina. Star Tales. self-published. Re- 85410-088-2.
trieved 10 December 2015. [29] Schaaf, p. 257.
[11] Maryboy, Nancy D. (2004). A Guide to Navajo Astron- [30] D. Gieringer, Exploring the Tropic of Canopus,As-
omy. Indigenous Education Institute : Blu, Utah. tronomy, December 1985, p.24.
[12] Bailey, Clinton (1974). Bedouin Star-Lore in Sinai and
[31] Tezel, Tun (8 Oct 2013). Zodiacal Light and Nemrut
the Negev. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Heritage. The World At Night (TWAN). Retrieved 17
Studies, University of London (abstract). 37 (3): 58096.
March 2014.
doi:10.1017/S0041977X00127491. JSTOR 613801.
[32] Schaaf, pp. 112-13.
[13] Bonnet-Bidaud, Jean-Marc; Praderie, Franoise; Whit-
eld, Susan (2009). The Dunhuang Sky: A Compre- [33] Moore, Patrick (2000). Exploring the night sky with binoc-
hensive Study of the Oldest Known Star Atlas. The In- ulars (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 69. ISBN
ternational Dunhuang Project: The Silk Road Online. 12: 9780521793902.
39. arXiv:0906.3034 . Bibcode:2009JAHH...12...39B.
[34] Domiciano De Souza, A.; Bendjoya, P.; Vakili, F.; Mil-
[14] Needham, Joseph (1959). Science and Civilisation in lour, F.; Petrov, R. G. (2008). Diameter and photo-
China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the spheric structures of Canopus from AMBER/VLTI inter-
Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge, United Kingdom: ferometry. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 489 (2): L5
Cambridge University Press. p. 274. ISBN 0521058015. L8. Bibcode:2008A&A...489L...5D. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:200810450.
[15] Holberg, J.B. (2007). Sirius: Brightest Diamond in the
Night Sky. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. pp. 25 [35] Kaler, Jim (26 June 2009).Canopus. Stars. University
26. ISBN 0-387-48941-X. of Illinois. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
4.7. REFERENCES 43
[36] Ness, J.-U.; Gdel, M.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M.; Au- [51] Mudroodoo, p. 55.
dard, M.; Telleschi, A. (2004). On the sizes
of stellar X-ray coronae. Astronomy and Astro- [52] Johnson, Diane (1998). Night skies of aboriginal Aus-
physics. 427 (2): 667. Bibcode:2004A&A...427..667N. tralia: a noctuary. Darlington, New South Wales: Uni-
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20040504. versity of Sydney. p. 84. ISBN 1-86451-356-X.
[37] Sky and Telescope, April 1998 (p60), based on computa- [53] Haynes, Ros D. (2000). Astronomy and the Dreaming:
tions from HIPPARCOS data. The Astronomy of the Aboriginal Australians. Astronomy
Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy.
[38] de Zeeuw, P.T.; Hoogerwerf, R.; de Bruijne, J.H.J; Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 57. doi:10.1007/978-
Brown, A.G.A; Blaauw, A. (1999). A HIPPARCOS 94-011-4179-6_3.
Census of the Nearby OB Associations. The Astronom-
ical Journal. 117: 354399. arXiv:astro-ph/9809227 . [54] Rogers, John H. (1998). Origins of the Ancient Con-
Bibcode:1999AJ....117..354D. doi:10.1086/300682. stellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions. Journal
of the British Astronomical Association. 108 (1): 928.
[39] Mamajek, Eric (11 August 2014).Canopus B: A Candi- Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R.
date Common Proper Motion Companion to the Second
Brightest Star. Figshare. Retrieved 13 August 2014. [55] Allen, Richard Hinckley, Star Names, their lore and mean-
ing, p. 359
[40] Flamsteed, John (1729). Atlas coelestis. London, United
Kingdom. pp. Constellation Map of Southern Hemi- [56] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of
sphere. Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names
and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA:
[41] Halley, Edmond (1679). Catalogus stellarum australium;
Sky Pub. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
sive, Supplementum catalogi Tychenici, exhibens longi-
tudines et latitudines stellarum xarum, quae, prope polum [57] Makemson 1941, p. 259.
Antarcticum sitae, in horizonte Uraniburgico Tychoni in-
conspicuae fuere, accurato calculo ex distantiis supputatas, [58] Makemson 1941, p. 229.
& ad annum 1677 completum correctas...Accedit appen-
dicula de rebus quibusdam astronomicis. London: T. [59] Taylor, Kieron (1 March 1994). Precession. my-
James. p. 30. web.tiscali.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
[42] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963) [1899]. Star Names: [60] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag. FOTW Flags Of
Their Lore and Meaning (Revised ed.). New York: Dover The World website.
Publications. pp. 6772. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[43] Islamic Awareness. Astronomical Orientation Of Coordinates: 06* h 23* m 57.1099* s, 52 41
Ka`bah. 44.378
trieved 22 May 2016.
[45] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[47] Martianus Capella 7.838, Hazzard; Fitzgerald (1991).
The Regulation of the Ptolemeia. Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 85: 623.
Bibcode:1991JRASC..85....6H.; Hazzard. 2000. Imagi-
nation of a Monarchy: Studies in Ptolemaic Propaganda,
34-36.
[48] Takao Ibaraki (1996-07-14). Stellar Iconology and As-
tronomical Folklore in Japan. International Planetar-
ium Society (IPS) Conferences 1996. Osaka: International
Planetarium Society. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
[49] Mudrooroo (1994). Aboriginal mythology : an A-Z span-
ning the history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest
legends to the present day. London: HarperCollins. p. 27.
ISBN 1-85538-306-3.
Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption
of Eta Carinae. Journal of Astronomical History
& Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H.
Chapter 5
Arcturus
For other uses, see Arcturus (disambiguation). 5.2 Visibility
Arcturus (/rktjrs/), also designated Alpha Botis With an apparent visual magnitude of 0.05, Arcturus
( Botis, abbreviated Alpha Boo, Boo) , is the bright- is the brightest star in the Northern celestial hemisphere
est star in the constellation of Botes, the fourth-brightest and the fourth-brightest star in the night sky,* [16] after
in the night sky, and the brightest in the northern celes- Sirius (1.46 apparent magnitude), Canopus (0.72) and
tial hemisphere. Together with Spica and Denebola (or Alpha Centauri (0.27). However, Alpha Centauri is a
Regulus, depending on the source), Arcturus is part of binary star, whose unresolved components to the naked
the Spring Triangle asterism and, by extension, also of eye are both fainter than Arcturus. This makes Arcturus
the Great Diamond along with the star Cor Caroli. the third-brightest individual star, just ahead of Alpha
Centauri A, whose apparent magnitude is 0.01.* [17]
Relatively close at 36.7 light-years from the Sun, Arc-
The French mathematician and astronomer Jean-Baptiste
turus is a red giant of spectral type K0IIIan ageing star
Morin observed Arcturus in the daytime with a telescope
around 7.1 billion years old that has used up its core hy-
(a rst for any star other than the Sun and supernovae) in
drogen and moved o the main sequence. It is 1.08
1635, and Arcturus has been seen at or just before sunset
0.06 times as massive as the Sun, but has expanded to
with the naked eye.* [17]
25.4 0.2 times its diameter and is around 170 times as
luminous. Arcturus is visible from both Earth's hemispheres as it
is located 19 north of the celestial equator. The star
culminates at midnight on 27 April, and at 9PM on June
10 being visible during the late northern spring or the
southern autumn.* [18] From the northern hemisphere, an
easy way to nd Arcturus is to follow the arc of the han-
dle of the Big Dipper (Plough). By continuing in this
5.1 Nomenclature path, one can nd Spica,Arc to Arcturus, then spike to
Spica".
Ptolemy described Arcturus as subrufaslightly
( red): it
Botis (Latinised to Alpha Botis) is the star's Bayer has a B-V color index of +1.23, roughly midway between
designation. Pollux (B-V +1.00) and Aldebaran (B-V +1.54).* [17]
The traditional name Arcturus derives from Ancient Eta Botis, or Muphrid, is only 3.3 light-years distant
Greek (Arktouros) and meansGuardian of from Arcturus, and would have a visual magnitude 2.5,
the Bear,* [9] ultimately from (arktos),bear whereas an observer on the former system would nd
*
[10] and (ouros), watcher, guardian.* [11] It Arcturus as bright as Venus as seen from Earth.* [17]
has been known by this name since at least the time of
Hesiod.* [12] This is a reference to its being the bright-
est star in the constellation of Botes (of which it forms
the left foot), which is next to the constellations of Ursa 5.3 Properties
Major and Ursa Minor, the Greater and Lesser Bears.
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized Based upon an annual parallax shift of 88.83
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [13] to cata- milliarcseconds as measured by the Hipparcos satellite,
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's Arcturus is 36.7 light-years (11.26 parsecs) from the
rst bulletin of July 2016* [14] included a table of the rst Sun (the margin of error is 0.54 milliarcseconds, trans-
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in- lating to a* margin of error of 0.23 light-years (0.069
cluded Arcturus for this star. It is now so entered in the parsecs)). [1]
IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [15] Arcturus is a type K0 III red giant star. With an absolute
44
5.3. PROPERTIES 45
shell burning phase. It will continue to expand before en-

tering horizontal branch stage of its life cycle.
5.3.1 Oscillations
As one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been
the subject of a number of studies in the emerging eld of
asteroseismology. Belmonte and colleagues carried out a
radial velocity (Doppler shift of spectral lines) study of
the star in April and May 1988, which showed variabil-
ity with a frequency of the order of a few microhertz, the
highest peak corresponding to 4.3 Hz (2.7 days) with
an amplitude of 60 ms* 1, with a frequency separation
of c. 5 Hz. They suggested that the most plausible ex-
planation for the variability of Arcturus is stellar oscilla-
tions.* [24]
Asteroseismological measurements allow direct calcula-
tion of the mass and radius, giving values of 0.8 0.2
M and 27.9 3.4 R . This form of modelling is still
relatively inaccurate, but a useful check on other mod-
els.* [25]
Optical image of Arcturus (DSS2 / MAST / STScI / NASA)

5.3.2 Element abundance
magnitude of 0.30 it is, together with Vega and Sirius, Astronomers term metalsthose elements with higher
one of the most luminous stars in the Sun's neighborhood. atomic numbers than helium. Arcturus has an enrichment
It is about 110 times brighter than the Sun in visible light of alpha elements relative to iron but only about a third
wavelengths, but this underestimates its strength as much of solar metallicity, Arcturus is possibly a Population II
of the light it gives o is in the infrared; total (bolometric) star.* [17]
power output is about 180 times that of the Sun. The
lower output in visible light is due to a lower ecacy as the
star has a lower surface temperature than the Sun. With a 5.3.3 Kinematics
near-infrared J band magnitude of 2.2, only Betelgeuse
(2.9) and R Doradus (2.6) are brighter. Arcturus has a high proper motion, two arcseconds a year,
greater than any rst magnitude star other than Cen-
As the brightest K-type giant in the sky, it was the tauri. It is moving rapidly (122 km/s) relative to the Solar
subject of an atlas of its visible spectrum, made from System, and is now almost at its closest point to the Sun.
photographic spectra taken with the coud spectrograph Closest approach will happen in about 4,000 years, when
of the Mt. Wilson 2.5m telescope published in the star will be a few hundredths of a light-year closer to
1968,* [19] a key reference work for stellar spectroscopy. Earth than it is today. Arcturus is thought to be an old
Subsequent spectral atlases * [20] * [21] * [22] with greater disk star, and appears to be moving with a group of 52
wavelength coverage and superior signal-to-noise ratio other such stars, known as the Arcturus stream.* [26]
made with digital detectors have supplanted the older
work, but the Arcturus spectrum remains an important In antiquity, *
Arcturus was closer to the centre of the con-
standard for stellar spectroscopy. stellation. [12]
As a single star, the mass of Arcturus cannot be measured

directly, but models suggest it is slightly larger than that of 5.3.4 Possible planetary system
the Sun. Evolutionary matching to the observed physical
parameters gives a mass of 1.08 0.06 M ,* [7] while Hipparcos also suggested that Arcturus is a binary star,
the oxygen isotope ratio for a rst Dredge-up star gives a with the companion about twenty times dimmer than the
mass of 1.2 M .* [23] primary and orbiting close enough to be at the very limits
Arcturus has been estimated to be around 6 billion to 8.5 of humans' current ability to make it out. Recent results
billion years old, and is ascending the red giant branch un- remain inconclusive, but do support the
*
marginal Hippar-
til it accumulates a large enough degenerate helium core cos detection of a binary companion. [27]
to ignite the helium ash.* [7] It has likely exhausted the In 1993, radial velocity measurements of Aldebaran,
hydrogen from its core and is now in its active hydrogen Arcturus and Pollux showed that Arcturus exhibited a
46 CHAPTER 5. ARCTURUS
long-period radial velocity oscillation, which could be in- 5.4.3 Other languages
terpreted as a substellar companion. This substellar ob-
ject would be nearly 12 times the mass of Jupiter and be The Wotjobaluk Koori people of southeastern Aus-
located roughly at the same orbital distance from Arc- tralia knew Arcturus as Marpean-kurrk, mother of Djuit
turus as the Earth is from the Sun, at 1.1 Astronomical (Antares) and another star in Bootes, Weet-kurrk* [35]
Units. However, all three stars surveyed showed similar (Muphrid).* [36] Its appearance in the north signied the
oscillations yielding similar companion masses, and the arrival of the larvae of the wood ant (a food item) in
authors concluded that the variation was likely to be in- spring. The beginning of summer was marked by the
trinsic to the star rather than due to the gravitational eect star's setting with the Sun in the west and the disap-
of a companion. So far no substellar companion has been pearance of the larvae.* [35] The people of Milingimbi
conrmed.* [28] Island in Arnhem Land saw Arcturus and Muphrid as
man and woman, and took the appearance of Arc-
turus at sunrise as a sign to go and harvest rakia or
spikerush.* [37]* :24,69,112 The Wailwun of northern
New South Wales knew Arcturus as Guembila red
5.4 Other names .* [37]* :84
In Inuit astronomy, Arcturus is called the Old Man (Ut-
tuqalualuk in Inuit) and The First Ones (Sivulliik in Inuit).
5.4.1 In Arabic
The Mi'kmaq of eastern Canada saw Arcturus as
Kookoogwss, the owl.* [38]
In Arabic, Arcturus is one of two stars called al-simk
the uplifted one(the other is Spica). Arcturus is spec- Arcturus had several names that described its signicance
ied as as-simk ar-rmi the uplifted to indigenous Polynesians. In the Society Islands, Arc-
one of the lancer. The term Al Simak Al Ramih has ap- turus, called Ana-tahua-taata-metua-te-tupu-mavae (a
peared in Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue (translated pillar to stand by), was one of the ten pillars of the
into Latin as Al Simak Lanceator).* [29] sky, bright stars that represented the ten heavens of the
Tahitian afterlife.* [39] In Hawaii, the pattern of Botes
This has been variously romanized in the past, leading
was called Hoku-iwa, meaningstars of the frigate bird
to obsolete variants such as Aramec and Azimech. For
. This constellation marked the path for Hawaiiloa on
example, the name Alramih is used in Georey Chaucer's
his return to Hawaii from the South Pacic Ocean.* [40]
Treatise on the Astrolabe (1391). Another Arabic name is
The Hawaiians called Arcturus Hoku-lea.* [41] It was
Haris-el-sema, from ris al-samthe
equated to the Tuamotuan constellation Te Kiva, mean-
keeper of heaven.* [30]* [31]* [32] or
ing "frigate-bird", which could either represent the g-
ris al-shaml the keeper of north.* [33]
ure of Botes or just Arcturus.* [42] However, Arcturus
Arcturus was once again called by its classical name from may instead be the Tuamotuan star called Turu.* [43] The
the Renaissance onwards.* [34] Hawaiian name for Arcturus as a single star was likely
Hoku-lea, which means star of gladness, or clear
star.* [44] In the Marquesas Islands, Arcturus was prob-
ably called Tau-tou and was the star that ruled the month
approximating January. The Maori and Moriori called it
5.4.2 Asia Tautoru, a variant of the Marquesan name and a name
shared with Orion's Belt.* [45]
In Chinese astronomy, Arcturus is called Da Jiao
(Chinese: ; pinyin: Djio; literally:great horn),
because it is the brightest star in the Chinese constellation 5.5 In culture
called Jiao Xiu (Chinese: ; pinyin: Jio Xi; liter-
ally:horn star). Later it become a part of another con-
As one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been
stellation Kang Xiu (Chinese: ; pinyin: Kng Xi).
signicant to observers since antiquity.
In Indian Astrology or Vedic Astrology or Sidereal As-
trology, Arcturus is called Swati which is a word mean-
ingvery benecentderived from the language Sanskrit. 5.5.1 Historical cultures
It is the eponymous star of one of the nakshatras (lunar
mansions) of Hindu astrology. Prehistoric Polynesian navigators knew Arcturus as
Hklea, the Star of Joy. Arcturus is the zenith
In Indonesia, Arcturus is called Bintang Biduk (star of star of the Hawaiian Islands. Using Hklea and other
boat). stars, the Polynesians launched their double-hulled canoes
In Japan, Arcturus is called Mugi-boshi (), meaning from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands. Traveling east
star of wheat. and north they eventually crossed the equator and reached
5.7. REFERENCES 47
the latitude at which Arcturus would appear directly over- 5.7 References
head in the summer night sky. Knowing they had arrived
at the exact latitude of the island chain, they sailed due [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation
west on the trade winds to landfall. If Hklea could be of the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and
kept directly overhead, they landed on the southeastern Astrophysics. 474 (2): 65364. arXiv:0708.1752
shores of the Big Island of Hawaii. For a return trip to . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
Tahiti the navigators could use Sirius, the zenith star of 6361:20078357.
that island. Since 1976, the Polynesian Voyaging Soci-
ety's Hklea has crossed the Pacic Ocean many times [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
under navigators who have incorporated this waynding logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
technique in their non-instrument navigation.
In ancient Mesopotamia, it was linked to the god Enlil,
and also known as Shudun, yoke,* [12] or SHU- [3] Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; Mc-
PA of unknown derivation in the Three Stars Each Fadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (2003). Contri-
butions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spec-
Babylonian star catalogues and later MUL.APIN around
troscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs:
1100 BC.* [46]
The Northern Sample. I. The Astronomical Jour-
In Ancient Rome, the star's celestial activity was sup- nal. 126 (4): 2048. arXiv:astro-ph/0308182 .
posed to portend tempestuous weather, and a personica- Bibcode:2003AJ....126.2048G. doi:10.1086/378365.
tion of the star acts as narrator of the prologue to Plautus'
comedy Rudens (circa 211 BC).* [47]* [48] [4] Massarotti, Alessandro; Latham, David W.; Stefanik,
Robert P.; Fogel, Jerey (2008). Rotational and Radial
In the Hebrew scriptures Arcturus is referred to in Job Velocities for a Sample of 761 HIPPARCOS Giants and
38:32.* [49] the Role of Binarity. The Astronomical Journal. 135:
209. Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M. doi:10.1088/0004-
In the Middle Ages, Arcturus was considered a Behenian
6256/135/1/209.
xed star* [50] and attributed to the stone Jasper and the
plantain herb. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic [5] Perryman; et al. (1997). HIP 69673. The Hipparcos
sign under the alternate name Alchameth. and Tycho Catalogues.
The Karandavyuha sutra, compiled at the end of the 4th [6] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008). Rota-
century or beginning of the 5th century C.E., names one tion and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Gi-
of Avalokiteshvara's meditative absorptions asThe face ant and Red Horizontal Branch Stars. The Astro-
of Arcturus.* [51] nomical Journal. 135 (3): 892906. arXiv:0711.4984
. Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/3/892.
[7] I. Ramrez; C. Allende Prieto (December 2011). Fun-

5.5.2 Modern cultures damental Parameters and Chemical Composition of Arc-
turus. The Astrophysical Journal. 743 (2): 135.
Arcturus achieved fame when its light was rumored to be arXiv:1109.4425 . Bibcode:2011ApJ...743..135R.
the mechanism used to open the 1933 Chicago World's doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/135.
Fair. The star was chosen as it was thought that light from
Arcturus had started its journey at about the time of the [8] Schrder, K.-P.; Cuntz, M. (April 2007). A criti-
cal test of empirical mass loss formulas applied to in-
previous Chicago World's Fair in 1893 (at 36.7 light-years
dividual giants and supergiants. Astronomy and As-
away, and the light actually started in 1896.* [52]
trophysics. 465 (2): 593601. arXiv:astro-ph/0702172
The star is featured in the 1977 documentary lm Powers . Bibcode:2007A&A...465..593S. doi:10.1051/0004-
of Ten, in which it is seen when a camera zooms from 6361:20066633.
Earth to the whole of the known universe.
[9] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A
In the 2016 Sci-Fi lm Passengers, the starship Avalon Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
slingshots around a red giant called Arcturus about 31
years after leaving Earth. [10] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-
English Lexicon, on Perseus
[11] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-

English Lexicon, on Perseus
5.6 See also [12] Rogers, John H. (1998). Origins of the Ancient Con-
stellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions. Journal
Arcturus in ction Bibcode:1998JBAA..108...79R.
48 CHAPTER 5. ARCTURUS
[13] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- arXiv:1207.0767 . Bibcode:2012MNRAS.425.3188R.
trieved 22 May 2016. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21677.x.
[14] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. [27] Verhoelst, T.; Bord, P. J.; Perrin, G.; Decin, L.; et al.
1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016. (2005).Is Arcturus a well-understood K giant?". Astron-
omy & Astrophysics. 435: 289. arXiv:astro-ph/0501669
. Bibcode:2005A&A...435..289V. doi:10.1051/0004-
[16] Kaler, James B. (2002). The Hundred Greatest Stars. New 6361:20042356., and see references therein.
York, New York: Copernicus Books. p. 21. ISBN 0-387-
95436-8. [28] Hatzes, A.; Cochran, W. (August 1993). Long-
period radial velocity variations in three K giants
[17] Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discovering the . The Astrophysical Journal. 413 (1): 339348.
Universe Through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars. Hoboken, Bibcode:1993ApJ...413..339H. doi:10.1086/173002.
New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 12636. ISBN
978-0-471-70410-2. [29] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
[18] Schaaf, p. 257. darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So-
[19] Grin, R. E.; Grin, R. (1968). A photometric ciety. 55: 429. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
atlas of the spectrum of Arcturus, 3600-8825. doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
Cambridge: Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Bibcode:1968pmas.book.....G. [30] List of the 25 brightest stars. Jordanian Astronomical
Society. Retrieved March 28, 2007.
[20] Hinkle, Kenneth; Wallace, Lloyd; Valenti, Je;
Harmer, Dianne (2000). Visible and Near Infrared [31] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1936). Star-names and their
Atlas of the Arcturus Spectrum 3727-9300 . San meanings. pp. 100101.
Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacic.
Bibcode:2000vnia.book.....H. ISBN 1-58381-037-4. [32] Wehr, Hans (1994). Cowan, J. Milton, ed. A dictionary
of modern written Arabic.
[21] Hinkle, Kenneth; Wallace, Lloyd; Livingston, William
Charles (1995). Infrared atlas of the Arcturus spectrum, [33] Davis Jr., G. A. (October 3, 1944). The Pro-
0.9-5.3 microns. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of nunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected
the Pacic. Bibcode:1995iaas.book.....H. List of Star Names. Popular Astronomy. LII: 13.
Bibcode:1944PA.....52....8D.
[22] Hinkle, Kenneth; Wallace, Lloyd; Valenti, Je; Ayres,
Thomas (2005). Ultraviolet Atlas of the Arcturus Spec- [34] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of
trum, 1150-3800 . San Francisco: Astronomical Society Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names
of the Pacic. Bibcode:2005uaas.book.....H. and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA:
Sky Pub. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
[23] Abia, C.; Palmerini, S.; Busso, M.; Cristallo, S.
(2012). Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in Arc- [35] Mudrooroo (1994). Aboriginal mythology : an A-Z span-
turus and Aldebaran. Constraining the parameters for ning the history of aboriginal mythology from the earliest
non-convective mixing on the red giant branch. As- legends to the present day. London: HarperCollins. p. 5.
tronomy & Astrophysics. 548: A55. arXiv:1210.1160 ISBN 1-85538-306-3.
. Bibcode:2012A&A...548A..55A. doi:10.1051/0004- [36] Hamacher, Duane W.; Frew, David J. (2010). An
6361/201220148. Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of
[24] Belmonte, J. A.; Jones, A. R.; Palle, P. L.; Roca Eta Carinae (PDF). Journal of Astronomical History
Cortes, T. (1990). Acoustic oscillations in the K2 & Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
III star Arcturus. Astrophysics and Space Science. Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H.
169 (12): 7784. Bibcode:1990Ap&SS.169...77B.
doi:10.1007/BF00640689. ISSN 0004-640X. [37] Johnson, Diane (1998). Night skies of aboriginal Aus-
tralia: a noctuary. Darlington, New South Wales: Uni-
[25] Kallinger, T.; Weiss, W. W.; Barban, C.; Baudin, versity of Sydney. pp. 24, 69, 84, 112. ISBN 1-86451-
F.; Cameron, C.; Carrier, F.; De Ridder, J.; Goupil, 356-X.
M.-J.; Gruberbauer, M.; Hatzes, A.; Hekker, S.;
Samadi, R.; Deleuil, M. (2010). Oscillating red [38] Hagar, Stansbury (1900). The Celestial Bear.
giants in the CoRoT exoeld: Asteroseismic mass The Journal of American Folklore. 13 (49): 92103.
and radius determination. Astronomy and Astro- doi:10.2307/533799. JSTOR 533799.
physics. 509: A77. Bibcode:2010A&A...509A..77K.
[39] Makemson 1941, p. 199.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200811437.
[40] Makemson 1941, p. 209.
[26] Ramya, P.; Reddy, Bacham E.; Lambert, David L.
(2012). Chemical compositions of stars in two stel- [41] Makemson 1941, p. 280.
lar streams from the Galactic thick disc. Monthly No-
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 425 (4): 3188. [42] Makemson 1941, p. 221.
[43] Makemson 1941, p. 264.
[44] Makemson 1941, p. 210.
[45] Makemson 1941, p. 260.
[46] Rogers, John H. (1998). Origins of the Ancient Con-

stellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions. Journal
Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R.
[47] Plautus. Rudens. p. prol. 71.
[48] Lewis & Short. Arcturus. Latin Dictionary.
[49] Job 38:32. Bible Hub.
[50] Tyson, Donald; Freake, James (1993), Three Books of

Occult Philosophy, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 0-87542-
832-0
[51] Alan Roberts, Peter; Yeshi, Tulku (2013). Karan-

davyuha Sutra Page 45 (PDF). Pacicbuddha. 84000.
[52] Century of Progress World's Fair, 1933-1934. Univer-

sity of Illinois-Chicago. January 2008. Retrieved 2009-
09-06.
5.7.1 Cited texts

Makemson, Maud Worcester (1941). The Morn-
ing Star Rises: an account of Polynesian astronomy.
Yale University Press.
5.8 Notes
5.9 External links

SolStation.com entry
Arcturus at Constellation Guide
Coordinates: 14* h 15* m 39.7* s, 19 10 56

Chapter 6
Alpha Centauri
This article is about " Centauri. For a Centauri, Rijl al-Qanris, meaning Foot of the
see HD 125823. For A Centauri, see A Centauri. Centaur".* [16]* [17]
For other uses, see Alpha Centauri (disambiguation). Alpha Centauri C was discovered in 1915 by the Scottish
Tolimanredirects here. For other uses, see Toliman
astronomer Robert Innes, Director of the Union Observa-
(disambiguation). tory in Johannesburg, South Africa,* [18] who suggested
that it be named Proxima Centauri* [19] (actually Prox-
Alpha Centauri ( Centauri, abbreviated Alpha Cen, ima Centaurus).* [20] The name is from Latin, meaning
Cen) is the closest star system to the Solar System, be- 'nearest [star] of Centaurus'.* [21]
ing 4.37 light-years (1.34 pc) from the Sun. It consists In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized
of three stars: the double star Alpha Centauri A (also a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [22] to cata-
named Rigil Kentaurus* [12]) and Alpha Centauri B log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN
together with a small and faint red dwarf, Alpha Cen- states that in the case of multiple stars the name should
tauri C (also named Proxima Centauri* [12]), that may be understood to be attributed to the brightest compo-
be gravitationally bound to the other two. To the un- nent by visual brightness.* [23] The WGSN approved the
aided eye, the two main components appear as a single name Proxima Centauri for Alpha Centauri C on 21 Au-
point of light with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.27, gust 2016 and the name Rigil Kentaurus for Alpha Cen-
forming the brightest star in the southern constellation of tauri A on 6 November 2016. They are now both so en-
Centaurus and is the third-brightest star in the night sky, tered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [12]
outshone only by Sirius and Canopus.
Alpha Centauri A ( Cen A) has 1.1 times the mass and
1.519 times the luminosity of the Sun, while Alpha Cen-
tauri B ( Cen B) is smaller and cooler, at 0.907 times 6.2 Nature and components
the Sun's mass and 0.445 times its visual luminosity.* [13]
During the pair's 79.91-year orbit about a common cen-
Nature timeline
tre,* [14] the distance between them varies from about
view discuss
that between Pluto and the Sun to that between Saturn
13
and the Sun.

Proxima Centauri ( Cen C) is at the slightly smaller dis- 12
tance of 4.24 light-years (1.30 pc) from the Sun, making
it the closest star to the Sun, even though it is not visi- 11
ble to the naked eye. The separation of Proxima from
Alpha Centauri AB is about 15,000 astronomical units 10
(0.24 ly; 0.07 pc),* [15] equivalent to 500 times the size
of Neptune's orbit. Proxima Centauri b, an Earth-sized 9
exoplanet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, has
been detected. 8

7

6.1 Nomenclature 6

Centauri (Latinised to Alpha Centauri) is the system's 5
Bayer designation. It bore the traditional name Rigil
Kentaurus, which is a latinisation of the Arabic name 4
50
6.2. NATURE AND COMPONENTS 51
r
3 i
m
2 o
r
1 d
i
0 a
cosmic expansion l
Earliest light
cosmic speed-up Axis scale: billions of years.
Solar System Also see: Human timeline and Life timeline
water Alpha Centauri is the name given to what appears as a
Single-celled life
photosynthesis
Multicellular
life
Land life
Earliest gravity
Dark energy
Dark matter
The relative sizes and colours of stars in the Alpha Centauri sys-
Earliest universe (13.80) tem, compared to the Sun
Earliest galaxy single star to the naked eye and the brightest star in the
southern constellation of Centaurus. At 0.27 apparent
Earliest quasar visual magnitude (calculated from A and B magnitudes),
it is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. The next-
Omega Centauri forms brightest star in the night sky is Arcturus. Alpha Centauri
is a multiple-star system, with its two main stars being Al-
Andromeda Galaxy forms pha Centauri A ( Cen A) and Alpha Centauri B ( Cen
B), usually dened to identify them as the dierent com-
Milky Way Galaxy ponents of the binary Cen AB. A third companion
spiral arms form Proxima Centauri (or Proxima or Cen C)has a dis-
tance much greater than the observed separation between
Alpha Centauri forms stars A and B, but is still gravitationally associated with
the AB system. As viewed from Earth, it is located at an
Earliest Earth (4.54) angular separation of 2.2 from the two main stars. Prox-
ima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a separate
Earliest life star from Cen AB if it were bright enough to be seen
without a telescope. Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima
Earliest oxygen Centauri form a visual double star. Direct evidence that
Proxima Centauri has an elliptical orbit typical of binary
Atmospheric oxygen stars has yet to be found.* [24] Together, the three com-
ponents make a triple star system, referred to by double-
Earliest sexual reproduction star observers as the triple star (or multiple star), Cen
AB-C.
Cambrian explosion
Together, the bright visible components of the binary star
system are called Alpha Centauri AB ( Cen AB). This

Earliest humans
ABdesignation denotes the apparent gravitational cen-
tre of the main binary system relative to other companion
star(s) in any multiple star system.* [25]AB-Crefers to
L the orbit of Proxima around the central binary, being the
i distance between the centre of gravity and the outlying
f companion. Some older references use the confusing and
e now discontinued designation of AB. Because the dis-
tance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri AB does not
P dier signicantly from either star, gravitationally this
52 CHAPTER 6. ALPHA CENTAURI
binary system is considered as if it were one object.* [26] 6.2.3 Alpha Centauri C (Proxima Cen-
Asteroseismic studies, chromospheric activity, and stel- tauri)
lar rotation (gyrochronology), are all consistent with the
Cen system being similar in age to, or slightly older Alpha Centauri C, also known as Proxima Centauri, is of
than, the Sun, with typical ages quoted between 4.5 and spectral class M6 Ve, a small main-sequence star (Type
7 billion years (Gyr).* [10] Asteroseismic analyses that in- V) with emission lines. Its BV colour index is +1.82 and
corporate the tight observational constraints on the stellar its mass is about 0.123 solar masses (M ), or 129 Jupiter
parameters for Cen A and/or B have yielded age esti- masses.
mates of 4.850.5 Gyr,* [7] 5.00.5 Gyr,* [27] 5.27.1
Gyr,* [28] 6.4 Gyr,* [29] and 6.520.3 Gyr.* [30] Age es-
timates for stars A and B based on chromospheric activity 6.3 Observation
(Calcium H & K emission) yield 4.46.5 Gyr, whereas
gyrochronology yields 5.00.3 Gyr.* [10]
6.2.1 Alpha Centauri A
Alpha Centauri A, also known as Rigil Kentaurus, is

the principal member, or primary, of the binary system,
being slightly larger and more luminous than the Sun.
It is a solar-like main-sequence star with a similar yel-
lowish colour,* [31] whose stellar classication is spectral
type G2 V. From the determined mutual orbital param-
eters, Alpha Centauri A is about 10 percent more mas- Location
sive than the Sun, with a radius about 23 percent larger. of Alpha Centauri in Centaurus
The projected rotational velocity ( vsin i ) of this star
is 2.70.7 km/s, resulting in an estimated rotational pe-
riod of 22 days,* [32] which gives it a slightly faster ro- The two Alpha Centauri AB binary stars are too close
tational period than the Sun's 25 days. When considered together to be resolved by the naked eye, because the
among the individual brightest stars in the sky (exclud- angular separation varies between 2 and 22 arcsec,* [35]
ing the Sun), Alpha Centauri A is the fourth brightest at but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in
an apparent visual magnitude of +0.01, being fractionally binoculars or small 5 cm (2 in) telescopes.* [36]
fainter than Arcturus at an apparent visual magnitude of In the southern hemisphere, Alpha Centauri forms
0.04. the outer star of The Pointers or The Southern Point-
ers,* [36] so called because the line through Beta
Centauri (Hadar/Agena),* [37] some 4.5 west,* [36]
points directly to the constellation Cruxthe Southern
Cross.* [36] The Pointers easily distinguish the true
6.2.2 Alpha Centauri B
Southern Cross from the fainter asterism known as the
False Cross.* [38]
Alpha Centauri B is the companion star, or secondary,
of the binary system, and is slightly smaller and less lu- South of about 29 S latitude, Alpha Centauri is
minous than the Sun. It is a main-sequence star of spec- circumpolar and never sets below the horizon.* [40] Both
tral type K1 V, making it more an orange colour than stars, including Crux, are too far south to be visible for
the primary star.* [31] Alpha Centauri B is about 90 per- mid-latitude northern observers. Below about 29 N
cent the mass of the Sun and 14 percent smaller in radius. latitude to the equator (roughly Hermosillo, Chihuahua
The projected rotational velocity ( vsin i ) is 1.10.8 City in Mexico, Galveston, Texas, Ocala, Florida and
km/s, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 41 Lanzarote, the Canary Islands of Spain) during the north-
days. (An earlier, 1995 estimate gave a similar rotation ern summer, Alpha Centauri lies close to the southern
period of 36.8 days.)* [33] Although it has a lower lumi- horizon.* [37] The star culminates each year at midnight
nosity than component A, star B emits more energy in the on 24 April or 9 p.m. on 8 June.* [37]* [41]
X-ray band. The light curve of B varies on a short time As seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri is 2.2 southwest
scale and there has been at least one observed are.* [34] from Alpha Centauri AB.* [42] This is about four times
Alpha Centauri B at an apparent visual magnitude of 1.33 the angular diameter of the Full Moon, and almost exactly
would be twenty-rst in brightness if it could be seen in- half the distance between Alpha Centauri AB and Beta
dependently of Alpha Centauri A. Centauri. Proxima usually appears as a deep-red star of
6.4. OBSERVATIONAL HISTORY 53
is that bright Star in the sterne of Argo which they call

Canobus. The second is in the end of Eridanus. The third
[Alpha Centauri] is in the right foote of the Centaure.
*
[45]
The binary nature of Alpha Centauri AB was rst recog-
nized in December 1689 by astronomer and Jesuit priest
Jean Richaud. The nding was made incidentally while
observing a passing comet from his station in Puducherry.
Alpha Centauri was only the second binary star system to
be discovered, preceded by Alpha Crucis.* [46]
By 1752, French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille
made astrometric positional measurements using state-
The two bright stars at the lower right are Alpha (right) and Beta of-the-art instruments of that time.* [47] Its large proper
Centauri (left, above antenna). A line drawn through them points motion was discovered by Manuel John Johnson, observ-
to the four bright stars of the Southern Cross, just to the right of
ing from Saint Helena, who informed Thomas Hender-
the dome of La Silla Observatory.* [39]
son at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope of
it. The parallax of Alpha Centauri was subsequently de-
an apparent visual magnitude of 11.1 in a sparsely popu- termined by Henderson from many exacting positional
lated star eld, requiring moderately sized telescopes to observations of the AB system between April 1832 and
see. Listed as V645 Cen in the General Catalogue of May 1833. He withheld his results, however, because he
Variable Stars (G.C.V.S.) Version 4.2, this UV Ceti-type suspected they were too large to be true, but eventually
are star can unexpectedly brighten rapidly by as much published them in 1839 after Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
as 0.6 magnitudes at visual wavelengths, then fade after released his own accurately determined parallax for 61
only a few minutes.* [43] Some amateur and professional Cygni in 1838.* [48] For this reason, Alpha Centauri is
astronomers regularly monitor for outbursts using either sometimes considered as the second star to have its dis-
optical or radio telescopes.* [44] tance measured because Henderson's work was not fully
recognized at rst.* [48] (The distance of Alpha is now
reckoned at 4.396 ly or 41.59 trillion km.)
6.4 Observational history Later, John Herschel made the rst micrometrical obser-
vations in 1834.* [49] Since the early 20th century, mea-
sures have been made with photographic plates.* [50]
Compared to the Sun, Alpha Centauri A is of the same stellar type

G2, while Alpha Centauri B is a K1-type star.* [51]
By 1926, South African astronomer William Stephen

Finsen calculated the approximate orbit elements close to
View of Alpha Centauri from the Digitized Sky Survey 2
those now accepted for this system.* [52] All future posi-
English explorer Robert Hues brought Alpha Centauri to tions are now suciently accurate for visual observers to
the attention of European observers in his 1592 work determine the relative places of the stars from a binary
Tractatus de Globis, along with Canopus and Achernar, star ephemeris.* [53] Others, like the Belgian astronomer
noting Now, therefore, there are but three Stars of the D. Pourbaix (2002), have regularly rened the precision
rst magnitude that I could perceive in all those parts of any new published orbital elements.* [14]
which are never seene here in England. The rst of these Alpha Centauri is inside the G-cloud, and the nearest
known system to it is Luhman 16 at 3.6 ly (1.1 pc).* [54] higher masses have been quoted in recent years, such as
Scottish astronomer Robert T. A. Innes discovered Prox- 1.14 M and 0.92 M ,* [63] or totalling 2.06 M . Alpha
ima Centauri in 1915 by blinking photographic plates Centauri A and B have absolute magnitudes of +4.38 and
taken at dierent times during a dedicated proper motion +5.71, respectively. Stellar evolution theory implies both
survey. This showed the large proper motion and parallax stars are slightly older than the Sun at 5 to 6 billion years,
of the star was similar in both size and direction to those as derived by both mass and their spectral characteris-
of Alpha Centauri AB, suggesting immediately it was part tics.* [42]* [62]
of the system and slightly closer to Earth than Alpha Cen- Viewed from Earth, the apparent orbit of this binary
tauri AB. Lying 4.24 ly (1.30 pc) away, Proxima Centauri star means that its separation and position angle (PA)
is the nearest star to the Sun. All current derived distances are in continuous change throughout its projected or-
for the three stars are from the parallaxes obtained from bit. Observed stellar positions in 2010 are separated by
the Hipparcos star catalogue (HIP)* [55]* [56]* [57]* [58] 6.74 arcsec through the PA of 245.7, reducing to 6.04
and the Hubble Space Telescope.* [59] arcsec through 251.8 in 2011.* [14] The closest recent
approach was in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through
300.* [14]* [64] The observed maximum separation of
6.5 Binary system these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum dis-
tance is 1.7 arcsec.* [65] The widest separation occurred
during February 1976 and the next will be in January
2056.* [14]
In the true orbit, closest approach or periastron was in Au-
gust 1955, and next in May 2035. Furthest orbital sepa-
ration at apastron last occurred in May 1995 and the next
will be in 2075. The apparent distance between the two
stars is rapidly decreasing, at least until 2019.* [14]
6.5.1 Proxima Centauri
Main article: Proxima Centauri
The much fainter red dwarf Proxima Centauri, or simply

Proxima, is about 15,000 astronomical units (AU) away
from Alpha Centauri AB.* [25]* [42]* [50] This is equiv-
alent to 0.24 ly or 2.3 trillion kmabout 5% the dis-
tance between Alpha Centauri AB and the Sun. Prox-
ima is likely gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri AB,
Apparent and true orbits of Alpha Centauri. The A component orbiting it with a period between 100,000 and 500,000
is held stationary and the relative orbital motion of the B com- years.* [42] However, it is also possible that Proxima
ponent is shown. The apparent orbit (thin ellipse) is the shape of
is not gravitationally bound and thus moving along a
the orbit as seen by an observer on Earth. The true orbit is the
hyperbolic trajectory* [66] with respect to Alpha Cen-
shape of the orbit viewed perpendicular to the plane of the orbital
motion. According to the radial velocity vs. time * [11] the radial tauri AB.* [25]* :72 The main evidence for a bound orbit
separation of A and B along the line of sight had reached a max- is that Proxima's association with Alpha Centauri AB is
imum in 2007 with B being behind A. The orbit is divided here unlikely to be coincidental, because they share approx-
into 80 points, each step refers to a timestep of approx. 0.99888 imately the same motion through space.* [42] Theoreti-
years or 364.84 days. cally, Proxima could leave the system after several mil-
lion years.* [67] It is not yet certain whether Proxima and
With the orbital period of 79.91 years,* [14] the A and B Alpha Centauri are truly gravitationally bound.* [68] In
components of this binary star can approach each other a 2017 paper, P. Kervella and F. Thvenin showed that
to 11.2 AU (1.68 billion km), or about the mean dis- based on new high precision radial velocity measurements
tance between the Sun and Saturn; and may recede as Proxima and Alpha Centauri are in fact gravitationally
far as 35.6 AU (5.33 billion km), approximately the dis- bound with a high degree of condence.* [69] The or-
tance from the Sun to Pluto.* [14]* [60] This is a conse- bital period of Proxima is approximately 550,000 years,
quence of the binary's moderate orbital eccentricity e = with an eccentricity of 0.500.08. Proxima comes within
0.5179.* [14] From the orbital elements, the total mass 4.3+1.1
of both stars is about 2.0 M * [61] or twice that of 0.9 kAU of Alpha Centauri AB at periastron, and the
the Sun.* [60] The average individual stellar masses are apastron occurs at 13.0+0.3
1.09 M and 0.90 M , respectively,* [62] though slightly 0.1 kAU.
6.6. KINEMATICS 55
at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope dis-

covered the true distance to Alpha Centauri.* [81]* [82]
He soon realized this system displayed an unusually high
Relative positions of Sun, Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Cen- proper motion,* [83] and therefore its observed true ve-
tauri. Grey dot is projection of Proxima Centauri, located at the
locity through space should be much larger.* [84]* [65]
same distance as Alpha Centauri AB.
In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found us-
ing Nicolas Louis de Lacaille's astrometric observations
Proxima is a red dwarf of spectral class M6 Ve with an of 17511752,* [85] by the observed dierences between
absolute magnitude of +15.60, which is only a small frac- the two measured positions in dierent epochs. Using
tion of the Sun's luminosity. By mass, Proxima is calcu- the Hipparcos Star Catalogue (HIP) data, the mean in-
lated as 0.1230.06 M (rounded to 0.12 M ) or about dividual proper motions are 3678 mas/yr or 3.678
one-eighth that of the Sun.* [70] arcsec per year in right ascension and +481.84 mas/yr
or 0.48184 arcsec per year in declination.* [86]* [87] As
proper motions are cumulative, the motion of Alpha Cen-
tauri is about 6.1 arcmin each century, and 61.3 arcmin
6.6 Kinematics or 1.02 each millennium. These motions are about one-
fth and twice, respectively, the diameter of the full
Moon.* [67] Using spectroscopy the mean radial veloc-
ity has been determined to be around 20 km/s towards
the Solar System.
As the stars of Alpha Centauri approach the Solar Sys-
tem, the measured proper motion and trigonometric par-
allax slowly increase.* [42]* [67]* [67]* [86] Changes are
also observed in the size of the semi-major axis of the or-
bital ellipse, increasing by 0.03 arcsec per century.* [25]
This small eect is gradually decreasing until the star
system is at its closest to Earth, and is then reversed as
the distance increases again.* [25] Consequently, the ob-
served position angles of the stars are subject to changes
in the orbital elements over time, as rst determined by
W. H. van den Bos in 1926.* [88]* [89]* [90] Some slight
Stars closest to the Sun, including Alpha Centauri (25 April dierences of about 0.5 percent in the measured proper
2014).* [71] motions are caused by Alpha Centauri AB's orbital mo-
tion.* [86]
All components of Alpha Centauri display signicant
proper motions against the background sky, similar to
the rst-magnitude stars Sirius and Arcturus. Over the
centuries, this causes the apparent stellar positions to
slowly change. Such motions dene the high-proper-
motion stars.* [72] These stellar motions were unknown
to ancient astronomers. Most assumed that all stars were
immortal and permanently xed on the celestial sphere,
as stated in the works of the philosopher Aristotle.* [73]
Edmond Halley in 1718 found that some stars had sig-
nicantly moved from their ancient astrometric posi-
tions.* [74] For example, the bright star Arcturus ( Boo)
in the constellation of Botes showed an almost 0.5
dierence in 1800 years,* [75] as did the brightest star, Apparent motion of Alpha Centauri relative to Beta Centauri
Sirius, in Canis Major ( CMa).* [76] Halley's positional
comparison was Ptolemy's catalogue of stars containedBased on these observed proper motions and radial veloc-
in the Almagest* [77] whose original data included por-
ities, Alpha Centauri will continue to gradually brighten,
tions from an earlier catalogue by Hipparchos during the
passing just north of the Southern Cross or Crux, before
1st century BCE.* [78]* [79]* [80] Halley's proper motions
moving northwest and up towards the celestial equator
were mostly for northern stars, so the southern star Al-
and away from the galactic plane. By about 29,700 AD,
pha Centauri was not determined until the early 19th cen-
in the present-day constellation of Hydra, Alpha Centauri
tury.* [65] will be 3.26 ly or 1.00 pc away.* [67] Then it will reach the
Scottish-born observer Thomas Henderson in the 1830s stationary radial velocity (RVel) of 0.0 km/s and the max-
imum apparent magnitude of 0.86v (which is compara- 6.7.3 Possible detection of another planet
ble to present-day magnitude of Canopus). Even during
the time of this nearest approach, however, the apparent On 25 March 2015, a scientic paper by Demory and
magnitude of Alpha Centauri will still not surpass that colleagues published transit results for Alpha Centauri
of Sirius, which will brighten incrementally over the next B using the Hubble Space Telescope for a total of 40
60,000 years, and will continue to be the brightest star as hours.* [97] They evidenced a transit event possibly cor-
seen from Earth for the next 210,000 years.* [91] responding to a planetary body with a radius around 0.92
R . This planet would most likely orbit Alpha Centauri
The Alpha Centauri system will then begin to move away
B with an orbital period of 20.4 days or less, with only a
from the Solar System, showing a positive radial veloc-
5 percent chance of it having a longer orbit. The median
ity.* [67] Because of visual perspective, about 100,000
average of the likely orbits is 12.4 days with an impact
years from now, these stars will reach a nal vanishing
parameter of around 00.3. Its orbit would likely have an
point and slowly disappear among the countless stars of
eccentricity of 0.24 or less. Like the probably spurious
the Milky Way. Here this once bright yellow star will fall
Alpha Centauri Bb, it likely has lakes of molten lava and
below naked-eye visibility somewhere in the faint present
would be far too close to Alpha Centauri B to harbour
day southern constellation of Telescopium. This unusual
life.* [98]
location results from the fact that Alpha Centauri's orbit
around the galactic centre is highly tilted with respect to
the plane of the Milky Way.* [67]
6.7.4 Possible fourth stellar object
In about 4000 years, the proper motion of Alpha Cen-
tauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will Main article: U (TNO)
appear close enough to Beta Centauri to form an optical
double star. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant
In images taken on 7 July 2014 (343.5 GHz) and 2 May
than Alpha Centauri.
2015 (445 GHz), researchers discovered a source in the
far infrared located within 5.5 arcseconds of Cen AB.
Based on its proper motion, it was at rst thought to be a
part of the Alpha Centauri system. Further analysis, how-
6.7 Planets ever, found that the object must be closer to the Solar Sys-
tem, and that it may be gravitationally bound to the Sun.
The researchers suggest that the object may be an extreme
6.7.1 Proxima Centauri b trans-Neptunian object (ETNO) beyond 100 AU (15 bil-
lion kilometres), a super-Earth at around 300 AU (45 bil-
Main article: Proxima Centauri b lion kilometres), or a very cool brown dwarf at around
20,000 AU (3.0 trillion kilometres).* [99]* [100]
In August 2016, the European Southern Observatory an-
nounced the discovery of a planet slightly larger than the 6.7.5 Possibility of additional planets
Earth orbiting Proxima Centauri.* [92] Proxima Centauri
b was found using the radial velocity method, where pe- The discovery of planets orbiting other star systems, in-
riodic Doppler shifts of spectral lines of the host star sug- cluding similar binary systems (Gamma Cephei), raises
gest an orbiting object. From these readings, the radial the possibility that additional planets may exist in the Al-
velocity of the parent star relative to the Earth is vary- pha Centauri system. Such planets could orbit Alpha
ing with an amplitude of about 2 metres (6.6 ft) per sec- Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B individually, or be on
ond.* [92] The planet lies in the habitable zone of Proxima large orbits around the binary Alpha Centauri AB. Be-
Centauri, but it is possible that the planet is tidally locked cause both the principal stars are fairly similar to the Sun
to the star,* [92] resulting in temperature extremes that (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have
would be dicult for life to overcome.* [93] been especially interested in making detailed searches for
planets in the Alpha Centauri system. Several established
planet-hunting teams have used various radial velocity or
star transit methods in their searches around these two
6.7.2 Alpha Centauri Bb bright stars.* [101] All the observational studies have so
far failed to nd any evidence for brown dwarfs or gas
Main article: Alpha Centauri Bb giants.* [101]* [102]
In 2009, computer simulations showed that a planet might
In 2012, a planet around Alpha Centauri B was an- have been able to form near the inner edge of Alpha Cen-
nounced, but in 2015 a new analysis concluded that it tauri B's habitable zone, which extends from 0.5 to 0.9
almost certainly does not exist and was just a spurious AU from the star. Certain special assumptions, such as
artefact of the data analysis.* [94]* [95]* [96] considering that Alpha Centauri A and B may have ini-
6.8. VIEW FROM THIS SYSTEM 57
tially formed with a wider separation and later moved mation.* [67]
closer to each other (as might be possible if they formed To be in the star's habitable zone, any suspected planet
in a dense star cluster) would permit an accretion-friendly around Alpha Centauri A would have to be placed about
environment farther from the star.* [103] Bodies around 1.25 AU away about halfway between the distances of
A would be able to orbit at slightly farther distances due Earth's orbit and Mars's orbit in the Solar System so
to A's stronger gravity. In addition, the lack of any brown as to have similar planetary temperatures and conditions
dwarfs or gas giants in close orbits around A or B make for liquid water to exist. For the slightly less luminous
the likelihood of terrestrial planets greater than other- and cooler Alpha Centauri B, the habitable zone would lie
wise.* [104] Theoretical studies on the detectability via
closer at about 0.7 AU (100 million km), approximately
radial velocity analysis have shown that a dedicated cam- the distance that Venus is from the Sun.* [113]* [115]
paign of high-cadence observations with a 1-meter class
telescope can reliably detect a hypothetical planet of 1.8 With the goal of nding evidence of such planets, both
M in the habitable zone of B within three years.* [105] Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB were among
the listed Tier 1target stars for NASA's Space In-
Radial velocity measurements of Alpha Centauri B terferometry Mission (SIM). Detecting planets as small
with High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher as three Earth-masses or smaller within two astronomical
spectrograph ruled out planets of more than 4 M to the units of aTier 1target would have been possible with
distance of the habitable zone of the star (orbital period this new instrument.* [116] The SIM mission, however,
P = 200 days).* [106] was cancelled due to nancial issues in 2010.* [117]
Current estimates place the probability of nding an
earth-like planet around Alpha Centauri A or B at roughly
85%, although this number remains uncertain.* [107] 6.7.7 Circumstellar discs
Based on observations between 2007 and 2012, a study
found a slight excess of emissions in the 24 m (mid/far-
6.7.6 Theoretical planets infrared) band surrounding Centauri AB, which may be
interpreted as evidence for a sparse circumstellar disc or
Early computer-generated models of planetary formation
dense interplanetary dust. The total mass was estimated
predicted the existence of terrestrial planets around both
to be between 10* 7 to 10* 6 the mass of the Moon,
Alpha Centauri A and B,* [105]* [108]* [109] but most re-
or 10-100 times the mass of the Solar System's zodiacal
cent numerical investigations have shown that the gravi-
cloud. If such a disc existed around both stars, Centauri
tational pull of the companion star renders the accretion
A's disc would likely be stable to 2.8 AU, and Centauri
of planets very dicult.* [103]* [110] Despite these di-
B's would likely be stable to 2.5 AU. This would put A's
culties, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types,
disc entirely within the frost line, and a small part of B's
star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has
outer disc just outside.* [118]
been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of
the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on
a potential planet.* [6]* [104]* [111]* [112]
6.8 View from this system
In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were proba-
bly crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar Sys-
tem. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with
their own source of water and various other ices.* [113] In
the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have
inuenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri sys-
tem was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Cen-
tauri A and B with volatile materials.* [114] This would be
discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened
to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or con-
versely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if
the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets
into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn pre-
sumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies
probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary sys-
tems, when they are inuenced gravitationally by either Looking towards the sky around Orion from Alpha Centauri with
the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many Sirius near Betelgeuse, Procyon in Gemini, and the Sun between
of these icy bodies then travel starwards.* [67] There is Perseus and Cassiopeia generated by Celestia
no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort
cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this Viewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky
may have been totally destroyed during the system's for- would appear very much as it does for an observer on
Earth, except that Centaurus would be missing its bright- to 155 arc seconds. Near apoapse, the disc would shrink
est star. The Sun would be a yellow star of an appar- to 60 arc seconds for A, 43 arc seconds for B, being too
ent visual magnitude of +0.5 in eastern Cassiopeia, at small to resolve by naked eye. In any case, the dazzling
the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current right as- surface brightness could make the discs harder to resolve
cension and declination, at 02* h 39* m 35* s +60 50 than a similarly sized less bright object.
(2000). This place is close to the 3.4-magnitude star For example, some theoretical planet orbiting about 1.25
Cassiopeiae. Because of the placement of the Sun, an AU from Alpha Centauri A (so that the star appears
interstellar or alien observer would nd the \/\/ of Cas- roughly as bright as the Sun viewed from the Earth) would
siopeia had become a /\/\/ shape* [note 1] nearly in front
see Alpha Centauri B orbit the entire sky once roughly ev-
of the Heart Nebula in Cassiopeia. Sirius lies less than ery one year and three months (or 1.3(4) a), the planet's
a degree from Betelgeuse in the otherwise unmodied
own orbital period. Added to this would be the chang-
Orion and with a magnitude of 1.2 is a little fainter than ing apparent position of Alpha Centauri B during its long
from Earth but still the brightest star in the Alpha Cen-
eighty-year elliptical orbit with respect to Alpha Centauri
tauri sky. Procyon is also displaced into the middle of A (The average speed, at 4.5 degrees per Earth year, is
Gemini, outshining Pollux, whereas both Vega and Altair
comparable in speed to Uranus here. With the eccentric-
are shifted northwestward relative to Deneb (which barely ity of the orbit, the maximum speed near periapse, about
moves, due to its great distance), giving the Summer Tri- 18 degrees per Earth year, is faster than Saturn, but slower
angle a more equilateral appearance. than Jupiter. The minimum speed near apoapse, about
1.8 degrees per Earth year, is slower than Neptune.). De-
pending on its and planet's position on their respective
6.8.1 View from Proxima Centauri b
orbits, Alpha Centauri B would vary in apparent mag-
nitude between 18.2 (dimmest) and 21.0 (brightest).
From Proxima Centauri b, Alpha Centauri AB would ap-
These visual apparent magnitudes are much dimmer than
pear like two close bright stars with the combined appar-
the apparent magnitude of the Sun as viewed from the
ent magnitude of 6.8. Depending on the binary's or-
Earth (26.7). The dierence of 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes
bital position, the bright stars would appear noticeably
means Alpha Centauri B would appear, on a linear scale,
divisible to the naked eye, or occasionally, but briey,
2500 to 190 times dimmer than Alpha Centauri A (or
as a single unresolved star. Based on the calculated
the Sun viewed from the Earth), but also 190 to 2500
absolute magnitudes, the visual apparent magnitudes of
times brighter than the full Moon as seen from the Earth
Alpha Centauri A and B would be 6.5 and 5.2, respec-
(12.5).
tively.* [119]
Also, if another similar planet orbited at 0.71 AU from
Alpha Centauri B (so that in turn Alpha Centauri B ap-
6.8.2 View from a hypothetical A or B peared as bright as the Sun seen from the Earth), this hy-
planet pothetical planet would receive slightly more light from
the more luminous Alpha Centauri A, which would shine
4.7 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer than Alpha Centauri B (or
the Sun seen from the Earth), ranging in apparent mag-
nitude between 19.4 (dimmest) and 22.1 (brightest).
Thus Alpha Centauri A would appear between 830 and
70 times dimmer than the Sun but some 580 to 6900
times brighter than the full Moon. During such planet's
orbital period of 0.6(3) a, an observer on the planet would
see this intensely bright companion star circle the sky
just as humans see with the Solar System's planets. Fur-
thermore, Alpha Centauri A's sidereal period of approx-
imately eighty years means that this star would move
through the local ecliptic as slowly as Uranus with its
eighty-four year period, but as the orbit of Alpha Cen-
tauri A is more elliptical, its apparent magnitude will be
far more variable. Although intensely bright to the eye,
Artist's rendition of the view from a hypothetical airless planet the overall illumination would not signicantly aect cli-
orbiting Alpha Centauri A mate nor inuence normal plant photosynthesis.* [113]
An observer on a hypothetical planet orbiting around ei- An observer on the hypothetical planet would notice a
ther Alpha Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B would see change in orientation to very-long-baseline interferom-
the other star of the binary system as an intensely bright etry reference points commensurate with the binary or-
object in the night sky, showing a small but discernible bit periodicity plus or minus any local eects such as
disk while near periapse: A up to 210 arc seconds, B up precession or nutation.
6.10. EXPLORATION 59
Assuming this hypothetical planet had a low orbital incli- as an alternative name, the star system is most widely re-
nation with respect to the mutual orbit of Alpha Centauri ferred to by its Bayer designation Alpha Centauri.
A and B, then the secondary star would start beside the The name Toliman originates with Jacobus Golius' edi-
primary at stellarconjunction. Half the period later, tion of Al-Farghani's Compendium (published posthu-
atstellaropposition, both stars would be opposite each mously in 1669). Tolimn is Golius' latinization of the
other in the sky. As a net result, both the local sun and Arabic name al-ulmnthe ostriches, the name
the other star would each be in sky for half a day, like of an asterism of which Alpha Centauri formed the main
sun and moon are both above horizon for half a day. But star.* [126]
during stellar conjunction, the other star being new
would be in sky in daytime, while during the opposition, During the 19th century, the northern amateur popular-
the other star beingfullwould be in sky for the whole ist Elijah H. Burritt used the now-obscure name Bun-
night. In an Earth-like atmosphere, the light of the other gula,* [127] possibly coined from "" and the Latin un-
star would be appreciably scattered, causing the sky to be gula (hoof).* [17]
perceptibly blue though darker than in daytime, like dur- Together, Alpha and Beta Centauri form the South-
ing twilight or total solar eclipse. Humans could easily ern Pointersor The Pointers, as they point towards
walk around and clearly see the surrounding terrain, and the Southern Cross, the asterism of the constellation of
reading a book would be quite possible without any arti- Crux.* [36]
cial light.* [113] Over the following half period, the sec-
ondary star would be in sky for a progressively decreasing In Standard Mandarin Chinese, Nn Mn, meaning
part of night (and increasing part of day) until at the next Southern Gate, refers to an asterism consisting of Cen-
conjunction the secondary star would only be in sky in tauri and Centauri. Consequently, Centauri itself is
daytime near the primary star. known as Nn Mn r, the Second Star of the
Southern Gate.* [128]
From a planet orbiting Alpha Centauri A or B, Proxima
Centauri would appear as a fourth to fth magnitude star, To the Australian aboriginal Boorong people of north-
as bright as the faint stars of the constellation of Ursa Mi- western
*
Victoria, Alpha and Beta Centauri are Bermber-
* *
nor. [120] [121] mgle, [129] two brothers noted for their courage
and destructiveness, who speared and killed Tchingal
The Emu(the Coalsack Nebula).* [130] The form in
Wotjobaluk is Bram-bram-bult.* [129]
6.9 Other names
6.10 Exploration
Ross 128
10 Barnards Lalande
Star 21185
9
Ross 248
8
Distance (Light Years)
6
Gliese 445
4 Proxima Centauri Alpha

today Centauri
3 Proxima
Centauri
Outer border of the Oort cloud

1
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (1000 Years)
Distances of the nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 The Very Large Telescope and star system Alpha Centauri.* [131]
years in the future
Alpha Centauri is envisioned as a likely rst target for
In modern literature, Rigil Kent * [122] (also Rigel Kent and
manned or unmanned interstellar exploration. Crossing
variants;* [note 2] /radl knt/)* [17]* [123] and Toli-
the huge distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri
man,* [124] were cited as colloquial alternative names of using current spacecraft technologies would take several
Alpha Centauri. millennia, though the possibility of nuclear pulse propul-
Rigil Kent is short for Rigil Kentaurus, [125] which is sion or laser light sail technology, as considered in the
*
sometimes further abbreviated to Rigil or Rigel, though Breakthrough Starshot program,* could* reduce *
the jour-
that is ambiguous with Beta Orionis, which is also called ney time to a matter of decades. [132] [133] [134]
Rigel. Although the short form Rigel Kent is often cited Breakthrough Starshot is a proof-of-concept initiative to
send a eet of ultra-fast light-driven nanocraft to explore . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
the Alpha Centauri system, which could pave the way for Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
a rst launch within the next generation. An objective
[3] Torres, C. A. O.; Quast, G. R.; da Silva, L .; de la Reza,
of the mission would be to make a y-by of, and possi-
R.; Melo, C. H. F.; Sterzik, M. (2006). Search for asso-
bly photograph, any planets that might exist in the sys-
ciations containing young stars (SACY)". Astronomy and
tem.* [135]* [136] Proxima Centauri b, announced by the Astrophysics. 460 (3): 695708. arXiv:astro-ph/0609258
European Southern Observatory (ESO) in August 2016,
. Bibcode:2006A&A...460..695T. doi:10.1051/0004-
would be a target for the Starshot program.* [135]* [137] 6361:20065602. ISSN 0004-6361.
In January 2017, Breakthrough Initiatives and the ESO
entered a collaboration to enable and implement a search [4] Valenti, Je A.; Fischer, Debra A. (2005). Spectro-
scopic Properties of Cool Stars (SPOCS). I. 1040 F, G,
for habitable planets in the Alpha Centauri system.The
and K Dwarfs from Keck, Lick, and AAT Planet Search
agreement involves Breakthrough Initiatives providing Programs. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Se-
funding for an upgrade to the VISIR (VLT Imager and ries. 159 (1): 141166. Bibcode:2005ApJS..159..141V.
Spectrometer for mid-Infrared) instrument on ESO's doi:10.1086/430500. ISSN 0067-0049.
Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile. This upgrade will
greatly increase the likelihood of planet detection in the [5] Wilkinson, John (2012). The Sun and Stars. New
system.* [131]* [138] Eyes on the Sun. Astronomers' Universe. pp. 219236.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22839-1_10. ISBN 978-3-642-
22838-4. ISSN 1614-659X.
6.11 Distance [6] P. A. Wiegert; M. J. Holman (1997). The stability of

planets in the Alpha Centauri system. The Astronomical
Journal. 113: 1445 1450. arXiv:astro-ph/9609106 .
6.12 See also Bibcode:1997AJ....113.1445W. doi:10.1086/118360.
Alpha Centauri in ction [7] Thvenin, F.; Provost, J.; Morel, P.; Berthomieu, G.;
Bouchy, F.; Carrier, F. (2002). Asteroseismology
List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs and calibration of alpha Cen binary system. Astron-
omy & Astrophysics. 392: L9. arXiv:astro-ph/0206283
Project Longshot . Bibcode:2002A&A...392L...9T. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20021074.
[8] Kervella, P.; Thvenin, F.; Sgransan, D.; Berthomieu,

6.13 Notes G.; Lopez, B.; Morel, P.; Provost, J. (2003). The di-
ameters of Centauri A and B. Astronomy and As-
[1] The coordinates of the Sun would be diametrically op- trophysics. 404 (3): 10871097. arXiv:astro-ph/0303634
posite Alpha Centauri AB, at =02* h 39* m 36.4951* s, . Bibcode:2003A&A...404.1087K. doi:10.1051/0004-
=+60 50 02.308 6361:20030570. ISSN 0004-6361.
[2] Spellings include Rigjl Kentaurus, Hyde T.,Ulugh Beighi
[9] Gilli G.; Israelian G.; Ecuvillon A.; Santos N. C.;
Tabulae Stellarum Fixarum, Tabulae Long. ac Lat.
Mayor M. (2006). Abundances of Refractory
Stellarum Fixarum ex Observatione Ulugh Beighi, Oxford,
Elements in the Atmospheres of Stars with Ex-
1665, p. 142., Hyde T., In Ulugh Beighi Tabulae Stel-
trasolar Planets. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
larum Fixarum Commentarii, op. cit., p. 67., Portuguese
Riguel Kentaurus da Silva Oliveira, R., Crux Australis: 449 (2): 72336. arXiv:astro-ph/0512219 .
o Cruzeiro do Sul, Artigos: Planetario Movel Inavel Bibcode:2006A&A...449..723G. doi:10.1051/0004-
AsterDomus. 6361:20053850. libcode 2005astro.ph.12219G.
[3] Weighted parallax based on parallaxes from van Altena et [10] E. E. Mamajek; L. A. Hillenbrand (2008). Im-
al. (1995) and Sderhjelm (1999). proved Age Estimation for Solar-Type Dwarfs Using
Activity-Rotation Diagnostics. Astrophysical Jour-
nal. 687 (2): 12641293. arXiv:0807.1686 .
Bibcode:2008ApJ...687.1264M. doi:10.1086/591785.
6.14 References
[11] Pourbaix, D.; et al. (2002). Constraining the dierence
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the in convective blueshift between the components of alpha
new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- Centauri with precise radial velocities. Astronomy and
trophysics. 474 (2): 653. arXiv:0708.1752 . Astrophysics. 386 (1): 28085. arXiv:astro-ph/0202400
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- . Bibcode:2002A&A...386..280P. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. 6361:20020287.
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- [12] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 21 November
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system 2016.
6.14. REFERENCES 61
[13] Kervella, P., Thevenin, F. (15 March 2003). A Family [29] Thoul, A.; Scuaire, R.; Noels, A.; Vatovez, B.; Bri-
Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System. ESO. Archived quet, M.; Dupret, M.-A.; Montalban, J. (2003). A
from the original on 16 June 2008. New Seismic Analysis of Alpha Centauri. Astronomy
& Astrophysics. 402: 293297. arXiv:astro-ph/0303467
[14] Hartkopf, W.; Mason, D. M. (2008). Sixth Catalog of
. Bibcode:2003A&A...402..293T. doi:10.1051/0004-
Orbits of Visual Binaries. U.S. Naval Observatory.
6361:20030244.
[15] Reipurth, B., Mikkola, S.Formation of the Widest Bina-
ries from Dynamical Unfolding of Triple Systems. Ao- [30] Eggenberger, P.; Charbonnel, C.; Talon, S.; Meynet, G.;
hoku Place, HI: Institute for Astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii Maeder, A.; Carrier, F.; Bourban, G. (2004). Analysis
at Manoa. 6 December 2012. PDF. Retrieved 28 Septem- of Centauri AB including seismic constraints.
ber 2015. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 417: 235246. arXiv:astro-
ph/0401606 . Bibcode:2004A&A...417..235E.
[16] Davis Jr., G. A., The Pronunciations, Derivations, and doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034203.
Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names,Popular As-
tronomy, Vol. LII, No. 3, Oct. 1944, p. 16. [31] The Colour of Stars. Australia Telescope, Outreach
and Education. Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial
[17] Kunitzsch P., & Smart, T., A Dictionary of Modern star Research Organisation. 21 December 2004. Retrieved 16
Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their January 2012.
Derivations, Cambridge, Sky Pub. Corp., 2006, p. 27
[32] Bazot, M.; et al. (2007). Asteroseismology of Cen-
[18] Innes, R. T. A. (October 1915). A Faint
tauri A. Evidence of rotational splitting. Astronomy
Star of Large Proper Motion. Circular of the
and Astrophysics. 470 (1): 295302. arXiv:0706.1682
Union Observatory Johannesburg. 30: 235236.
Bibcode:1915CiUO...30..235I. . Bibcode:2007A&A...470..295B. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20065694.
[19] Alden, Harold L. (1928). Alpha and Proxima Cen-
tauri. Astronomical Journal. 39 (913): 2023. [33] Guinan, E.; Messina, S. (1995). IAU Circular 6259,
Bibcode:1928AJ.....39...20A. doi:10.1086/104871. Alpha Centauri B. Central Bureau for Astronomical
Telegrams.
[20] Innes, R. T. A. (September 1917). Parallax of the Faint
Proper Motion Star Near Alpha of Centaurus. 1900. R.A. [34] Robrade, J.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M.; Favata, F.
14 h 22m 55s.0s 6t. Dec-62 15'2 0'8 t. Circular (2005). X-rays from Centauri The dark-
of the Union Observatory Johannesburg. 40: 331336. ening of the solar twin. Astronomy and Astro-
Bibcode:1917CiUO...40..331I. physics. 442 (1): 315321. arXiv:astro-ph/0508260
. Bibcode:2005A&A...442..315R. doi:10.1051/0004-
[21] Stevenson, Angus, ed. (2010), Oxford Dictionary of En-
6361:20053314.
glish, OUP Oxford, p. 1431, ISBN 0-19-957112-0.
[22] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), International [35] Van Zyl, Johannes Ebenhaezer (1996). Unveiling the Uni-
Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016. verse: An Introduction to Astronomy. Springer. ISBN 3-
540-76023-7.
2 (PDF). Retrieved 12 October 2016. [36] Hartung, E. J.; Frew, David; Malin, David (1994). As-
tronomical Objects for Southern Telescopes. Cambridge
[24] Mason, B. D.; Wyco, G. L. I.; Hartkopf, W. I. University Press.
(2008).Washington Visual Double Star Catalog, 2006.5
(WDS)". U.S. Naval Observatory. [37] Norton, A. P.; Ed. I. Ridpath (1986). Norton's 2000.0
:Star Atlas and Reference Handbook. Longman Scientic
[25] Heintz, W. D. (1978). Double Stars. D. Reidel. p. 19. and Technical. pp. 3940.
ISBN 90-277-0885-1.
[38] Mitton, Jacquelin (1993). The Penguin Dictionary of As-
[26] Worley, C. E.; Douglass, G. G. (1996). Washington Visual tronomy. Penguin Books. p. 148.
Double Star Catalog, 1996.0 (WDS). United States Naval
Observatory. [39] Our Nearest Star System Observed Live. Retrieved
27 January 2016.
[27] Bazot, M.; Bourguignon, S.; Christensen-Dalsgaard, J.
(2012). A Bayesian approach to the modelling of alpha [40] This is calculated for a xed latitude by knowing the star's
Cen A. MNRAS. 427: 18471866. arXiv:1209.0222 . declination () using the formulae (90+ ). Alpha Cen-
Bibcode:2012MNRAS.427.1847B. doi:10.1111/j.1365- tauri's declination is 60 50, so the latitude where the
2966.2012.21818.x. star is circumpolar will be south of 29 10S or 29.
Similarly, the place where Alpha Centauri never rises for
[28] Miglio, A.; Montalbn, J. (2005). Constraining fun- northern observers is north of the latitude (90+ ) N or
damental stellar parameters using seismology. Ap- +29N.
plication to Centauri AB. Astronomy & As-
trophysics. 441: 615629. arXiv:astro-ph/0505537 [41] James, Andrew. "'The '"Constellations : Part 2 Culmina-
. Bibcode:2005A&A...441..615M. doi:10.1051/0004- tion Times"'". Sydney, New South Wales: Southern As-
6361:20052988. tronomical Delights. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
[42] Matthews, R. A. J.; Gilmore, Gerard (1993). [58] Contents of the Hipparcos Catalogue (1997)" (PDF).
Is Proxima really in orbit about Cen A/B?". ESA. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety. 261: L5. Bibcode:1993MNRAS.261L...5M. [59] Benedict, G. F.; et al. (1999). Interferometric Astrom-
doi:10.1093/mnras/261.1.l5. etry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using HUB-
BLE SPACE TELESCOPE Fine Guidance Sensor 3: De-
[43] Benedict, G. Fritz; et al. (1998). Donahue, R. A.; Book- tection Limits for Substellar Companions. Astronomical
binder, J. A., eds. Proxima Centauri: Time-resolved As- Journal. 118 (2): 10861100. arXiv:astro-ph/9905318
trometry of a Flare Site using HST Fine Guidance Sensor . Bibcode:1999AJ....118.1086B. doi:10.1086/300975.,
3. ASP Conf. Ser. 154, The Tenth Cambridge Work-
shop on Cool Stars, Stellar Systems and the Sun. p. 1212. [60] Aitken, R.G.,The Binary Stars, Dover, 1961, p. 236.
Bibcode:1998ASPC..154.1212B.
[61] [(11.2+35.6)/2]3 /79.912 =2.0 , see formula
[44] Page, A.A. (1982). Mount Tamborine Ob-
[62] Kim, Y-C. J. (1999).Standard Stellar Models; alpha Cen
servatory. International Amateur-Professional
A and B. Journal of the Korean Astronomical Society.
Photoelectric Photometry Communication. 10: 26.
32: 119. Bibcode:1999JKAS...32..119K.
Bibcode:1982IAPPP..10...26P.
[63] The One Hundred Nearest Star Systems. Research
[45] Knobel, p. 416. Consortium On Nearby Stars. Georgia State University.
7 September 2007. Archived from the original on 12
[46] Kameswara Rao, R. (1984).Father J. Richaud and early
November 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
telescope observations in India. Bulletin of the Astronom-
ical Society of India. 81: 81. [64] Andrew James (11 March 2008).ALPHA CENTAURI
: 6. Homepage.mac.com. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
[47] Glass, I. S. (2013). Nicolas-Louis de La Caille, As-
tronomer and Geodesist. Oxford University Press. [65] Aitken, R.G.,The Binary Stars, Dover, 1961, p. 235.
[48] Pannekoek, A.,A Short History of Astronomy, Dover, [66] Anosova, J.; Orlov, V. V.; Pavlova, N. A. (1994). Dy-
1989, pp. 3456 namics of nearby multiple stars. The Centauri sys-
tem (PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 292: 115.
[49] Herschel, J. F. W. (1847). Results of Astronomical Ob- Bibcode:1994A&A...292..115A.
servations made during the years 1834,5,6,7,8 at the Cape
of Good Hope; being the completion of a telescopic survey [67] Matthews, R. A. J. (1994). The Close Approach
of the whole surface of the visible heavens, commenced in of Stars in the Solar Neighbourhood. Quarterly
1825. Smith, Elder and Co, London. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35: 18.
Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M.
[50] Kamper, K. W.; Wesselink, A. J. (1978). Alpha and
Proxima Centauri. Astronomical Journal. 83: 1653. [68] Wetheimer, J. G.; Gregory Laughlin (2008). Are Prox-
Bibcode:1978AJ.....83.1653K. doi:10.1086/112378. ima and Alpha Centauri Gravitationally Bound?". The
Astronomical Journal. 132 (5): 19951997. arXiv:astro-
[51] Best image of Alpha Centauri A and B. www. ph/0607401 . Bibcode:2006AJ....132.1995W.
spacetelescope.org. Retrieved 29 August 2016. doi:10.1086/507771.
[52] Aitken, R.G.,The Binary Stars, Dover, 1961, pp. 236 [69] Kervella, P.; Thvenin, F.; Lovis, C. (2017). Prox-
237. ima's orbit around Centauri. Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 598: L7. arXiv:1611.03495 .
[53] Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars :
Bibcode:2017A&A...598L...7K. doi:10.1051/0004-
Ephemeris (2008)". U.S. Naval Observatory. Retrieved
6361/201629930.
13 August 2008.
[70] Sgransan, D.; Kervella, P.; Forveille, T.; Queloz, D.
[54] Bon, Henri M. J.; et al. (4 December 2013). Possi- (2003). First radius measurements of very low mass
ble astrometric discovery of a substellar companion to the stars with the VLTI. Astronomy and Astrophysics
closest binary brown dwarf system WISE J104915.57 Letters. 397 (3): L5L8. arXiv:astro-ph/0211647
531906.1. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 561: L4.
. Bibcode:2003A&A...397L...5S. doi:10.1051/0004-
arXiv:1312.1303 . Bibcode:2014A&A...561L...4B. 6361:20021714.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322975.
[71] Clavin, Whitney; Harrington, J. D. (25 April 2014).
[55] The Hipparcos Catalogue R.A. 14h-19h, HIP: 68301- NASA's Spitzer and WISE Telescopes Find Close, Cold
93276 (PDF). ESA. Retrieved 6 August 2008. Neighbor of Sun. NASA. Archived from the original on
26 April 2014. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
[56] Hipparcos Data Vol.8. (1997)". ESA. Archived from
the original on 24 December 2009. Retrieved 1 August [72] ESA: Hipparcos Site. High-Proper Motion Stars
2008. (2004)".
[57] The 150 Stars in the Hipparcos Catalogue Closest to the [73] Aristotle.De Caelo (On the Heavens): Book II. Part 11.
Sun. ESA. 1997. Retrieved 6 August 2008. (2004)".
6.14. REFERENCES 63
[74] Berry, A.,A History of Astronomy, Dover, 1989, pp. [92] Anglada-Escude G, Amado PJ, Barnes J, Berdinas ZM,
357358 Butler RP, Coleman GA, Cueva I, Dreizler S, Endl M,
Giesers B, Jeers SV, Jenkins JS, Jones HR, Kiraga M,
[75] Pannekoek, A.,A Short History of Astronomy, Dover, Krster M, Lpez-Gonzlez MJ, Marvin CJ, Morales N,
1989 Morin J, Nelson RP, Ortiz JL, Or A, Paardekooper SJ,
Reiners A, Sarmiento LF, Rodrguez E, Rodrguez-Lopez
[76] Holberg, J. B. (2007). Sirius: Brightest Diamond in the
C, Strachan JP, Tsapras Y, Tuomi M, Zechmeister M (13
Night Sky. Praxis Publishing. pp. 4142. ISBN 0-387-
July 2016).A terrestrial planet candidate in a temperate
48941-X.
orbit around Proxima Centauri(PDF). European South-
[77] Tung, Brian. Star Catalogue of Ptolemy. The Astron- ern Observatory. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
omy Corner: Reference (2006).
[93] Singal, Ashok K. (2014).Life on a tidally-locked planet
[78] Newton R.R., The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy, T. . Planex Newsletter. 4 (2): 8. arXiv:1405.1025 .
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, (1977) Bibcode:2014arXiv1405.1025S.
[79] Pannekoek, A.,A Short History of Astronomy, Dover, [94] It Turns Out the Closest Exoplanet to Us Doesn't Actually
1989, p. 157 Exist
[80] Grassho, G. (1990). The History of Ptolemy's Star Cat- [95] Poof! The Planet Closest To Our Solar System Just Van-
alogue. Springer. pp. 319394. ISBN 0-387-97181-5. ished
[81] Henderson, H. (1839). On the parallax of Cen- [96] Rajpaul, Vinesh; Aigrain, Suzanne; Roberts, Stephen
tauri. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci- J. (19 October 2015), Ghost in the time se-
ety. 4 (19): 168169. Bibcode:1839MNRAS...4..168H. ries: no planet for Alpha Cen B, Monthly No-
doi:10.1093/mnras/4.19.168. tices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 456: L6,
arXiv:1510.05598 , Bibcode:2016MNRAS.456L...6R,
[82] Astronomical Society of South Africa. Henderson,
doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slv164.
Thomas [FRS] (2008)".
[83] Pannekoek, A.,A Short History of Astronomy, Dover, [97] Demory, Brice-Olivier; Ehrenreich, David; Queloz, Di-
1989, p. 333 dier; Seager, Sara; Gilliland, Ronald; Chaplin, William
J.; Prott, Charles; Gillon, Michael; Guenther, Maxi-
[84] Maclear, M. (1851). Determination of Parallax milian N.; Benneke, Bjoern; Dumusque, Xavier; Lovis,
of 1 and 2 Centauri. Astronomische Nachrichten. Christophe; Pepe, Francesco; Segransan, Damien; Tri-
32 (16): 243244. Bibcode:1851MNRAS..11..131M. aud, Amaury; Udry, Stephane (25 March 2015). Hub-
doi:10.1002/asna.18510321606. ble Space Telescope search for the transit of the Earth-
mass exoplanet Alpha Centauri Bb. Monthly No-
[85] N.L., de La Caill (1976). Travels at the Cape, 1751 tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 450 (2): 2043.
1753: an annotated translation of Journal historique du arXiv:1503.07528v1 . doi:10.1093/mnras/stv673.
voyage fait au Cap de Bonne-Esprance. Translated by
Raven-Hart, R. Cape Town. ISBN 0-86961-068-6. [98] Twin Earths may lurk in our nearest star system
[86] European Space Agency: The Hipparcos and Tycho Cat- [99] Liseau, R.; et al. (8 December 2015). A new submm
alogues Search facility(2008) source within a few arcseconds of Centauri: ALMA
discovers the most distant object of the solar system.
[87] Proper motions are expressed in smaller angular units than
arcsec, being measured in milli-arcsec (mas.) or one- arXiv:1512.02652v1 [astro-ph.SR].
thousandth of an arcsec. A negative value for proper mo-
[100] Koberlein, Brian (10 December 2015). Astronomers
tion in RA indicates the sky motion is east to west, in dec-
Find New Object, Possible Super-Earth In Our Solar Sys-
lination north to south.
tem. Forbes. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
[88] van den Bos W. H. (1926). A Table of Orbits of Visual
[101] Why Haven't Planets Been Detected around Alpha Cen-
Binary Stars (aka. First Orbit Catalogue of Binary Stars)".
tauri. Universe Today. Archived from the original on
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands.
21 April 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2008.
3: 149. Bibcode:1926BAN.....3..149V.
[102] Stephens, Tim (7 March 2008).Nearby star should har-
[89] van den Bos W. H. (1926).Table of Visual Binary Stars
bor detectable, Earth-like planets. News & Events. UC
. Union Observatory Circular. 2: 356.
Santa Cruz. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008.
[90] Calculated as; = sin (t t ), where; Retrieved 19 April 2008.
= right ascension (in degrees), is the common proper
[103] Thebault, P.; Marzazi, F.; Scholl, H. (2009). Planet
motion (cpm.) expressed in degrees, and and are the
formation in the habitable zone of alpha centauri
current position angle and calculated position angle at the
B. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
dierent epochs.
Society. 393: L21L25. arXiv:0811.0673 .
[91] Sky and Telescope, April 1998 (p60), based on computa- Bibcode:2009MNRAS.393L..21T. doi:10.1111/j.1745-
tions from HIPPARCOS data. 3933.2008.00590.x.
[104] Quintana, E. V.; Lissauer, J. J.; Chambers, J. E.; Dun- [118] Wiegert, J.; Liseau, R.; Thbault, P.; et al. (March
can, M. J. (2002). Terrestrial Planet Formation in 2014). How dusty is Centauri? Excess or non-
the Alpha Centauri System. Astrophysical Journal. excess over the infrared photospheres of main-sequence
2, part 1 (2): 982996. Bibcode:2002ApJ...576..982Q. stars. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 563. A102.
doi:10.1086/341808. arXiv:1401.6896 . Bibcode:2014A&A...563A.102W.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321887.
[105] Javiera M. Guedes, Eugenio J. Rivera, Erica Davis,
Gregory Laughlin, Elisa V. Quintana, Debra A. Fis-
[119] Computed; using in solar terms: 1.1 M and 0.92
cher (2008). Formation and Detectability of Terres-
M , luminosities 1.57 and 0.51 L*/L , Sun magnitude
trial Planets Around Alpha Centauri B. Astrophysical
26.73(v), 11.2 to 35.6 AU orbit; The minimum lumi-
Journal. 679 (2): 15821587. arXiv:0802.3482 . nosity adds planet's orbital radius to AB distance (max)
Bibcode:2008ApJ...679.1582G. doi:10.1086/587799. (conjunction). Max. luminosity subtracts the planet's or-
bital radius to AB distance (min) (opposition).
[106] Dumusque, X.; Pepe, F.; Lovis, C.; Sgransan, D.;
Sahlmann, J.; Benz, W.; Bouchy, F.; Mayor, M.; Queloz, [120] Proxima Centauri UV ux distribution.
D.; Santos, N.; Udry, S. (17 October 2012). An Earth ESA/Laboratory for Space Astrophysics and Theo-
mass planet orbiting Alpha Centauri B (PDF). Nature. retical Physics. Retrieved July 11, 2007.
490 (7423): 20711. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..207D.
doi:10.1038/nature11572. PMID 23075844. Retrieved [121] Kaler, Jim. Rigil Kentaurus. University of Illinois.
17 October 2012. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
[107] Billings, Lee. Miniature Space Telescope Could Boost
[122] Rees, M. (ed.). Universe: The Denitive Visual Guide.
the Hunt forEarth Proxima[Video]". Scientic Amer-
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2012. P. 252.
ican.
[108] Javiera Guedes, Terrestrial Planet Formation Around Al- [123] Kaler, J. B. The Hundred Greatest Stars. New York:
pha Cen B Copernicus Books, 2002. P. 15.
[109] see Lissauer and Quintana in references below [124] Schaaf, F. The Brightest Stars: Discovering the Universe
through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars. Hoboken, NJ: John
[110] M. Barbieri; F. Marzari; H. Scholl (2002). For- Wiley & Sons, 2008. P. 122.
mation of terrestrial planets in close binary systems:
The case of Centauri A. Astronomy & Astro- [125] Bailey, F., The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh Beigh,
physics. 396 (1): 219 224. arXiv:astro-ph/0209118 Tycho Brahe, Halley, and Hevelius, Memoirs of Royal
. Bibcode:2002A&A...396..219B. doi:10.1051/0004- Astronomical Society, vol. XIII, London, 1843.
6361:20021357.
[126] P. Kunitzsch, Naturwissenschaft und Philologie: Die
[111] Lissauer, J. J.; E. V. Quintana; J. E. Chambers; M. J. Dun- arabischen Elemente in der Nomenklatur und Terminolo-
can & F. C. Adams (2004).Terrestrial Planet Formation gie der HimmelskundeDie Sterne 52 (1976), 218227
in Binary Star Systems. Revista Mexicana de Astrono- (p. 223). C.f. H. Hermelink, review of Arabische Stern-
mia y Astrosica (Serie de Conferencias). 22: 99103. namen in Europa by Paul Kunitzsch, Journal of the Amer-
Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22...99L. ican Oriental Society Vol. 81, No. 3 (Aug. - Sep. 1961),
pp. 309312. stellam in laevo pede Centauri, qui asteris-
[112] Quintana, Elisa V.; Lissauer, Jack J. (2007). Haghigh-
mus Tolimn dicitur J. Golius, Elementa astronomica, ara-
ipour, Nader, ed. Terrestrial Planet Formation in Binary
bice et latine. Cum notis ad res exoticas sive orientales,
Star Systems. Planets in Binary Star Systems. Springer. pp.
quae in iis occurrunt Amsterdam (1669), p. 76. A spuri-
265284. ISBN 978-90-481-8687-7.
ous Hebrew etymology introduced by Frances Rolleston,
[113] Croswell, Ken (April 1991). Does Alpha Cen- Mazzaroth; or, The constellations (1862), p. 17 (the
tauri Have Intelligent Life?". Astronomy. 19: 28 heretofore and hereafter) has found some reection in
37. Bibcode:1991Ast....19d..28C. (Subscription required astrological literature (c.f. E. W. Bullinger, The Witness
(help)). of the Stars (1893), p. 34; Thomas H. Perdue Passover
& Sukkot, Forever (2011), p. 446; Mathew James, The
[114] Gilster, Paul (5 July 2006). Proxima Centauri and Hab- Original Prophecy, Dog Ear Publishing (2011), p. 7).
itability. Centauri Dreams. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
[127] Burritt, E. H., Atlas, Designed to Illustrate the Geography
[115] Cain, Fraser (10 March 2008). If Alpha Centauri Has of the Heavens, (New Edition), New York, F. J. Hunting-
Earth-like Planets, Can We Detect Them?". Universe To- ton and Co., 1835, pl. VII.
day. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Re-
trieved 10 March 2008. [128] (Chinese) [ AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
in Astronomy) 2006 6 27 ]
[116]Planet Hunting by Numbers(Press release). Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory. 18 October 2006. Retrieved 24 April
2007.
[117] Mullen, Leslie (2 June 2011). Rage Against the Dying of Eta Carinae. Journal of Astronomical History
of the Light. Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the & Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011. Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H.
[130] Stanbridge, W. M. (1857). On the Astronomy and [145] Gliese, W.; Jahrei, H. (1991). Gl 559. Prelimi-
Mythology of the Aboriginies of Victoria. Transactions nary Version of the Third Catalogue of Nearby Stars. As-
Philosophical Institute Victoria. 2: 137140. tronomische Rechen-Institut. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
[131] VLT to Search for Planets in Alpha Centauri System [146] Van Altena, W. F.; Lee, J. T.; Hoeit, E. D. (1995).
- ESO Signs Agreement with Breakthrough Initiatives. GCTP 3309. The General Catalogue of Trigonometric
European Southern Observatory. 9 January 2017. Re- Stellar Parallaxes (Fourth ed.). Yale University Observa-
trieved 10 January 2017. tory. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
[132] Overbye, Dennis (12 April 2016). A Visionary Project [147] Perryman; et al. (1997). HIP 71683. The Hipparcos
Aims for Alpha Centauri, a Star 4.37 Light-Years Away and Tycho Catalogues. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
. The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
[148] Perryman; et al. (1997). HIP 71683. The Hipparcos
[133] O'Neill, Ian (8 July 2008). How Long Would it Take to and Tycho Catalogues. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
Travel to the Nearest Star?". Universe Today.
[134] Domonoske, Camila (12 April 2016). Forget Starships: and Tycho Catalogues. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
New Proposal Would Use 'Starchips' To Visit Alpha Cen-
tauri. National Public Radio. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
and Tycho Catalogues. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
[135] Starshot. Breakthrough Initiatives. Retrieved 10 Jan-
[151] Sderhjelm, Staan (1999).HIP 71683. Visual binary
uary 2017.
orbits and masses post Hipparcos. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
[136] Overbye, Dennis (12 April 2016). Reaching for the
[152] van Leeuwen, Floor (2007). HIP 71683. Validation
Stars, Across 4.37 Light-Years. The New York Times.
of the new Hipparcos reduction.
Retrieved 10 January 2017.
[153] van Leeuwen, Floor (2007). HIP 71681. Validation
[137] Chang, Kenneth (24 August 2016). One Star Over, a of the new Hipparcos reduction.
Planet That Might Be Another Earth. The New York
Times. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
[138] Klesman, Alison (9 January 2017).ESO and the Break- 6.15 External links
through Initiatives team up to search for extrasolar planets
next door. Astronomy Magazine. Retrieved 10 January
2017.
SIMBAD observational data
[139] Henderson, T. (1842). The Parallax of Centauri, Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars
deduced from Mr. Maclear's Observations at the Cape U.S.N.O.
of Good Hope, in the Years 1839 and 1840. Mem- The Imperial Star Alpha Centauri
oirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. 12: 370371.
Bibcode:1842MmRAS..12..329H. Alpha Centauri A Voyage to Alpha Centauri
[140] Maclear, T. (1851). Determination of the Parallax of Immediate History of Alpha Centauri
1 and 2 Centauri, from Observations made at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the Years 1842-3-4 eSky : Alpha Centauri
and 1848. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Alpha Centauri at Constellation Guide
20: 98. Bibcode:1851MmRAS..20...70M.
[141] Moesta, C. G. (1868). Bestimmung der Parallaxe
von und Centauri [Determining the parallax of 6.15.1 Hypothetical planets or exploration
and Centauri]. Astronomische Nachrichten (in Ger-
man). 71 (8): 117118. Bibcode:1868AN.....71..113M. A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System
doi:10.1002/asna.18680710802. . SpaceRef.com. Retrieved 21 March 2003.
[142] Gill, David; Elkin, W.L. (1885). Heliometer- Alpha Centauri System
Determinations of Stellar Parallax in the Southern Hemi-
sphere. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. 48: O Sistema Alpha Centauri (Portuguese)
188. Bibcode:1885MmRAS..48....1G. Alpha Centauri Associao de Astronomia (Por-
[143] Roberts, Alex W. (1895). Parallax of tuguese)
Centauri from Meridian Observations 1879
1881. Astronomische Nachrichten. 139
Thompson, Andrea (7 March 2008). Nearest Star
(12): 189190. Bibcode:1895AN....139..177R. System Might Harbor Earth Twin. SPACE.com.
doi:10.1002/asna.18961391202. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008. Re-
trieved 17 July 2008.
[144] Woolley, R.; Epps, E. A.; Penston, M. J.; Pocock, S. B.
(1970). Woolley 559. Catalogue of stars within 25
parsecs of the Sun. Royal Greenwich Observatory. 5. Coordinates: 14* h 39* m 36.4951* s, 60 50
Bibcode:1970ROAn....5....1W. Retrieved 9 May 2014. 02.308
Chapter 7
Vega
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Vega Vega-like stars.* [20]
(disambiguation).
Vega, also designated Alpha Lyrae ( Lyrae, abbre- 7.1 Nomenclature

viated Alpha Lyr, Lyr), is the brightest star in the
constellation of Lyra, the fth-brightest star in the night
Lyrae (Latinised to Alpha Lyrae) is the star's Bayer des-
sky and the second-brightest star in the northern celestial
ignation. The traditional name Vega (earlier Wega* [11])
hemisphere, after Arcturus. It is relatively close at only
comes from a loose transliteration of the Arabic word
25 light-years from the Sun, and, together with Arcturus
wqi meaningfallingorlanding, via the phrase an-
and Sirius, one of the most luminous stars in the Sun's
nasr al-wqi, the falling eagle.* [21] In 2016, the
neighborhood.
International Astronomical Union organized a Working
Vega has been extensively studied by astronomers, lead- Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [22] to catalog and stan-
ing it to be termed arguably the next most impor- dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
tant star in the sky after the Sun.* [14] Vega was of July 2016* [23] included a table of the rst two batches
the northern pole star around 12,000 BC and will be of names approved by the WGSN; which included Vega
so again around the year 13,727 when the declination for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of
will be +8614'.* [15] Vega was the rst star other than Star Names.* [24]
the Sun to be photographed and the rst to have its
spectrum recorded.* [16]* [17] It was one of the rst stars
whose distance was estimated through parallax measure-
ments. Vega has served as the baseline for calibrating 7.2 Observation history
the photometric brightness scale, and was one of the stars
used to dene the mean values for the UBV photometric Astrophotography, the photography of celestial objects,
system. began in 1840 when John William Draper took an image
Vega is only about a tenth of the age of the Sun, but of the Moon using the daguerreotype process. On July
since it is 2.1 times as massive its expected lifetime is also 17, 1850, Vega became the rst star (other than the Sun)
one tenth of that of the Sun; both stars are at present ap- to be photographed, when it was imaged by William Bond
proaching the midpoint of their life expectancies. Vega and John Adams Whipple at the Harvard * *
College Obser-
*
has an unusually low abundance of the elements with a vatory, also with a daguerreotype. [11] [16] [25] Henry
*
higher atomic number than that of helium. [10] Vega is Draper took the rst photograph of a star's spectrum in
also a variable star that varies slightly in brightness. It is August 1872 when he took an image of Vega, and he
rotating rapidly with a velocity of 274 km/s at the equa- also became the rst person *
to show absorption lines in
tor. This is causing the equator to bulge outward because the spectrum of a star. [17] Similar lines had already
of centrifugal eects, and, as a result, there is a variation been identied in the spectrum of the Sun.* [26] In 1879,
of temperature across the star's photosphere that reaches William Huggins used photographs of the spectra of Vega
a maximum at the poles. From Earth, Vega is being ob- and similar stars to identify a set of twelve very strong
served from the direction of one of these poles.* [18] linesthat were common to this stellar category. These
were later identied as lines from the Hydrogen Balmer
Based on an observed excess emission of infrared radi- series.* [27] Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has
ation, Vega appears to have a circumstellar disk of dust. served as one of the stable anchor points by which other
This dust is likely to be the result of collisions between ob- stars are classied.* [28]
jects in an orbiting debris disk, which is analogous to the
Kuiper belt in the Solar System.* [19] Stars that display The distance to Vega can be determined by measur-
an infrared excess because of dust emission are termed ing its parallax shift against the background stars as the
Earth orbits the Sun. The rst person to publish a
66
7.3. VISIBILITY 67
star's parallax was Friedrich G. W. von Struve, when the variability was thought to possibly be the result of
he announced a value of 0.125 arcseconds (0.125) for systematic errors in measurement.* [41]* [42] However, a
Vega.* [29] Friedrich Bessel was skeptical about Struve's 2007 article surveyed these and other results, and con-
data, and, when Bessel published a parallax of 0.314 cluded thatA conservative analysis of the foregoing re-
for the star system 61 Cygni, Struve revised his value sults suggests that Vega is quite likely variable in the 1-2%
for Vega's parallax to nearly double the original estimate. range, with possible occasional excursions to as much as
This change cast further doubt on Struve's data. Thus 4% from the mean.* [4] Also, a 2011 article arms on
most astronomers at the time, including Struve, credited its abstract thatThe long-term (year-to-year) variability
Bessel with the rst published parallax result. However, of Vega was conrmed.* [43]
Struve's initial result was actually close to the currently ac- Vega became the rst solitary main-sequence star beyond
cepted value of 0.129,* [30]* [31] as determined by the
the Sun known to be an X-ray emitter when in 1979 it was
Hipparcos astrometry satellite.* [1]* [32]* [33] observed from an imaging X-ray telescope launched on an
The brightness of a star, as seen from Earth, is measured Aerobee 350 from the White Sands Missile Range.* [44]
with a standardized, logarithmic scale. This apparent In 1983, Vega became the rst star found to have a disk of
magnitude is a numerical value that decreases in value dust. The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) discov-
with increasing brightness of the star. The faintest stars ered an excess of infrared radiation coming from the star,
visible to the unaided eye are sixth magnitude, while the and this was attributed to energy emitted by the orbiting
brightest, Sirius, is of magnitude 1.46. To standardize dust as it was heated by the star.* [45]
the magnitude scale, astronomers chose Vega to represent
magnitude zero at all wavelengths. Thus, for many years,
Vega was used as a baseline for the calibration of abso- 7.3 Visibility
lute photometric brightness scales.* [34] However, this is
no longer the case, as the apparent magnitude zero point
is now commonly dened in terms of a particular numeri-
cally specied ux. This approach is more convenient for
astronomers, since Vega is not always available for cali-
bration.* [35]
The UBV photometric system measures the magnitude
of stars through ultraviolet, blue, and yellow lters, pro-
ducing U, B, and V values, respectively. Vega is one of
six A0V stars that were used to set the initial mean val-
ues for this photometric system when it was introduced
in the 1950s. The mean magnitudes for these six stars
were dened as: U B = B V = 0. In eect, the mag-
nitude scale has been calibrated so that the magnitude of
these stars is the same in the yellow, blue, and ultraviolet
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.* [36] Thus, Vega The summer triangle
has a relatively at electromagnetic spectrum in the visual
regionwavelength range 350850 nanometers, most of Vega can often be seen near the zenith in the mid-
which can be seen with the human eyeso the ux densi- northern latitudes during the evening in the Northern
ties are roughly equal; 20004000 Jy.* [37] However, the Hemisphere summer.* [46] From mid-southern latitudes,
ux density of Vega drops rapidly in the infrared, and is it can be seen low above the northern horizon during
near 100 Jy at 5 micrometers.* [38] the Southern Hemisphere winter. With a declination
Photometric measurements of Vega during the 1930s ap- of +38.78, Vega can only be viewed at latitudes north
peared to show that the star had a low-magnitude vari- of 51 S. Therefore, it does not rise at all anywhere in
ability on the order of 0.03 magnitudes. This range of Antarctica or in the southernmost part of South Amer-
variability was near the limits of observational capabil- ica, including Punta Arenas, Chile (53 S). At lati-
ity for that time, and so the subject of Vega's variability tudes to the north of +51 N, Vega remains continually
has been controversial. The magnitude of Vega was mea- above the horizon as a circumpolar star. Around July 1,
sured again in 1981 at the David Dunlap Observatory and Vega reaches midnight culmination when it crosses the
showed some slight variability. Thus it was suggested that meridian at that time.* [47]
Vega showed occasional low-amplitude pulsations asso- This star lies at a vertex of a widely spaced asterism
ciated with a Delta Scuti variable.* [39] This is a cate- called the Summer Triangle, which consists of the zero-
gory of stars that oscillate in a coherent manner, resulting magnitude stars Vega in the constellation Lyra and
in periodic pulsations in the star's luminosity.* [40] Al- Altair in Aquila, plus the rst magnitude star Deneb in
though Vega ts the physical prole for this type of vari- Cygnus.* [46] This formation is the approximate shape of
able, other observers have found no such variation. Thus a right triangle, with Vega located at its right angle. The
68 CHAPTER 7. VEGA
Summer Triangle is recognizable in the northern skies for of sight.* [58]* [59]
there are few other bright stars in its vicinity.* [48] Vega Using spectropolarimetry, a magnetic eld has been de-
can be identied easily because Altair and its two neigh- tected on the surface of Vega by a team of astronomers at
boring stars form a line which points at Vega. the Observatoire du Pic du Midi. This is the rst such de-
tection of a magnetic eld on a spectral class A star that
is not an Ap chemically peculiar star. The average line
7.4 Properties of sight component of this eld has a strength of 0.6
0.3 G.* [60] This is comparable to the mean magnetic
Vega's spectral class is A0V, making it a blue-tinged eld on the Sun.* [61] Magnetic elds of roughly 30 gauss
white main sequence star that is fusing hydrogen to have been reported for Vega, compared to about 1 gauss
helium in its core. Since more massive stars use their for the Sun.* [44] In 2015, star spots were detected on the
fusion fuel more quickly than smaller ones, Vega's main- star's surfacethe rst such detection for a normal A-
sequence lifetime is roughly one billion years, a tenth of type star, and these features show evidence of rotational
the Sun's.* [49] The current age of this star is about 455 modulation with a period of 0.68 days.* [62]
million years,* [8] or up to about half its expected to-
tal main-sequence lifespan. After leaving the main se-
quence, Vega will become a class-M red giant and shed 7.4.1 Rotation
much of its mass, nally becoming a white dwarf. At
present, Vega has more than twice the mass* [18] of the When the radius of Vega was measured to high accu-
Sun and its full luminosity is about 40 times the Sun's racy with an interferometer, it resulted in an unexpect-
value. However, because of its high rate of rotation, the edly large estimated value of 2.73 0.01 times the radius
pole is considerably brighter than the equator. Because it of the Sun. This is 60% larger than the radius of the
is seen nearly pole-on, its apparent luminosity from Earth star Sirius, while stellar models indicated it should only
is notably higher, about 57 times the Sun's value.* [9] If be about 12% larger. However, this discrepancy can be
Vega is variable, then it may be a Delta Scuti type with a explained if Vega is a rapidly rotating star that is being
period of about 0.107 days.* [39] viewed from the direction of its pole of rotation. Obser-
vations by the CHARA array in 200506 conrmed this
Most of the energy produced at Vega's core is gener- deduction.* [9]
ated by the carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle (CNO cycle),
a nuclear fusion process that combines protons to form
helium nuclei through intermediary nuclei of carbon, ni-
trogen, and oxygen. This process requires a tempera-
ture of about 15 million K,* [50] which is higher than the
core temperature of the Sun, but is less ecient than the
Sun's proton-proton chain reaction fusion reaction. The
CNO cycle is highly temperature sensitive, which results
in a convection zone about the core* [51] that evenly dis-
tributes the 'ash' from the fusion reaction within the core
region. The overlying atmosphere is in radiative equilib-
rium. This is in contrast to the Sun, which has a radiation
zone centered on the core with an overlying convection
zone.* [52] Size comparison of Vega (left) to the Sun (right)
The energy ux from Vega has been precisely measured

against standard light sources. At 5480 , the ux is The pole of Vegaits axis of rotationis inclined no
3,650 Jy with an error margin of 2%.* [53] The visual more than ve degrees from the line-of-sight to the Earth.
spectrum of Vega is dominated by absorption lines of At the high end of estimates for the rotation velocity for
hydrogen; specically by the hydrogen Balmer series Vega is 236.2 3.7 km/s* [8] along the equator, which
with the electron at the n=2 principal quantum num- is 87.6% of the speed that would cause the star to start
ber.* [54]* [55] The lines of other elements are relatively breaking up from centrifugal eects.* [8] This rapid ro-
weak, with the strongest being ionized magnesium, iron, tation of Vega produces a pronounced equatorial bulge,
and chromium.* [56] The X-ray emission from Vega is so the radius of the equator is 19% larger than the polar
very low, demonstrating that the corona for this star must radius. (The estimated polar radius of this star is 2.362
be very weak or non-existent.* [57] However, as the pole 0.012 solar radii, while the equatorial radius is 2.818
of Vega is facing Earth and a polar coronal hole may 0.013 solar radii.* [8]) From the Earth, this bulge is be-
be present,* [44]* [58] conrmation of a corona as the ing viewed from the direction of its pole, producing the
likely source of the X-rays detected from Vega (or the overly large radius estimate.
region very close to Vega) may be dicult as most of The local gravitational acceleration at the poles is greater
any coronal X-rays would not be emitted along the line than at the equator, so, by the Von Zeipel theorem, the lo-
7.5. PLANETARY SYSTEM 69
cal luminosity is also higher at the poles. This is seen as a ment away from the Earth will cause the light from Vega
variation in eective temperature over the star: the polar to shift to a lower frequency (toward the red), or to a
temperature is near 10,000 K, while the equatorial tem- higher frequency (toward the blue) if the motion is to-
perature is 7,600 K.* [18] As a result, if Vega were viewed ward the Earth. Thus the velocity can be measured from
along the plane of its equator, then the luminosity would the amount of redshift (or blueshift) of the star's spec-
be about half the apparent luminosity as viewed from the trum. Precise measurements of this redshift give a value
pole.* [14]* [note 1] This large temperature dierence be- of 13.9 0.9 km/s.* [6] The minus sign indicates a rel-
tween the poles and the equator produces a strong 'gravity ative motion toward the Earth.
darkening' eect. As viewed from the poles, this results
Motion transverse to the line of sight causes the position
in a darker (lower intensity) limb than would normally be of Vega to shift with respect to the more distant back-
expected for a spherically symmetric star. The tempera-
ground stars. Careful measurement of the star's posi-
ture gradient may also mean Vega has a convection zone tion allows this angular movement, known as proper mo-
around the equator,* [9]* [63] while the remainder of the
tion, to be calculated. Vega's proper motion is 202.03
atmosphere is likely to be in almost pure radiative equi- 0.63 milli-arcseconds (mas) per year in right ascen-
librium.* [64] sionthe celestial equivalent of longitudeand 287.47
As Vega had long been used as a standard star for calibrat- 0.54 mas/y in declination, which is equivalent to a change
ing telescopes, the discovery that it is rapidly rotating may in latitude. The net proper motion of Vega is 327.78
challenge some of the underlying assumptions that were mas/y,* [71] which results in angular movement of a de-
based on it being spherically symmetric. With the view- gree every 11,000 years.
ing angle and rotation rate of Vega now better known, this In the Galactic coordinate system, the space velocity
will allow for improved instrument calibrations.* [65] components of Vega are (U, V, W) = (16.1 0.3, 6.3
0.8, 7.7 0.3) km/s, for a net space velocity of 19
km/s.* [72] The radial component of this velocityin the
7.4.2 Element abundance direction of the Sunis 13.9 km/s, while the transverse
velocity is 9.9 km/s. Although Vega is at present only the
Astronomers term metalsthose elements with higher fth-brightest star in the sky, the star is slowly brightening
atomic numbers than helium. The metallicity of Vega's as proper motion causes it to approach the Sun.* [73] Vega
photosphere is only about 32% of the abundance of heavy will make its closest approach in an estimated 264,000
elements in the Sun's atmosphere.* [note 2] (Compare years at a perihelion distance of 13.2 ly (4.04 pc).* [74]
this, for example, to a three-fold metallicity abundance in
the similar star Sirius as compared to the Sun.) For com- Based on this star's kinematic properties, it appears to
parison, the Sun has an abundance of elements heavier belong to a stellar association called the Castor Moving
than helium of about ZSol = 0.0172 0.002.* [66] Thus, Group. However, Vega may be much older *than this
in terms of abundances, only about 0.54% of Vega con- group, so the membership remains uncertain. [8] This
sists of elements heavier than helium. group contains about 16 stars, including Alpha Librae,
Alpha Cephei, Castor, Fomalhaut and Vega. All mem-
The unusually low metallicity of Vega makes it a weak bers of the group are moving in nearly the same direc-
Lambda Botis-type star.* [67]* [68] However, the rea- tion with similar space velocities. Membership in a mov-
son for the existence of such chemically peculiar, spectral ing group implies a common origin for these stars in an
class A0-F0 stars remains unclear. One possibility is that open cluster that has since become gravitationally un-
the chemical peculiarity may be the result of diusion or bound.* [75] The estimated age of this moving group is
mass loss, although stellar models show that this would 200 100 million years, and they have an average space
normally only occur near the end of a star's hydrogen- velocity of 16.5 km/s.* [note 3]* [72]
burning lifespan. Another possibility is that the star
formed from an interstellar medium of gas and dust that
was unusually metal-poor.* [69]
The observed helium to hydrogen ratio in Vega is 0.030
7.5 Planetary system
0.005, which is about 40% lower than the Sun. This may
be caused by the disappearance of a helium convection 7.5.1 Infrared excess
zone near the surface. Energy transfer is instead per-
formed by the radiative process, which may be causing One of the early results from the Infrared Astronomy
an abundance anomaly through diusion.* [70] Satellite (IRAS) was the discovery of excess infrared ux
coming from Vega, beyond what would be expected from
the star alone. This excess was measured at wavelengths
7.4.3 Kinematics of 25, 60, and 100 m, and came from within an angular
radius of 10 arcseconds (10) centered on the star. At the
The radial velocity of Vega is the component of this measured distance of Vega, this corresponded to an actual
star's motion along the line-of-sight to the Earth. Move- radius of 80 astronomical units (AU), where an AU is the
70 CHAPTER 7. VEGA
radius of no less than 80 AU.* [78]

Following the discovery of an infrared excess around
Vega, other stars have been found that display a similar
anomaly that is attributable to dust emission. As of 2002,
about 400 of these stars have been found, and they have
come to be termedVega-likeorVega-excessstars.
It is believed that these may provide clues to the origin of
the Solar System.* [20]
7.5.2 Debris disks
By 2005, the Spitzer Space Telescope had produced high-

resolution infrared images of the dust around Vega. It
was shown to extend out to 43 (330 AU) at a wavelength
of 24 m, 70 (543 AU) at 70 m and 105 (815 AU)
at 160 m. These much wider disks were found to be
circular and free of clumps, with dust particles ranging
A mid-infrared (24 m) image of the debris disk around Vega from 150 m in size. The estimated total mass of this
dust is 310* 3 times the mass of the Earth. Production
of the dust would require collisions between asteroids in
a population corresponding to the Kuiper Belt around the
Sun. Thus the dust is more likely created by a debris disk
around Vega, rather than from a protoplanetary disk as
was earlier thought.* [19]
Vega through Celestron CGEM DX 1100 @ F6.3, Canon T3i,

Televue 4X Powermate, ISO 800, 60 sec exposure
average radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. It was

proposed that this radiation came from a eld of orbiting
particles with a dimension on the order of a millimeter,
as anything smaller would eventually be removed from
the system by radiation pressure or drawn into the star
Artist's concept of a recent massive collision of dwarf planet-sized
by means of PoyntingRobertson drag.* [76] The latter is objects that may have contributed to the dust ring around the star
the result of radiation pressure creating an eective force Vega.
that opposes the orbital motion of a dust particle, caus-
ing it to spiral inward. This eect is most pronounced for The inner boundary of the debris disk was estimated
tiny particles that are closer to the star.* [77] at 11 2, or 70100 AU. The disk of dust is pro-
Subsequent measurements of Vega at 193 m showed a duced as radiation pressure from Vega pushes debris from
lower than expected ux for the hypothesized particles, collisions of larger objects outward. However, contin-
suggesting that they must instead be on the order of 100 uous production of the amount of dust observed over
m or less. To maintain this amount of dust in orbit the course of Vega's lifetime would require an enormous
around Vega, a continual source of replenishment would starting massestimated as hundreds of times the mass
be required. A proposed mechanism for maintaining the of Jupiter. Hence it is more likely to have been produced
dust was a disk of coalesced bodies that were in the pro- as the result of a relatively recent breakup of a moderate-
cess of collapsing to form a planet.* [76] Models tted to sized (or larger) comet or asteroid, which then further
the dust distribution around Vega indicate that it is a 120 fragmented as the result of collisions between the smaller
AU-radius circular disk viewed from nearly pole-on. In components and other bodies. This dusty disk would be
addition, there is a hole in the center of the disk with a relatively young on the time scale of the star's age, and it
7.6. ETYMOLOGY AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE 71
will eventually be removed unless other collision events the mass of Jupiter.* [88] The issue of possible clumps
supply more dust.* [19] in the debris disc was revisited in 2007 using newer,
Observations, rst with the Palomar Testbed Interferom- more sensitive instrumentation on the Plateau de Bure
eter by David Ciardi and Gerard van Belle in 2001* [79] Interferometer. The observations showed that the debris
and then later conrmed with the CHARA array at Mt. ring is smooth and symmetric. No evidence was found
Wilson in 2006 and the Infrared Optical Telescope Ar- of the blobs reported earlier, *
casting doubts on the hy-
*
ray at Mt. Hopkins in 2011, [80] revealed evidence for pothesized giant planet. [89] The smooth structure has
an inner dust band around Vega. Originating within 8 been conrmed in follow-up observations by Hughes et
al. (2012)* [90] and the Herschel Space Telescope.* [91]
AU of the star, this exozodiacal dust may be evidence
of dynamical perturbations within the system.* [81] This Although a planet has yet to be directly observed around
may be caused by an intense bombardment of comets or Vega, the presence of a planetary system can not yet be
meteors, and may be evidence for the existence of a plan- ruled out. Thus there could be smaller, terrestrial planets
etary system.* [82] orbiting closer to the star. The inclination of planetary
orbits around Vega is likely to be closely aligned to the
equatorial plane of this star.* [92] From the perspective of
7.5.3 Possible planets an observer on a hypothetical planet around Vega, the Sun
would appear as a faint 4.3 magnitude star in the Columba
Observations from the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in constellation.* [note 4]
1997 revealed an elongated bright central regionthat
peaked at 9 (70 AU) to the northeast of Vega. This was
hypothesized as either a perturbation of the dust disk by
a planet or else an orbiting object that was surrounded by 7.6 Etymology and cultural signif-
dust. However, images by the Keck telescope had ruled icance
out a companion down to magnitude 16, which would
correspond to a body with more than 12 times the mass of
Jupiter.* [83] Astronomers at the Joint Astronomy Centre See also: Summer Triangle
in Hawaii and at UCLA suggested that the image may in-
dicate a planetary system still undergoing formation.* [84] The term Al Nesr al Waki appeared in the Al Achsasi al
Determining the nature of the planet has not been Mouakket star catalogue and was translated into Latin as
straightforward; a 2002 paper hypothesizes that the Vultur Cadens,the falling eagle/vulture.* [93]* [note 5]
clumps are caused by a roughly Jupiter-mass planet on The constellation was represented as a vulture in ancient
an eccentric orbit. Dust would collect in orbits that have Egypt,* [94] and as an eagle or vulture in ancient In-
mean-motion resonances with this planetwhere their dia.* [95]* [96] The Arabic name then appeared in the
orbital periods form integer fractions with the period of western world in the Alfonsine Tables,* [97] which were
the planetproducing the resulting clumpiness.* [85] drawn up between 1215 and 1270 by order of Alfonso
X.* [98] Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Eu-
rope used the names Wega and Alvaca, and depicted it
and Altair as birds.* [99]
Each night the positions of the stars appear to change as
the Earth rotates. However, when a star is located along
the Earth's axis of rotation, it will remain in the same
position and thus is called a pole star. The direction of
the Earth's axis of rotation gradually changes over time
in a process known as the precession of the equinoxes. A
complete precession cycle requires 25,770 years,* [100]
Artist's impression of a planet around Vega during which time the pole of the Earth's rotation follows
a circular path across the celestial sphere that passes near
In 2003 it was hypothesized that these clumps could several prominent stars. At present the pole star is Polaris,
be caused by a roughly Neptune-mass planet having but around 12,000 BC the pole was pointed only ve de-
migrated from 40 to 65 AU over 56 million years,* [86] grees away from Vega. Through precession, the pole will
an orbit large enough to allow the formation of smaller again pass near Vega around AD 14,000.* [101] It is the
rocky planets closer to Vega. The migration of this planet brightest of the successive northern pole stars.* [11]
would likely require gravitational interaction with a sec- Among the northern Polynesian people, Vega was known
ond, higher-mass planet in a smaller orbit.* [87] as whetu o te tau, the year star. For a period of history it
Using a coronagraph on the Subaru telescope in Hawaii marked the start of their new year when the ground would
in 2005, astronomers were able to further constrain the be prepared for planting. Eventually this function became
size of a planet orbiting Vega to no more than 510 times denoted by the Pleiades.* [102]
72 CHAPTER 7. VEGA
drop of Vega as a pole star since 12,000 BC.* [108]

Medieval astrologers counted Vega as one of the
Behenian stars* [109] and related it to chrysolite and
winter savory. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic
sign under Vultur cadens, a literal Latin translation
of the Arabic name.* [110] Medieval star charts also listed
the alternate names Waghi, Vagieh and Veka for this
star.* [47]
Vega became the rst star to have a car named after it with
the French Facel Vega line of cars from 1954 onwards,
and later on, in America, Chevrolet launched the Vega in
1971.* [111] Other vehicles named after Vega include the
ESA's Vega launch system* [112] and the Lockheed Vega
aircraft.* [113]
7.7 See also

The path of the north celestial pole among the stars due to the
precession. Vega is the bright star near the bottom
Vega in astrology
Vega in ction
The Assyrians named this pole star Dayan-same, the
Judge of Heaven, while in Akkadian it was Tir-anna, List of star systems within 2530 light-years
Life of Heaven. In Babylonian astronomy, Vega may
have been one of the stars named Dilgan, the Messen-
ger of Light. To the ancient Greeks, the constellation
Lyra was formed from the harp of Orpheus, with Vega as 7.8 Notes
its handle.* [12] For the Roman Empire, the start of au-
tumn was based upon the hour at which Vega set below [1] From the poles, the star presents a circular prole, while
the horizon.* [11] from the equator the star appears as an ellipse. The cross-
sectional area of the star's elliptical prole is only about
In Chinese mythology, there is a love story of Qi Xi ( 81% of the cross-sectional area of the star's polar prole,
) in which Niu Lang (, Altair) and his two children so less energy is received along the plane of the equator.
( and Aquilae) are separated from their mother Zhi Any additional dierence in luminosity is accounted for by
N (, lit. Weaving Girl, Vega) who is on the the temperature distribution. From the StefanBoltzmann
far side of the river, the Milky Way.* [103] However, one law, the energy ux from Vega's equator will be about:
day per year on the seventh day of the seventh month of ( )4 ( )
Teq 7,600 4
the Chinese lunisolar calendar, magpies make a bridge Tpole
= 10,000 =0.33
so that Niu Lang and Zhi N can be together again for a

brief encounter. The Japanese Tanabata festival, in which or 33% of the ux from the pole.
Vega is known as orihime (), is also based on this
legend.* [104] [2] For a metallicity of 0.5, the proportion of metals relative
to the Sun is given by:
In Zoroastrianism, Vega was sometimes associated with
Vanant, a minor divinity whose name meansconqueror 100.5 = 0.316
.* [105]
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria [3] U = 10.7 3.5, V = 8.0 2.4, W = 9.7 3.0 km/s.
named it as Neilloan,* [106] the ying Loan".* [107] The net velocity is:
In Hindu mythology, Vega is called Abhijit. The au-

vsp = 10.72 +8.02 +9.72 =16.5km/s.
thor of Mahabharat, Maharshi Vyasa, mentions in the
chapter Vana Parva (Chap. 230, Verses 811): Con-
[4] The Sun would appear at the diametrically opposite coor-
testing against Abhijit (Vega), the constellation Krittika dinates from Vega at =6* h 36* m 56.3364* s, =38 47
(Pleiades) went to Vanathe summer solstice to heat 01.291, which is in the western part of Columba. The
the summer. Then the star Abhijit slipped down in the visual magnitude is given by m = Mv 5(log10 +1) = 4.3.
sky.P. V. Vartak suggests in his book, The Scholarly
Dating of Mahabharat, that theslipping of Abhijitand [5] That is, a vulture on the ground with its wings folded. (Ed-
ascension of Krittika (Pleiades) might refer to the gradual ward William Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon)
7.9. REFERENCES 73
7.9 References [12] Kendall, E. Otis (1845), Uranography: Or, A Description

of the Heavens; Designed for Academics and Schools; Ac-
companied by an Atlas of the Heavens, Philadelphia: Ox-
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
ford University Press
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , [13] Sta, V* alf Lyr Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2007-
6361:20078357 10-30use thedisplay all measurementsoption to show
additional parameters.
[2] Bohlin, R. C.; Gilliland, R. L. (2004), Hubble Space
Telescope Absolute Spectrophotometry of Vega from the [14] Gulliver, Austin F.; et al. (1994), Vega: A
Far-Ultraviolet to the Infrared, The Astronomical Jour- rapidly rotating pole-on star, The Astrophysical Jour-
nal, 127 (6): 35083515, Bibcode:2004AJ....127.3508B, nal, 429 (2): L81L84, Bibcode:1994ApJ...429L..81G,
doi:10.1086/420715. doi:10.1086/187418
[3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009), VizieR [15] Calculation by the Stellarium application version 0.10.2,
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars retrieved 2009-07-28
(Samus+ 20072013)", VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S, 1: [16] Barger, M. Susan; et al. (2000), The Daguerreotype:
02025, Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science, JHU
Press, ISBN 0-8018-6458-5
[4] Gray, Raymond (2007),The Problems with Vega, The
Future of Photometric, Spectrophotometric and Polarimet- [17] Barker, George F. (1887),On the Henry Draper Memo-
ric Standardization, ASP Conference Series, Proceedings of rial Photographs of Stellar Spectra, Proceedings of the
a conference held 811 May 2006 in Blankenberge, Bel- American Philosophical Society, 24: 166172
gium, 364: 305, Bibcode:2007ASPC..364..305G
[18] Peterson, D. M.; et al. (2006),Vega is a rapidly rotating
star, Nature, 440 (7086): 896899, arXiv:astro-
[5] Ducati, J. R. (2002),VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system ph/0603520 , Bibcode:2006Natur.440..896P,
, CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues, 2237, doi:10.1038/nature04661, PMID 16612375
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D
[19] Su, K. Y. L.; et al. (2005), The Vega Debris
[6] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), The Revision of the Disk: A Surprise from Spitzer", The Astrophysical Jour-
General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Proceedings nal, 628 (1): 487500, arXiv:astro-ph/0504086 ,
from IAU Symposium no. 30, London, England: Aca- Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..487S, doi:10.1086/430819
demic Press, p. 57, Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E
[20] Song, Inseok; et al. (2002), M-Type Vega-like Stars,
[7] Gatewood, George (2008), Astrometric Studies of The Astronomical Journal, 124 (1): 514518, arXiv:astro-
Aldebaran, Arcturus, Vega, the Hyades, and Other ph/0204255 , Bibcode:2002AJ....124..514S,
Regions, The Astronomical Journal, 136: 452 doi:10.1086/341164
460, Bibcode:2008AJ....136..452G, doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/136/1/452. [21] Glass, Cyril (2008), The new encyclopedia of Islam, Ref-
erence, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series
[8] Yoon, Jinmi; et al. (January 2010), A New View of (3rd ed.), Rowman & Littleeld, p. 75, ISBN 0-7425-
Vega's Composition, Mass, and Age, The Astrophysical 6296-4
Journal, 708 (1): 7179, Bibcode:2010ApJ...708...71Y,
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/708/1/71 [22] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), International
Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016.
[9] Aufdenberg, J.P.; et al. (2006), First results
[23] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 1
from the CHARA Array: VII. Long-Baseline Inter-
(PDF), IAU Division C: Education, Outreach and Her-
ferometric Measurements of Vega Consistent with a
itage (WGSN), July 2016, retrieved 28 July 2016.
Pole-On, Rapidly Rotating Star?", Astrophysical Jour-
nal, 645 (1): 664675, arXiv:astro-ph/0603327 , [24] IAU Catalog of Star Names, IAU Division C: Education,
Bibcode:2006ApJ...645..664A, doi:10.1086/504149 Outreach and Heritage (WGSN), August 21, 2016, re-
trieved 28 July 2016.
[10] Kinman, T.; et al. (2002), The determination of
Te for metal-poor A-type stars using V and 2MASS [25] Holden, Edward S.; et al. (1890),Photographs of Venus,
J, H and K magnitudes, Astronomy and Astrophysics, Mercury and Alpha Lyr in Daylight, Publications of
391 (3): 10391052, Bibcode:2002A&A...391.1039K, the Astronomical Society of the Pacic, 2 (10): 249250,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020806 Bibcode:1890PASP....2..249H, doi:10.1086/120156
[11] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963), Star Names: Their Lore [26] Spectroscopy and the Birth of Astrophysics, Tools
and Meaning, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486- of Cosmology, American Institute of Physics, retrieved
21079-0 2007-11-15
74 CHAPTER 7. VEGA
[27] Hentschel, Klaus (2002), Mapping the Spectrum: Tech- [42] Hayes, D. S. (May 2429, 1984), Stellar absolute
niques of Visual Representation in Research and Teaching, uxes and energy distributions from 0.32 to 4.0 mi-
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-850953-7 crons, Proceedings of the Symposium, Calibration
of fundamental stellar quantities, Como, Italy: Dor-
[28] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points drecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co., pp. 225252,
for the MK System of Spectral Classication, Bul- Bibcode:1985IAUS..111..225H
letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319,
Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04 [43] Butkovskaya, Varvara (2011), The long-term vari-
ability of Vega, Astronomische Nachrichten, 332
[29] Berry, Arthur (1899), A Short History of Astronomy, New (9-10): 956960, Bibcode:2011AN....332..956B,
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-486-20210-0 doi:10.1002/asna.201111587
[30] Dbarbat, Suzanne (1988), The First Successful At- [44] Topka, K.; et al. (1979), Detection of soft X-
tempts to Determine Stellar Parallaxes in the Light of the rays from Alpha Lyrae and Eta Bootis with an imag-
Bessel/Struve Correspondence, Mapping the Sky: Past ing X-ray telescope, Astrophysical Journal, 229: 661,
Heritage and Future Directions, Springer, ISBN 90-277- Bibcode:1979ApJ...229..661T, doi:10.1086/157000
2810-0
[45] Harvey, Paul E.; et al. (1984), On the far-infrared
[31] Anonymous (2007-06-28), The First Parallax Measure- excess of Vega, Nature, 307 (5950): 441442,
ments, Astroprof, retrieved 2007-11-12 Bibcode:1984Natur.307..441H, doi:10.1038/307441a0
[32] Perryman, M. A. C.; et al. (1997), The Hipparcos Cat- [46] Pasacho, Jay M. (2000), A Field Guide to Stars and Plan-
alogue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 323: L49L52, ets (4th ed.), Houghton Miin Field Guides, ISBN 0-395-
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P 93431-1
[33] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of History's [47] Burnham, Robert J. R. (1978), Burnham's Celestial Hand-
Greatest Star Map, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, book: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the So-
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11602-5 lar System, 2, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-
23568-8
[34] Garnkle, Robert A. (1997), Star-Hopping: Your Visa to
Viewing the Universe, Cambridge University Press, ISBN [48] Upgren, Arthur R. (1998), Night Has a Thousand Eyes: A
0-521-59889-3 Naked-Eye Guide to the Sky, Its Science, and Lore, Basic
Books, ISBN 0-306-45790-3
[35] Cochran, A. L. (1981), Spectrophotometry with a self-
scanned silicon photodiode array. II Secondary standard
[49] Mengel, J. G.; et al. (1979), Stellar evolu-
stars, Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 45: 83
tion from the zero-age main sequence, Astro-
96, Bibcode:1981ApJS...45...83C, doi:10.1086/190708
physical Journal Supplement Series, 40: 733791,
Bibcode:1979ApJS...40..733M, doi:10.1086/190603
[36] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1953), Fundamental stel-
From pages 769778: for stars in the range 1.75 < M <
lar photometry for standards of spectral type on the re-
2.2, 0.2 < Y < 0.3 and 0.004 < Z < 0.01, stellar models
vised system of the Yerkes spectral atlas, Astrophysical
give an age range of (0.43 1.64) 109 years between
Journal, 117: 313352, Bibcode:1953ApJ...117..313J,
a star joining the main sequence and turning o to the
doi:10.1086/145697
red giant branch. With a mass closer to 2.2, however, the
[37] Walsh, J. (2002-03-06), Alpha Lyrae (HR7001)", Op- interpolated age for Vega is less than a billion.
tical and UV Spectrophotometric Standard Stars, ESO,
archived from the original on 2007-02-09, retrieved 2007- [50] Salaris, Maurizio; et al. (2005), Evolution of Stars and
11-15ux versus wavelength for Vega. Stellar Populations, John Wiley and Sons, p. 120, ISBN
0-470-09220-3
[38] McMahon, Richard G. (2005-11-23), Notes on Vega and
magnitudes (Text), University of Cambridge, retrieved [51] Browning, Matthew; et al. (2004), Simulations
2007-11-07 of core convection in rotating A-type stars: Dier-
ential rotation and overshooting, Astrophysical Jour-
[39] Fernie, J. D. (1981), On the variability of Vega nal, 601 (1): 512529, arXiv:astro-ph/0310003 ,
, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pa- Bibcode:2004ApJ...601..512B, doi:10.1086/380198
cic, 93 (2): 333337, Bibcode:1981PASP...93..333F,
doi:10.1086/130834 [52] Padmanabhan, Thanu (2002), Theoretical Astrophysics,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-56241-4
[40] Gautschy, A.; et al. (1995), Stellar Pulsa-
tions Across The HR Diagram: Part 1, An- [53] Oke, J. B.; et al. (1970), The Absolute Spectral En-
nual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 33 ergy Distribution of Alpha Lyrae, Astrophysical Jour-
(1): 75114, Bibcode:1995ARA&A..33...75G, nal, 161: 10151023, Bibcode:1970ApJ...161.1015O,
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.33.090195.000451 doi:10.1086/150603
[41] I.A., Vasil'yev; et al. (1989-03-17), On the Variability of [54] Richmond, Michael, The Boltzmann Equation, Rochester
Vega, Commission 27 of the I.A.U, retrieved 2007-10-30 Institute of Technology, retrieved 2007-11-15
7.9. REFERENCES 75
[55] Clayton, Donald D. (1983), Principles of Stellar Evolution [69] Martinez, Peter; et al. (1998), The pulsating
and Nucleosynthesis, University of Chicago Press, ISBN lambda Bootis star HD 105759, Monthly Notices of
0-226-10953-4 the Royal Astronomical Society, 301 (4): 10991103,
Bibcode:1998MNRAS.301.1099M, doi:10.1046/j.1365-
[56] Michelson, E. (1981), The near ultraviolet stel- 8711.1998.02070.x
lar spectra of alpha Lyrae and beta Orionis,
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci- [70] Adelman, Saul J.; et al. (1990), An elemental
ety, 197: 5774, Bibcode:1981MNRAS.197...57M, abundance analysis of the supercially normal A star
doi:10.1093/mnras/197.1.57 Vega, Astrophysical Journal, Part 1, 348: 712717,
Bibcode:1990ApJ...348..712A, doi:10.1086/168279
[57] Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (1999), Coronae on solar-like
stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 318: 215230, [71] Majewski, Steven R. (2006), Stellar Motions, University
Bibcode:1997A&A...318..215S of Virginia, archived from the original on 2012-01-25, re-
trieved 2007-09-27The net proper motion is given by:
[58] Vaiana, G. S. (1980), A. K. Dupree, ed.,Stellar Coronae
- Overview of the Einstein / CFA Stellar Survey In: Cool
= 2 + 2 cos2 = 327.78 mas/y
Stars, Stellar Systems, and the Sun", SAO Special Report
(389): 195215, Bibcode:1980SAOSR.389..195V where and are the components of proper motion in
the R.A. and Declination, respectively, and is the Dec-
[59] Munro, R. H.; et al. (May 1977), Physical
lination.
properties of a polar coronal hole from 2 to 5 so-
lar radii, Astrophysical Journal, 213 (5): 87486,
[72] Barrado y Navascues, D. (1998), The Castor moving
Bibcode:1977ApJ...213..874M, doi:10.1086/155220
group. The age of Fomalhaut and VEGA, Astronomy
[60] Lignires, F.; et al. (2009), First evidence of and Astrophysics, 339: 831839, arXiv:astro-ph/9905243
a magnetic eld on Vega, Astronomy & Astro- , Bibcode:1998A&A...339..831B
physics, 500 (3): L41L44, arXiv:0903.1247 ,
[73] Moulton, Forest Ray (1906), An Introduction to Astron-
Bibcode:2009A&A...500L..41L, doi:10.1051/0004-
omy, The Macmillan company, p. 502
6361/200911996
[61] Sta (July 26, 2009), Magnetic Field On Bright Star [74] Bailer-Jones, C. A. L. (March 2015), Close encounters
Vega, Science Daily, retrieved 2009-07-30 of the stellar kind, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 575: 13,
arXiv:1412.3648 , Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..35B,
[62] Bhm, T.; et al. (May 2015), Discovery of doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425221, A35.
starspots on Vega. First spectroscopic detection of
surface structures on a normal A-type star, As- [75] Inglis, Mike (2003), Observer's Guide to Stellar Evolution:
tronomy & Astrophysics, 577: 12, arXiv:1411.7789 The Birth, Life, and Death of Stars, Springer, ISBN 1-
, Bibcode:2015A&A...577A..64B, doi:10.1051/0004- 85233-465-7
6361/201425425, A64.
[76] Harper, D. A.; et al. (1984), On the nature of the
[63] Sta (2006-01-10), Rapidly Spinning Star Vega has Cool material surrounding VEGA, Astrophysical Journal,
Dark Equator, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, Part 1, 285: 808812, Bibcode:1984ApJ...285..808H,
retrieved 2007-11-18 doi:10.1086/162559
[64] Adelman, Saul J. (July 813, 2004),The physical proper- [77] Robertson, H. P. (April 1937), Dynamical eects
ties of normal A stars, The A-Star Puzzle (PDF), Poprad, of radiation in the solar system, Monthly Notices of
Slovakia: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111, re- the Royal Astronomical Society, Royal Astronomical So-
trieved 2007-11-22 ciety, 97: 423438, Bibcode:1937MNRAS..97..423R,
doi:10.1093/mnras/97.6.423
[65] Quirrenbach, Andreas (2007), Seeing the Sur-
faces of Stars, Science, 317 (5836): 325326, [78] Dent, W. R. F.; et al. (2000), Models of the dust
doi:10.1126/science.1145599, PMID 17641185 structures around Vega-excess stars, Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 314 (4): 702712,
[66] Antia, H. M.; et al. (2006), Determining Solar Abun-
Bibcode:2000MNRAS.314..702D, doi:10.1046/j.1365-
dances Using Helioseismology, The Astrophysical Jour-
8711.2000.03331.x
nal, 644 (2): 12921298, arXiv:astro-ph/0603001 ,
Bibcode:2006astro.ph..3001A, doi:10.1086/503707 [79] Ciardi, David R.; et al. (2001), On The Near-
Infrared Size of Vega, The Astrophysical Jour-
[67] Renson, P.; et al. (1990), Catalogue of Lambda Boo-
tis Candidates, Bulletin d'Information Centre Donnees nal, 559 (1): 237244, arXiv:astro-ph/0105561 ,
Stellaires, 38: 137149, Bibcode:1990BICDS..38..137R Bibcode:2001ApJ...559.1147C, doi:10.1086/322345
Entry for HD 172167 on p. 144.
[80] Defrre, D.; et al. (2011), Hot exozodiacal dust
[68] Qiu, H. M.; et al. (2001), The Abundance Pat- resolved around Vega with IOTA/IONIC, Astron-
terns of Sirius and Vega, The Astrophysical Jour- omy and Astrophysics, 534: A5, arXiv:1108.3698
nal, 548 (2): 77115, Bibcode:2001ApJ...548..953Q, , Bibcode:2011A&A...534A...5D, doi:10.1051/0004-
doi:10.1086/319000 6361/201117017
76 CHAPTER 7. VEGA
[81] Absil, O.; et al. (2006), Circumstellar material in the [94] Massey, Gerald (2001), Ancient Egypt: the Light of the
Vega inner system revealed by CHARA/FLUOR, As- World, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1-60206-086-
tronomy and Astrophysics, 452 (1): 237244, arXiv:astro- X, ISBN 140217442X
ph/0604260 , Bibcode:2006A&A...452..237A,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054522 [95] Olcott, William Tyler (1911), Star Lore of All Ages: A
Collection of Myths, Legends, and Facts Concerning the
[82] Girault-Rime, Marion (Summer 2006), Vega's Stardust, Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere, G.P. Putnam's
CNRS International Magazine, retrieved 2007-11-19 sons, ISBN 0-7873-1096-4
[83] Holland, Wayne S.; et al. (1998), Submillimetre [96] Houlding, Deborah (December 2005), Lyra: The Lyre,
images of dusty debris around nearby stars, Nature, Sktscript, retrieved 2007-11-04
392 (6678): 788791, Bibcode:1998Natur.392..788H,
doi:10.1038/33874 [97] Kunitzsch, Paul (1986), The Star Catalogue Com-
monly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables, Jour-
[84] Sta (1998-04-21), Astronomers discover possible new So-
nal for the History of Astronomy, 17 (49): 8998,
lar Systems in formation around the nearby stars Vega and
Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K
Fomalhaut, Joint Astronomy Centre, retrieved 2007-10-
29 [98] Houtsma, M. Th.; et al. (1987), E. J. Brill's First Ency-
[85] Wilner, D.; et al. (2002), Structure in the clopaedia of Islam, 191336, VII, E.J. Brill, p. 292
Dusty Debris around Vega, The Astrophysical Jour-
[99] Gingerich, O. (1987), Zoomorphic Astrolabes and
nal, 569 (2): L115L119, arXiv:astro-ph/0203264 , the Introduction of Arabic Star Names into Eu-
Bibcode:2002ApJ...569L.115W, doi:10.1086/340691 rope, Annals of the New York Academy of Sci-
[86] Wyatt, M. (2002), Resonant Trapping of Planetesimals ences, 500: 89104, Bibcode:1987NYASA.500...89G,
by Planet Migration: Debris Disk Clumps and Vega's doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37197.x.
Similarity to the Solar System, The Astrophysical Jour-
[100] Chaikin, Andrew L. (1990), Beatty, J. K.; Petersen, C. C.,
nal, 598 (2): 13211340, arXiv:astro-ph/0308253 , eds., The New Solar System (4th ed.), Cambridge, Eng-
Bibcode:2003ApJ...598.1321W, doi:10.1086/379064 land: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-64587-5
[87] Gilchrist, E.; et al. (2003-12-01), New evidence for Solar-
[101] Roy, Archie E.; et al. (2003), Astronomy: Principles and
like planetary system around nearby star, Royal Observa-
Practice, CRC Press, ISBN 0-7503-0917-2
tory, Edinburgh, retrieved 2007-10-30
[88] Itoh, Yoichi; et al. (2006),Coronagraphic Search for Ex- [102] Smith, S. Percy (1919), The Fatherland of the Polyne-
trasolar Planets around Eri and Vega, The Astrophysical sians Aryan and Polynesian Points of Contact, The
Journal, 652 (2): 17291733, arXiv:astro-ph/0608362 , Journal of the Polynesian Society, 28: 1820, retrieved
Bibcode:2006ApJ...652.1729I, doi:10.1086/508420 2008-08-08
[89] Pitu, V.; et al. (July 2011), High-sensitivity search [103] Wei, Liming; et al. (2005), Chinese Festivals, Chi-
for clumps in the Vega Kuiper-belt. New PdBI 1.3 nese Intercontinental Press, ISBN 7-5085-0836-X, ISBN
mm observations, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 531: 750850836X
L2, arXiv:1105.2586 , Bibcode:2011A&A...531L...2P,
[104] Kippax, John Robert (1919), The Call of the Stars: A Pop-
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116796
ular Introduction to a Knowledge of the Starry Skies with
[90] Hughes, A. Meredith; et al. (2012), Conrming the their Romance and Legend, G. P. Putnam's Sons
Primarily Smooth Structure of the Vega Debris Disk at
Millimeter Wavelengths, The Astrophysical Journal, 750 [105] Boyce, Mary (1996), A History of Zoroastrianism, volume
one: The Early Period, New York: E. J. Brill, ISBN 90-
(1), arXiv:1203.0318 , Bibcode:2012ApJ...750...82H,
04-08847-4
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/750/1/82, 82.
[91] Sibthorpe, B.; et al. (2010), The Vega debris disc: A [106] Hamacher, Duane W.; et al. (2010), An Abo-
view from Herschel, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 518, riginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of
Eta Carinae (PDF), Journal of Astronomical His-
arXiv:1005.3543 , Bibcode:2010A&A...518L.130S,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014574, L130. tory & Heritage, 13 (3): 22034, arXiv:1010.4610 ,
[92] Campbell, B.; et al. (1985), On the inclina-
tion of extra-solar planetary orbits, Publications of [107] Stanbridge, William Edward (1857), On the astron-
the Astronomical Society of the Pacic, 97: 180182, omy and mythology of the Aborigines of Victoria, Pro-
Bibcode:1985PASP...97..180C, doi:10.1086/131516 ceedings of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria, 2: 137,
Bibcode:1857PPIVT...2..137S.
[93] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895), Al Achsasi Al
Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen- [108] Vartak, P. V (May 1992), The Seminar on the mahab-
darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket haratha War, 20, pp. 7583, retrieved 2016-09-04.
, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety, 55: 429438, Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K, [109] Tyson, Donald; et al. (1993), Three Books of Occult Phi-
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429 losophy, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 0-87542-832-0
[110] Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1533), De Occulta

Philosophia, ISBN 90-04-09421-0
[111] Frommert, Hartmut, Vega, Alpha Lyrae, SEDS, retrieved

2007-11-02
[112] Sta (2005-05-20), Launch vehicles Vega, European

Space Agency, retrieved 2007-11-12
[113] Rumerman, Judy (2003), The Lockheed Vega and Its

Pilots, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission, retrieved
2007-11-12
7.10 External links

Anonymous,Vega, SolStation, The Sol Company,
retrieved 2005-11-09
Gilchrist, Eleanor; et al. (2003-12-01), New evi-
dence for Solar-like planetary system around nearby
star, Joint Astronomy Centre, retrieved 2007-11-10
Hill, Gay Yee; et al. (2005-01-10), Spitzer

Sees Dusty Aftermath of Pluto-Sized Collision,
NASA/Spitzer Space Telescope, archived from the
original on May 18, 2007, retrieved 2007-11-02
Vega on Constellation Guide
Coordinates: 18* h 36* m 56.3364* s, +38 47

01.291
Chapter 8
Rigel
For other uses, see Rigel (disambiguation). Wilhelm Schickard, and Rigel Algeuze or Algibbar by En-
glish scholar Edmund Chilmead.* [15]
Rigel, also designated Beta Orionis ( Orionis, ab- In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized
breviated Beta Ori, Ori), is generally the seventh- a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [18] to cata-
brightest star in the night sky and the brightest star in the log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's
constellation of Orionthough periodically it is outshone rst bulletin of July 2016* [19] included a table of the rst
within the constellation by the variable Betelgeuse. With two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
a visual magnitude of 0.13, it is a remote and luminous cluded Rigel for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU
star some 863 light-years distant from Earth. Catalog of Star Names.* [20]
The star as seen from Earth is actually a multiple star sys-
tem of three to ve stars, the primary star being (Rigel
A) a blue-white supergiant which is estimated to be any- 8.2 Visibility
where from 120,000 to 279,000 times as luminous as the
Sun, depending on the method used to calculate its prop-
erties. It has exhausted its core of hydrogen and swollen The apparent visual magnitude of Rigel is 0.13, mak-
out to between 79 and 115 times the Sun's radius. It ing it on average the seventh-brightest star in the celestial
pulsates quasi-periodically and is classied as an Alpha sphere excluding the Sunjust fainter than Capella. It
Cygni variable. A companion, Rigel B, is 500 times is an irregular pulsating variable with a visual range of
fainter than the supergiant Rigel A and visible only with magnitude 0.050.18. Although Rigel has the Bayer des-
a telescope. Rigel B is itself a spectroscopic binary sys- ignation beta, it is almost always brighter than Al-
tem, consisting of two main sequence blue-white stars of pha Orionis (Betelgeuse). Since 1943, the spectrum of
spectral type B9V that are estimated to be respectively this star has served as one of the stable anchor points
3.9 and 2.9 times as massive as the Sun, Rigel Bb may it- by which other stars are classied.* [21] Rigel is the third
self be a binary. Rigel B also appears to have a very close most inherently luminous rst magnitude star after Deneb
visual companion Rigel C of almost identical appearance. and Betelgeuse. Rigel has a color index (BV) of 0.03,
meaning it appears white or slightly blue-white.* [22]
Culminating at midnight on 12 December, and at 9 pm
on 24 January, Rigel is most visible in winter evenings
8.1 Nomenclature in the northern hemisphere and summer in the south-
ern.* [23] In the southern hemisphere, Rigel is the rst
Beta Orionis is the star's Bayer designation. The tradi- bright star of Orion visible as the constellation rises.* [24]
tional name Rigel is rst recorded in the Alfonsine Ta- In stellar navigation, Rigel is one of the most important
bles of 1252. It is derived from the Arabic name Rijl navigation stars, since it is bright, easily located and equa-
Jauzah al Yusr, the left leg (foot) of Jauzah(i.e. rijl torial, which means it is visible all around the world's
meaning leg, foot),* [15] which can be traced to the oceans (the exception, areas within 8 of the North Pole).
10th century.* [16] Jauzahwas a proper name of the
Orion gure, an alternative Arabic name was
ril al-abbr, the foot of the great one, which is 8.2.1 Parallax
the source of the rarely used variant names Algebar or
Elgebar. The Alphonsine Tables saw its name split into The revised 2007 Hipparcos reduction of Rigel's parallax
Rigeland Algebar, with the note, et dicitur Al- gives a distance of 863 light-years (265 parsecs), with a
gebar. Nominatur etiam Rigel.* [17] Alternate spellings margin of error of about 9%.* [1] Earlier spectroscopic
from the 17th century include Regel by Italian astronomer estimates placed its distance between 360 and 500
Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Riglon by German astronomer parsecs (1,200 and 1,600 light-years).* [25]* [26]
78
8.4. PROPERTIES 79
8.3 System
Rigel has been known as a visual double star since at least
1822, when it was measured by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm
von Struve.* [27] The companion is not particularly faint
at magnitude 6.7, and with a separation of 9.5 arcsec both
components are resolvable in most amateur astronomers'
telescopes.* [27] However, the large dierence in bright-
ness makes it a challenging target for telescope aper-
tures smaller than 15.0 cm (5.9 in).* [28] At Rigel's es-
timated distance, Rigel B's projected separation from its
primary is over 2200 AU. Since its discovery, there has
been no sign of orbital movement, although both stars
share similar common proper motion.* [27]* [29] The pair
would have a minimum orbital period of around 18,000
years.* [9]
Since the 19th century, Rigel B has been reported to be
resolved into a close binary of two equal components,
with the measured separation varying from less than 0.1
to nearly 0.2. Speckle interferometry showed in 2009 Rigel's place at top center on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
two almost identical components separated by 0.124
.* [30] Both stars have apparent visual magnitudes of 7.6
with a likely orbital period of 63 years.* [9] Rigel A is a blue supergiant that has exhausted burning
the hydrogen fuel in its core and left the main sequence,
Rigel Bb may itself be a spectroscopic binary system,
expanding and brightening as it progresses across the
consisting of two main sequence stars that orbit each
HertzsprungRussell diagram. Przybilla estimated that
other every 9.86 days. The stars both belong to the spec-
it has lost around 3 solar masses since beginning life as a
tral class B9. These two stars do not appear to make up
star of 24 3 solar masses 7 to 9 million years ago.* [6] It
the visual binary components of B or C, so the B sub-
will become a red supergiant and eventually end its stel-
system might be a triple star, although the true arrange-
* lar life by exploding as a type II supernova, in the process
ment of them is unclear. [31]
inging out material that will serve to seed future genera-
A 15.4 magnitude star at 44.6 arcsec in north position tions of stars.* [8] It is one of the closest known potential
angle of 1 is catalogued as component D in the system supernova progenitors to Earth.* [13]
although it is unclear whether it is physically related or a
Rigel's variability is complex and is caused by stellar pul-
coincidental alignment.* [27]
sations similar to those of Deneb, the prototype of the
class of Alpha Cygni pulsating stars. The radial veloc-
ity variations of Rigel proves that it simultaneously oscil-
8.4 Properties lates in at least 19 non-radial modes with periods ranging
from about 1.2 to 74 days.* [13] It is notable among blue
Moravveji and colleagues calculate a luminosity for Rigel supergiant stars in the sense that while its pulsations are
A of 120,000 times that of the Sun.* [13] Its surface powered by the nuclear reactions in a hydrogen-burning
temperature is around 12,100 K. The interferometer- shell that is at least partially *
non-convective, the star also
measured angular diameter of this star, after correction burns helium in its core. [8] Rigel was identied as be-
*
for limb darkening, is 2.750.01 mas. [32] At its esti- longing to the Alpha Cygni variables in 1998 by Christof-
*
mated distance, this yields a size of about 79 times the fel Waelkens and colleagues. [34]
radius of the Sun.* [13] Norbert Przybilla and colleagues As it is both bright and moving through a region of neb-
used atmospheric modelling in 2006 to come up with a ulosity, Rigel lights up several dust clouds in its vicinity,
distance of 360 40 parsecs (1,170 130 light-years). most notably the IC 2118 (the Witch Head Nebula).* [29]
They calculated it to be around 218,000 times as lumi- Rigel is also associated with the Orion Nebula, which
nous as the Sun, and have around 213 solar masses and while more or less along the same line of sight as the star
10912 times its radius.* [6] The CMFGEN code is an at- is almost twice as far away from Earth. Despite the dif-
mosphere code used to determine the properties of mas- ference in distance, projecting Rigel's path through space
sive stars from analysing their spectrum and atmosphere. for its expected age brings it close to the nebula. As a re-
Analysis of Rigel using this method yields a luminosity sult, Rigel is sometimes classied as an outlying member
279,000 times that of the Sun, a radius 115 times that of of the Orion OB1 Association although it is considerably
the Sun and stellar wind velocity of 671,080 miles per closer than most of the members. Betelgeuse and Saiph
hour.* [33] lie at a similar distance to Rigel, although Betelgeuse is
80 CHAPTER 8. RIGEL
a runaway star with a complex history and is likely to 8.5 Etymology and cultural signif-
have originally formed in the main body of the associ-
ation.* [35] It has been listed as a member of the poorly-
icance
dened Taurus-Orion R1 Association* [36]
Rigel is presumably the star known as "Aurvandil's toe
The companions Rigel Ba, Bb, and C all appear to be
in Norse mythology.* [38]
similar B class main sequence stars of 3 - 4 M , but their
properties are not accurately known.* [9] In Chinese astronomy, Rigel is the seventh star of the
"Three Stars" asterism, (Shnxi Q ). In
Japan, the Minamoto or Genji clan had chosen Rigel
8.4.1 Space photometry and its white color as its symbol, calling the star Genji-
boshi (), while the Taira or Heike clan adopted
Betelgeuse and its red color. The two powerful fami-
lies fought a legendary war in Japanese history, the stars
seen as facing each other o and only kept apart by the
Belt.* [39]* [40]* [41] Rigel was also known as Gin-waki,
(), the Silver (Star) beside (Mitsu-boshi).
Rigel was known as Yerrerdet-kurrk to the Wotjobaluk
koori of southeastern Australia, and held to be the
mother-in-law of Totyerguil (Altair). The distance be-
tween them signied the taboo preventing a man from
approaching his mother-in-law.* [42] The indigenous
Boorong people of northwestern Victoria named Rigel
as Collowgullouric Warepil.* [43] The Wardaman people
of northern Australia know Rigel as the Red Kangaroo
Leader Unumburrgu and chief conductor of ceremonies
in a songline when Orion is high in the sky. The river
Eridanus marks a line of stars in the sky leading to it, and
the other stars of Orion are his ceremonial tools and en-
tourage. Betelgeuse is Ya-jungin Owl Eyes Flicking,
watching the ceremonies.* [44]
The Mori people named Rigel as Puanga and was said
to be a daughter of Rehua (Antares), the chief of all
stars.* [45] Its heliacal rising also presaged the appear-
ance of Matariki (the Pleiades) in the dawn sky which
marked the Mori New Year in late May or early June.
The Moriori people of the Chatham Islands, as well as
Rigel and reection nebula IC 2118 in Eridanus. Rigel B is not some Maori groups in New Zealand marked the start of
visible in the glare of the main star. their New Year with Rigel rather than the Pleiades.* [46]
Puaka was a local variant used in the South Island.* [47]
Rigel was observed with the Canadian MOST satellite for The Lacandon people knew it as tunsel little wood-
nearly 28 days in 2009. The light variations in this super- pecker.* [48]
giant star were at the milli magnitude level. The gradual
changes in the ux highlights the presence of long-period
pulsation modes in the star.* [13]
8.6 See also
8.4.2 Spectroscopy Rigel in ction
The general spectral type of Rigel as B8 is well-

established and it has been used as a dening point of
the spectral classication sequence for supergiants. How- 8.7 References
ever the details of the spectrum vary considerably ow-
ing to periodic atmospheric eruptions. The spectral lines [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
show emission, absorption, line doubling, P Cygni pro- the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
les, and inverse P Cygni proles, with no obvious peri- trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
odicity.* [37] This has resulted in classication as B8 Iab, . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
B8 Iae, or blendings by dierent authors.* [11]* [35] 6361:20078357.
8.7. REFERENCES 81
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- [13] Moravveji, Ehsan; Guinan, Edward F.; Shultz, Matt;
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system Williamson, Michael H.; Moya, Andres (March 2012).
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. Asteroseismology of the nearby SN-II Progenitor:
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. Rigel. Part I. The MOST High-precision Photome-
try and Radial Velocity Monitoring. The Astrophys-
[3] Guinan, E. F.; Eaton, J. A.; Wasatonic, R.; Stewart, H.; ical Journal. 747 (1): 108115. arXiv:1201.0843
Engle, S. G.; McCook, G. P. (2010). Times-Series . Bibcode:2012ApJ...747..108M. doi:10.1088/0004-
Photometry & Spectroscopy of the Bright Blue Super- 637X/747/2/108.
giant Rigel: Probing the Atmosphere and Interior of a SN
II Progenitor. Proceedings of the International Astro- [14] SIMBAD Astronomical Database. Results for Rigel.
nomical Union. 5: 359. Bibcode:2010HiA....15..359G. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
doi:10.1017/S1743921310009798.
[15] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963) [1899]. Star Names:
[4] DENIS Consortium (2005). VizieR Online Data Their Lore and Meaning (Reprint ed.). New York, NY:
Catalog: The DENIS database (DENIS Consor- Dover Publications Inc. pp. 31213. ISBN 0-486-21079-
tium, 2005)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/denis. 0.
Originally published in: 2005yCat.2263....0T. 1.
[16] Kunitzsch, Paul (1959). Arabische Sternnamen in Europa.
Bibcode:2005yCat....102002D.
Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 46.
[5] Sanford, Roscoe F. (1942).The Spectrographic Orbit of
[17] Kunitzsch, P. (1986). The Star Catalogue
the Companion to Rigel. Astrophysical Journal. 95: 421.
Commonly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables
Bibcode:1942ApJ....95..421S. doi:10.1086/144412.
. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 17: 89.
[6] Przybilla, N.; et al. (January 2006). Quantitative spec- Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K.
troscopy of BA-type supergiants. Astronomy and As- [18] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
trophysics. 445 (3): 10991126. arXiv:astro-ph/0509669 trieved 22 May 2016.
. Bibcode:2006A&A...445.1099P. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20053832. [19] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
[7] Nicolet, B. (1978).Photoelectric photometric Catalogue
of homogeneous measurements in the UBV System. As- [20] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 34: 149. [21] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993). Anchor Points
Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N. for the MK System of Spectral Classication. Bul-
letin of the American Astronomical Society. 25: 1319.
[8] Moravveji, Ehsan; Moya, Andres; Guinan, Edward
Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G.
F. (April 2012). Asteroseismology of the nearby
SN-II Progenitor: Rigel. Part II. -mechanism Trig- [22] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach
gering Gravity-mode Pulsations?". The Astrophysi- and Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial
cal Journal. 749 (1): 7484. arXiv:1202.1836 Research Organisation, 21 December 2004, retrieved 28
. Bibcode:2012ApJ...749...74M. doi:10.1088/0004- June 2014
637X/749/1/74.
[23] Schaaf, Fred (2008). Appendix C. The Brightest
[9] Tokovinin, A. A. (1997). MSC - a catalogue of phys- Stars. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. p. 257. ISBN 0-
ical multiple stars. Astronomy & Astrophysics Supple- 471-70410-5.
ment Series. 124: 75. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T.
[24] Ellyard, David; Tirion, Wil (2008) [1993]. The South-
doi:10.1051/aas:1997181.
ern Sky Guide (3rd ed.). Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cam-
[10] Gontcharov, G. A. (November 2006). Pulkovo bridge University Press. pp. 5859. ISBN 978-0-521-
Compilation of Radial Velocities for 35 495 Hippar- 71405-1.
cos stars in a common system. Astronomy Let- [25] Humphreys, R. M. (1978). Studies of luminous
ters. 32 (11): 759771. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G. stars in nearby galaxies. I. Supergiants and O stars in
doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065. the Milky Way. Astrophysical Journal. 38: 309.
Bibcode:1978ApJS...38..309H. doi:10.1086/190559.
[11] Shultz, M.; Wade, G. A.; Petit, V.; Grunhut, J.;
Neiner, C.; Hanes, D.; MiMeS Collaboration (2014). [26] Hoeit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991).The Bright star
An observational evaluation of magnetic connement catalogue. New Haven. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.<
in the winds of BA supergiants. Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society. 438 (2): 1114. [27] Washington Double Star Catalogue. US Naval Obser-
arXiv:1311.5116 . Bibcode:2014MNRAS.438.1114S. vatory. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2260. [28] Burnham, Robert, Jr. (1978). Burnham's Celestial Hand-
book. New York: Dover Publications. p. 1300.
[12] Przybilla, N. (2010). Mixing of CNO-cycled matter in
massive stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 517: A38. [29] Jedicke, Peter; Levy, David H. (1992). Regal Rigel
arXiv:1005.2278 . Bibcode:2010A&A...517A..38P. . The New Cosmos. Waukesha: Kalmbach Books. pp.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014164. 4853.
82 CHAPTER 8. RIGEL
[30] Mason, Brian D.; Hartkopf, William I.; Gies, Douglas R.; [45] p. 419, Mythology: Myths, Legends and Fantasies, Janet
Henry, Todd J.; Helsel, John W. (2009). The High Parker, Alice Mills, Julie Stanton, Durban, Struik Pub-
Angular Resolution Multiplicity of Massive Stars. The lishers, 2007.
Astronomical Journal. 137 (2): 3358. arXiv:0811.0492
[46] Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F. (2011). Exploring
. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.3358M. doi:10.1088/0004-
Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astron-
6256/137/2/3358.
omy. Springer. p. 341. ISBN 144197623X.
[31] Spectroscopic Binary Catalogue (SB9)". D.Pourbaix.
[47] Best, Elsdon (1922). Astronomical Knowledge of the
Retrieved 13 March 2016.
Maori: Genuine and Empirical. Wellington, New
[32] Aufdenberg, J. P.; et al. (2008). Limb Darken- Zealand: Dominion Museum. pp. 3940.
ing: Getting Warmer. The Power of Optical/IR In-
[48] Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astron-
terferometry. Eso Astrophysics Symposia. 1 (1): 71
omy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, Texas: Uni-
82. Bibcode:2008poii.conf...71A. doi:10.1007/978-3-
versity of Texas Press. p. 39. ISBN 0292752261.
540-74256-2_8. ISBN 978-3-540-74253-1.
[33] =Chesneau, O.; Kaufer, A.; Stahl, O.; Colvinter, C.;

Spang, A.; Dessart, L.; Prinja, R.; Chini, R. (2014).The
variable stellar wind of Rigel probed at high spatial and
8.8 External links
spectral resolution. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 566: 18.
arXiv:1405.0907 . Bibcode:2014A&A...566A.125C. Media related to Rigel at Wikimedia Commons
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322894. A125.
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Image of
[34] Waelkens, C.; Aerts, C.; Kestens, E.; Grenon, M.; Eyer, L.
Rigel (29 December 2009)
(1998).Study of an unbiased sample of B stars observed
with Hipparcos: the discovery of a large amount of new
slowly pulsating B star. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Coordinates: 05* h 14* m 32.272* s, 08 12 05.91
330: 21521. Bibcode:1998A&A...330..215W.
[35] Bally, J. (2008). Overview of the Orion Com-

plex. Handbook of Star Forming Regions: 459.
arXiv:0812.0046 . Bibcode:2008hsf1.book..459B.
[36] Racine, R. (1968). Stars in reection nebulae. Astro-

nomical Journal. 73: 233. Bibcode:1968AJ.....73..233R.
doi:10.1086/110624.
[37] Rother, Sara (2009). A time series study of Rigel, a

B8Ia supergiant.
[38] Richard Cleasby, An Icelandic-English Dictionary,

Clarendon Press, 1874, s.v. auvandils-t.
[39] Steve Renshaw & Saori Ihara (October 1999).

Yowatashi Boshi; Stars that Pass in the Night. Grif-
th Observer. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
[40] "Daijirin" p. 815 ISBN 978-4-385-13902-9
[41] Hei Nojiri Shin seiza jyunreip. 19 ISBN 978-4-12-

204128-8

legends to the present day. London: HarperCollins. p.
142. ISBN 978-1-85538-306-7.

& Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
[44] Harney, Bill Yidumduma; Cairns, Hugh C. (2004) [2003].

Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Merimbula, New South
Wales: Hugh C. Cairns. pp. 13940. ISBN 0-9750908-
0-1.
Chapter 9
Procyon
This article is about the star. For the genus of raccoons, of 0.407. The plane of their orbit is inclined at an an-
see Procyon (genus). For other uses, see Procyon gle of 31.1 to the line of sight with the Earth.* [10] The
(disambiguation). average separation of the two components is 15.0 AU, a
little less than the distance between Uranus and the Sun,
Procyon (BrE /prosi.n/; [12] PRO-see-on), also des- though the eccentric orbit
* carries them as close as 8.9 AU
and as far as 21.0 AU.* [17]
ignated Alpha Canis Minoris ( Canis Minoris, ab-
breviated Alpha CMi, CMi), is the brightest star in
the constellation of Canis Minor. To the naked eye, it ap- 9.2.1 Primary star
pears to be a single star, the eighth-brightest in the night
sky with a visual apparent magnitude of 0.34.* [3] It is a The primary has a stellar classication of F5IVV, indi-
binary star system, consisting of a white main-sequence cating that it is a late-stage F-type main-sequence star.
star of spectral type F5 IVV, named Procyon A, and a Procyon A is bright for its spectral class, suggesting that
faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DQZ,* [5] it is evolving into a subgiant that has nearly fused its core
named Procyon B. hydrogen into helium, after which it will expand asburn-
As determined by the European Space Agency Hipparcos ingmoves outside the core.* [3] As it continues to ex-
astrometry satellite,* [1]* [13] it lies at a distance of just pand, the star will eventually swell to about 80 to 150
11.46 light-years (3.51 parsecs),* [2] and is therefore one times its current diameter and become a red or orange
of Earth's nearest stellar neighbours. Its closest neighbor- color. This will probably happen within 10 to 100 mil-
ing star is Luyten's Star, about 1.12 ly (0.34 pc) away, lion years.* [18]
and the latter would appear as a visual magnitude 2.7 The eective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is
star in the night sky of a hypothetical planet orbiting Pro- an estimated 6,530 K,* [3] giving Procyon A a white
cyon.* [14] hue. It is 1.5 times the solar mass (M ), twice the
solar radius (R ), and has 6.9 times the Sun's luminos-
ity (L ).* [3]* [19] Both the core and the envelope of this
9.1 Visibility star are convective; the two regions being separated by a
wide radiation zone.* [7]
Procyon is the eighth-brightest star in the night sky,
culminating at midnight on January 14.* [15] It forms one
Oscillations
of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle asterism, in
*
combination with Sirius and Betelgeuse. [16] The prime
In late June 2004, Canada's orbital MOST satellite tele-
period for evening viewing of Procyon is in late win-
* scope carried out a 32-day survey of Procyon A. The con-
ter. [15]
tinuous optical monitoring was intended to conrm solar-
It has a color index of 0.42, and its hue has been described like oscillations in its brightness observed from Earth
as having a faint yellow tinge to it.* [16] and to permit asteroseismology. No oscillations were de-
tected and the authors concluded that the theory of stel-
lar oscillations may need to be reconsidered.* [20] How-
9.2 System ever, others argued that the non-detection was consistent
with published ground-based radial velocity observations
* *
Procyon is a binary star system with a bright primary of solar-like oscillations. [21] [22]
component, Procyon A, having an apparent magnitude Photometric measurements from the NASA Wide Field
of 0.34,* [3] and a faint companion, Procyon B, at magni- Infrared Explorer (WIRE) satellite from 1999 and 2000
tude 10.7.* [4] The pair orbit each other with a period of showed evidence of granulation (convection near the sur-
40.82 years along an elliptical orbit with an eccentricity face of the star) and solar-like oscillations.* [23] Unlike
83
84 CHAPTER 9. PROCYON
the MOST result, the variation seen in the WIRE pho- Procyon B which was located about 5north of Procyon
tometry was in agreement with radial velocity measure- A (about 9from the X-ray source location).* [28]
ments from the ground.
9.3 Etymology and cultural signif-

icance
Canis Minoris (Latinised to Alpha Canis Minoris) is the
Procyon orbit star's Bayer designation.
The name Procyon comes from the Ancient Greek -
(Prokyon), meaningbefore the dog, since it pre-
9.2.2 White dwarf companion cedes the Dog StarSirius as it travels across the sky
due to Earth's rotation. (Although Procyon has a greater
Like Sirius B, Procyon's companion is a white dwarf that right ascension, it also has a more northerly declination,
was inferred from astrometric data long before it was ob- which means it will rise above the horizon earlier than Sir-
served. Its existence had been postulated by Friedrich ius from most northerly latitudes.) In Greek mythology,
Bessel as early as 1844, and, although its orbital elements Procyon is associated with Maera, a hound belonging to
had been calculated by Arthur Auwers in 1862 as part Erigone, daughter of Icarius of Athens.* [30] In 2016, the
of his thesis,* [24] Procyon B was not visually conrmed International Astronomical Union organized a Working
until 1896 when John Martin Schaeberle observed it at Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [31] to catalog and stan-
the predicted position using the 36-inch refractor at Lick dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
Observatory.* [25] It is more dicult to observe from of July 2016* [32] included a table of the rst two batches
Earth than Sirius B, due to a greater apparent magni- of names approved by the WGSN; which included Pro-
tude dierence and smaller angular separation from its cyon for this star.
primary.* [17] The two dog stars are referred to in the most ancient lit-
At 0.6 M , Procyon B is considerably less massive than erature and were venerated by the Babylonians and the
Sirius B; however, the peculiarities of degenerate mat- Egyptians, In Babylonian mythology, Procyon was known
ter ensure that it is larger than its more famous neighbor, as Nangar (the Carpenter), an aspect of Marduk,* involved
with an estimated radius of 8,600 km, versus 5,800 km in constructing and organising the celestial sky. [33]
for Sirius B.* [5]* [26] The radius agrees with white dwarf The constellations in Macedonian folklore represented
models that assume a carbon core.* [5] It has a stellar clas- agricultural items and animals, reecting their village way
sication of DQZ,* [5] having a helium-dominated atmo- of life. To them, Procyon and Sirius were Volci the
sphere with traces of heavy elements. For reasons that wolves, circling hungrily around Orion which depicted
remain unclear, the mass of Procyon B is unusually low a plough with oxen.* [34]
for a white dwarf star of its type.* [7] With a surface tem-
Rarer names are the Latin translation of Procyon, Ante-
perature of 7,740 K, it is also much cooler than Sirius
canis, and the Arabic-derived names Al Shira and Elgo-
B; this is a testament to its lesser mass and greater age.
maisa. Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Eu-
The mass of the progenitor star for Procyon B was about
rope used a variant of this, Algomeiza/Algomeyza.* [35] Al
2.59+0.22
Shira derives from a-ira a-amiyah,the
0.18 M and it came to the end of its life some
Syrian sign(the other sign being Sirius;Syriais sup-
1.190.11 Gyr ago, after a main-sequence lifetime of
posedly a reference to its northern location relative to Sir-
680170 Myr.* [7]
ius); Elgomaisa. derives from al-ghumaisathe
bleary-eyed (woman)", in contrast to the teary-eyed
9.2.3 X-ray emission (woman)", which is Sirius. (See Gomeisa.) At the same
time this name is synonymous with the Turkish name
Attempts to detect X-ray emission from Procyon with Rumeysa, and it is a commonly used name in Turkey.
nonimaging, soft X-raysensitive detectors prior to 1975 The modern Arabic name for Procyon is ghum.
failed.* [27]* [27] Extensive observations of Procyon were It is known as (Mandarin nnhsn, the Third
carried out with the Copernicus and TD-1A satellites in Star in the South of the River) in Chinese, and it is part
the late 1970s.* [28] The X-ray source associated with of the Vermilion Bird.
Procyon A/B was observed on April 1, 1979, with the The Hawaiians saw Procyon as part of an asterism Ke ka o
Einstein Observatory high-resolution imager (HRI).* [29] Makali'ithe
( canoe bailer of Makali'i) that helped them
The HRI X-ray pointlike source location is ~4south of navigate at sea. Called Puanablossom, it formed this
Procyon A, on the edge of the 90% condence error cir- asterism with Capella, Sirius, Castor, and Pollux.* [36] In
cle, indicating identication with Procyon A rather than Tahitian lore, Procyon was one of the pillars propping up
9.5. REFERENCES 85
the sky, known as An-tahu'a-vahine-o-toa-te-manava ( Brigette; Kletskin, Ilona; Krist, John E.; Royle, Pa-
star-the-priestess-of-brave-heart), the pillar for elocu- tricia; Zubrowski, Richard. A. (February 2000), A
tion.* [37] The Maori knew the star as Puangahori.* [38] Search for Faint Companions to Nearby Stars Using the
Wide Field Planetary Camera 2, The Astronomical
Procyon appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the Journal, 119 (2): 906922, Bibcode:2000aj....119..906s,
state of Amazonas.* [39] The Kalapalo people of Mato doi:10.1086/301227
Grosso state in Brazil called Procyon and Canopus Ko-
fongo Duck, with Castor and Pollux representing his [5] Provencal, J. L.; et al. (2002), Procyon B: Outside the
hands. The asterism's appearance signied the coming of Iron Box, The Astrophysical Journal, 568 (1): 324334,
Bibcode:2002ApJ...568..324P, doi:10.1086/338769
the rainy season and increase in food staple manioc, used
at feasts to feed guests.* [40] [6] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
Known as Sikuliarsiujuittuq to the Inuit, Procyon was
(Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
quite signicant in their astronomy and mythology. Its
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1:
eponymous name means the one who never goes onto 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
the newly formed sea-ice", and refers to a man who stole
food from his village's hunters because he was too obese [7] Liebert, James; et al. (May 2013), The Age and
to hunt on ice. He was killed by the other hunters who Stellar Parameters of the Procyon Binary System, The
convinced him to go on the sea ice. Procyon received Astrophysical Journal, 769 (1): 10, arXiv:1305.0587
this designation because it typically appears red (though , Bibcode:2013ApJ...769....7L, doi:10.1088/0004-
sometimes slightly greenish) as it rises during the Arctic 637X/769/1/7, 7
winter; this red color was associated with Sikuliarsiujuit- [8] Koncewicz, R.; Jordan, C. (January 2007),OI line emis-
tuq's bloody end.* [41] sion in cool stars: calculations using partial redistribu-
tion, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
374 (1): 220231, Bibcode:2007MNRAS.374..220K,
9.4 See also doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11130.x
[9] Giammichele, N.; Bergeron, P.; Dufour, P. (April

List of brightest stars 2012), Know Your Neighborhood: A Detailed
Model Atmosphere Analysis of Nearby White Dwarfs
List of nearest stars , The Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 199 (2):
29, arXiv:1202.5581 , Bibcode:2012ApJS..199...29G,
Procyon in astrology
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/199/2/29 Age is for the white
Procyon in ction dwarf stage.
[10] Girard, T. M.; et al. (May 2000), A Redetermina-

Gliese 86
tion of the Mass of Procyon, The Astronomical Jour-
nal, 119 (5): 24282436, Bibcode:2000AJ....119.2428G,
doi:10.1086/301353
9.5 References [11] PROCYON AB -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD,
Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, re-
[1] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, trieved 2011-11-23
J.; et al. (July 1997), The Hipparcos Cata-
logue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 323: L49L52, [12] Procyon. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
public library membership required.)
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and [13] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of History's
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , Greatest Star Map, The Making of History's Greatest
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- Star Map:, AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg: Springer-
6361:20078357 Verlag, Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P, doi:10.1007/978-
3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[3] Kervella, P.; et al. (January 2004), The diameter
[14] Annotations on LHS 33 object, SIMBAD, Centre de
and evolutionary state of Procyon A. Multi-technique
Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2010-
modeling using asteroseismic and interferomet-
04-21
ric constraints, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
413 (1): 251256, arXiv:astro-ph/0309148 , [15] Schaaf, Fred (2008), The Brightest Stars: Discover-
Bibcode:2004A&A...413..251K, doi:10.1051/0004- ing the Universe through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars
6361:20031527 , The Astrophysical Journal, John Wiley & Sons, 113:
257, Bibcode:1951ApJ...113....1S, doi:10.1086/145373,
[4] Schroeder, Daniel J.; Golimowski, David A.; Brukardt, ISBN 047024917X, retrieved 2014-12-28
Ryan A.; Burrows, Christopher J.; Caldwell, John
J.; Fastie, William G.; Ford, Holland C.; Hesman, [16] Schaaf 2008, p. 166.
86 CHAPTER 9. PROCYON
[17] Kaler, James B.,Procyon, Stars, University of Illinois, [32] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
retrieved 2011-11-23 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[18] Schaaf 2008, p. 168. [33] Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F.; Aveni, A.F. (2011).
Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural
[19] Gatewood, G.; Han, I. (February 2006), An As- Astronomy. New York, New York: Springer. p. 217.
trometric Study of Procyon, Astronomical Journal, ISBN 144197623X.
131 (2): 10151021, Bibcode:2006AJ....131.1015G,
doi:10.1086/498894 [34] Cenev, Gjore. Macedonian Folk Constellations. Pub-
lications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade. 85:
[20] Matthews, Jaymie M.; et al. (2004), No stellar p-mode 97109. Bibcode:2008POBeo..85...97C.
oscillations in space-based photometry of Procyon, Na-
ture, 430 (921): 513, Bibcode:2004Natur.430...51M, [35] Gingerich, O. (1987). Zoomorphic Astrolabes
doi:10.1038/nature02671, PMID 15229593 and the Introduction of Arabic Star Names into Eu-
[21] Bouchy, Franois; et al. (2004), Brief Commu- ences. 500: 89104. Bibcode:1987NYASA.500...89G.
nications Arising: Oscillations on the star Procyon doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37197.x.
, Nature, 432 (7015): 2, arXiv:astro-ph/0510303 ,
[36] Brosch, Noah (2008). Sirius Matters. Springer. p. 46.
Bibcode:2004Natur.432....2B, doi:10.1038/nature03165,
ISBN 1-4020-8318-1.
PMID 15568216
[22] Bedding, T. R.; et al. (2005), The non-detection of
Heavenly Bodies. The Journal of the Polynesian Society.
oscillations in Procyon by MOST: Is it really a surprise?",
16 (2): 10104. JSTOR 20700813.
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 432 (2): L43, arXiv:astro-
ph/0501662 , Bibcode:2005A&A...432L..43B, [38] Best, Elsdon (1922). Astronomical Knowledge of the
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500019 Maori: Genuine and Empirical. Wellington, New
Zealand: Dominion Museum. p. 33.
[23] Bruntt, H.; et al. (2005), Evidence for Granu-
lation and Oscillations in Procyon from Photometry [39] MacDonald, Ian (August 9, 2009), Astronomy of the
with the WIRE Satellite, The Astrophysical Jour- Brazilian Flag, FOTW Flags Of The World website, re-
nal, 633 (1): 440446, arXiv:astro-ph/0504469 , trieved 2011-11-23
Bibcode:2005ApJ...633..440B, doi:10.1086/462401 [40] Basso, Ellen B. (1987). In Favor of Deceit: A Study of
[24] Auwers, Arthur (1868), Untersuchungen uber verander- Tricksters in an Amazonian Society. Tucson, Arizona:
liche eigenbewegungen (in German), Leipzig: W. Engel- University of Arizona Press. p. 360. ISBN 0816510229.
mann, Bibcode:1868uuve.book.....A [41] MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy,
star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT:
[25] Burnham Jr., Robert (1978), Burnham's Celestial Hand-
Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp.
book, 1, New York: Dover Publications Inc., p. 450,
72, 23133. ISBN 9780888544278.
ISBN 0-486-23567-X
[26] Holberg, J. B.; et al. (1998-04-20), Sirius B: A

New, More Accurate View, The Astrophysical Jour- 9.6 Sources
nal, 497 (2): 935942, Bibcode:1998ApJ...497..935H,
doi:10.1086/305489
Strand, K. Aa. (January 1951), The Orbit and
[27] Mewe, R.; et al. (December 1, 1975), De- Parallax of Procyon, Astrophysical Journal, 113: 1,
tection of X-ray emission from stellar coronae with Bibcode:1951ApJ...113....1S, doi:10.1086/145373
ANS, Astrophysical Journal Letters, 202: L67L71,
Bibcode:1975ApJ...202L..67M, doi:10.1086/181983 Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discov-
ering the Universe through the Sky's Most Brilliant
[28] Schmitt, J. H. M. M.; et al. (January 15, 1985), Stars. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
The X-ray corona of Procyon, Astrophysical Journal, ISBN 978-0-471-70410-2.
Part 1, 288: 751755, Bibcode:1985ApJ...288..751S,
doi:10.1086/162843
Coordinates: 07* h 39* m 18.1* s, +05 13 29
[29] Giacconi, R.; et al. (1979), The Einstein /HEAO 2/ X-
ray Observatory, Astrophysical Journal, 230: 540550,
Bibcode:1979ApJ...230..540G, doi:10.1086/157110
[30] Wendy Doniger, eds. (1999), Erigone, Merriam-

Webster's encyclopedia of world religions, Merriam-
Webster, p. 333, ISBN 0-87779-044-2

Chapter 10
Betelgeuse
Not to be confused with Beetlejuice. 10.1 Nomenclature

For other uses, see Betelgeuse (disambiguation).
Orionis (Latinised to Alpha Orionis) is the star's Bayer
* * * designation. The traditional name Betelgeuse is derived
Coordinates: 05 h 55 m 10.3053 s, +07 24
from the Arabic Ib al-Jauz, meaning the
25.426
axilla of Orion, or Yad al-Jauz, mean-
Betelgeuse, also designated Alpha Orionis ( Orionis, ing the hand of Orion(see below). In 2016, the
abbreviated Alpha Ori, Ori), is the ninth-brightest star International Astronomical Union organized a Working
in the night sky and second-brightest in the constellation Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and stan-
of Orion. Distinctly reddish, it is a semiregular variable dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
star whose apparent magnitude varies between 0.0 and of July 2016* [17] included a table of the rst two batches
1.3, the widest range of any rst-magnitude star. Betel- of names approved by the WGSN; which included Betel-
geuse is one of three stars that make up the Winter Tri- geuse for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog
angle asterism, and it marks the center of the Winter of Star Names.* [18]
Hexagon. It would be the brightest star in the night sky if
the human eye could view all wavelengths of radiation.
Classied as a red supergiant of spectral type M1-2, the 10.2 Observational history
star is one of the largest and most luminous stars visible
to the naked eye. If Betelgeuse were at the center of the
Betelgeuse and its red coloration have been noted since
Solar System, its surface would extend past the asteroid
antiquity; the classical astronomer Ptolemy described its
belt, wholly engulng the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth
color as (hypkirrhos), a term that was later
and Mars. Calculations of its mass range from slightly
described by a translator of Ulugh Beg's Zij-i Sultani as
under ten to a little over twenty times that of the Sun. It is
rubedo, Latin for ruddiness.* [19]* [20] In the nine-
calculated to be 640 light-years away, yielding an absolute
teenth century, before modern systems of stellar classi-
magnitude of about 6. Less than 10 million years old,
cation, Angelo Secchi included Betelgeuse as one of the
Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its high mass.
prototypes for his Class III (orange to red) stars.* [21]
Having been ejected from its birthplace in the Orion OB1
By contrast, three centuries before Ptolemy, Chinese as-
Associationwhich includes the stars in Orion's Belt
tronomers observed Betelgeuse as having a yellow col-
this runaway star has been observed moving through the
oration, suggesting that the star may have spent time as a
interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km/s, creating a bow
yellow supergiant around the beginning of the common
shock over 4 light-years wide. Currently in a late stage of
era,* [22] a possibility given current research into the
stellar evolution, the supergiant is expected to explode as
complex circumstellar environment of these stars.* [23]
a supernova within the next million years.
In 1920, Betelgeuse became the rst extrasolar star to
have the angular size of its photosphere measured. Subse- 10.2.1 Nascent discoveries
quent studies have reported an angular diameter (appar-
ent size) ranging from 0.042 to 0.056 arcseconds, with The variation in Betelgeuse's brightness was rst de-
the dierences ascribed to the non-sphericity, limb dark- scribed in 1836 by Sir John Herschel, when he pub-
ening, pulsations, and varying appearance at dierent lished his observations in Outlines of Astronomy. From
wavelengths. It is also surrounded by a complex, asym- 1836 to 1840, he noticed signicant changes in magni-
metric envelope roughly 250 times the size of the star, tude when Betelgeuse outshone Rigel in October 1837
caused by mass loss from the star itself. The angular di- and again in November 1839.* [24] A 10-year quiescent
ameter of Betelgeuse is only exceeded by R Doradus (and period followed; then in 1849, Herschel noted another
the Sun). short cycle of variability, which peaked in 1852. Later
87
88 CHAPTER 10. BETELGEUSE
some of the nest images of solar granules and sunspots

ever seen, thus conrming the existence of convection in
the solar atmosphere.* [30]
10.2.2 Imaging breakthroughs
Sir John Herschel in 1867
observers recorded unusually high maxima with an inter- 1988/9 UV HST images of Betelgeuse showing asymmetrical pul-
val of years, but only small variations from 1957 to 1967. sations with corresponding spectral line proles
The records of the American Association of Variable Star
Observers (AAVSO) show a maximum brightness of 0.2 Astronomers in the 1970s saw some major advances in
in 1933 and 1942, and a minimum of 1.2, observed in astronomical imaging technology beginning with Antoine
1927 and 1941.* [25]* [26] This variability in brightness Labeyrie's invention of speckle interferometry, a process
may explain why Johann Bayer, with the publication of that signicantly reduced the blurring eect caused by
his Uranometria in 1603, designated the star alpha as it astronomical seeing. It increased the optical resolution of
may have rivaled the usually brighter Rigel (beta).* [27] ground-based telescopes, allowing for more precise mea-
From Arctic latitudes, Betelgeuse's red colour and higher surements of Betelgeuse's photosphere.* [32]* [33] With
location in the sky than Rigel meant the Inuit regarded it improvements in infrared telescopy atop Mount Wilson,
as brighter, and one local name was Ulluriajjuaq large Mount Locke and Mauna Kea in Hawaii, astrophysicists
star.* [28] began peering into the complex circumstellar shells sur-
rounding the supergiant,* [34]* [35]* [36] causing them to
In 1920, Albert Michelson and Francis Pease mounted suspect the presence of huge gas bubbles resulting from
a 6-meter interferometer on the front of the 2.5-meter convection.* [37] But it was not until the late 1980s and
telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. Helped by John early 1990s, when Betelgeuse became a regular target for
Anderson, the trio measured the angular diameter of aperture masking interferometry, that breakthroughs oc-
Betelgeuse at 0.047", a gure which resulted in a diameter curred in visible-light and infrared imaging. Pioneered by
of 3.84 108 km (2.58 AU) based on the parallax value John E. Baldwin and colleagues of the Cavendish Astro-
of 0.018".* [29] However, limb darkening and measure- physics Group, the new technique employed a small mask
ment errors resulted in uncertainty about the accuracy of with several holes in the telescope pupil plane, converting
these measurements. the aperture into an ad-hoc interferometric array.* [38]
The 1950s and 1960s saw two developments that would The technique contributed some of the most accurate
impact stellar convection theory in red supergiants: the measurements of Betelgeuse while revealing bright spots
Stratoscope projects and the 1958 publication of Structure on the star's photosphere.* [39]* [40]* [41] These were the
and Evolution of the Stars, principally the work of Martin rst optical and infrared images of a stellar disk other
Schwarzschild and his colleague at Princeton University, than the Sun, taken rst from ground-based interferome-
Richard Hrm.* [30]* [31] This book disseminated ideas ters and later from higher-resolution observations of the
on how to apply computer technologies to create stellar COAST telescope. Thebright patchesorhotspots
models, while the Stratoscope projects, by taking balloon- observed with these instruments appeared to corrobo-
borne telescopes above the Earth's turbulence, produced rate a theory put forth by Schwarzschild decades earlier
10.3. VISIBILITY 89
of massive convection cells dominating the stellar sur- 10.3 Visibility

face.* [42]* [43]
In 1995, the Hubble Space Telescope's Faint Object
Camera captured an ultraviolet image with a resolution
superior to that obtained by ground-based interferome-
tersthe rst conventional-telescope image (ordirect-
imagein NASA terminology) of the disk of another
star.* [44] Because ultraviolet light is absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, observations at these wavelengths are
best performed by space telescopes.* [45] Like earlier pic-
tures, this image contained a bright patch indicating a re-
gion in the southwestern quadrant 2000 K hotter than
the stellar surface.* [46] Subsequent ultraviolet spectra
taken with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph
suggested that the hot spot was one of Betelgeuse's poles
of rotation. This would give the rotational axis an inclina-
tion of about 20 to the direction of Earth, and a position
angle from celestial North of about 55.* [47]
10.2.3 Recent studies
In a study published in December 2000, the star's diam-

eter was measured with the Infrared Spatial Interferom-
eter (ISI) at mid-infrared wavelengths producing a limb-
darkened estimate of 55.2 0.5 milliarcseconds (mas)
a gure entirely consistent with Michelson's ndings
eighty years earlier.* [29]* [48] At the time of its publica-
tion, the estimated parallax from the Hipparcos mission
was 7.63 1.64 mas, yielding an estimated radius for
Betelgeuse of 3.6 AU. However, numerous interferomet- Image showing Betelgeuse and the dense nebulae of the Orion
ric studies in the near-infrared made at the Paranal Ob- Molecular Cloud Complex (Rogelio Bernal Andreo)
servatory in Chile argue for much tighter diameters. On
9 June 2009, it was announced that the star had shrunk by In the night sky, Betelgeuse is easy to spot with the
15% since 1993 at an increasing rate without a signicant naked eye owing to its distinctive orange-red color. In
diminution in magnitude.* [49]* [50] Subsequent observa- the Northern Hemisphere, beginning in January of each
year, it can be seen rising in the east just after sunset. By
tions suggest that the apparent contraction may be due to
shell activity in the star's extended atmosphere.* [51] mid-September to mid-March (best in mid-December), it
is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe,
In addition to the star's diameter, questions have arisen except for a few research stations in Antarctica at latitudes
about the complex dynamics of Betelgeuse's extended south of 82. In May (moderate northern latitudes) or
atmosphere. The mass that makes up galaxies is recy- June (southern latitudes), the red supergiant can be seen
cled as stars are formed and destroyed, and red super- briey on the western horizon after sunset, reappearing
giants are major contributors, yet the process by which again a few months later on the eastern horizon before
mass is lost remain a mystery.* [52] With advances in in- sunrise. In the intermediate period (JuneJuly) it is in-
terferometric methodologies, astronomers may be close visible to the naked eye (visible only with a telescope in
to resolving this conundrum. In July 2009, images re- daylight), unless around midday (when the Sun is below
leased by the European Southern Observatory, taken by horizon) on Antarctic regions between 70 and 80 south
the ground-based Very Large Telescope Interferometer latitude.
(VLTI), showed a vast plume of gas extending 30 AU
from the star into the surrounding atmosphere.* [15] This Betelgeuse is a variable star whose brightness ranges be-
mass ejection was equal to the distance between the Sun tween 0.0 and 1.3. There are periods when it will surpass
and Neptune and is one of multiple events occurring in Procyon to become the seventh brightest star, and occa-
Betelgeuse's surrounding atmosphere. Astronomers have sionally even brighter. At its faintest Betelgeuse can fall
identied at least six shells surrounding Betelgeuse. Solv- behind Deneb and Mimosa, themselves both slightly vari-
ing the mystery of mass loss in the late stages of a star's able, to be the 20th brightest star.
evolution may reveal those factors that precipitate the ex- Betelgeuse has a color index (BV) of 1.85 a gure
plosive deaths of these stellar giants.* [49] which points to its advancedredness. The photosphere
has an extended atmosphere, which displays strong lines

of emission rather than absorption, a phenomenon that
occurs when a star is surrounded by a thick gaseous enve-
lope (rather than ionized). This extended gaseous atmo-
sphere has been observed moving away from and towards
Betelgeuse, depending on radial velocity uctuations in
the photosphere. Betelgeuse is the brightest near-infrared
source in the sky with a J band magnitude of 2.99.* [53]
As a result, only about 13% of the star's radiant energy is
emitted in the form of visible light. If human eyes were
sensitive to radiation at all wavelengths, Betelgeuse would
appear as the brightest star in the sky.* [26]
10.3.1 Star system NRAO's Very Large Array used to derive Betelgeuse's 2008 dis-
tance estimate
Various catalogues list up to nine faint visual compan-
ions to Betelgeuse. They are at distances of about one
to four arc-minutes and all are fainter than 10th magni- and mass.* [9] In 1920, when the rst interferometric
tude.* [54]* [55] Betelgeuse is generally considered to be studies were performed on the star's diameter, the as-
a single isolated star and a runaway star, not currently assumed parallax was 0.0180 arcseconds. This equated to
sociated with any cluster or star-forming region, although a distance of 56 parsecs (pc) or roughly 180 light-years
its birthplace is unclear.* [56] (ly), producing not only an inaccurate radius for the star
Two spectroscopic companions have been proposed to but every other stellar characteristic. Since then, there
the red supergiant star. Analysis of polarization data from has been ongoing work to measure the distance of Betel-
1968 through 1983 indicated a close companion with a geuse, with proposed distances as high as 400 pc or about
periodic orbit of about 2.1 years. Using speckle inter- 1300 ly.* [9]
ferometry, the team concluded that the closer of the two Before the publication of the Hipparcos Catalogue
companions was located at 0.060.01 (~9 AU) from (1997), there were two conicting parallax measurements
the main star with a position angle (PA) of 273 degrees, for Betelgeuse. The rst, in 1991, gave a parallax of =
an orbit that would potentially place it within the star's 9.8 4.7 mas, yielding a distance of roughly 102 pc or
chromosphere. The more distant companion was esti- 330 ly.* [62] The second was the Hipparcos Input Cat-
mated at 0.510.01 (~77 AU) with a PA of 278 de- alogue (1993) with a trigonometric parallax of = 5
grees.* [57]* [58] Further studies have found no evidence 4 mas, a distance of 200 pc or 650 ly.* [63] Given this
for these companions or have actively refuted their exis- uncertainty, researchers were adopting a wide range of
tence,* [59] but the possibility of a close companion con- distance estimates, leading to signicant variances in the
tributing to the overall ux has never been fully ruled calculation of the star's attributes.* [9]
out.* [60] High resolution interferometry of Betelgeuse
and its vicinity, far beyond the technology of the 1980s The results from the Hipparcos mission were released in
and 90s, have not detected any companions.* [15]* [61] 1997. The measured parallax of Betelgeuse was = 7.63
1.64 mas, which equated to a distance of 131 pc or
roughly 430 ly, and had a smaller reported error than pre-
10.3.2 Distance measurements vious measurements.* [64] However, later evaluation of
the Hipparcos parallax measurements for variable stars
Parallax is the apparent change of the position of an ob- like Betelgeuse found that the uncertainty of these mea-
ject, measured in seconds of arc, caused by the change surements had been underestimated.* [65] In 2007, an im-
of position of the observer of that object. As the Earth proved gure of = 6.550.83 was calculated, hence a
orbits the Sun, every star is seen to shift by a fraction of much tighter error factor yielding a distance of roughly
an arc second, which measure, combined with the base- 15220 pc or 52073 ly.* [3]
line provided by the Earth's orbit gives the distance to In 2008, using the Very Large Array (VLA), produced
that star. Since the rst successful parallax measurement a radio solution of = 5.071.10 mas, equalling a dis-
by Friedrich Bessel in 1838, astronomers have been puz- tance of 19745 pc or 643146 ly.* [9] As the researcher,
zled by Betelgeuse's apparent distance. Knowledge of the Harper, points out: The revised Hipparcos parallax
star's distance improves the accuracy of other stellar pa- leads to a larger distance (15220 pc) than the original;
rameters, such as luminosity that, when combined with however, the astrometric solution still requires a signif-
an angular diameter, can be used to calculate the physical icant cosmic noise of 2.4 mas. Given these results it is
radius and eective temperature; luminosity and isotopic clear that the Hipparcos data still contain systematic er-
abundances can also be used to estimate the stellar age rors of unknown origin.Although the radio data also
10.3. VISIBILITY 91
have systematic errors, the Harper solution combines the the star.* [60]* [61] One theory to explain long secondary
datasets in the hope of mitigating such errors.* [9] The periods is that they are caused by the evolution of such
European Space Agency's current Gaia mission may not cells combined with the rotation of the star.* [67] Other
improve over the measurements of Betelgeuse by the ear- theories include close binary interactions, chromospheric
lier Hipparcos mission as Betelgeuse is brighter than the magnetic activity inuencing mass loss, or non-radial pul-
approximately V=6 saturation limit of the mission's in- sations such as g-modes.* [70]
struments.* [66] In addition to the discrete dominant periods, small-
amplitude stochastic variations are seen. It is proposed
that this is due to granulation, similar to the same eect
10.3.3 Variability on the sun but on a much larger scale.* [67]
10.3.4 Diameter
See also: List of largest stars
On 13 December 1920, Betelgeuse became the rst star

outside the Solar System to have the angular size of
its photosphere measured.* [29] Although interferometry
was still in its infancy, the experiment proved a success.
The researchers, using a uniform disk model, determined
that Betelgeuse had a diameter of 0.047 arcseconds, al-
though the stellar disk was likely 17% larger due to the
AAVSO V-band light curve of Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis) from limb darkening, resulting in an estimate for its angular
Dec 1988 to Aug 2002
diameter of about 0.055.* [29]* [50] Since then, other
studies have produced angular diameters that range from
Betelgeuse is classied as a semiregular variable star, in- 0.042 to 0.069 arcseconds.* [33]* [48]* [71] Combining
dicating that some periodicity is noticeable in the bright- these data with historical distance estimates of 180 to 815
ness changes, but amplitudes may vary, cycles may have ly yields a projected radius of the stellar disk of anywhere
dierent lengths, and there may be standstills or peri- from 1.2 to 8.9 AU.* [note 1] Using the Solar System for
ods of irregularity. It is placed in subgroup SRc; these comparison, the orbit of Mars is about 1.5 AU, Ceres
are pulsating red supergiants with amplitudes around one in the asteroid belt 2.7 AU, Jupiter 5.5 AUso, assum-
magnitude and periods from tens to hundreds of days.* [6] ing Betelgeuse occupying the place of the Sun, its pho-
Betelgeuse typically shows only small brightness changes tosphere might extend beyond the Jovian orbit, not quite
near to magnitude +0.5, although at its extremes it can reaching Saturn at 9.5 AU.
become as bright as magnitude 0.0 or as faint as mag- The precise diameter has been hard to dene for several
nitude +1.3. Betelgeuse is listed in the General Cata- reasons:
logue of Variable Stars with a possible period of 2,335
days.* [6] More detailed analyses have shown a main pe-
riod near 400 days and a longer secondary period around 1. Betelgeuse is a pulsating star, so its diameter changes
* *
2,100 days. [61] [67] with time;
Radial pulsations of red supergiants are well-modelled 2. The star has no denable edgeas limb darken-
and show that periods of a few hundred days are typically ing causes the optical emissions to vary in color and
due to fundamental and rst overtone pulsation.* [68] decrease the farther one extends out from the center;
Lines in the spectrum of Betelgeuse show doppler shifts
indicating radial velocity changes corresponding, very 3. Betelgeuse is surrounded by a circumstellar envelope
roughly, to the brightness changes. This demonstrates composed of matter ejected from the starmatter
the nature of the pulsations in size, although correspond- which absorbs and emits lightmaking it dicult
ing temperature and spectral variations are not clearly to dene the photosphere of the star;* [49]
seen.* [69] Variations in the diameter of Betelgeuse have 4. Measurements can be taken at varying wavelengths
also been measured directly.* [51] within the electromagnetic spectrum and the dif-
The source of the long secondary periods is unknown, ference in reported diameters can be as much as
but they certainly aren't due to radial pulsations.* [67] 3035%, yet comparing one nding with another
Interferometric observations of Betelgeuse have shown is dicult as the star's apparent size diers de-
hotspots that are thought to be created by massive con- pending on the wavelength used.* [49] Studies have
vection cells, a signicant fraction of the diameter of shown that the measured angular diameter is con-
the star and each emitting 5-10% of the total light of siderably larger at ultraviolet wavelengths, decreases
ible, near-infrared (NIR) or mid-infrared (MIR)pro-

duces the most accurate angular measurement is still de-
bated.* [note 1] In 1996, Betelgeuse was shown to have a
uniform disk of 56.6 1.0 mas. In 2000, the SSL team
produced another measure of 54.7 0.3 mas, ignoring
any possible contribution from hotspots, which are less
noticeable in the mid-infrared.* [48] Also included was a
theoretical allowance for limb darkening, yielding a di-
ameter of 55.2 0.5 mas. The earlier estimate equates
to a radius of roughly 5.6 AU or 1200 R , assuming
the 2008 Harper distance of 197.0 45 pc,* [12] a g-
ure roughly the size of the Jovian orbit of 5.5 AU, pub-
lished in 2009 in Astronomy Magazine and a year later in
NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day.* [81]* [82]
A team of astronomers working in the near-infrared an-
nounced in 2004, that the more accurate photospheric
measurement was 43.33 0.04 mas.* [72] The study also
put forth an explanation as to why varying wavelengths
from the visible to mid-infrared produce dierent diam-
eters: the star is seen through a thick, warm extended
atmosphere. At short wavelengths (the visible spectrum)
Radio image from 1998 (pre-Harper) showing the size of Betel-
the atmosphere scatters light, thus slightly increasing the
geuse's photosphere (circle) and the eect of convective forces on star's diameter. At near-infrared wavelengths (K and L
the star's atmosphere bands), the scattering is negligible, so the classical pho-
tosphere can be directly seen; in the mid-infrared the scat-
tering increases once more, causing the thermal emission
through the visible to a minimum in the near- of the warm atmosphere to increase the apparent diame-
infrared, and increase again in the mid-infrared ter.* [72]
spectrum;* [44]* [72]* [73]
5. Atmospheric twinkling limits the resolution obtain-
able from ground-based telescopes since turbulence
degrades angular resolution.* [39]
To overcome these challenges, researchers have em-

ployed various solutions. Astronomical interferome-
try, rst conceived by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1868, was
the seminal concept that has enabled major improve-
ments in modern telescopy and led to the creation of
the Michelson interferometer in the 1880s, and the rst
successful measurement of Betelgeuse.* [74] Just as hu-
man depth perception increases when two eyes instead
of one perceive an object, Fizeau proposed the obser-
vation of stars through two apertures instead of one
to obtain interferences that would furnish information
on the star's spatial intensity distribution. The sci-
ence evolved quickly and multiple-aperture interferom-
Infrared image of Betelgeuse, Meissa and Bellatrix with sur-
eters are now used to capture speckled images, which rounding nebulae
are synthesized using Fourier analysis to produce a por-
trait of high resolution.* [75] It was this methodology that
Studies with the IOTA and VLTI published in 2009
identied the hotspots on Betelgeuse in the 1990s.* [76]
brought strong support to Perrin's analysis and yielded di-
Other technological breakthroughs include adaptive op-
ameters ranging from 42.57 to 44.28 mas with compara-
tics,* [77] space observatories like Hipparcos, Hubble and
tively insignicant margins of error.* [60]* [83] In 2011, a
Spitzer,* [44]* [78] and the Astronomical Multi-BEam third estimate in the near-infrared corroborating the 2009
Recombiner (AMBER), which combines the beams of numbers, this time showing a limb-darkened disk diame-
three telescopes simultaneously, allowing researchers to
ter of 42.49 0.06 mas.* [84] Consequently, if one com-
achieve milliarcsecond spatial resolution.* [79]* [80]
bines the smaller Hipparcos distance from van Leeuwen
Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum the vis- of 152 20 pc with Perrin's angular measurement of
10.4. PROPERTIES 93
43.33 mas, a near-infrared photospheric estimate would fers from directly measured radii, but there are widely
equate to about 3.4 AU or 730 R .* [85] A 2014 paper used conversion factors depending on the wavelength
derives an angular diameter of 42.28 mas (equivalent to used for the angular measurements.* [90] For example, a
a 41.01 mas uniform disc) using H and K band observa- measured angular diameter of 55.6 mas corresponds to
tions made with the VLTI AMBER instrument.* [86] a Rosseland mean diameter of 56.2 mas. The Rosse-
Central to this discussion, it was announced in 2009, that land radius derived from angular measurements of the
the radius of Betelgeuse had shrunk from 1993 to 2009 by star's photosphere
*
rather than an extended envelope is
15%, with the 2008 angular measurement equal to 47.0 887 R . [11]
mas, not too far from Perrin's estimate.* [50]* [87] Unlike
most earlier papers, this study encompassed a 15-year pe-
riod at one specic wavelength. Earlier studies have typi- 10.4 Properties
cally lasted one to two years by comparison and have ex-
plored multiple wavelengths, often yielding vastly dier-
ent results. The diminution in Betelgeuse's apparent size
equates to a range of values between 56.0 0.1 mas seen
in 1993 to 47.0 0.1 mas seen in 2008a contraction
of almost 0.9 AU in 15 years. What is not fully known
is whether this observation is evidence of a rhythmic ex-
pansion and contraction of the star's photosphere as as-
tronomers have theorized, and if so, what the periodic
cycle might be, although Townes suggested that if a cycle
does exist, it is probably a few decades long.* [50] Other
possible explanations are photospheric protrusions due to
convection or a star that is not spherical but asymmetric
causing the appearance of expansion and contraction as
the star rotates on its axis.* [88] Relative sizes of the planets in the Solar System and several stars,
The debate about dierences between measurements in including Betelgeuse
the mid-infrared, which suggest a possible expansion and 1. Mercury < Mars < Venus < Earth
contraction of the star, and the near-infrared, which advo- 2. Earth < Neptune < Uranus < Saturn < Jupiter
3. Jupiter < Proxima Centauri < Sun < Sirius
cates a relatively constant photospheric diameter, remains
4. Sirius < Pollux < Arcturus < Aldebaran
to be resolved. In a paper published in 2012, the Berke-
5. Aldebaran < Rigel < Antares < Betelgeuse
ley team reported that their measurements were dom- 6. Betelgeuse < VY CMa < NML Cyg < UY Sct.
inated by the behavior of cool, optically thick material
above the stellar photosphere,indicating that the appar- Betelgeuse is a very large, luminous but cool star classi-
ent expansion and contraction may be due to activity in ed as an M1-2 Ia-ab red supergiant. The letter M
the star's outer shells and not the photosphere itself.* [51] in this designation means that it is a red star belonging
This conclusion, if further corroborated, would suggest to the M spectral class and therefore has a relatively low
an average angular diameter for Betelgeuse closer to Per- photospheric temperature; theIa-absux luminosity
rin's estimate at 43.33 arcseconds, hence a stellar radius class indicates that it is an intermediate-luminosity super-
of about 3.4 AU (730 R ) assuming the shorter Hippar- giant, with properties partway between a normal super-
cos distance of 498 73 ly in lieu of Harper's estimate at giant and a luminous supergiant. Since 1943, the spec-
643 146 ly. The Gaia spacecraft may clarify assump- trum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor
tions presently used in calculating the size of Betelgeuse's points by which other stars are classied.* [91]
stellar disk.
Uncertainty in the star's surface temperature, diameter,
Once considered as having the largest angular diameter and distance make it dicult to achieve a precise mea-
of any star in the sky after the Sun, Betelgeuse lost that surement of Betelgeuse's luminosity, but research from
distinction in 1997 when a group of astronomers mea- 2012 quotes a luminosity of around 126000 L , assum-
sured R Doradus with a diameter of 57.0 0.5 mas, al- ing a distance of 200 pc.* [92] Studies since 2001 report
though R Doradus, being much closer to Earth at about eective temperatures ranging from 3250 to 3690 K. Val-
200 ly, has a linear diameter roughly one-third that of ues outside this range have previously been reported, and
Betelgeuse.* [89] much of the variation is believed to be real, due to pulsa-
The generally reported radii of large cool stars are Rosse- tions in the atmosphere.* [11] The star is also a slow ro-
land radii, dened as the radius of the photosphere at a tator and the most recent velocity recorded was 5 km/s
specic optical depth of two thirds. This corresponds * [15] much slower than Antares which has a rotational
to the radius calculated from the eective temperature velocity of 20 km/s.* [93] The rotation period depends on
and bolometric luminosity. The Rosseland radius dif- Betelgeuse's size and orientation to Earth, but it has been
calculated to take 8.4 years to turn on its axis.* [11]
In 2004, astronomers using computer simulations specu-

lated that even if Betelgeuse is not rotating it might exhibit
large-scale magnetic activity in its extended atmosphere,
a factor where even moderately strong elds could have a
meaningful inuence over the star's dust, wind and mass-
loss properties.* [94] A series of spectropolarimetric ob-
servations obtained in 2010 with the Bernard Lyot Tele-
scope at Pic du Midi Observatory revealed the presence
of a weak magnetic eld at the surface of Betelgeuse, sug-
gesting that the giant convective motions of supergiant
stars are able to trigger the onset of a small-scale dynamo
eect.* [95]
10.4.1 Mass
Betelgeuse has no known orbital companions, so its mass

cannot be calculated by that direct method. Modern mass
estimates from theoretical modelling have produced val-
ues from 9.5 - 21 M ,* [10] with values ranging from 5
M to 30 M from older studies.* [96] It has been cal-
culated that Betelgeuse began its life as a star of 15 20
M , based on a solar luminosity of 90000150000.* [12]
A novel method of determining the supergiant's mass was
proposed in 2011, arguing for a current stellar mass of
11.6 M with an upper limit of 16.6 and lower of 7.7
M , based on observations of the star's intensity prole
from narrow H-band interferometry and using a photo- Orion OB1 Association
spheric measurement of roughly 4.3 AU or 955 R .* [10]
Model tting to evolutionary tracks give a current mass
*
of 19.4 19.7 M , from an initial mass of 20 M .* [11] 1012 million years ago, [100] but has evolved rapidly
*
due to its high mass. [9]
Like many young stars in Orion whose mass is greater
10.4.2 Motion than 10 M , Betelgeuse will use its fuel quickly and not
live long. On the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, Betel-
The kinematics of Betelgeuse are complex. The age geuse has moved o the main sequence and has swelled
of Class M supergiants with an initial mass of 20 M and cooled to become a red supergiant. Although young,
is roughly 10 million years.* [9]* [97] Starting from its Betelgeuse has exhausted the hydrogen in its core, causing
present position and motion a projection back in time the core to contract under the force of gravity into a hotter
would place Betelgeuse around 290 parsecs farther from and denser state. As a result, it has begun to fuse helium
the galactic planean implausible location, as there is no into carbon and oxygen and has ignited a hydrogen shell
star formation region there. Moreover, Betelgeuse's pro- outside the core. The hydrogen-burning shell and the con-
jected pathway does not appear to intersect with the 25 tracting core cause the outer envelope to expand and cool.
Ori subassociation or the far younger Orion Nebula Clus- Its mass is such that the star will eventually fuse higher el-
ter (ONC, also known as Ori OB1d), particularly since ements through neon, magnesium, and silicon all the way
Very Long Baseline Array astrometry yields a distance to iron, at which point it will collapse and explode, prob-
from Betelgeuse to the ONC of between 389 and 414 ably as a type II supernova.* [101]* [102]
parsecs. Consequently, it is likely that Betelgeuse has
not always had its current motion through space but has
changed course at one time or another, possibly the result 10.4.3 Density
of a nearby stellar explosion.* [9]* [98] An observation by
the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2013 revealed As an early M-type supergiant, Betelgeuse is one of the
that the star's winds are crashing against the surrounding largest, most luminous and yet one of the most ethereal
interstellar medium.* [99] stars known. A radius of 5.5 AU is roughly 1180 times
The most likely star-formation scenario for Betelgeuse is the radius of the Sunable to contain over 2 quadrillion
that it is a runaway star from the Orion OB1 Associa- Earths (2.15 1015 ) or more than 1.6 billion (1.65 109 )
tion. Originally a member of a high-mass multiple system Suns. That is the equivalent of Betelgeuse being a football
within Ori OB1a, Betelgeuse was probably formed about stadium like Wembley Stadium in London with the Earth
10.4. PROPERTIES 95
a tiny pearl, 1 millimeter in diameter, orbiting a Sun the extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipi-
size of a mango.* [note 2] Moreover, observations from tate their dramatic nale as a type II supernova.* [85] In
2009 of Betelgeuse exhibiting a 15% contraction in an- 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03
gular diameter would equate to a reduction of the star's M every 10000 years,* [105] but research since 2009
radius from about 5.5 to 4.6 AU, assuming that the photo- has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any
sphere is a perfect sphere. A reduction of this magnitude total gure for Betelgeuse uncertain.* [106] Current ob-
would correspond to a diminution in photospheric vol- servations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a
ume of about 41%.* [note 3] Not only is the photosphere portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross
enormous, but the star is surrounded by a complex cir- back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a
cumstellar environment where light could take over three brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue
years to escape.* [103] In the outer reaches of the photo- supergiant or Wolf-Rayet star.* [23]
sphere the density is extremely low, yet the total mass of
the star is believed to be no more than 20 M . Conse-
quently, the average density is less than twelve parts per
billion (1.11910* 8) that of the Sun. Such star matter is
so tenuous that Betelgeuse has often been called a red-
hot vacuum.* [25]* [26]
10.4.4 Circumstellar dynamics
Image from ESO's Very Large Telescope showing the stellar disk Artist's rendering from ESO showing Betelgeuse with a gigantic
and an extended atmosphere with a previously unknown plume bubble boiling on its surface and a radiant plume of gas being
of surrounding gas ejected to at least six photospheric radii or roughly the orbit of
Neptune
In the late phase of stellar evolution, massive stars like
Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss, possibly as Astronomers may be close to solving this mystery. They
much as 1 M every 10000 years, resulting in a complex noticed a large plume of gas extending at least six times
circumstellar environment that is constantly in ux. In a its stellar radius indicating that Betelgeuse is not shedding
2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as thekey to un- matter evenly in all directions.* [15] The plume's presence
derstanding the evolution of the universe from the earli- implies that the spherical symmetry of the star's photo-
est cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet sphere, often observed in the infrared, is not preserved in
formation and the formation of life itself.* [104] How- its close environment. Asymmetries on the stellar disk
ever, the physical mechanism is not well understood.* [85] had been reported at dierent wavelengths. However,
When Schwarzschild rst proposed his theory of huge due to the rened capabilities of the NACO adaptive op-
convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass tics on the VLT, these asymmetries have come into fo-
loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse.* [43] Recent cus. The two mechanisms that could cause such asym-
work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still metrical mass loss, were large-scale convection cells or
uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the polar mass loss, possibly due to rotation.* [15] Probing
mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their deeper with ESO's AMBER, gas in the supergiant's ex-
tended atmosphere has been observed vigorously moving

up and down, creating bubbles as large as the supergiant
itself, leading his team to conclude that such stellar up-
heaval is behind the massive plume ejection observed by
Kervella.* [106]
Asymmetric shells
In addition to the photosphere, six other components of

Betelgeuse's atmosphere have now been identied. They
are a molecular environment otherwise known as the
MOLsphere, a gaseous envelope, a chromosphere, a dust
environment and two outer shells (S1 and S2) composed
of carbon monoxide (CO). Some of these elements are Interior view of one of the four 8.2-meter Unit Telescopes at
known to be asymmetric while others overlap.* [60] ESO's VLT
sphere. This alters our basic understanding of red-

supergiant star atmospheres, explained Jeremy Lim,
the team's leader. Instead of the star's atmosphere ex-
panding uniformly due to gas heated to high tempera-
tures near its surface, it now appears that several giant
convection cells propel gas from the star's surface into
its atmosphere.* [109] This is the same region in which
Kervella's 2009 nding of a bright plume, possibly con-
taining carbon and nitrogen and extending at least six
photospheric radii in the southwest direction of the star,
is believed to exist.* [60]
The chromosphere was directly imaged by the Faint Ob-
Exterior view of ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Paranal, ject Camera on board the Hubble Space Telescope in ul-
Chile traviolet wavelengths. The images also revealed a bright
area in the southwest quadrant of the disk.* [111] The
At about 0.45 stellar radii (~23 AU) above the pho- average radius of the chromosphere in 1996 was about
tosphere, there may lie a molecular layer known as the 2.2 times the optical disk (~10 AU) and was reported to
MOLsphere or molecular environment. Studies show have a temperature no higher than 5500 K.* [60]* [112]
it to be composed of water vapor and carbon monox- However, in 2004 observations with the STIS, Hub-
ide with an eective temperature of about 1500500
ble's high-precision spectrometer, pointed to the exis-
K.* [60]* [107] Water vapor had been originally detected tence of warm chromospheric plasma at least one arc-
in the supergiant's spectrum in the 1960s with the two
second away from the star. At a distance of 197 pc, the
Stratoscope projects but had been ignored for decades. size of the chromosphere could be up to 200 AU.* [111]
The MOLsphere may also contain SiO and Al2 O3
The observations have conclusively demonstrated that the
molecules which could explain the formation of dust par- warm chromospheric plasma spatially overlaps and coex-
ticles.
ists with cool gas in Betelgeuse's gaseous envelope as well
The asymmetric gaseous envelope, another cooler region, as with the dust in its circumstellar dust shells (see be-
extends for several radii (~1040 AU) from the photo- low).* [60]* [111]
sphere. It is enriched in oxygen and especially in nitrogen The rst claim of a dust shell surrounding Betelgeuse was
relative to carbon. These composition anomalies are put forth in 1977 when it was noted that dust shells around
likely caused by contamination by CNO-processed ma- mature stars often emit large amounts of radiation in ex-
terial from the inside of Betelgeuse.* [60]* [108] cess of the photospheric contribution. Using heterodyne
Radio-telescope images taken in 1998 conrm that Betel- interferometry, it was concluded that the red supergiant
geuse has a highly complex atmosphere,* [109] with a emits most of its excess radiation from positions beyond
temperature of 3450850 K, similar to that recorded on 12 stellar radii or roughly the distance of the Kuiper belt
the star's surface but much lower than surrounding gas at 50 to 60 AU, which depends on the assumed stellar ra-
in the same region.* [109]* [110] The VLA images also dius.* [34]* [60] Since then, there have been studies done
show this lower-temperature gas progressively cools as it of this dust envelope at varying wavelengths yielding de-
extends outward. Although unexpected, it turns out to cidedly dierent results. Studies from the 1990s have es-
be the most abundant constituent of Betelgeuse's atmo- timated the inner radius of the dust shell anywhere from
10.5. EVOLUTION 97
surrounding the star, thereby making it visible in infrared

light.* [119] Because Betelgeuse is so bright, it was only in
1997 that the bow shock was rst imaged. The cometary
structure is estimated to be at least 1 parsec wide, assum-
ing a distance of 643 light-years.* [120]
Hydrodynamic simulations of the bow shock made in
2012 indicate that it is very youngless than 30000 years
oldsuggesting two possibilities: that Betelgeuse moved
into a region of the interstellar medium with dierent
properties only recently or that Betelgeuse has undergone
a signicant transformation producing a changed stel-
lar wind.* [121] A 2012 paper, proposed that this phe-
nomenon was caused by Betelgeuse transitioning from a
blue supergiant (BSG) to a red supergiant (RSG). There
is evidence that in the late evolutionary stage of a star
like Betelgeuse, such stars may undergo rapid transi-
tions from red to blue and vice versa on the Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram, with accompanying rapid changes to
This infrared image from the ESO's VLT shows complex shells of their stellar winds and bow shocks.* [117]* [122] More-
gas and dust around Betelgeuse - the tiny red circle in the middle over, if future research bears out this hypothesis, Betel-
is the size of the photosphere. geuse may prove to have traveled close to 200000 AU as
a red supergiant scattering as much as 3 M along its tra-
jectory.
0.5 to 1.0 arcseconds, or 100 to 200 AU.* [113]* [114]
These studies point out that the dust environment sur-
rounding Betelgeuse is not static. In 1994, it was re-
ported that Betelgeuse undergoes sporadic decades long 10.5 Evolution
dust production, followed by inactivity. In 1997, signif-
icant changes in the dust shell's morphology in one year
were noted, suggesting that the shell is asymmetrically il-
luminated by a stellar radiation eld strongly aected by
the existence of photospheric hotspots.* [113] The 1984
report of a giant asymmetric dust shell 1 pc (206265 AU)
has not been corroborated by recent studies, although an-
other published the same year said that three dust shells
were found extending four light-years from one side of the
decaying star, suggesting that Betelgeuse sheds its outer
layers as it moves.* [103]* [115]
Although the exact size of the two outer CO shells re-
mains elusive, preliminary estimates suggest that one shell
extends from about 1.5 to 4.0 arcseconds and the other
expands as far as 7.0 arcseconds.* [116] Assuming the Jo-
vian orbit of 5.5 AU as the star radius, the inner shell
would extend roughly 50 to 150 stellar radii (~300 to 800
AU) with the outer one as far as 250 stellar radii (~1400
AU). The Sun's heliopause is estimated at about 100 AU,
so the size of this outer shell would be almost fourteen
times the size of the Solar System.
HertzsprungRussell diagram identifying supergiants like Betel-
geuse that have moved o the main sequence
Supersonic bow shock
Betelgeuse is travelling supersonically through the inter- Betelgeuse is a red supergiant that has evolved from an
stellar medium at a speed of 30 km per second (i.e. ~6.3 O-type main sequence star. Its core will eventually col-
AU per year) creating a bow shock.* [117]* [118] The lapse, producing a supernova explosion and leaving be-
shock is not created by the star, but by its powerful stellar hind a compact remnant. The details depend on the exact
wind as it ejects vast amounts of gas into the interstel- initial mass and other physical properties of that main se-
lar medium at a speed of 17 km/s, heating the material quence star.
10.5.1 So far
The initial mass of Betelgeuse can only be estimated by

testing dierent stellar evolutionary models to match its
current observed properties. The unknowns of both the
models and the current properties mean that there is con-
siderable uncertainty in Betelgeuse's initial appearance,
but its mass is usually estimated to have been in the range
of 10-25 M , with modern models nding values of 15-
20 M . Its chemical makeup can be reasonably assumed Celestia depiction of Orion as it might appear from Earth when
to have been around 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and Betelgeuse explodes as a supernova
2.4% heavy elements, slightly more metal-rich than the
sun but otherwise similar. The initial rotation rate is more
uncertain, but models with slow to moderate initial rota- 10.5.2 Approaching supernova
tion rates produce the best matches to Betelgeuse's cur-
rent properties.* [11]* [56]* [123] That main sequence ver-
All stars more massive than about 10 M are expected to
sion of Betelgeuse would have been a hot luminous star end their lives when their core collapses, typically produc-
with a spectral type such as O9V.* [92]
ing a supernova explosion. Up to about 15 M , a type II-
A 15 M star would take between 11.5 and 15 million P supernova is always produced from the red supergiant
years to reach the red supergiant stage, with more rapidly stage.* [123] More massive stars can lose mass quickly
rotating stars taking the longest.* [123] Rapidly-rotating enough that they evolve towards higher temperatures be-
20 M stars take only 9.3 million years to reach the red fore their cores can collapse, particularly for rotating stars
supergiant stage, while 20 M stars with slow rotation and models with especially high mass loss rates. These
take only 8.1 million years.* [56] These form the best es- stars can produce type II-L or type IIb supernovae from
timates of Betelgeuse's current age, with a preferred age yellow or blue supergiants, or type Ib/c supernovae from
since the zero age main sequence of 8.0 - 8.5 million years Wolf-Rayet stars.* [124] Models of rotating 20 M stars
for a 20 M star with no rotation.* [11] predict a peculiar type II supernova similar to SN 1987A
The time spent so far as a red supergiant can be esti- from a blue supergiant progenitor.* [123] On the other
mated by comparing mass loss rates to the observed cir- hand, non-rotating 20 M models predict a type II-P su-
cumstellar material, as well as the abundances of heavy pernova from a red supergiant progenitor.* [11]
elements at the surface. Estimates range from 20,000 The time until Betelgeuse explodes depends on the pre-
years to a maximum of 140,000 years. Betelgeuse ap- dicted initial conditions and on the estimate of the time
pears to undergo short periods of heavy mass loss and is already spent as a red supergiant. The total lifetime from
a runaway star moving rapidly through space, so compar- the start of the red supergiant phase to core collapse
isons of its current mass loss to the total lost mass are varies from about 300,000 years for a rotating 25 M
dicult.* [11]* [56] The surface of Betelgeuse shows en- star, 550,000 years for a rotating 20 M star, and up to a
hancement of nitrogen, relatively low levels of carbon, million years for a non-rotating 15 M star. Given the es-
and a high proportion of 13 C relative to 12 C, all indicative
timated time since Betelgeuse became a red supergiant,
of a star that has experienced the rst dredge-up. How- estimates of its remaining lifetime range from a best
ever the rst dredge-up occurs soon after a star reaches guessof under 100,000 years for a non-rotating 20 M
the red supergiant phase and so this only means that Betel- model to far longer for rotating models or lower mass
geuse has been a red supergiant for at least a few thou- stars.* [11]* [123] Betelgeuse's suspected birthplace in the
sand years. The best prediction is that Betelgeuse has al- Orion OB1 Association is the location of several previ-
ready spent around 40,000 years as a red supergiant,* [11] ous supernovae. It is believed that runaway stars may be
having left the main sequence perhaps one million years caused by supernovae, and there is strong evidence that
ago.* [123] OB stars Columbae, AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis all orig-
The current mass can be estimated from evolutionary inated from such explosions *
in Ori OB1 2.2, 2.7 and 4.9
models from the initial mass and the expected mass lost million years ago. [98]
so far. For Betelgeuse, the total mass lost is predicted to A typical type II-P supernova emits 21046 J of neutrinos
be no more than about one M , giving a current mass and produces an explosion with a kinetic energy of
of 19.4-19.7 M , considerably higher than estimated 21044 J. As seen from Earth, it would have a peak ap-
by other means such as pulsational properties or limb- parent magnitude of about 12.4.* [11] It may outshine
darkening models.* [11] the full moon and would be easily visible in daylight.
10.6. ETHNOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES 99
This type of supernova would remain at roughly constant Meanings, American amateur naturalist Richard Hinck-
brightness for 23 months before rapidly dimming. The ley Allen stated the derivation was from the
visible light is produced mainly by the radioactive decay Ib al-Jauzah, which he claimed degenerated into a num-
of cobalt, and maintains its brightness due to the increas- ber of forms including Bed Elgueze, Beit Algueze, Bet
ing transparency of the cooling hydrogen ejected by the El-gueze, Beteigeuze and more, to the forms Betelgeuse,
supernova.* [125] Betelguese, Betelgueze and Betelgeux. The star was named
Due to misunderstandings caused by the 2009 publication Beldengeuze in the Alfonsine Tables,* [137] and Italian
of the star's 15% contraction, apparently of its outer at- Jesuit priest and astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli
had called it Bectelgeuze or Bedalgeuze.* [19] Paul Ku-
mosphere,* [49]* [81] Betelgeuse has frequently been the
subject of scare stories and rumors suggesting that it nitzsch, Professor of Arabic Studies at the University of
Munich, refuted Allen's derivation and instead proposed
will explode within a year, leading to exaggerated claims
about the consequences of such an event.* [126]* [127] that the full name is a corruption of the Arabic
Yad al-Jauz' meaning the Hand of al-Jauz'", i.e.,
The timing and prevalence of these rumors have been
linked to broader misconceptions of astronomy, partic- Orion.* [138] European mistransliteration into medieval
ularly to doomsday predictions relating to the Mayan cal- Latin led to the rst character y (, with two dots under-
endar.* [128]* [129] Betelgeuse is not likely to produce a neath) being misread as a b (, with only one dot under-
gamma-ray burst and is not close enough for its x-rays, neath). During the Renaissance, the star's name was writ-
ultraviolet radiation, or ejected material to cause signi- ten as Bait al-Jauz' (house of Orion) or
cant eects on Earth.* [11] Ba al-Jauz', incorrectly thought to meanarmpit
of Orion(a true translation of armpitwould be ,
transliterated as Ib). This led to the modern rendering as
10.5.3 Remnant Betelgeuse.* [139] Other writers have since accepted Ku-
nitzsch's explanation.* [102]
Following Betelgeuse's supernova, a small dense remnant The last part of the name, "-elgeuse, comes from the
will be left behind, either a neutron star or black hole. Arabic al-Jauz', a historical Arabic name of the
This is predicted to be a neutron star of approximately constellation Orion, a feminine name in old Arabian leg-
1.5 M .* [11] Only more massive stars, or low metallic- end, and of uncertain meaning. Because j-w-z, the
ity stars with lower mass loss, would produce a black root of jauz', meansmiddle, al-Jauz' roughly means
hole.* [124] the Central One. Later, al-Jauz' was also designated
as the scientic Arabic name for Orion and for Gemini.
The modern Arabic name for Orion is al-Jabbr (
10.6 Ethnological attributes the Giant), although the use of al-Jauz' in the
name of the star has continued.* [139] The 17th-century
10.6.1 Spelling and pronunciation English translator Edmund Chilmead gave it the name
Ied Algeuze (Orion's Hand), from Christmannus.* [19]
Betelgeuse has been known as Betelgeux,* [1] Other Arabic names recorded include Al Yad al Yamn
and in German Beteigeuze* [130] (according to (the Right Hand), Al Dhira (the Arm), and Al
Bode).* [131]* [132] Betelgeux and Betelgeuze were Mankib (the Shoulder), all appended toof the giant
used until the early 20th century, when the spelling Betel- ,* [19] as Mankib al Jauz'.
geuse became universal.* [133] There is no consensus
for the correct pronunciation of the name,* [134] and
pronunciations for the star are as varied as its spellings: 10.6.3 Other names
/btlduz/ Oxford English Dictionary* [1] and Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian *
Ban
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada the Arm , and Coptic Klariaan Armlet . [19] Bahu
was its Sanskrit name, as part of a Hindu understanding
/bitlduz/ or /bitldrz/ Oxford English Dic- of the constellation as a running antelope or stag.* [19]
tionary* [1] In traditional Chinese astronomy, Betelgeuse was known
as (Shnxis, the Fourth Star of the constellation
/bitldus/ (Canadian Oxford Dictionary, Web- of Three Stars)* [140] as the Chinese constellation
ster's Collegiate Dictionary* [2]) originally referred to the three stars in the girdle of Orion.
/btldz/ (The Friendly Stars) [135]
* This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars,
but the earlier name stuck.* [141] In Japan, the Taira or
Heike clan adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its
10.6.2 Etymology symbol, calling the star Heike-boshi, (), while the
Minamoto or Genji clan had chosen Rigel and its white
Betelgeuse is often mistranslated as armpit of the cen- color. The two powerful families fought a legendary war
tral one.* [136] In his 1899 work Star-Names and Their in Japanese history, the stars seen as facing each other o
represented by Orion's Belt.* [148]

A Sanskrit name for Betelgeuse is rdrthe moist one
, eponymous of the Ardra lunar mansion in Hindu astrol-
ogy.* [149] The Rigvedic God of storms Rudra presided
over the star; this association was linked by 19th-century
star enthusiast Richard Hinckley Allen to Orion's stormy
nature.* [19] The constellations in Macedonian folklore
represented agricultural items and animals, reecting
their village way of life. To them, Betelgeuse was Orach
the ploughman, alongside the rest of Orion which de-
picted a plough with oxen. The rising of Betelgeuse at
around 3 am in late summer and autumn signied the
time for village men to go to the elds and plough.* [150]
To the Inuit, the appearance of Betelgeuse and Bellatrix
high in the southern sky after sunset marked the begin-
ning of spring and lengthening days in late February and
early March. The two stars were known as Akuttujuuk
those (two) placed far apart, referring to the distance
Dunhuang Star Chart, circa AD 700, showing Shnxis between them, mainly to people from North Ban Island
(Betelgeuse), the Fourth Star of the constellation of Three Stars and Melville Peninsula.* [28]
The opposed locations of Orion and Scorpius, with their
and only kept apart by the Belt.* [142]* [143] corresponding bright variable red stars Betelgeuse and
Antares, were noted by ancient cultures around the world.
In Tahitian lore, Betelgeuse was one of the pillars prop-
The setting of Orion and rising of Scorpius signify the
ping up the sky, known as An-varu, the pillar to sit by.
death of Orion by the scorpion. In China they signify
It was also called Ta'urua-nui-o-MereGreat festivity in
brothers and rivals Shen and Shang.* [24] The Batak of
parental yearnings.* [144] A Hawaiian term for it was
Sumatra marked their New Year with the rst new moon
Kaulua-koko brilliant red star.* [145] The Lacandon
after the sinking of Orion's Belt below the horizon, at
people of Central America knew it as chk tulix red
which point Betelgeuse remained like the tail of a
buttery.* [146]
rooster. The positions of Betelgeuse and Antares at
opposite ends of the celestial sky were considered signif-
10.6.4 Mythology icant and their constellations were seen as a pair of scor-
pions. Scorpion days marked as nights that both constel-
With the history of astronomy intimately associated with lations could be seen.* [151]
mythology and astrology before the scientic revolution,
the red star, like the planet Mars that derives its name
from a Roman war god, has been closely associated with 10.6.5 In popular culture
the martial archetype of conquest for millennia, and by
extension, the motif of death and rebirth.* [19] Other cul- See also: Betelgeuse in ction
tures have produced dierent myths. Stephen R. Wilk
has proposed the constellation of Orion could have rep- The star's unusual name inspired the title of the 1988
resented the Greek mythological gure Pelops, who had lm Beetlejuice, and script writer Michael McDowell was
an articial shoulder of ivory made for him, with Betel- impressed by how many people made the connection.
geuse as the shoulder, its color reminiscent of the reddish He added that they had received a suggestion the se-
yellow sheen of ivory.* [24] quel be named Sanduleak-69 202 after the former star of
In the Americas, Betelgeuse signies a severed limb of SN 1987A.* [133] In August Derleth's short story The
a man-gure (Orion)the Taulipang of Brazil know the Dweller in the Darknessset in H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu
constellation as Zililkawai, a hero whose leg was cut o Mythos, Betelgeuse is the home of the benignElder
by his wife, with the variable light from Betelgeuse linked Gods.* [152] The identity of the red star Borgil mentioned
to the severing of the limb. Similarly, the Lakota people in Lord of the Rings was much debated; Aldebaran, Betel-
of North America see it as a chief whose arm has been geuse and the planet Mars were touted as candidates.
severed.* [24] The Wardaman people of northern Aus- Professor Kristine Larsen has concluded the evidence
tralia knew the star as Ya-jungin Owl Eyes Flicking points to it being Aldebaran as it precedes Menelvagor
, its variable light signifying its intermittent watching of (Orion).* [153] Astronomy writer Robert Burnham, Jr.
ceremonies led by the Red Kangaroo Leader Rigel.* [147] proposed the term padparadaschah which denotes a rare
In South African mythology, Betelgeuse was perceived as orange sapphire in India, for the star.* [133] In the popular
a lion casting a predatory gaze toward the three zebras science ction series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
10.7. NOTES 101
by Douglas Adams, Ford Prefect was froma small planet Betelgeuse (2.3351027 ) (1.4121018 )
somewhere in the vicinity of Betelgeuse.* [152] In the 1.654109 Suns,
poetic work Betelguese, a Trip Through Hell by Jean Louis Betelgeuse (2.3351027 ) (1.0831012 )
De Esque, hell is on Betelgeuse because De Esque be- 2.1561015 Earths.
lieved that it wasa celestial pariah, an outcast, the largest
of all known comets or outlawed suns in the universe. Solar volume relative to Wembley 1139100 m3
.* [154] In his 1953 story Tony and the BeetlesPhilip (1.654109 ) 109 {i.e. to convert to mm3 }
689000 mm3 (rounded up)
K. Dick describes a planet system around Betelguese and
the neighboring stars occupied by the Terra (Earth) in- Solar diameter relative to Wembley (689000
vaders. The main character incorrectly states the name mm3 (4/3))* 1/3 55.61845 2 110 mm
of the star is of Jewish origin.
Earth volume relative to Wembley 1139100 m3
Two American navy ships were named after the star, (2.1561015 ) 109 {i.e. to convert to mm3 }
both of them World War II vessels, the USS Betelgeuse 0.528 mm3
(AKA-11) launched in 1939 and USS Betelgeuse (AK- Earth diameter relative to Wembley (0.528 mm3
260) launched in 1944. In 1979, a French supertanker (4/3))* 1/3 0.501 2 1.002 mm
named Betelgeuse was moored o Whiddy Island dis-
charging oil when it exploded, killing 50 people in one Earth's orbital radius (1 AU) relative to Wembley
of the worst disasters in Ireland's history.* [155] 1 AU 5.5 AU 64.787 m = 11.8 m
The Dave Matthews Band song "Black and Blue Bird" Conclusion:
references the star.* [156]
Humbert Wolfe wrote a poem about Betelgeuse, which If the immense space of Wembley Stadium were
was set to music by Gustav Holst.* [157] Betelgeuse, the Earth would be a tiny pearl, 1.0 mm
in diameter, orbiting a Sun, 11.0 cm in diameter
(i.e. the size of an average mango or grapefruit),
with an orbital distance of about 11.8 m.
10.7 Notes
[3] Computations relating to stellar contraction
[1] The above table provides a non-exhaustive list of angu- As pointed out in the Angular anomalies section, the ob-
lar measurements conducted since 1920. Also included served contraction could be due to a shrinking of the star's
is a column providing a current range of radii for each radius or by other phenomena. Assuming the photosphere
study based on Betelgeuse's most recent distance estimate is spherical, calculating a reduction in volume begins with
(Harper et al.) of 197 45 pc. the formula for angular diameter as follows: Calculations
for 1993 values:
[2] Computations relating to Betelgeuse volume
The analogy is based on the computation of certain ratios
specically the diameter, radius and volume of the three Betelgeuse radius 0.056 arcseconds 197.0 pc
celestial bodies in question, Betelgeuse, the Sun and Earth. 11.032 AU 2 5.516 AU 149597871 km
Once these ratios are derived, the relative size of each as 825000000 km,
they relate to Wembley Stadium can be easily determined. Betelgeuse volume (4/3) 8250000003
The calculations begin with the formula for angular diam- 2.3521027 km3 .
eter as follows:
Betelgeuse diameter 0.0552 arcseconds 197.0 Calculations for 2008 values:

pc 11.000 AU (rounded up) 149597871 km
1.646109 km, Betelgeuse radius 0.047 arcseconds 197.0 pc
Betelgeuse radius 11.000 AU 2 5.500 AU 9.260 AU 2 4.630 AU 149597871 km
149597871 km 8.230108 km 823000000 km, 692500000 km,
Betelgeuse volume (4/3) 8230000003 Betelgeuse volume (4/3) 6925000003
2.3351027 km3 . 1.3911027 km3 .
Also:
Therefore:
Solar radius 696000 km. Volume 1.4121018
km3 , Betelgeuse change in volume 2.3521027 km3
Earth radius 6371.0 km. Volume 1.0831012 1.3911027 km3 9.6101026 km3
km3 . Betelgeuse percent change in volume
Wembley Bowl Volume 1139100 m3 . Spherical 9.6101026 km3 2.3521027 km3 40.86%
radius (1139100 m3 (4/3))* 1/3 64.787 m
or 64787 mm. Betelgeuse volume change as a function of So-
lar volume 9.6101026 1.4121018 km3
Therefore: 681000000 Suns.
10.8 References [12] Smith, Nathan; Hinkle, Kenneth H.; Ryde, Nils (March
2009). Red Supergiants as Potential Type IIn Super-
[1] Simpson, J.; Weiner, E., eds. (1989). Betelgeuse. nova Progenitors: Spatially Resolved 4.6 m CO Emis-
Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon sion Around VY CMa and Betelgeuse. The Astronom-
Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. ical Journal. 137 (3): 35583573. arXiv:0811.3037
. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.3558S. doi:10.1088/0004-
[2] Merriam-Webster Dictionary 6256/137/3/3558.
[3] van Leeuwen, F (November 2007).Hipparcos, the New [13] Lobel, Alex; Dupree, Andrea K. (2000). Mod-
Reduction. Astronomy and Astrophysics. VizieR: Centre eling the Variable Chromosphere of Orionis
de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. 474 (2): 653. (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 545 (1): 454
arXiv:0708.1752 . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. 74. Bibcode:2000ApJ...545..454L. doi:10.1086/317784.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
[4] Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). The [14] Ramrez, Solange V.; Sellgren, K.; Carr, John S.;
Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars Balachandran, Suchitra C.; et al. (July 2000). Stellar
. Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 71: 245. Iron Abundances at the Galactic Center (PDF). The
Bibcode:1989ApJS...71..245K. doi:10.1086/191373. Astrophysical Journal. 537 (1): 20520. arXiv:astro-
ph/0002062 . Bibcode:2000ApJ...537..205R.
[5] Nicolet, B. (1978). Catalogue of Homogeneous
doi:10.1086/309022. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
Data in the UBV Photoelectric Photometric Sys-
tem. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 34: 149. [15] Kervella, P.; Verhoelst, T.; Ridgway, S. T.; Perrin, G.; La-
Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N. cour, S.; et al. (September 2009).The Close Circumstel-
lar Environment of Betelgeuse. Adaptive Optics Spectro-
[6] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
imaging in the Near-IR with VLT/NACO. Astronomy
and Astrophysics. 504 (1): 11525. arXiv:0907.1843
(Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1. . Bibcode:2009A&A...504..115K. doi:10.1051/0004-
Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. 6361/200912521.
[7] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- [16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system trieved 22 May 2016.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. [17] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
[8] Famaey, B.; Jorissen, A.; Luri, X.; Mayor, M.; Udry,
S.; Dejonghe, H.; Turon, C. (2005). Local kinematics [18] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2
[19] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963) [1899]. Star Names:
data. Revisiting the concept of superclusters. Astron-
Their Lore and Meaning (rep. ed.). New York, NY: Dover
omy and Astrophysics. 430: 165. arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
Publications Inc. pp. 31012. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
. Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041272. [20] Stella lucida in umero dextro, quae ad rubedinem vergit.
Bright star in right shoulder, which inclines to ruddiness.
[9] Harper, Graham M.; Brown, Alexander; Guinan, Edward
F. (April 2008). A New VLA-Hipparcos Dis- [21] Brck, H. A. (1115 July 1978). M. F. McCarthy, A.
tance to Betelgeuse and its Implications (PDF). G. D. Philip, and G. V. Coyne, eds. P. Angelo Secchi, S.
The Astronomical Journal. 135 (4): 143040. J. 18181878. Spectral Classication of the Future, Pro-
Bibcode:2008AJ....135.1430H. doi:10.1088/0004- ceedings of the IAU Colloq. 47. Vatican City (published
6256/135/4/1430. Retrieved 10 July 2010. 1979). pp. 720. Bibcode:1979RA......9....7B.
[10] Neilson, H. R.; Lester, J. B.; Haubois, X. (December [22] Information, Reed Business (22 October 1981). An-
2011). Weighing Betelgeuse: Measuring the Mass of cient Chinese Suggest Betelgeuse is a Young Star. New
Orionis from Stellar Limb-darkening. Astronomi- Scientist. 92 (1276): 238.
cal Society of the Pacic. 9th Pacic Rim Conference
on Stellar Astrophysics. Proceedings of a conference [23] Levesque, E. M. (June 2010). The Physical Properties
held at Lijiang, China in 1420 April 2011. ASP Con- of Red Supergiants. Astronomical Society of the Pacic.
ference Series, Vol. 451: 117. arXiv:1109.4562 . 425 Hot and Cool: Bridging Gaps in Massive Star Evo-
Bibcode:2010ASPC..425..103L. lution ASP Conference Series: 103. arXiv:0911.4720 .
Bibcode:2010ASPC..425..103L.
[11] Dolan, Michelle M.; Mathews, Grant J.; Lam, Doan
Duc; Lan, Nguyen Quynh; Herczeg, Gregory J.; Dear- [24] Wilk, Stephen R. (1999). Further Mytholog-
born, David S. P. (2016). Evolutionary Tracks for ical Evidence for Ancient Knowledge of Variable
Betelgeuse. The Astrophysical Journal. 819: 7. Stars. The Journal of the American Associa-
arXiv:1406.3143v2 . Bibcode:2016ApJ...819....7D. tion of Variable Star Observers. 27 (2): 17174.
doi:10.3847/0004-637X/819/1/7. Bibcode:1999JAVSO..27..171W.
10.8. REFERENCES 103
[25] Davis, Kate (December 2000). Variable Star of the [37] Boesgaard, A. M.; Magnan, C. (June 1975). The cir-
Month: Alpha Orionis. American Association of Vari- cumstellar shell of alpha Orionis from a study of the Fe
able Star Observers (AAVSO). Retrieved 10 July 2010. II emission lines (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 198
(1): 369371, 373378. Bibcode:1975ApJ...198..369B.
[26] Burnham, Robert (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: doi:10.1086/153612.
An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar Sys-
tem, Volume 2. New York: Courier Dover Publications. [38] Bernat, David (2008). Aperture Masking Interferome-
p. 1290. ISBN 0-486-23568-8. try. Ask An Astronomer. Cornell University Astronomy.
Retrieved 15 October 2012.
[27] Kaler, James B. (2002). The Hundred Greatest Stars. New [39] Buscher, D. F.; Baldwin, J. E.; Warner, P. J.; Han-
York: Copernicus Books. p. 33. ISBN 0-387-95436-8. i, C. A. (1990). Detection of a bright feature
on the surface of Betelgeuse (PDF). Monthly No-
[28] MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy, tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 245: 7.
star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT: Bibcode:1990MNRAS.245P...7B.
5254, 119. ISBN 978-0-88854-427-8. [40] Wilson, R. W.; Dhillon, V. S.; Hani, C. A.
(1997). The changing face of Betelgeuse.
[29] Michelson, Albert Abraham; Pease, Francis G. (1921). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Measurement of the diameter of Alpha Orionis with 291 (4): 819. Bibcode:1997MNRAS.291..819W.
the interferometer. Astrophysical Journal. 53: 249 doi:10.1093/mnras/291.4.819.
59. Bibcode:1921ApJ....53..249M. doi:10.1086/142603. [41] Burns, D.; Baldwin, J. E.; Boysen, R. C.; Hani, C. A.;
The 0.047 arcsecond measurement was for a uniform disk. Lawson, P. R.; et al. (September 1997). The sur-
In the article Michelson notes that limb darkening would face structure and limb-darkening prole of Betelgeuse
increase the angular diameter by about 17%, hence 0.055 . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
arcseconds 290 (1): L11L16. Bibcode:1997MNRAS.290L..11B.
doi:10.1093/mnras/290.1.l11.
[30] Tenn, Joseph S. (June 2009). The Bruce Medalists.
Martin Schwarzschild 1965. Astronomical Society of the [42] Tuthill, P. G.; Hani, C. A.; Baldwin, J. E. (March
Pacic (ASP). Retrieved 28 September 2010. 1997). Hotspots on late-type supergiants.
[31] Schwarzschild, Martin (1958). Structure and Evo- 285 (3): 52939. Bibcode:1997MNRAS.285..529T.
lution of the Stars. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1093/mnras/285.3.529.
Bibcode:1958ses..book.....S. ISBN 0-486-61479-4.
[43] Schwarzschild, Martin (1975). On the Scale of
[32] Labeyrie, A. (May 1970). Attainment of Dirac- Photospheric Convection in Red Giants and Super-
tion Limited Resolution in Large Telescopes by giants. Astrophysical Journal. 195 (1): 13744.
Fourier Analysing Speckle Patterns in Star Im- Bibcode:1975ApJ...195..137S. doi:10.1086/153313.
ages (PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 6: 85. [44] Gilliland, Ronald L.; Dupree, Andrea K. (May 1996).
Bibcode:1970A&A.....6...85L. Retrieved 12 October First Image of the Surface of a Star with the Hub-
2012. ble Space Telescope (PDF). Astrophysical Journal Let-
ters. 463 (1): L29. Bibcode:1996ApJ...463L..29G.
[33] Bonneau, D.; Labeyrie, A. (1973). Speckle Interfer- doi:10.1086/310043. Retrieved 1 August 2010. The yel-
ometry: Color-Dependent Limb Darkening Evidenced low/red imageor photoof Betelgeuse commonly
on Alpha Orionis and Omicron Ceti. Astrophysi- seen is not a picture of the red supergiant, but a mathemat-
cal Journal. 181: L1. Bibcode:1973ApJ...181L...1B. ically generated image based on the photograph. The pho-
doi:10.1086/181171. tograph was of much lower resolution: The entire Betel-
geuse image t within a 10x10 pixel area on the Hubble
[34] Sutton, E. C.; Storey, J. W. V.; Betz, A. L.; Townes, C. H.; Space Telescopes Faint Object Camera. The images were
Spears, D. L. (1977).Spatial Heterodyne Interferometry oversampled by a factor of 5 with bicubic spline interpo-
of VY Canis Majoris, Alpha Orionis, Alpha Scorpii, and lation, then deconvolved.
R Leonis at 11 Microns (PDF). Astrophysical Journal
Letters. 217: L97L100. Bibcode:1977ApJ...217L..97S. [45] A. N. Cox, editor (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities.
doi:10.1086/182547. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-98746-0.
[46] Petersen, Carolyn Collins; Brandt, John C. (1998) [1995].
[35] Bernat, A. P.; Lambert, D. L. (November 1975). Hubble Vision: Further Adventures with the Hubble Space
Observations of the circumstellar gas shells around Telescope (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge
Betelgeuse and Antares (PDF). Astrophysical Jour- University Press. pp. 9192. ISBN 0-521-59291-7.
nal. 201: L153L156. Bibcode:1975ApJ...201L.153B.
doi:10.1086/181964. [47] Uitenbroek, Han; Dupree, Andrea K.; Gilliland, Ronald
L. (1998). Spatially Resolved Hubble Space Tele-
[36] Dyck, H. M.; Simon, T. (February 1975).Circumstellar scope Spectra of the Chromosphere of Orionis
dust shell models for Alpha Orionis(PDF). Astrophysical . The Astronomical Journal. 116 (5): 2501
Journal. 195: 689693. Bibcode:1975ApJ...195..689D. 12. Bibcode:1998AJ....116.2501U. doi:10.1086/300596.
doi:10.1086/153369. Retrieved 20 June 2007.
[48] Weiner, J.; Danchi, W. C.; Hale, D. D. S.; McMa- [60] Haubois, X.; Perrin, G.; Lacour, S.; Verhoelst, T.;
hon, J.; et al. (December 2000). Precision Mea- Meimon, S.; et al. (2009). Imaging the Spotty
surements of the Diameters of Orionis and Ceti Surface of Betelgeuse in the H Band. Astronomy
at 11 Microns (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. & Astrophysics. 508 (2): 92332. arXiv:0910.4167
544 (2): 10971100. Bibcode:2000ApJ...544.1097W. . Bibcode:2009A&A...508..923H. doi:10.1051/0004-
doi:10.1086/317264. Retrieved 23 June 2007. 6361/200912927.
[49] Sanders, Robert (9 June 2009). Red Giant Star Betel- [61] Montargs, M.; Kervella, P.; Perrin, G.; Chiavassa, A.; Le
geuse Mysteriously Shrinking. UC Berkeley News. UC Bouquin, J.-B.; Aurire, M.; Lpez Ariste, A.; Mathias,
Berkeley. Retrieved 18 April 2010. P.; Ridgway, S. T.; Lacour, S.; Haubois, X.; Berger, J.-P.
(2016). The close circumstellar environment of Betel-
[50] Townes, C. H.; Wishnow, E. H.; Hale, D. D. S.; Walp, B. geuse. IV. VLTI/PIONIER interferometric monitoring of
(2009). A Systematic Change with Time in the Size the photosphere. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 588: A130.
of Betelgeuse (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal Let- arXiv:1602.05108 . Bibcode:2016A&A...588A.130M.
ters. 697 (2): L12728. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697L.127T. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527028.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/2/L127.
[62] van Altena, W. F.; Lee, J. T.; Hoeit, D. (Octo-
[51] Ravi, V.; Wishnow, E.; Lockwood, S.; Townes, C. ber 1995). Yale Trigonometric Parallaxes Prelimi-
(December 2011). The Many Faces of Betelgeuse nary. Yale University Observatory (1991). 1174: 0.
. Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 448: 1025. Bibcode:1995yCat.1174....0V.
arXiv:1012.0377 . Bibcode:2011ASPC..448.1025R.
[63] Hipparcos Input Catalogue, Version 2 (Turon+ 1993)".
[52] Bernat, Andrew P. (1977).The Circumstellar Shells and VizieR. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg.
Mass Loss Rates of Four M Supergiants. Astrophysical 1993. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
Journal. 213: 75666. Bibcode:1977ApJ...213..756B. [64] Perryman, M. A. C.; et al. (1997). The Hipparcos
doi:10.1086/155205. Catalogue. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 323: L49L52.
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P.
[53] Cutri, R.; Skrutskie. M. (7 September 2009). Very
Bright Stars in the 2MASS Point Source Catalog (PSC)". [65] Eyer, L.; Grenon, M. (2000). Problems Encountered
The Two Micron All Sky Survey at IPAC. Retrieved 28 in the Hipparcos Variable Stars Analysis. Delta Scuti
December 2011. and Related Stars, Reference Handbook and Proceedings
of the 6th Vienna Workshop in Astrophysics. ASP Con-
[54] CCDM (Catalog of Components of Double & Multiple ference Series. 210: 482. arXiv:astro-ph/0002235 .
stars (Dommanget+ 2002)". VizieR. Centre de Donnes Bibcode:2000ASPC..210..482E. ISBN 1-58381-041-2.
astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
[66] Science Performance. European Space Agency. 19
[55] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William I.; February 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001). The
2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. I. [67] Kiss, L. L.; Szab, Gy. M.; Bedding, T. R.
The Washington Double Star Catalog. The Astronomical (2006). Variability in red supergiant stars: Pul-
Journal. 122 (6): 3466. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. sations, long secondary periods and convection noise
doi:10.1086/323920. . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety. 372 (4): 1721. arXiv:astro-ph/0608438 .
[56] Van Loon, J. Th. (2013). Betelgeuse and Bibcode:2006MNRAS.372.1721K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
the Red Supergiants. Betelgeuse Work- 2966.2006.10973.x.
shop 2012. Edited by P. Kervella. 60: 307.
arXiv:1303.0321 . Bibcode:2013EAS....60..307V. [68] Guo, J. H.; Li, Y. (2002). Evolution and Pul-
doi:10.1051/eas/1360036. sation of Red Supergiants at Dierent Metal-
licities. The Astrophysical Journal. 565: 559.
[57] Karovska, M.; Noyes, R. W.; Roddier, F.; Nisenson, P.; Bibcode:2002ApJ...565..559G. doi:10.1086/324295.
Stachnik, R. V. (1985).On a Possible Close Companion
[69] Goldberg, L. (1984). The variability of alpha Ori-
to Ori. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society.
onis. Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 96: 366.
17: 598. Bibcode:1985BAAS...17..598K.
Bibcode:1984PASP...96..366G. doi:10.1086/131347.
[58] Karovska, M.; Nisenson, P.; Noyes, R. (1986). On [70] Wood, P. R.; Olivier, E. A.; Kawaler, S. D. (2004).
the alpha Orionis triple system. Astrophysical Jour- Long Secondary Periods in Pulsating Asymptotic Gi-
nal. 308: 67585. Bibcode:1986ApJ...308..260K. ant Branch Stars: An Investigation of their Ori-
doi:10.1086/164497. gin. The Astrophysical Journal. 604 (2): 800.
Bibcode:2004ApJ...604..800W. doi:10.1086/382123.
[59] Wilson, R. W.; Baldwin, J. E.; Buscher, D. F.; Warner, P.
J. (1992). High-resolution imaging of Betelgeuse and [71] Balega, Iu.; Blazit, A.; Bonneau, D.; Koechlin, L.;
Mira. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Labeyrie, A.; Foy, R.. (November 1982). The angular
257 (3): 36976. Bibcode:1992MNRAS.257..369W. diameter of Betelgeuse. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
doi:10.1093/mnras/257.3.369. 115 (2): 25356. Bibcode:1982A&A...115..253B.
[72] Perrin, G.; Ridgway, S. T.; Coud du Foresto, V.; Men- [84] Ohnaka, K.; Weigelt, G.; Millour, F.; Hofmann, K.-H.;
nesson, B.; Traub, W. A.; Lacasse, M. G. (2004).Inter- Driebe, T.; Schertl, D.; Chelli, A.; Massi, F.; Petrov, R.;
ferometric Observations of the Supergiant Stars Orionis Stee, Ph. (May 2011). Imaging the Dynamical At-
and Herculis with FLUOR at IOTA. Astronomy and mosphere of the Red Supergiant Betelgeuse in the CO
Astrophysics. 418 (2): 67585. arXiv:astro-ph/0402099 First Overtone Lines with VLTI/AMBER. Astronomy
. Bibcode:2004A&A...418..675P. doi:10.1051/0004- & Astrophysics. 529, id.A163: A163. arXiv:1104.0958
6361:20040052. Assuming a distance of 197 45 pc, . Bibcode:2011A&A...529A.163O. doi:10.1051/0004-
an angular distance of 43.33 0.04 mas would equate to 6361/201016279. We derive a uniform-disk diameter of
a radius of 4.3 AU or 920 R 42.05 0.05 mas and a power-law-type limb-darkened
disk diameter of 42.49 0.06 mas and a limb-darkening
[73] Young, John (24 November 2006). Surface Imaging parameter of (9.7 0.5) 10* 2
of Betelgeuse with COAST and the WHT. Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Retrieved 21 June 2007. Images of [85] Kervella, P.; Perrin, G.; Chiavassa, A.; Ridgway,
hotspots on the surface of Betelgeuse taken at visible and S. T.; Cami, J.; Haubois, X.; Verhoelst, T. (2011).
infra-red wavelengths using high resolution ground-based The Close Circumstellar Environment of Betelgeuse.
interferometers II. Diraction-limited Spectro-imaging from 7.76 to
19.50 m with VLT/VISIR. Astronomy & Astro-
[74] Perrin, Guy; Malbet, Fabien (2003). Ob- physics. 531, id.A117: A117. arXiv:1106.5041
serving with the VLTI. EAS Publications . Bibcode:2011A&A...531A.117K. doi:10.1051/0004-
Series. 6: 3. Bibcode:2003EAS.....6D...3P. 6361/201116962.
doi:10.1051/eas/20030601.
[86] Montargs, M.; Kervella, P.; Perrin, G.; Ohnaka, K.; Chi-
[75] Nemiro, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (21 April 2012). 3 ATs avassa, A.; Ridgway, S. T.; Lacour, S. (2014). Prop-
. Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. Retrieved 17 Au- erties of the CO and H2O MOLsphere of the red super-
gust 2012. Photograph showing three of the four enclo- giant Betelgeuse from VLTI/AMBER observations. As-
sures which house 1.8 meter Auxiliary Telescopes (ATs) tronomy & Astrophysics. 572: id.A17. arXiv:1408.2994
at the Paranal Observatory in the Atacama Desert region . Bibcode:2014A&A...572A..17M. doi:10.1051/0004-
of Chile. 6361/201423538.
[76] Worden, S. (1978). Speckle Interferometry. New [87] Cowen, Ron (10 June 2009). Betelgeuse Shrinks: The
Scientist. 78: 23840. Bibcode:1978NewSc..78..238W. Red Supergiant has Lost 15 Percent of its Size. The
shrinkage corresponds to the star contracting by a distance
[77] Roddier, F. (1999). Ground-Based Interferome- equal to that between Venus and the Sun, researchers re-
try with Adaptive Optics. Working on the Fringe: ported June 9 at an American Astronomical Society meet-
Optical and IR Interferometry from Ground and ing and in the June 1 Astrophysical Journal Letters.
Space. Proceedings from ASP Conference. 194: 318.
[88] Courtland, Rachel (2009). Betelgeuse: The incredible
Bibcode:1999ASPC..194..318R. ISBN 1-58381-020-X.
Shrinking Star?". New Scientist. Reed Business Informa-
tion Ltd. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
[78] Top Five Breakthroughs From Hubble's Workhorse
Camera. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California [89] Bedding, T. R.; Zijlstra, A. A.; Von Der Luhe,
Institute of Technology. 4 May 2009. Retrieved 28 Au- O.; Robertson, J. G.; et al. (1997). The An-
gust 2007. gular Diameter of R Doradus: a Nearby Mira-
like Star. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
[79] Melnick, J.; Petrov R.; Malbet, F. (23 February 2007). nomical Society. 286 (4): 95762. arXiv:astro-
The Sky Through Three Giant Eyes, AMBER Instru-
ph/9701021 . Bibcode:1997MNRAS.286..957B.
ment on VLT Delivers a Wealth of Results. European
doi:10.1093/mnras/286.4.957.
Southern Observatory. Retrieved 29 August 2007.
[90] Dyck, H. M.; Van Belle, G. T.; Thompson, R. R.
[80] Wittkowski, M. (23 February 2007). MIDI and AM- (1998). Radii and Eective Temperatures for K and
BER from the User's Point of View (PDF). European M Giants and Supergiants. II. The Astronomical
Southern Observatory VLTI. Retrieved 29 August 2007. Journal. 116 (2): 981. Bibcode:1998AJ....116..981D.
doi:10.1086/300453.
[81] Red Giant Star Betelgeuse in the Constellation Orion is
Mysteriously Shrinking. Astronomy Magazine. 2009. [91] Garrison, R. F. (1993). Anchor Points for the
Retrieved 14 September 2012. MK System of Spectral Classication. Bulletin
of the American Astronomical Society. 25: 1319.
[82] Nemiro, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (6 January 2010). The Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G. Retrieved 4 February
Spotty Surface of Betelgeuse. Astronomy Picture of the 2012.
Day. NASA. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
[92] Le Bertre, T.; Matthews, L. D.; Grard, E.; Libert, Y.
[83] Hernandez Utrera, O.; Chelli, A (2009). Accu- (2012). Discovery of a detached H I gas shell sur-
rate Diameter Measurement of Betelgeuse Using the rounding Orionis. Monthly Notices of the Royal As-
VLTI/AMBER Instrument (PDF). Revista Mexicana tronomical Society. 422 (4): 3433. arXiv:1203.0255 .
de Astronoma y Astrofsica (Serie de Conferencias). 37: Bibcode:2012MNRAS.422.3433L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
17980. Bibcode:2009RMxAC..37..179H. 2966.2012.20853.x.
[93] Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Hoeit+, [105] Harper, Graham M.; Brown, Alexander; Lim, Jeremy
1991)". VizieR. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de (April 2001). A Spatially Resolved, Semiempirical
Strasbourg. Retrieved 7 September 2012. Model for the Extended Atmosphere of Orionis (M2
Iab)". The Astrophysical Journal. 551 (2): 107398.
[94] Dorch, S. B. F. (2004). Magnetic Activity in Late-type Bibcode:2001ApJ...551.1073H. doi:10.1086/320215.
Giant Stars: Numerical MHD Simulations of Non-linear
Dynamo Action in Betelgeuse(PDF). Astronomy & As-
[106] A. P. Ohnaka, K.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Benisty, M.; Chelli,
A.; et al. (2009). Spatially Resolving the In-
. Bibcode:2004A&A...423.1101D. doi:10.1051/0004- homogeneous Structure of the Dynamical Atmosphere
6361:20040435. of Betelgeuse with VLTI/AMBER. Astronomy &
[95] Aurire, M; Donati, J.-F.; Konstantinova-Antova, R.; Per- Astrophysics. 503 (1): 18395. arXiv:0906.4792
rin, G.; Petit, P.; Roudier, T. (2010). The Magnetic . Bibcode:2009A&A...503..183O. doi:10.1051/0004-
Field of Betelgeuse : a Local Dynamo from Giant Con- 6361/200912247.
vection Cells?". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 516: L2.
arXiv:1005.4845 . Bibcode:2010A&A...516L...2A. [107] Tsuji, T. (2000).Water on the Early M Supergiant Stars
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014925. Orionis and Cephei(PDF). The Astrophysical Jour-
nal. 538 (2): 80107. Bibcode:2000ApJ...538..801T.
[96] Posson-Brown, Jennifer; Kashyap, Vinay L.; Pease, doi:10.1086/309185.
Deron O.; Drake, Jeremy J. (2006). Dark Super-
giant: Chandra's Limits on X-rays from Betelgeuse. [108] Lambert, D. L.; Brown, J. A.; Hinkle, K. H.; Johnson,
arXiv:astro-ph/0606387 . H. R. (1984). Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen Abun-
dances in Betelgeuse. Astrophysical Journal. 284: 223
[97] Maeder, Andr; Meynet, Georges (2003). The Role 37. Bibcode:1984ApJ...284..223L. doi:10.1086/162401.
of Rotation and Mass Loss in the Evolution of Massive
Stars. Proceedings of IAU Symposium. 212: 267. [109] Dave Finley (8 April 1998). VLA ShowsBoilingin
Bibcode:2003IAUS..212..267M. Atmosphere of Betelgeuse. National Radio Astronomy
[98] Reynolds, R. J.; Ogden, P. M. (1979). Opti- Observatory. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
cal evidence for a very large, expanding shell associ-
ated with the I Orion OB association, Barnard's loop, [110] Lim, Jeremy; Carilli, Chris L.; White, Stephen M.;
and the high galactic latitude H-alpha laments in Eri- Beasley, Anthony J.; Marson, Ralph G. (1998). Large
danus. The Astrophysical Journal. 229: 942. Convection Cells as the Source of Betelgeuse's Ex-
Bibcode:1979ApJ...229..942R. doi:10.1086/157028. tended Atmosphere. Nature. 392 (6676): 57577.
Bibcode:1998Natur.392..575L. doi:10.1038/33352.
[99] Decin, L.; Cox, N. L. J.; Royer, P.; Van Marle, A. J.;
Vandenbussche, B.; Ladjal, D.; Kerschbaum, F.; Otten- [111] Lobel, A.; Aufdenberg, J.; Dupree, A. K.; Kurucz,
samer, R.; Barlow, M. J.; Blommaert, J. A. D. L.; Gomez, R. L.; Stefanik, R. P.; Torres, G. (2004). Spa-
H. L.; Groenewegen, M. A. T.; Lim, T.; Swinyard, B. tially Resolved STIS Spectroscopy of Betelgeuse's Outer
M.; Waelkens, C.; Tielens, A. G. G. M. (2012). The Atmosphere. Proceedings of the 219th symposium
enigmatic nature of the circumstellar envelope and bow of the IAU. 219: 641. arXiv:astro-ph/0312076 .
shock surrounding Betelgeuse as revealed by Herschel. Bibcode:2004IAUS..219..641L. In the article, Lobel et al.
I. Evidence of clumps, multiple arcs, and a linear bar- equate 1 arcsecond to approximately 40 stellar radii, a cal-
like structure. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 548: A113. culation which in 2004 likely assumed a Hipparcos dis-
arXiv:1212.4870 . Bibcode:2012A&A...548A.113D. tance of 131 pc (430 ly) and a photospheric diameter of
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219792. 0.0552from Weiner et al.
[100] Nemiro, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (23 October 2010).
Orion: Head to Toe. Astronomy Picture of the Day. [112] Dupree, Andrea K.; Gilliland, Ronald L. (December
NASA. Retrieved 8 October 2012. 1995). HST Direct Image of Betelgeuse. Bul-
letin of the American Astronomical Society. 27: 1328.
[101] SolStation.Betelgeuse; Release No.: 04-03. Sol Com- Bibcode:1995AAS...187.3201D. Such a major single fea-
pany. Retrieved 20 July 2010. ture is distinctly dierent from scattered smaller regions
of activity typically found on the Sun although the strong
[102] Kaler, James B.Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis)". Stars web- ultraviolet ux enhancement is characteristic of stellar
site. University of Illinois. Retrieved 19 July 2009. magnetic activity. This inhomogeneity may be caused by
[103] Baud, B.; Waters, R.; De Vries, J.; Van Albada, G. D.; a large scale convection cell or result from global pulsa-
et al. (January 1984). A Giant Asymmetric Dust Shell tions and shock structures that heat the chromosphere.
around Betelgeuse. Bulletin of the American Astronom-
ical Society. 16: 405. Bibcode:1984BAAS...16..405B. [113] Skinner, C. J.; Dougherty, S. M.; Meixner, M.;
Bode, M. F.; Davis, R. J.; et al. (1997). Cir-
[104] Ridgway, Stephen; Aufdenberg, Jason; Creech-Eakman, cumstellar Environments V. The Asymmetric
Michelle; Elias, Nicholas; et al. (2009). Quantifying Chromosphere and Dust Shell of Alpha Orionis.
Stellar Mass Loss with High Angular Resolution Imaging Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 247: 247. arXiv:0902.3008 288 (2): 295306. Bibcode:1997MNRAS.288..295S.
. Bibcode:2009astro2010S.247R. doi:10.1093/mnras/288.2.295.
[114] Danchi, W. C.; Bester, M.; Degiacomi, C. G.; Green- . Bibcode:2013A&A...558A.131G. doi:10.1051/0004-
hill, L. J.; Townes, C. H. (1994). Character- 6361/201321906.
istics of Dust Shells around 13 Late-type Stars.
The Astronomical Journal. 107 (4): 14691513. [125] Wheeler, J. Craig (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes: Explod-
Bibcode:1994AJ....107.1469D. doi:10.1086/116960. ing Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe (2nd
ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
[115] David, L.; Dooling, D. (1984). The Infrared Universe 11517. ISBN 0-521-85714-7.
. Space World. 2: 47. Bibcode:1984SpWd....2....4D.
[126] Connelly, Claire (19 January 2011).Tatooine's twin suns
[116] Harper, Graham M.; Carpenter, Kenneth G.; Ryde, Nils; coming to a planet near you just as soon as Betelgeuse
Smith, Nathan; Brown, Joanna; et al. (2009). UV, explodes. News.com.au. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
IR, and mm Studies of CO Surrounding the Red Su-
pergiant Orionis (M2 Iab)". AIP Conference Proceed- [127] Plait, Phil (1 June 2010).Is Betelgeuse about to blow?".
ings. 1094: 86871. Bibcode:2009AIPC.1094..868H. Bad Astronomy. Discovery. Retrieved 14 September
doi:10.1063/1.3099254. 2012.
[117] Mohamed, S.; Mackey, J.; Langer, N. (2012). 3D [128] O'Neill, Ian (20 January 2011).Don't panic! Betelgeuse
Simulations of Betelgeuse's Bow Shock. Astronomy won't explode in 2012!". Discovery space news. Archived
& Astrophysics. 541, id.A1: A1. arXiv:1109.1555v2 from the original on 2011-01-23. Retrieved 14 September
. Bibcode:2012A&A...541A...1M. doi:10.1051/0004- 2012.
6361/201118002. [129] Plait, Phil (21 January 2011). Betelgeuse and 2012
[118] Lamers, Henny J. G. L. M. & Cassinelli, Joseph . Bad Astronomy. Discovery. Retrieved 14 September
P. (June 1999). Introduction to Stellar Winds. 2012.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [130] Likely the result of mistaking the l for an i. Ultimately,
Bibcode:1999isw..book.....L. ISBN 978-0-521-59565-0. this led to the modern Betelgeuse.
[119] Akari Infrared Space Telescope: Latest Science High- [131] Bode, Johann Elert, (ed.). (1782) Vorstellung der Ge-
lights. European Space Agency. 19 November 2008. stirne: auf XXXIV Kupfertafeln nach der Parisier Aus-
Archived from the original on 2011-02-17. Retrieved 25 gabe des Flamsteadschen Himmelsatlas, Gottlieb August
June 2012. Lange, Berlin / Stralsund, pl. XXIV.
[120] Noriega-Crespo, Alberto; van Buren, Dave; Cao, Yu;
[132] Bode, Johann Elert, (ed.) (1801). Uranographia: sive
Dgani, Ruth (1997). A Parsec-Size Bow Shock around
Astrorum Descriptio, Fridericus de Harn, Berlin, pl. XII.
Betelgeuse(PDF). Astronomical Journal. 114: 83740.
Bibcode:1997AJ....114..837N. doi:10.1086/118517. Re- [133] Schaaf, Fred (2008). Betelgeuse. The Brightest Stars.
trieved 25 June 2012. Noriega in 1997 estimated the size Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. pp. 17482. ISBN 0-471-
to be 0.8 parsecs, having assumed the earlier distance es- 70410-5.
timate of 400 ly. With a current distance estimate of 643
ly, the bow shock would measure ~1.28 parsecs or over 4 [134] Dibon-Smith, Richard. Alpha Orionis (Betelgeuse )".
ly The Constellations Web Page. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
[121] Newton, Elizabeth (26 April 2012). This Star Lives in [135] Kanipe, Je (30 June 2005). SpaceWatch A Star by
Exciting Times, or, How Did Betelgeuse Make that Funny Any Other Name. Archived from the original on 22 May
Shape?". Astrobites. Retrieved 25 June 2012. 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
[122] MacKey, Jonathan; Mohamed, Shazrene; Neilson, [136] Ridpath, Ian (2006). The Monthly Sky Guide (7th ed.).
Hilding R.; Langer, Norbert; Meyer, Dominique M.- Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-68435-8.
A. (2012). Double Bow Shocks Around Young,
Runaway Red Supergiants: Application to Betel- [137] Kunitzsch, Paul (1986). The Star Catalogue Com-
geuse. The Astrophysical Journal. 751: L10. monly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables. Jour-
Bibcode:2012ApJ...751L..10M. doi:10.1088/2041- nal for the History of Astronomy. 17 (49): 8998.
8205/751/1/L10. Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K.
[123] Meynet, G.; Haemmerl, L.; Ekstrm, S.; Georgy, [138] Kunitzsch, Paul (1959). Arabische Sternnamen in Europa.
C.; Groh, J.; Maeder, A. (2013). The past and Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
future evolution of a star like Betelgeuse. Betel-
[139] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of
geuse Workshop 2012. Edited by P. Kervella. 60:
Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names
17. arXiv:1303.1339 . Bibcode:2013EAS....60...17M. and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA:
doi:10.1051/eas/1360002. Sky Pub. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
[124] Groh, Jose H.; Meynet, Georges; Georgy, Cyril; Ek- [140] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
strom, Sylvia (2013). Fundamental properties of in Astronomy) 2006 5 25
core-collapse Supernova and GRB progenitors: Predict-
ing the look of massive stars before death. Astron- [141] Ridpath, Ian.Orion: Chinese associations. Star Tales.
omy & Astrophysics. 558: A131. arXiv:1308.4681v1 Retrieved 24 June 2012.
[142] Steve Renshaw & Saori Ihara (October 1999). 10.9 External links
Yowatashi Boshi; Stars that Pass in the Night. Grif-
th Observer. pp. 217. Retrieved 25 June 2012. Surface imaging of Betelgeuse with COAST and
the WHT Interferometric images taken at dierent
[143] Hei NojiriShin seiza jyunrei"p.19 ISBN 978-4-12-
204128-8 wavelengths.
Near, Mid and Far Infrared Infrared Processing and

Analysis Center (IPAC) webpage showing pictures
Heavenly Bodies. The Journal of the Polynesian Society.
16 (2): 10104. JSTOR 20700813. at various wavelengths.
APOD Pictures:
[145] Brosch, Noah (2008). Sirius Matters. Springer. p. 46.
ISBN 1-4020-8318-1.
1. Mars and Orion Over Monument Valley Skyscape
[146] Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astron- showing the relative brightness of Betelgeuse and
omy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, Texas: Uni- Rigel.
versity of Texas Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-292-75226-1.
2. Orion: Head to Toe Breathtaking vista the Orion
[147] Harney, Bill Yidumduma; Cairns, Hugh C. (2004) [2003]. Molecular Cloud Complex from Rogelio Bernal An-
Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Merimbula, New South dreo.
Wales: Hugh C. Cairns. pp. 13940. ISBN 0-9750908-
0-1. 3. The Spotty Surface of Betelgeuse A reconstructed
image showing two hotspots, possibly convection
[148] Littleton, C. Scott (2005). Gods, goddesses, and mythol- cells.
ogy. 1. Marshall Cavendish. p. 1056. ISBN 0-7614-
7559-1. 4. Simulated Supergiant Star Freytag'sStar in a Box
illustrating the nature of Betelgeuse's monster
[149] Motz, Lloyd; Nathanson, Carol (1991). The Constella- granules.
tions: An Enthusiast's Guide to the Night Sky. London,
United Kingdom: Aurum Press. p. 85. ISBN 1-85410- 5. Why Stars Twinkle Image of Betelgeuse showing
088-2. the eect of atmospheric twinkling in a telescope.
[150] Cenev, Gjore (2008).Macedonian Folk Constellations.

Red supergiant movie Numerical simulation of a red
Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade.
85: 97109. Bibcode:2008POBeo..85...97C. supergiant star like Betelgeuse.
[151] Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F.; Aveni, A.F. (2011).
Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural
Astronomy. New York, New York: Springer. p. 307.
ISBN 1-4419-7623-X.
[152] Conley, Craig (2008). Magic Words: A Dictionary.

Weiser. p. 121. ISBN 1-57863-434-2. Retrieved 22
September 2010.
[153] Larsen, Kristine (2005). A Denitive Identication

of Tolkien's Borgil": An Astronomical and Liter-
ary Approach. Tolkien Studies. 2 (1): 16170.
doi:10.1353/tks.2005.0023.
[154] De Esque, Jean Louis (1908). Betelguese, a trip through

hell. Connoisseur's Press. Wikisource. pp. 7.
[155] Tallant, Nicolla (15 July 2007). Survivor recalls the

night an apocalypse came to Whiddy. Independent Dig-
ital. Independent News & Media PLC. Retrieved 10 June
2011.
[156] DMBAlmanac.com. Dmbalmanac.com. Retrieved

2016-01-30.
[157] Ford, Andrew (2012).Holst, the Mystic. Try Whistling

This: Writings on Music. Collingwood, Victoria: Black
Incorporated. ISBN 9781921870682.
Chapter 11
Achernar
Achenarredirects here. For the character in the Myst now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [12]
series, see Achenar (Myst). In Chinese, (Shu Wi), meaning Crooked Running
Water, refers to an asterism consisting of Alpha Eridani,
Achernar /ekrnr/ is the name of the brightest com- Zeta Phoenicis and Eta Phoenicis.* [18]
ponent* [12] (by visual brightness) of the binary sys- The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria
tem* [7] designated Alpha Eridani ( Eridani, abbre- named it as Yerrerdetkurrk.* [19]
viated Alpha Eri, Eri), which is the brightest 'star'
or point of light in, and lying at the southern tip of, the
constellation of Eridanus, and the tenth-brightest in the 11.1.1 Namesake
night sky. The two components are designated Alpha
Eridani A and Alpha Eridani B (known informally as USS Achernar (AKA-53) was a United States Navy at-
Achernar B). As determined by the Hipparcos astrome- tack cargo ship.
try satellite,* [13]* [14] it is approximately 139 light-years
(43 pc) from the Sun.* [1]
Of the ten apparent brightest stars in the night-time 11.2 Properties
sky,* [nb 1] Alpha Eridani is the hottest and bluest in
color, due to Achernar being of spectral type B. Achernar
has an unusually rapid rotational velocity, causing it to
become oblate in shape. The secondary is smaller, of
spectral type A, and orbits Achernar at a distance of
roughly 12 astronomical units (AU).
11.1 Nomenclature
Eridani (Latinised to Alpha Eridani) is the system's

Bayer designation. The designations of the two compo-
nents - Alpha Eridani A and B - derive from the conven-
tion used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC)
for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU).* [15]
The system bears the traditional name of Achernar, de-
rived from the Arabic khir an-nahr, meaning
The End of the River. However, it seems that this name
originally referred to Theta Eridani instead, which lat- Extreme rotation speed has attened Achernar.
terly was known by the similar traditional name Acamar,
with the same etymology. In 2016, the IAU organized Achernar is in the deep southern sky and never rises above
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to cata- the horizon beyond 33N, roughly the latitude of Dallas,
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN Texas. It is best seen from the southern hemisphere in
states that in the case of multiple stars the name should November; it is circumpolar above (i.e. south of) 33S,
be understood to be attributed to the brightest component roughly the latitude of Santiago. On this latitude, e.g. the
by visual brightness.* [17] The WGSN approved the name south coast of South Africa (Cape Town to Port Eliza-
Achernar for Alpha Eridani A on 30 June 2016 and it is beth) when in lower culmination it is barely visible to the
109
110 CHAPTER 11. ACHERNAR
naked eye as it is only 1 degree above the horizon, but still from any other rst-magnitude star in the celestial sphere.
circumpolar. Further south, it is well visible at all times Antares, in the constellation of Scorpius, is now the most
during night. isolated rst-magnitude star, although Antares is located
Achernar is a bright, blue star with about seven times the in a constellation with many bright second-magnitude
mass of the Sun.* [7] It is a main sequence star with a stars, whereas the stars surrounding Alpha Eridani and
stellar classication of B6 Vep, but is about 3,150 times Fomalhaut are considerably fainter.
more luminous than the Sun. Infrared observations of the The rst star catalogue to contain Achernar ac-
star using an adaptive optics system on the Very Large companied the chart of Eridanus in Johann Bayer's
Telescope show that it has a companion star in a close or- Uranometria.* [24] Bayer did not observe it himself, and
bit. This appears to be an A-type star in the stellar clas- is attributed to Keyser and the voyages of the Dutch.
sication range A0VA3V, which suggests a stellar mass Thus, it was the last rst magnitude star observed and the
of about double that of the Sun. The separation of the only one unknown to the ancient Greeks.* [25]
two stars is roughly 12.3 AU and their orbital period is at Alpha Eridani will continue to move north in the next few
least 1415 years.* [7] millennia, rising from Crete about 500 years hence before
As of 2003, Achernar is the least spherical star in the reaching its maximum northern declination between the
Milky Way studied to date.* [20] It spins so rapidly that 8th and 11th millennia, when it will be visible as far north
it has assumed the shape of an oblate spheroid with an as Germany and southern England.
equatorial diameter 56% greater than its polar diameter.
The polar axis is inclined about 65 to the line of sight
from the Earth.* [8] Since it is actually a binary star, its 11.4 See also
highly distorted shape may cause non-negligible depar-
tures of the companion's orbital trajectory with respect
Achernar in ction
to a Keplerian ellipse. A similar situation occurs for the
star Regulus.
Because of the distorted shape of this star, there is a sig- 11.5 Notes
nicant temperature variation by latitude. At the pole,
the temperature may be above 20,000 K, while the equa-
[1] The ten brightest stars in the nighttime sky in terms of
tor is at or below 10,000 K. The average temperature of
apparent magnitude are, from brightest to least bright-
the star is about 15,000 K. The high polar temperatures est, Sirius, Canopus, Alpha Centauri, Arcturus, Vega,
are generating a fast polar wind that is ejecting matter Capella, Rigel, Procyon, Achernar and Betelgeuse
from the star, creating a polar envelope of hot gas and
plasma. The entire star is surrounded by an extended en-
velope that can be detected by its excess infrared emis-
sion,* [9] or by its polarization.* [21] The presence of a
11.6 References
circumstellar disk of ionized gas is a common feature of
Be stars such as this.* [21] The disk is not stable and pe- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
riodically decretes back into the star. The maximum po-
larization for Achernar's disk was observed in September Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
2014, and it is now decreasing.* [22] Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357

11.3 Historical visibility . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
Due to precession, Achernar lay much further south in
ancient times than at present, being 7.5 degrees of the [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
south pole around 3400 BCE (decl 8240') * [23] and still Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
lying at declination 76 by around 1500 BCE. Hence
the Ancient Egyptians could not have known it. Even 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
in 100 CE its declination was around 67, meaning
Ptolemy could not possibly have seen it from Alexandria [4] Naz, Y. (November 2009), Hot stars observed by
- whereas Theta Eridani was visible as far north as Crete. XMM-Newton. I. The catalog and the properties of OB
So Ptolemy'send of the riverwas certainly Theta Eri- stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 506 (2): 10551064,
dani. Alpha Eridani was not visible from Alexandria until arXiv:0908.1461 , Bibcode:2009A&A...506.1055N,
about 1600 CE. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912659
Until about March 2000, Achernar and Fomalhaut were [5] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of the
the two rst-magnitude stars furthest in angular distance General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Batten, Alan
11.7. FURTHER READING 111
Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determination of Radial [18] AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education in As-
Velocities and their Applications, Proceedings from IAU tronomy)" . 2006-07-27. Retrieved
Symposium no. 30. University of Toronto: International 2017-01-13.
Astronomical Union. Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. Re-
trieved 2009-09-10. [19] Hamacher, Duane W.; Frew, David J. (2010). An
[6] Moujtahid, A.; Zorec, J. (2000). The Visual Ab- of Eta Carinae. Journal of Astronomical History
solute Magnitude of the Central Objects in Be Stars & Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
. The Be Phenomenon in Early-Type Stars. 214: 55. Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H.
Bibcode:2000ASPC..214...55M.
[20] See Achernar the Flattest star in Sky & Telescope
[7] Kervella, P.; Domiciano de Souza, A.; Bendjoya, P. 20 Newsnotes, September 2003.
Ph. (June 2008), The close-in companion of
[21] Carcio, A. C.; et al. (December 2007), Achernar:
the fast rotating Be star Achernar, Astronomy and
Rapid Polarization Variability as Evidence of Photo-
Astrophysics, 484 (1): L13L16, arXiv:0804.3465
spheric and Circumstellar Activity, The Astrophysi-
, Bibcode:2008A&A...484L..13K, doi:10.1051/0004-
cal Journal, 671 (1): L49L52, arXiv:0710.4163 ,
6361:200809765
Bibcode:2007ApJ...671L..49C, doi:10.1086/524772
[8] Carcio, A. C.; et al. (March 2008),On the Determina- [22] Cotton, D. V.; et al. (January 2016). The linear polar-
tion of the Rotational Oblateness of Achernar, The As- ization of Southern bright stars measured at the parts-per-
trophysical Journal, 676 (1): L41L44, arXiv:0801.4901 million level. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
, Bibcode:2008ApJ...676L..41C, doi:10.1086/586895 Society. 455 (2): 16071628. arXiv:1509.07221
. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.455.1607C.
[9] Kervella, P.; et al. (January 2009), The environ-
doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2185.
ment of the fast rotating star Achernar. II. Thermal
infrared interferometry with VLTI/MIDI, Astronomy [23] calculated by Stellarium 0.13, an open source sky mapping
and Astrophysics, 493 (3): L53L56, arXiv:0812.2531 app. http://www.stellarium.org
, Bibcode:2009A&A...493L..53K, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:200810980 [24] Historical image of Eridanus. Retrieved 2017-01-13.
[25] Ian Ridpath - Star Tales Eridanus. Retrieved 2017-

[10] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (2011). A
01-13.
catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos stars within 3 kpc
from the Sun. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society. 410: 190. Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x. 11.7 Further reading
[11] Achernar -- Be Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes
astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2010-02-16
Lovekin, C. C.; Deupree, R. G.; Short, C. I. (2006).
Surface Temperature and Synthetic Spectral En-
[12] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 13 October ergy Distributions for Rotationally Deformed Stars
2016. . The Astrophysical Journal. 643: 460. arXiv:astro-
ph/0602084 . Bibcode:2006ApJ...643..460L.
[13] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, doi:10.1086/501492.
logue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 323: L49L52,
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P Coordinates: 01* h 37* m 42.8* s, 57 14 12
[14] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of History's
Greatest Star Map, The Making of History's Greatest
Star Map:, AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg: Springer-
Verlag, Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P, doi:10.1007/978-
3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[15] Hessman, F. V.; Dhillon, V. S.; Winget, D. E.; Schreiber,

M. R.; Horne, K.; Marsh, T. R.; Guenther, E.; Schwope,
A.; Heber, U. (2010). On the naming convention
used for multiple star systems and extrasolar planets.
arXiv:1012.0707 [astro-ph.SR].


2 (PDF). Retrieved 12 October 2016.
Chapter 12
Beta Centauri
This article is about Centauri and should not to be brothers in Wotjobaluk people is Bram-bram-bult.* [18]
confused with Alpha Centauri B. For B Centauri, see B
Centauri. For b Centauri, see HD 129116.
12.2 Properties
Beta Centauri ( Centauri, abbreviated Beta Cen,
Cen), also named Hadar,* [11] is a triple star sys- The Beta Centauri system has three components: Beta
tem in the southern constellation of Centaurus. The Centauri Aa, Ab and B. All the spectral lines detected are
system's combined apparent visual magnitude of 0.61 consistent with a B1 type star, with only the line proles
makes it the second-brightest star in Centaurus and one varying, so it is thought that all three stars have the same
of the brightest stars in the night sky. According to spectral type.
parallax measurements from the astrometric Hipparcos
In 1935, Joan Vote identied Beta Centauri B, giving
satellite,* [12]* [13] the distance to this system is about
it the identier VOU 31. The companion is separated
390 20 light-years (120 6 parsecs).* [1]
from the primary by 1.3 seconds of arc, and has remained
Beta Centauri is well known in the Southern Hemisphere so since the discovery, although the position angle has
as the inner of the twoPointersto the asterism known as changed six degrees since. Beta Centauri B orbits the
the Southern Cross. A line made from the other pointer, primary at 0.6 light years, or 100k AUs, with a period
Alpha Centauri, through Beta Centauri leads to within a of roughly 1500 years. Beta Centauri B is a B1 dwarf
few degrees of Gacrux, the star at the top of the cross. with an apparent magnitude of 4.
Using Gacrux, a navigator can draw a line with Acrux at
In 1967, Beta Centauri's observed periodic variation in
the bottom to eectively determine South.* [14]
radial velocity suggested that Beta Centauri A is a double-
lined spectroscopic binary. This was conrmed in 1999.
The primary consists of a pair of stars, (Aa and Ab) of
12.1 Nomenclature similar mass that orbit each other over a period of 357
days with a large eccentricity of about 0.8245.* [20]
Centauri (Latinised to Beta Centauri) is the star's Bayer The pair were calculated to be separated by a mean dis-
designation. tance of roughly 4 astronomical units (based on a distance
It bore the traditional names Hadar and Agena. Hadar to the system of 161 parsecs) in 2005.* [8]
comes from the Arabic ( the root's meaning is to Both Aa and Ab apparently have a stellar classication
be presentoron the groundorsettled, civilized area of B1 III,* [8] with the luminosity class of III indicating
*
[15]), while the name Agena may ultimately be derived giant stars that are evolving away from the main sequence.
from the Latin genua, meaning knees. In 2016, the They are both Beta Cephei variable stars with multiple
International Astronomical Union organized a Working pulsation periods of just a few hours. The full range of
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and stan- variability has not been identied, but is no more than a
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the few hundredths of a magnitude.* [8]* [21]
name Hadar for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is now
so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [11] Aa is 12.02 0.13 times as massive as the Sun, while Ab
is 10.58 0.18 times as massive.* [20]
The Chinese name for the star is (Mandarin: m
f y, the First Star of the Horse's Abdomen).* [17]
The indigenous Boorong people of what is now north- 12.3 References
western Victoria named it as Bermbermgle (together with
Alpha Centauri),* [18] two brothers who were noted for [1] van Leeuwen (November 2007). Validation of
their courage and destructiveness, and who spear and kill the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
Tchingal,The Emu(Coalsack Nebula).* [19] The two trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
112
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49L52.

6361:20078357. Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P.
[2] Hoeit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991).The Bright star [13] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of History's
catalogue. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Obser- Greatest Star Map, The Making of History's Greatest
vatory, 5th rev.ed. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H. Star Map:, AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg: Springer-
[3] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry; 3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision of the
General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Determina- [14] Kyselka, Will; Lanterman, Ray E. (1976). North
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, University Star to Southern Cross. Honolulu : University Press
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union, 30: 57, of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press. p. 59.
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E Bibcode:1976nsts.book.....K. ISBN 0-8248-0419-8.
[4] Davis, J.; Mendez, A.; Seneta, E. B.; Tango, W. J.; [15] Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 1961
Booth, A. J.; O'Byrne, J. W.; Thorvaldson, E. D.; Aus-
seloos, M.; Aerts, C.; Uytterhoeven, K. (2005). Or- [16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
bital parameters, masses and distance to Centauri deter- trieved 22 May 2016.
mined with the Sydney University Stellar Interferometer [17] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
and high-resolution spectroscopy. Monthly Notices of the in Astronomy) 2006 7 29
Royal Astronomical Society. 356 (4): 1362. arXiv:astro-
ph/0411054 . Bibcode:2005MNRAS.356.1362D. [18] Hamacher, Duane W.; Frew, David J. (2010). An
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08571.x. Aboriginal Australian Record of the Great Eruption of
Eta Carinae (PDF). Journal of Astronomical History
[5] Ausseloos, M.; Aerts, C.; Lefever, K.; Davis, J.; Har- & Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
manec, P. (August 2006). High-precision elements Bibcode:2010JAHH...13..220H.
of double-lined spectroscopic binaries from combined
interferometry and spectroscopy. Application to the [19] Stanbridge, WM (1857). On the Astronomy and
Cephei star Centauri. Astronomy and Astro- Mythology of the Aboriginies of Victoria(PDF). Trans-
physics. 455 (1): 259269. arXiv:astro-ph/0605220 actions Philosophical Institute Victoria. 2: 137140.
. Bibcode:2006A&A...455..259A. doi:10.1051/0004- Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2013.
6361:20064829.
[20] Pigulski, A.; Cugier, H.; Popowicz, A.; Kuschnig, R.;
[6] Ausseloos, M.; Aerts, C.; Uytterhoeven, K.; Schri- Moat, A. F. J.; Rucinski, S. M.; Schwarzenberg-Czerny,
jvers, C.; Waelkens, C.; Cuypers, J. (2002). Beta A.; Weiss, W. W.; Handler, G.; Wade, G. A.; Koudelka,
Centauri: An eccentric binary with two beta Cep-type O.; Matthews, J. M.; Mochnacki, St.; Orleaski, P.; Pablo,
components. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 384: 209. H.; Ramiaramanantsoa, T.; Whittaker, G.; Zocoska,
Bibcode:2002A&A...384..209A. doi:10.1051/0004- E.; Zwintz, K. (2016). Massive pulsating stars ob-
6361:20020004. served by BRITE-Constellation. I. The triple system
Centauri (Agena)". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 588:
[7] Tokovinin, A. A. (1999). VizieR Online Data Catalog: 17. Bibcode:2016A&A...588A..55P. doi:10.1051/0004-
Multiple star catalogue (MSC) (Tokovinin 1997-1999)". 6361/201527872. A55.
VizieR On-line Data Catalog: J/A+AS/124/75. Origi-
nally published in: 1997A&AS..124...75T. 412: 40075. [21] Sterken, Christiaan; Jerzykiewicz, Mikolaj (1993).
Bibcode:1999yCat..41240075T. Beta Cephei stars from a photometric point of view
. Space Science Reviews. 62 (12): 95171.
[8] Raassen, A. J. J.; Cassinelli, J. P.; Miller, N. A.; Bibcode:1993SSRv...62...95S. doi:10.1007/bf00208707.
Mewe, R.; Tepedelenliolu, E. (July 2006). XMM- ISSN 0038-6308.
Newton observations of Centauri (B1 III): The temper-
ature structure in the hot plasma and the photosphere-
wind connection. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
437 (2): 599609. Bibcode:2005A&A...437..599R.
12.4 External links
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20052650.
Kaler, James B.,HADAR (Beta Centauri)", Stars,
[9] Allen, R. H. (1963), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning University of Illinois, retrieved 2011-12-19
(Reprint ed.), New York: Dover Publications Inc, p. 154,
ISBN 0-486-21079-0, retrieved 2010-12-12
Coordinates: 14* h 03* m 49.4* s, 60 22 23
[10] V* bet Cen -- Variable Star of beta Cep type. SIM-
BAD. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg.

J. (July 1997). The Hipparcos Catalogue
Chapter 13
Capella (star)
For other uses, see Capella (disambiguation). 13.1 Nomenclature
Capella, also designated Alpha Aurigae ( Aurigae, Aurigae (Latinised to Alpha Aurigae) is the star's
abbreviated Alpha Aur, Aur), is the brightest star in Bayer designation. It also has the Flamsteed designa-
the constellation of Auriga, the sixth-brightest in the night tion 13 Aurigae. It is listed in several multiple star cat-
sky, and the third-brightest in the northern celestial hemi- alogues as ADS 3841, CCDM J05168+4559, and WDS
sphere after Arcturus and Vega. A prominent star in the J05167+4600. As a relatively nearby star system, Capella
winter sky of the northern hemisphere, it is circumpolar is listed in the Gliese-Jahreiss Catalogue with designa-
to observers north of 44N. Its name meaninglittle goat tions GJ 194 for the bright pair of giants and GJ 195 for
in Latin, Capella depicted the goat Amalthea that suckled the faint pair of red dwarfs.
Zeus in classical mythology. The Capella system is rel- The traditional name Capella is Latin for (small) female
atively close, at only 42.8 light-years (13.1 pc) from the goat; the alternative name Capra was more commonly
Sun. used in classical times.* [11] In 2016, the International
Although it appears to be a single star to the naked eye, Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on
Capella is actually a system of four stars in two binary Star Names (WGSN)* [12] to catalogue and standardize
pairs. The rst pair consists of two bright yellow giant proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of
stars, both of which are around 2.5 times as massive July 2016* [13] included a table of the rst two batches of
as the Sun. They have exhausted their core hydrogen, names approved by the WGSN; which included Capella
and cooled and swollen, moving o the main sequence. for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog
Designated Capella Aa and Capella Ab, they are in a of Star Names.* [14] The catalogue of star names lists
very tight circular orbit some 0.76 astronomical units Capella as applying to the star with the designations Au-
(au)* [note 2] apart, and orbit each other every 104 days. rigae, HR 1708, HD 34029, and HIP 24608, which sug-
Capella Aa is the cooler and more luminous of the two gests only the primary component of the Capella system
with spectral class K0III; it is 78.7 4.2 times the Sun's should receive that name. The IAU's own documentation
luminosity and 11.98 0.57 times its radius. An aging makes it explicit that the proper name should strictly only
red clump star, it is fusing helium to carbon and oxygen be applied to the visually brightest component. In this
in its core. Ab is slightly smaller and hotter and of spec- case it is somewhat uncertain which of the components is
tral class G1III; it is 72.7 3.6 times as luminous as the the brightest and the IAU list does not specify.* [15]
Sun and 8.83 0.33 times its radius. It is in a brief evolu-
tionary phase known as the Hertzsprung gap as it expands
and cools further to become a red giant. The Capella sys-
tem is one of the brightest sources of X-rays in the sky, 13.2 Observational history
thought to come primarily from the corona of the more
massive giant. The second pair, around 10,000 au from Capella was the brightest star in the night sky from
the rst, consists of two faint, small and relatively cool 210,000 years ago to 160,000 years ago, at about 1.8
red dwarfs. They are designated Capella H and Capella in apparent magnitude. At 1.1, Aldebaran was brightest
L. Several other stars in the same visual eld have been before this period, and it and Capella were situated rather
catalogued as companions but are physically unrelated. close to each other in the sky and served as boreal pole
stars at the time.* [16]
Capella is thought to be mentioned in an Akkadian in-
scription dating to the 20th century BC.* [17] Its symbol-
ism as a goat dates back to Mesopotamia as a constel-
lation called GAM, representing a scimitar or crook. It
may have represented the star alone or the modern con-
114
13.3. VISIBILITY 115
stellation as a whole; this gure was alternatively called Friend, it was rst resolved interferometrically in 1919
Gamlum or MUL.GAM in the 7th-century BC document by John Anderson and Francis Pease at Mount Wilson
MUL.APIN. The crook of Auriga stood for a goat-herd Observatory, who published an orbit in 1920 based on
or shepherd. It was formed from most of the stars of the their observations.* [26]* [27] This was the rst interfero-
modern constellation; all of the bright stars were included metric measurement of any object outside the Solar Sys-
except for Beta Tauri (Elnath), traditionally assigned to tem.* [28] A high-precision orbit was published in 1994
both Taurus and Auriga. Later, Bedouin astronomers cre- based on observations by the Mark III Stellar Interferom-
ated constellations that were groups of animals, where eter, again at Mount Wilson Observatory.* [29] Capella
each star represented one animal. The stars of Auriga also became the rst astronomical object to be imaged by
comprised a herd of goats, an association also present in a separate element optical interferometer when it was im-
Greek mythology.* [18] It is sometimes called the Shep- aged by the Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Tele-
herd's Star in English literature.* [19] Capella was seen as scope in September 1995.* [30]
a portent of rain in classical times.* [20]
In 1914, Finnish astronomer Ragnar Furuhjelm observed
that the spectroscopic binary had a faint companion star,
which, as its proper motion was similar to that of the
spectroscopic binary, was probably physically bound to
it.* [31] In February 1936, Carl L. Stearns observed that
this companion appeared to be double itself;* [32] this
was conrmed in September that year by Gerard Kuiper.
This pair are designated Capella H and L.* [33]
13.2.2 X-ray source
Two Aerobee-Hi rocket ights on September 20, 1962,

and March 15, 1963, detected and conrmed an X-ray
source in Auriga at RA 05* h 09* m Dec +45, identied
as Capella.* [34] Stellar X-ray astronomy started on April
Building J (foreground) at Monte Albn 5, 1974, with the detection of X-rays from Capella.* [35]
A rocket ight on that date briey calibrated its attitude
Building J of the pre-Columbian site Monte Albn in control system when a star sensor pointed the payload axis
Oaxaca state in Mexico was built around 275 BC, at a dif- at Capella. During this period, X-rays in the range 0.2
ferent orientation to other structures in the complex. Its 1.6 keV were detected by an X-ray reector system co-
steps are aligned perpendicular to the rising of Capella at aligned with the star sensor.* [35] The X-ray luminosity
that time, so that a person looking out a doorway on the (L) of ~1024 W (1031 erg s* 1) is four orders of mag-
building would have faced it directly. Capella is signi- nitude above the Sun's X-ray luminosity.* [35] Capella's
cant as its heliacal rising took place within a day of the X-rays are thought to be primarily from the corona of
Sun passing directly overhead over Monte Albn.* [21] the more massive star.* [36] Capella is ROSAT X-ray
source 1RXS J051642.2+460001. The high temperature
of Capella's corona as obtained from the rst coronal X-
13.2.1 Multiple status ray spectrum of Capella using HEAO 1 would require
magnetic connement, unless it is a free-owing coronal
Professor William Wallace Campbell of the Lick Ob- wind.* [37]
servatory announced that Capella was binary in 1899,
based on spectroscopic observationshe noted on pho-
tographic plates taken from August 1896 to February
1897 that a second spectrum appeared superimposed 13.3 Visibility
over the rst, and that there was a doppler shift to violet
in September and October and to red in November and With an apparent magnitude of +0.08, Capella is the
February showing that the components were moving brightest star in the constellation Auriga, the sixth-
toward and away from the Earth (and hence orbiting brightest star in the night sky, the third-brightest star
each other).* [22]* [23] Almost simultaneously, British as-
in the northern celestial hemisphere (after Arcturus and
tronomer Hugh Newall had observed its composite spec- Vega), and the fourth-brightest star visible to the naked
trum with a four prism spectroscope attached to a 25 eye from the latitude 40 N. It appears to be a rich
inches (64 cm) telescope at Cambridge in July 1899, con-yellowish-white color, although the yellow color is more
cluding that it was a binary star system.* [24] apparent during daylight observation with a telescope,
*
Many observers tried to discern the component stars due to the contrast against the blue sky. [38]
without success.* [25] Known as The Interferometrist's Capella is closer to the north celestial pole than any
116 CHAPTER 13. CAPELLA (STAR)
moved o the main sequence after exhausting their core

hydrogen reserves and are expanding and cooling into red
giants.* [2]* [45]
13.5 Components
Annotated night sky image showing Auriga and the Pleiades

Capella is the brightest star, towards top left
other rst magnitude star.* [39]* [note 3] Its northern dec-

lination is such that it is actually invisible south of lat-
itude 44S this includes southernmost New Zealand,
Argentina and Chile as well as the Falkland Islands. Con- Capella components comparison with the Sun
versely it is circumpolar north of 44N: for the whole
of the United Kingdom, Canada and the northernmost There are several stars within a few arc minutes of
United States, the star never sets. Capella and Vega are Capella and some have been listed as companions in var-
on opposite sides of the pole, at about the same distance ious multiple star catalogues. The Washington Double
from it, such that an imaginary line between the two starsStar Catalog lists components A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H,
will nearly pass through Polaris.* [40] Visible halfway be-
I, L, M, N, O, P, Q, and R, with A being the naked-
tween the Belt of Orion and Polaris, Capella is at its high-
eye star. Most are only line-of-sight companions,* [46]
est in the night sky at midnight in early December and but the close pair of red dwarfs H and L are at the
is regarded as a prominent star of the winter sky in the same distance as the bright component A and moving
northern hemisphere.* [41] through space along with it.* [47] Capella A is itself a
A few degrees to the southwest of Capella lie three stars spectroscopic binary with components Aa and Ab, both
Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta Aurigae, the latter two of which giants. The pair of giants is separated from the pair of red
*
are known as The Kids, or Haedi. The four form a dwarfs by 723". [6] American astronomer Robert Burn-
familiar pattern, or asterism, in the sky.* [42] ham Jr. described a scale model of the system where
Capella A was represented by spheres 13 and 7 inches
across, separated by ten feet. The red dwarfs were then
each 0.7 inches across and they were separated by 420
13.4 Distance feet. At this scale, the two pairs are 21 miles apart.* [48]
Based on an annual parallax shift of 76.20

milliarcseconds (with a margin of error of 0.46 13.5.1 Bright binary
milliarcseconds) as measured by the Hipparcos satellite,
this system is estimated to be 42.8 light-years (13.12 Capella A consists of two yellow evolved stars that have
parsecs) from Earth, with a margin of error of 0.3 been calculated to orbit each other every 104 days with a
light-years (0.09 parsecs).* [1] An alternative method to separation of around 100 million km. The pair is a non-
determine the distance is via the orbital parallax, which eclipsing binarythat is, as seen from Earth, neither star
gives a distance of 42.92 light-years (13.159 parsecs) passes in front of the other. The orbit is known extremely
with a margin of error of only 0.1%.* [6] Capella is accurately and can be used to derive an orbital parallax
estimated to have been a little closer to the Solar System with far better precision than the one measured directly.
in the past, passing within 29 light-years distant around The stars are not near enough to each other for the Roche
237,000 years ago.* [43] At this range, it would have lobe of either star to have been lled and any signicant
shone at apparent magnitude 0.82.* [44] mass transfer to have taken place, even during the red
*
In a 1960 paper, American astronomer Olin J. Eggen con- giant stage of the primary star. [6]
cluded that Capella was a member of the Hyades moving Modern convention designates the cooler star as com-
group, a group of stars moving in the same direction as ponent Aa and its spectral type has been usually mea-
the Hyades cluster, after analysing its proper motion and sured between G2 and K0. The hotter secondary Ab
parallax. Members of the group are of a similar age, and has been given various spectral types of late (cooler) F
those that are around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun have or early (warmer) G.The MK spectral types of the two
13.5. COMPONENTS 117
stars have been measured a number of times, and they are Evolution of Capella giants
both consistently assigned a luminosity class of III indi-

cating a giant star.* [49] The composite spectrum appears
to be dominated by the primary star due to its sharper
absorption lines; the lines from the secondary are broad- Asymptotic
ened and blurred by its rapid rotation.* [25] The most re-
y strip
giant
branch
cent specic published types are K0III and G1III,* [5] al-
Instabilit
Luminosity (L)
though older values are still widely quoted such as G5IIIe
+ G0III from the Bright Star Catalogue* [2] or G8III +
G0III by Eggen.* [45] Where the context is clear, these
two components have been referred to as A and B.* [50]
Red
giant
Subgiant branch branch
Red
Hook (Hertzsprung gap)
clump
The individual apparent magnitudes of the two compo-
Capella Capella
nent stars cannot be directly measured, but their rela- Ab Aa
tive brightness has been measured at various wavelengths. Main sequence
They have very nearly equal brightness in the visible

Temperature (K)
light spectrum, with the hotter secondary component gen-
erally being found to be a few tenths of a magnitude
brighter.* [6] A 2016 measurement gives the magnitude H-R diagram show an evolutionary track for a star of approxi-
dierence between the two stars at a wavelength of 700 mately the mass of the two Capella giants. The current states of
Capella Aa and Ab are marked.
nm as 0.00 0.1.* [51]
The physical properties of the two stars can be deter-
mined with high accuracy. The masses are derived di- to expand again which will lead it to the asymptotic giant
rectly from the orbital solution, with Aa being 2.5687 branch. Isotope abundances* [note 4] and spin rates con-
0.0074 M and Ab being 2.4828 0.0067 M . Their an- rm this evolutionary dierence between the two stars.
gular radii have been directly measured; in combination Heavy element abundances are broadly comparable to
with the very accurate distance, this gives 11.98 0.57 those of the Sun and the overall metallicity is slightly less
R and 8.83 0.33 R for Aa and Ab respectively. Their than the Sun's.* [25]
surface temperatures can be calculated by comparison The rotational period of each star can be measured by ob-
of observed and synthetic spectra, direct measurement serving periodic variations in the doppler shifts of their
of their angular diameters and brightnesses, calibration spectral lines. The absolute rotational velocities of the
against their observed colour indices, and disentangling two stars are known from their inclinations, rotation pe-
of high resolution spectra. Weighted averages of these riods, and sizes, but the projected equatorial rotational
four methods give 4,970 50 K for Aa and 5,730 60 velocities measured using doppler broadening of spec-
for Ab. Their bolometric luminosities are most accurately tral lines are a standard measure and these are generally
derived from their apparent magnitudes and bolometric quoted.* [25] Capella Aa has a projected rotational ve-
corrections, but are conrmed by calculation from the locity of 4.10.4 km per second, taking 104 3 days to
temperatures and radii of the stars. Aa is 78.7 4.2 times complete one rotation, while Capella Ab spins much more
as luminous as the Sun and Ab 72.7 3.6 times as lumi- rapidly at 35.00.5 km per second, completing a full ro-
nous, so the star dened as the primary component is the tation in only 8.5 0.2 days. Rotational braking occurs
more luminous when all wavelengths are considered but in all stars when they expand into giants, and binary stars
very slightly less bright at visual wavelengths.* [6] are also tidally braked. Capella Aa has slowed until it is
Estimated to be 590 to 650 million years old,* [6] the rotationally locked to the orbital period, although theory
stars were probably at the hot end of spectral class A dur- predicts that it should still be rotating more quickly from
ing their main sequence lifetime, similar to Vega. They a starting point of a rapidly-spinning main sequence A
have now exhausted their core hydrogen and evolved star.* [6]
o the main sequence, their outer layers expanding and Capella has long been suspected to be slightly variable.
cooling.* [52] Despite the giant luminosity class, the sec- Its amplitude of about 0.1 magnitudes means that it may
ondary component is very clearly within a brief evolu- at times be brighter or fainter than both Rigel and Vega,
tionary phase known as the Hertzsprung gap and still ex- which are also slightly variable. The system has been clas-
panding and cooling towards the red giant branch, mak- sied as an RS Canum Venaticorum variable, a class of
ing it a subgiant in evolutionary terms. The more massive binary stars with active chromospheres that cause huge
primary has already passed through this stage, when it starspots, but it is still only listed as a suspected variable
reached a maximum radius of 36 to 38 times that of the in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars.* [29] Unusu-
Sun. It is now a red clump star which is fusing helium ally for RS CVn systems, the hotter star, Capella Ab, has
to carbon and oxygen in its core, a process that has not the more active atmosphere because it is located in the
yet begun for the less massive star. Detailed analysis Hertzsprung gapa stage where it is changing its angu-
shows that it is nearing the end of this stage and starting lar momentum and deepening its convection zone.* [50]
The active atmospheres and closeness of these stars magnitude stars at distances of 92, 133, and 134
means that they are among the brightest x-ray sources in .* [72] V538 Aurigae and its close companion HD 233153
the sky. However the x-ray emission is due to stable coro- are red dwarfs ten degrees away from Capella; they have
nal structures and not eruptive aring activity. Coronal very similar space motions but the small dierence makes
loops larger than the Sun and with temperatures of sev- it possible that this is just a coincidence.* [73] Two faint
eral million K are likely to be responsible for the majority stars have been discovered by speckle imaging in the
of the x-rays.* [53] Capella HL eld, around 10distant from that pair. These
have been catalogued as Capella O and P. It is not known
whether they are physically associated with the red dwarf
13.5.2 Companion binary binary.* [74]
The seventh companion published for Capella, and the

most distant, is the only one physically associated with
the bright primary star. Thus it is also a member of the 13.6 Etymology and cultural sig-
Hyades Moving Group. It is named as component H and
is a red dwarf separated from the pair of G-type giants by
nicance
a distance of around 10,000 AU.* [47] It has its own close
companion, an even fainter red dwarf that was 1.8away Capella traditionally marks the left shoulder of the con-
when it was discovered in 1935. Eighty years later the stellation's eponymous charioteer, or, according to the
separation had increased to 3.5, sucient to allow ten- 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy's Almagest, the goat
tative orbital parameters to be derived. It is component that the charioteer is carrying. In Bayer's 1603 work
L in double star catalogues.* [6]* [67] The Gliese-Jahreiss Uranometria, Capella marks the charioteer's back.* [75]
Catalogue of nearby stars designates the binary system as The three Haedi had been identied as a separate con-
GJ 195. The two components are then referred to indi- stellation by Pliny the Elder and Manilius, and were called
vidually as GJ 195 A and B.* [10] Capra, Caper, or Hircus, all of which relate to its status
as thegoat star.* [20] Ptolemy merged the Charioteer
The two stars are reported to have a 3.5 visual magni-
and the Goats in the 2nd century Almagest.* [76]
tude dierence, although the dierence is much smaller
at infrared wavelengths. This is unexpected and may in- In Greek mythology, the star represented the goat
dicate further unseen companions.* [6] The mass of the Amalthea that suckled Zeus. It was this goat whose horn,
stars can be determined from the orbital motion, but un- after accidentally being broken o by Zeus, was trans-
certainties in the orbit have led to widely varying results. formed into the Cornucopia, orhorn of plenty, which
In 1975, an eccentric 388 year orbit gave masses of 0.65 would be lled with whatever its owner desired.* [17]
M and 0.13 M .* [67] A smaller near-circular orbit pub- Though most often associated with Amalthea, Capella
lished in 2015 had a 300-year orbit and gave masses of has sometimes been associated with Amalthea's owner,
0.57 M and 0.53 M respectively for GJ 195 A and a nymph. The myth of the nymph says that the goat's
B.* [6] hideous appearance, resembling a Gorgon, was partially
responsible for the Titans' defeat, after Zeus skinned the
goat and wore it as his aegis.* [77]
13.5.3 Visual companions In medieval accounts, it bore the uncommon name Al-
hajoth (also spelled Alhaior, Althaiot, Alhaiset, Alhatod,
Six visual companions to Capella were discovered before Alhojet, Alanac, Alanat, Alioc), which (especially the
Capella H and are generally known only as Capella B last) may be a corruption of its Arabic name, , al-
through G. None are thought to be physically associated *
cayyq.* [78] * cAyyq has no clear signicance in Ara-
with Capella although all appear closer in the sky than the bic,* [79] but may be an Arabized form of the Greek
HL pair.* [48]
aiks goat"; cf. the modern Greek Aiga, the
Component F is also known as TYC 3358-3142-1. It is feminine of goat.* [78] To the Bedouin of the Negev and
listed with a spectral type of K* [68] although it is in- Sinai, Capella al-'Ayyq ath-Thurayy Capella of the
cluded in a catalogue of OB stars as a distant luminous Pleiades", from its role as pointing out the position of
star.* [69] that asterism.* [80] Another name in Arabic was Al-Rkib
Component G is BD+45 1076, with a spectral type the driver, a translation of the Greek.* [78]
of F0,* [68] at a distance of 401 light-years (123 par- To the ancient Balts, Capella was known as Perkno Oka
secs).* [70] It is identied as a variable member of the Thunder's Goat, or Tikutis.* [81] Conversely in Slavic
Guide Star Catalogue from Chandra observations al- Macedonian folklore, Capella was Jastreb the hawk
though it is not known what type of variability.* [71] It , ying high above and ready to pounce on Mother Hen
is known to be a x-ray source with an active corona.* [70] (the Pleiades) and the Rooster (Nath).* [82]
Several other stars have also been catalogued as compan- Astrologically, Capella portends civic and military honors
ions to Capella.* [9] Components I, Q, and R are 13th and wealth.* [19] In the Middle Ages, it was considered a
13.9. NOTES 119
Behenian xed star, with the stone sapphire and the plants "Friday's Child" a 1967 episode of Star Trek: The Orig-
horehound, mint, mugwort, and mandrake as attributes. inal Series written by D.C. Fontana is set on the ctional
*
Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign with the planet Capella IV. [94] Dr McCoy reports having lived
name Hircus (Latin for goat).* [83]* [84] on the planet and being familiar with its culture.* [95]
The highly regarded 1972 novel The Listeners involves an
In Hindu mythology, Capella was seen as the heart of SETI-like program on Earth in communication with an
Brahma, Brahma Hdaya.* [19] In traditional Chinese as- alien civilization in the Capella system.* [96]* [97]
tronomy, Capella was part of the asterism (W ch;
English: Five Chariots), which consisted of Capella to-
gether with Beta, Iota, and Theta Aurigae, as well as Beta
Tauri.* [85]* [86] Since it was the second star in this aster- 13.9 Notes
ism, it has the name (W ch r; English: Second
of the Five Chariots).* [87] [1] Pertains to the center of mass of the Capella Aa/Ab bi-
nary system. See Volume 1, The Hipparcos and Tycho
In Quechua it was known as Cola;* [19] the Incas held Catalogues, European Space Agency, 1997, 2.3.4, and
the star in high regard.* [88] The Hawaiians saw Capella the entry in the Hipparcos catalogue (CDS ID I/239.)
as part of an asterism Ke ka o Makali'i
( The canoe bailer
of Makali'i) that helped them navigate at sea. Called [2] the distance between the Earth and the Sun is one astro-
Hoku-leistar wreath, it formed this asterism with Pro- nomical unit
cyon, Sirius, Castor and Pollux.* [8] In Tahitian folklore, [3] Polaris is only second magnitude.
Capella was Tahi-ari'i, the wife of Fa'a-nui (Auriga) and
mother of prince Ta'urua (Venus) who sails his canoe [4] The lithium abundance, C12 /C13 ratio and C/N ratio have
across the sky.* [89] In Inuit astronomy, Capella, along all declined in Capella Aa but not in Capella Ab.
with Menkalinan (Beta Aurigae), Pollux (Beta Gemino-
rum) and Castor (Alpha Geminorum), formed a constel-
lation Quturjuuk, collar-bones, the two pairs of stars 13.10 References
denoting a bone each. Used for navigation and time-
keeping at night, the constellation was recognised from [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation
Alaska to western Greenland.* [90] The Gwich'in saw of the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and
Capella and Menkalinan has forming shreets' vidzee, Astrophysics. 474 (2): 65364. arXiv:0708.1752
the right ear of the large circumpolar constellation Yahdii, . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
which covered much of the night sky, and whose orien- 6361:20078357.
tation facilitated navigation and timekeeping.* [91]
In Australian Aboriginal mythology for the Boorong peo- catalogue. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Obser-
ple of Victoria, Capella was Purra, the kangaroo, pur- vatory, 5th rev.ed. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
sued and killed by the nearby Gemini twins, Yurree
(Castor) and Wanjel (Pollux).* [92] The Wardaman peo- [3] Petit, M. (1990). Catalogue of Variable or Suspected
ple of northern Australia knew the star as Yagalal, a cer- Stars Nearby the Sun. Astronomy and Astrophysics Sup-
emonial sh scale, related to Guwamba the barramundi plement. 85: 971. Bibcode:1990A&AS...85..971P.
(Aldebaran).* [93] [4] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
13.7 Namesakes B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1.
Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
Capella, a lunar crater to the north of the Mare Nec- [5] Strassmeier, K. G.; Fekel, F. C. (1990). The spectral
taris, not named after the star classication of chromospherically active binary stars with
composite spectra. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 230:
USS Capella (AK-13) and USNS Capella (T-AKR- 389. Bibcode:1990A&A...230..389S.
293), both United States Navy ships
[6] Torres, Guillermo; Claret, Antonio; Pavlovski, Kreimir;
Mazda Capella, a model of automobile manufac- Dotter, Aaron (2015). Capella ( Aurigae) Revis-
ited: New Binary Orbit, Physical Properties, and Evo-
tured by Mazda
lutionary State. The Astrophysical Journal. 807:
26. arXiv:1505.07461 . Bibcode:2015ApJ...807...26T.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/807/1/26.
13.8 In ction
[7] NAME CAPELLA Variable of RS CVn type, database
entry, SIMBAD. Accessed on line December 23, 2008.
Main article: Capella in ction
[8] Brosch 2008, p. 46.
[9] Entry 05167+4600, The Washington Double Star Cata- [25] Torres, Guillermo; Claret, Antonio; Young, Patrick A.
log, United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line (2009). Binary Orbit, Physical Properties, and Evo-
December 24, 2008. lutionary State of Capella ( Aurigae).. The Astro-
physical Journal. 700 (2): 134981. arXiv:0906.0977
[10] GJ 194, catalog entry, Preliminary Version of the Third
. Bibcode:2009ApJ...700.1349T. doi:10.1088/0004-
Catalogue of Nearby Stars, Gliese, Wilhelm; Jahreiss, H.
637X/700/2/1349.
1991, CDS ID V/70A.
[11] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of [26] Mason, B. (August 2225, 2006). Classical Observa-
Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and tions of Visual Binary and Multiple Stars. In William
Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Sky Pub. p. 19. ISBN I. Hartkopf; Edward F. Guinan; Petr Harmanec. Binary
978-1-931559-44-7. Stars as Critical Tools and Tests in Contemporary Astro-
physics, Proceedings of the 240th Symposium of the Inter-
[12] Mamajek, Eric; Garca, Beatriz; Hamacher, Duane; national Astronomical Union, Held in Prague, Czech Re-
Montmerle, Thierry; Pasacho, Jay; Ridpath, Ian; Sun, public. Cambridge University Press. pp. 8896 [94].
Xiaochun; van Gent, Robert (2016). IAU Working doi:10.1017/S1743921307003857. ISBN 0-521-86348-
Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Retrieved 22 May 2016. 1.
[13] Mamajek, Eric; Garca, Beatriz; Hamacher, Duane; [27] Anderson, John A. (1920). Application of Michel-
Montmerle, Thierry; Pasacho, Jay; Ridpath, Ian; Sun, son's Interferometer Method to the Measurement of Close
Xiaochun; van Gent, Robert.Bulletin of the IAU Work- Double Stars. Astrophysical Journal. 51: 26375.
ing Group on Star Names, No. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 Bibcode:1920ApJ....51..263A. doi:10.1086/142551.
July 2016.
[28] Tubbs, Bob (April 1997). Modern Optical Interferom-
[14] Mamajek, Eric; Garca, Beatriz; Hamacher, Duane; etry. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
Montmerle, Thierry; Pasacho, Jay; Ridpath, Ian; Sun,
Xiaochun; van Gent, Robert (July 2016). IAU Catalog [29] Hummel, C. A.; Armstrong, J. T.; Quirrenbach, A.;
of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. Buscher, D. F.; Mozurkewich, D.; Elias, N. M., II; Wil-
son, R. E. (1994). Very high precision orbit of Capella
[15] Mamajek, Eric; Garca, Beatriz; Hamacher, Duane; by long baseline interferometry. The Astronomical
Montmerle, Thierry; Pasacho, Jay; Ridpath, Ian; Sun, Journal. 107: 1859. Bibcode:1994AJ....107.1859H.
Xiaochun; van Gent, Robert (October 2016). Bulletin doi:10.1086/116995. See 1 for spectral types, Table 1
of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 2(PDF). for orbit, Table 5 for stellar parameters, and 6.3 for the
Retrieved 12 October 2016. age of the system.
[16] Schaaf 2008, p. 155.
[30] Baldwin, J. E.; Beckett, M. G.; Boysen, R. C.; Burns, D.;
[17] Schaaf 2008, p. 152. Buscher, D. F.; Cox, G. C.; Hani, C. A.; Mackay, C. D.;
Nightingale, N. S.; Rogers, J.; Scheuer, P. A. G.; Scott,
[18] Rogers, John H. (1998). Origins of the Ancient Con- T. R.; Tuthill, P. G.; Warner, P. J.; Wilson, D. M. A.;
stellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions. Journal Wilson, R. W. (1996). The rst images from an op-
of the British Astronomical Association. 108 (1): 928. tical aperture synthesis array: mapping of Capella with
Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R. COAST at two epochs. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
306: L13L16. Bibcode:1996A&A...306L..13B..
[19] Allen 2013, p. 88.
[31] Furuhjelm, Ragnar (April 1914). Ein schwacher Be-
[20] Allen 2013, p. 86. gleiter zu Capella. Astronomische Nachrichten (in Ger-
man). 197 (11): 18182. Bibcode:1914AN....197..181F.
[21] Aveni, Anthony F.; Linsley, Robert M. (1972).
doi:10.1002/asna.19141971103. 4715.
Mound J, Monte Albn: Possible Astronomical
Orientation. American Antiquity. 37 (4): 52831.
[32] Stearns, Carl L. (July 1936). Note on duplicity of
doi:10.2307/278959. JSTOR 278959.
Capella H. Astronomical Journal. 45 (1048): 120.
[22] Campbell, William Wallace (October 1899). The Bibcode:1936AJ.....45..120S. doi:10.1086/105349..
Spectroscopic Binary Capella. Astrophysical
Journal. 10: 177. Bibcode:1899ApJ....10..177C. [33] Kuiper, Gerard P. (October 1936). Conrmation of the
doi:10.1086/140625. Duplicity of Capella H. Astrophysical Journal. 84: 359.
Bibcode:1936ApJ....84Q.359K. doi:10.1086/143788.
[23] Newall, Hugh Frank (December 1899). Variable Ve-
locities of Stars in the Line of Sight. The Observatory. [34] Fisher, Philip C.; Meyerott, Arthur J. (1964).Stellar X-
22: 43637. Bibcode:1899Obs....22..436N. Ray Emission. Astrophysical Journal. 139 (1): 12342.
Bibcode:1964ApJ...139..123F. doi:10.1086/147742.
[24] Newall, Hugh Frank (March 1900). The
Binary System of Capella. Monthly No- [35] Catura, R. C.; Acton, L. W.; Johnson, H. M.
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 60 (1975). Evidence for X-ray emission from Capella
(6): 41820. Bibcode:1900MNRAS..60..418N. . Astrophysical Journal. 196 (pt.2): L4749.
doi:10.1093/mnras/60.6.418. Bibcode:1975ApJ...196L..47C. doi:10.1086/181741.
[36] Ishibashi, Kazunori; Dewey, Daniel; Huenemoerder, [51] Hutter, D. J.; Zavala, R. T.; Tycner, C.; Benson, J.
David P.; Testa, Paola (2006). Chandra/HETGS Ob- A.; Hummel, C. A.; Sanborn, J.; Franz, O. G.; John-
servations of the Capella System: The Primary as a ston, K. J. (2016). Surveying the Bright Stars by
Dominating X-Ray Source. The Astrophysical Jour- Optical Interferometry. I. A Search for Multiplicity
nal. 644 (2): L11720. arXiv:astro-ph/0605383 . among Stars of Spectral Types F-K. The Astrophysi-
Bibcode:2006ApJ...644L.117I. doi:10.1086/505702. cal Journal Supplement Series. 227: 4. arXiv:1609.05254
. Bibcode:2016ApJS..227....4H. doi:10.3847/0067-
[37] Gdel, Manuel (2004). X-ray astronomy of stellar 0049/227/1/4.
coronae. The Astronomy and Astrophysics Re-
view. 12 (23): 71237. arXiv:astro-ph/0406661 . [52] Schaaf 2008, pp. 15355.
Bibcode:2004A&ARv..12...71G. doi:10.1007/s00159- [53] Argiro, C.; Maggio, A.; Peres, G. (2003). On
004-0023-2. coronal structures and their variability in active stars:
The case of Capella observed with Chandra/LETGS
[38] Schaaf 2008, p. 146.
Bibcode:2003A&A...404.1033A. doi:10.1051/0004-
[39] Burnham 1978, p. 261.
6361:20030497.
[40] Arnold, H. P. (1999). The Photographic Atlas of the Stars. [54] Roeser, S.; Bastian, U. (1988). A new star catalogue
IOP Publishing Ltd. p. 68. ISBN 0-7503-0654-8. of SAO type. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement
Series. 74: 449. Bibcode:1988A&AS...74..449R. ISSN
[41] Ball, Robert (2014) [1900]. A Primer of Astronomy.
0365-0138.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 19495. ISBN 978-
1-107-42743-3. [55] Eggen, Olin J. (1963). Three-color photometry
of the components in 228 wide double and multi-
[42] Ridpath & Tirion 2001, pp. 8688. ple systems. Astronomical Journal. 68: 483.
Bibcode:1963AJ.....68..483E. doi:10.1086/109000.
[43] Bailer-Jones, C. A. L. (2015). Close encounters of
the stellar kind. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 575: 13. [56] Cutri, R. M.; Skrutskie, M. F.; Van Dyk, S.; Beich-
arXiv:1412.3648 . Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..35B. man, C. A.; Carpenter, J. M.; Chester, T.; Cambresy,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425221. A35. L.; Evans, T.; Fowler, J.; Gizis, J.; Howard, E.; Huchra,
J.; Jarrett, T.; Kopan, E. L.; Kirkpatrick, J. D.; Light,
[44] Tomkin, Jocelyn (April 1998). Once and Future Ce- R. M.; Marsh, K. A.; McCallon, H.; Schneider, S.;
lestial Kings. Sky and Telescope. 95 (4): 5963. Stiening, R.; Sykes, M.; Weinberg, M.; Wheaton, W.
Bibcode:1998S&T....95d..59T. based on computations A.; Wheelock, S.; Zacarias, N. (2003). VizieR On-
from Hipparcos data. (The calculations exclude stars line Data Catalog: 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point
whose distance or proper motion is uncertain.) PDF Sources (Cutri+ 2003)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
II/246. Originally published in: 2003yCat.2246....0C.
[45] Eggen, Olin J. (1960). Stellar Groups, VII. 2246. Bibcode:2003yCat.2246....0C.
The Structure of the Hyades Group. Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 120 [57] Agrawal, P. C.; Rao, A. R.; Sreekantan, B. V. (1986).
(6): 54062. Bibcode:1960MNRAS.120..540E. Study of quiescent state X-ray emission from are
doi:10.1093/mnras/120.6.540. stars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety. 219 (2): 225. Bibcode:1986MNRAS.219..225A.
[46] Schaaf 2008, p. 154. doi:10.1093/mnras/219.2.225. ISSN 0035-8711.
[47] Ayres, Thomas R. (1984). Capella HL. Cool Stars, [58] Joy, Alfred H.; Abt, Helmut A. (1974). Spec-
Stellar Systems, and the Sun. Cool Stars. Lecture Notes in tral Types of M Dwarf Stars. Astrophysical Jour-
Physics. 193. p. 202. Bibcode:1984LNP...193..202A. nal Supplement. 28: 1. Bibcode:1974ApJS...28....1J.
doi:10.1007/3-540-12907-3_204. ISBN 978-3-540- doi:10.1086/190307.
12907-3.
[59] Stauer, J. R.; Hartmann, L. W. (1986).Chromospheric
activity, kinematics, and metallicities of nearby M dwarfs
[48] Burnham 1978, p. 264.
. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 61: 531.
[49] Ski, Brian A. (2014). VizieR Online Data Cata- Bibcode:1986ApJS...61..531S. doi:10.1086/191123.; see
log: Catalogue of Stellar Spectral Classications (Ski, Table 1.
20092016)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/mk. Origi- [60] Bidelman, W. P. (1985). G. P. Kuiper's spec-
nally published in: Lowell Observatory (October 2014). 1. tral classications of proper-motion stars. As-
Bibcode:2014yCat....1.2023S. trophysical Journal Supplement Series. 59: 197.
Bibcode:1985ApJS...59..197B. doi:10.1086/191069.
[50] Weber, M.; Strassmeier, K. G. (2011). The Spec-
ISSN 0067-0049.
troscopic Orbit of Capella Revisited. Astronomy &
Astrophysics. 531: id.A89 (5 pp.). arXiv:1104.0342 [61] Jenkins, Louise F. (1952). General catalogue
. Bibcode:2011A&A...531A..89W. doi:10.1051/0004- of trigonometric stellar parallaxes. New Haven.
6361/201116885. Bibcode:1952GCTP..C......0J.
[62] Leggett, S. K.; Allard, F.; Berriman, Graham; Dahn, Society. 400: 406. Bibcode:2009MNRAS.400..406H.
Conard C.; Hauschildt, Peter H. (1996). Infrared Spec- doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15495.x.
tra of Low-Mass Stars: Toward a Temperature Scale
for Red Dwarfs. The Astrophysical Journal Supple- [75] Wagman, Morton (2003). Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and
ment Series. 104: 117. Bibcode:1996ApJS..104..117L. Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer,
doi:10.1086/192295.; see Tables 3, 6 and 7. Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry
Others. The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Com-
[63] Johnson, H.M. (1983). Origins and ages of pany. p. 503. ISBN 978-0-939923-78-6.
X-ray-luminous dwarf M stars. Astrophysical
Journal. 273: 702. Bibcode:1983ApJ...273..702J. [76] Winterburn 2009, p. 131.
doi:10.1086/161405.
[77] Ridpath, Ian. Auriga. Star Tales. self-published. Re-
[64] Fischer, Debra A.; Marcy, Georey W. (1992). trieved 4 March 2014.
Multiplicity among M dwarfs. The Astrophysical
Journal. 396: 178. Bibcode:1992ApJ...396..178F. [78] Allen 2013, p. 87.
doi:10.1086/171708.; see Table 1.
[79] Edward William Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon: cwq
[65] G 96-29 High proper-motion Star, database entry,
SIMBAD. Accessed on line December 23, 2008. [80] Bailey, Clinton (1974). Bedouin Star-Lore in Sinai and
the Negev. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
[66] NAME CAPELLA L Star in double system, database Studies, University of London. 37 (3): 58096. JSTOR
entry, SIMBAD. Accessed on line December 23, 2008. 613801.
[67] Heintz, W.D. (1975). Parallax and motions of the [81] Straiys, V.; Klimka, L. (1997). The Cosmology
Capella system. The Astrophysical Journal. 195: 411. of the Ancient Balts. Journal for the History of
Bibcode:1975ApJ...195..411H. doi:10.1086/153340. Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement. 28: S57.
Bibcode:1997JHAS...28...57S.
[68] Heckmann, O. (1975). AGK 3. Star catalogue of
positions and proper motions north of 2.5 deg. Dec- [82] Cenev, Gjore (2008).Macedonian Folk Constellations.
lination. Hamburg-Bergedorf: Hamburger Sternwarte. Publications of the Astronomical Observatory of Belgrade.
Bibcode:1975AGK3..C......0H. 85: 97109. Bibcode:2008POBeo..85...97C.
[69] Gontcharov, G. A. (2012). Spatial distribution [83] Henry Cornelius Agrippa (1651). The Philosophy of Nat-
and kinematics of OB stars. Astronomy Let- ural Magic. Translated by J. F. Library of Alexandria. p.
ters. 38 (11): 694. Bibcode:2012AstL...38..694G. 29. ISBN 978-1-4655-7650-7.
doi:10.1134/S1063773712110035.
[84] Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1967)
[70] Homan, John; Gnther, Hans M.; Wright, Nicholas J. [1533]. De Occulta Philosophia (in Latin). Reichl Ver-
(2012). Constraints on the Ubiquity of Coronal X- lag. p. 17. ISBN 978-3-87667-021-8.
Ray Cycles. The Astrophysical Journal. 759 (2): 145.
arXiv:1209.5101 . Bibcode:2012ApJ...759..145H. [85] AEEA , Activities of Exhibition and
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/759/2/145. Education in Astronomy (in Chinese). National Mu-
seum of Natural Science, Taiwan. Retrieved 31 Decem-
[71] Nichols, Joy S.; Henden, Arne A.; Huenemoerder, David ber 2008.
P.; Lauer, Jennifer L.; Martin, Eric; Morgan, Douglas
L.; Sundheim, Beth A. (2010). The Chandra Variable [86] Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, Anthony F.
Guide Star Catalog. The Astrophysical Journal Sup- (2005). Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey
plement. 188 (2): 473. Bibcode:2010ApJS..188..473N. of Archaeoastronomy. Birkhuser. p. 322. ISBN 0-387-
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/188/2/473. 95310-8.
[72] Schlimmer, J. (2010). Double Star Measure- [87] " (Chi-

ments Using a Webcam, Annual Report of 2009 nese/English Star names)" (in Chinese). Hong Kong
. Journal of Double Star Observations. 6: 197. Space Museum. Archived from the original on 29
Bibcode:2010JDSO....6..197S. September 2009. Retrieved 31 December 2008.
[73] Shaya, Ed J.; Olling, Rob P. (2011). Very [88] Antoniadi, E.M. (1942). L'Astronomie des Incas et des
Wide Binaries and Other Comoving Stellar Compan- Anciens Peruviens. L'Astronomie (in French). 56: 137
ions: A Bayesian Analysis of the Hipparcos Cata- 39. Bibcode:1942LAstr..56..137A.
logue. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 192:
2. Bibcode:2011ApJS..192....2S. doi:10.1088/0067- [89] Henry, Teuira (1907). Tahitian Astronomy: Birth of
0049/192/1/2. Heavenly Bodies. The Journal of the Polynesian Society.
16 (2): 10104. JSTOR 20700813.
[74] Heminiak, K. G.; Konacki, M.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Eis-
ner, J. (2009). Precision astrometry of a sam- [90] MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic Sky: Inuit As-
ple of speckle binaries and multiples with the adap- tronomy, Star Lore, and Legend. Royal Ontario Mu-
tive optics facilities at the Hale and Keck II tele- seum/Nunavut Research Institute. pp. 6567. ISBN 978-
scopes. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical 0-88854-427-8.
[91] Cannon, Chris; Holton, Gary (2014). A newly docu-

mented whole-sky circumpolar constellation in Alaskan
Gwich'in (PDF). Arctic Anthropology. 51 (2): 18.
doi:10.3368/aa.51.2.1.
[92] Stanbridge, William Edward (1857). On the astron-

omy and mythology of the Aborigines of Victoria. Pro-
ceedings of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria. 2: 140.

Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Hugh C. Cairns. pp. 204
05. ISBN 0-9750908-0-1.
[94] Schaaf 2008, p. 153.
[95] Telotte, J. P. (2008). The Essential Science Fiction Televi-

sion Reader. University Press of Kentucky. p. 202. ISBN
0-8131-2492-1.
[96] Writers and Scientists Name Science Fiction Books That

Should Be Called Classics. The Washington Post. 1
November 2010.
[97] Page, Michael R. (2017). Saving the World Through Sci-

ence Fiction: James Gunn, Writer, Teacher and Scholar.
McFarland. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-4766-6309-8.
13.10.1 Cited texts

Allen, Richard Hinckley (2013) [1899]. Star
Names: Their Lore and Meaning (Reprint ed.).
Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-13766-7.
Burnham, Robert Jr. (1978). Burnham's Celestial
Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Be-
yond the Solar System, Volume One: Andromeda-
Cetus (Revised & Enlarged ed.). Dover Publica-
tions. ISBN 978-0-486-23567-7.
Ridpath, Ian; Tirion, Wil (2001). Stars and Plan-

ets Guide. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-
691-08913-3.
Brosch, Noah (2008). Sirius Matters. Springer Sci-
ence & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-8319-8.
Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discov-
ering the Universe through the Sky's Most Brilliant
Stars. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-24917-8.
Winterburn, Emily (2009). The Stargazer's Guide:

How to Read Our Night Sky. Harper Perennial.
ISBN 978-0-06-178969-4.
Coordinates: 05* h 16* m 41.3591* s, 45 59 52.768

Chapter 14
Altair
This article is about the star in the constellation Aquila.

For other uses, see Altair (disambiguation).
Altair (/ltr, -tar, ltr, -tar/), also designated

Alpha Aquilae ( Aquilae, abbreviated Alpha Aql,
Aql), is the brightest star in the constellation of Aquila
and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky. It is cur-
rently in the G-clouda nearby accumulation of gas and
dust known as an interstellar cloud.* [12]* [13] Altair is an
A-type main sequence star with an apparent visual mag-
nitude of 0.77 and is one of the vertices of the asterism
known as the Summer Triangle (the other two vertices
are marked by Deneb and Vega).* [4]* [14]* [15] It is 16.7
light-years (5.13 parsecs) from the Sun and is one of the
closest stars visible to the naked eye.* [16]
Altair rotates rapidly, with a velocity at the equator of
approximately 286 km/s.* [nb 2]* [6] This is a signicant
fraction of the star's estimated breakup speed of 400
km/s.* [9] A study with the Palomar Testbed Interferom- Altair
eter revealed that Altair is not spherical, but is attened
at the poles due to its high rate of rotation.* [17] Other
interferometric studies with multiple telescopes, operat-
14.2 Characteristics
ing in the infrared, have imaged and conrmed this phe-
nomenon.* [6] Along with Beta Aquilae and Gamma Aquilae, Altair
forms the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to
as the Family of Aquila or Shaft of Aquila.* [21]
Altair is a type-A main sequence star with approxi-
mately 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and 11 times its
luminosity.* [6]* [7] Altair possesses an extremely rapid
rate of rotation; it has a rotational period of approxi-
14.1 Nomenclature mately 9 hours.* [7] For comparison, the equator of the
Sun requires a little more than 25 days for a complete
rotation. This rapid rotation forces Altair to be oblate;
Aquilae (Latinised to Alpha Aquilae) is the star's Bayer its equatorial diameter
*
is over 20 percent greater than its
designation. The traditional name Altair has been used polar diameter. [6]
since medieval times. It is an abbreviation of the Arabic Satellite measurements made in 1999 with the Wide Field
phrase , al-nesr al-ir (the ying eagle). Infrared Explorer showed that the brightness of Altair
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized uctuates slightly, varying by just a few thousandths of
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [18] to cata- a magnitude with several dierent periods less than 2
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's hours.* [5] As a result, it was identied in 2005 as a Delta
rst bulletin of July 2016* [19] included a table of the rst Scuti variable star. Its light curve can be approximated
two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which in- by adding together a number of sine waves, with periods
cluded Altair for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU that range between 0.8 and 1.5 hours.* [22] It is a weak
Catalog of Star Names.* [20] source of coronal X-ray emission, with the most active
124
14.3. ETYMOLOGY, MYTHOLOGY, AND CULTURE 125
sources of emission being located near the star's equator. Atair has also been used.* [29] Medieval astrolabes of
This activity may be due to convection cells forming at England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega
the cooler equator.* [9] as birds.* [30]
The Koori people of Victoria also knew Altair as Bunjil,
the wedge-tailed eagle, and and Aquilae are his two
14.2.1 Oblateness and surface tempera- wives the black swans. The people of the Murray River
ture knew the star as Totyerguil.* [31] The Murray River was
formed when Totyerguil the hunter speared Otjout, a gi-
The angular diameter of Altair was measured ant Murray cod, who, when wounded, churned a channel
interferometrically by R. Hanbury Brown and his across southern Australia before entering the sky as the
co-workers at Narrabri Observatory in the 1960s. They constellation Delphinus.* [32]
found a diameter of 3 milliarcseconds.* [23] Although
Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be In Chinese, the asterism consisting of , , and Aquilae
rotationally attened, they had insucient data to is known as H G (; lit.river drum).* [29] Altair
experimentally observe its oblateness. Altair was later is thus known as H G r (; lit.river drum two,
observed to be attened by infrared interferometric mea- meaning thesecond star of the drum at the river).* [33]
surements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer However, Altair is better known by its other names: Qin
in 1999 and 2000. This work was published by G. T. van Ni Xng () or Ni Lng Xng (), trans-
Belle, David R. Ciardi and their co-authors in 2001.* [17] lated as the cowherd star.* [34]* [35] These names are an
allusion to a love story, The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd,
Theory predicts that, owing to Altair's rapid rotation, its in which Niulang (represented by Altair) and his two chil-
surface gravity and eective temperature should be lower dren (represented by and Aquilae) are separated from
at the equator, making the equator less luminous than the respectively their wife and mother Zhinu (represented by
poles. This phenomenon, known as gravity darkening or Vega) by the Milky Way. They are only permitted to meet
the von Zeipel eect, was conrmed for Altair by mea- once a year, when magpies form a bridge to allow them
surements made by the Navy Prototype Optical Interfer- to cross the Milky Way.* [35]* [36]
ometer in 2001, and analyzed by Ohishi et al. (2004) and
Peterson et al. (2006).* [7]* [24] Also, A. Domiciano de The people of Micronesia called Altair Mai-lapa, mean-
Souza et al. (2005) veried gravity darkening using the ing big/old breadfruit, while the Mori people called
measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interfer- this star Poutu-te-rangi, meaningpillar of heaven.* [37]
ometers, together with new measurements made by the In Western astrology, the star Altair was ill-omened, por-
VINCI instrument at the VLTI.* [25] tending danger from reptiles.* [29]
Altair is one of the few stars for which a direct image Japan Airlines's Starjet 777-200 JA8983 was named Al-
has been obtained.* [26] In 2006 and 2007, J. D. Monnier tair.
and his coworkers produced an image of Altair's surface
Altair Airlines was a regional airline that operated out of
from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC in-
Philadelphia from 1966 to 1982.
strument on the CHARA array interferometer; this was
the rst time the surface of any main-sequence star, apart The NASA Constellation Program announced Altair as
from the Sun, had been imaged.* [26] The false-color im- the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module (LSAM)
age was published in 2007. The equatorial radius of the on December 13, 2007.* [38] The Russian-made Beriev
star was estimated to be 2.03 solar radii, and the polar Be-200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star.* [39]
radius 1.63 solar radiia 25% increase of the stellar ra- The Altair 8800 was one of the rst microcomputers in-
dius from pole to equator.* [6] The polar axis is inclined tended for home use.
by about 60 to the line of sight from the Earth.* [9]
Altair is the name of three United States navy ships: USS
Altair (AD-11), USS Altair (AK-257) and USNS Altair
(T-AKR-291).
14.3 Etymology, mythology, and
Altair is the name of a 1919 poem by Karle Wilson Baker.
culture
See also: Altair in ction
Three of them walk together-
The term Al Nesr Al Tair appeared in Al Achsasi al She is the fairest of three;
Mouakket's catalogue, which was translated into Latin And sweet as the heavenly weather
as Vultur Volans.* [27] This name was applied by the She maketh the heart of me!"* [1]
Arabs to the asterism of , , and Aquilae and proba-
bly goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians,
who called Aquilae the eagle star.* [28] The spelling 1. ^ Altair, by Karle Wilson Baker
126 CHAPTER 14. ALTAIR
14.4 Visual companions [8] Malagnini, M. L.; Morossi, C. (November 1990), Ac-
curate absolute luminosities, eective temperatures, radii,
masses and surface gravities for a selected sample of eld
The bright primary star has the multiple star designation
stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 85
WDS 19508+0852A and has three faint visual compan- (3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M
ion stars, WDS 19508+0852B, C, and D. Component B
is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it [9] Robrade, J.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (April 2009), Altair
in the sky.* [10] - the hottestmagnetically active star in X-rays
, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 497 (2): 511520,
arXiv:0903.0966 , Bibcode:2009A&A...497..511R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200811348.
14.5 Notes
[10] HR 7557, database entry, The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th
[1] Owing to its rapid rotation, Altair's radius is larger at its Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H.
equator than at its poles; it is also cooler at the equator Warren, Jr., CDS ID V/50. Accessed on line November
than at the poles. 25, 2008.
[2] From values of v sin i and i in the second column of Table [11] Entry 19508+0852, The Washington Double Star Cata-
1, Monnier et al. 2007. log, United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line
November 25, 2008.
[12] Our Local Galactic Neighborhood. NASA.

14.6 References
[13] Gilster, Paul (2010-09-01). Into the Interstellar Void
. Centauri Dreams. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
[1] Altair: denition of Altair in Oxford dictionary (Amer-
ican English)". [14] Altair, entry, The Internet Encyclopedia of Science, David
Darling. Accessed on line November 25, 2008.
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and [15] Summer Triangle, entry, The Internet Encyclopedia of Sci-
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , ence, David Darling. Accessed on line November 26,
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- 2008.
6361:20078357
[16] Hoboken, Fred Schaaf (2008). The brightest stars : dis-
[3] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- covering the universe through the sky's most brilliant stars.
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 194. ISBN 978-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. 0-471-70410-2. OCLC 440257051.
[17] Belle, Gerard T. van; Ciardi, David R.; Thompson, Robert
[4] NAME ALTAIR -- Variable Star of delta Sct type, R.; Akeson, Rachel L.; Lada, Elizabeth A. (2001).
database entry, SIMBAD. Accessed on line November 25, Altair's Oblateness and Rotation Velocity from Long-
2008. Baseline Interferometry. The Astrophysical Journal.
559 (2): 11551164. Bibcode:2001ApJ...559.1155V.
[5] Buzasi, D. L.; Bruntt, H.; Bedding, T. R.; Retter, A.; doi:10.1086/322340. ISSN 0004-637X.
Kjeldsen, H.; Preston, H. L.; Mandeville, W. J.; Suarez, J.
C.; Catanzarite, J.; Conrow, T.; Laher, R. (2005). Al- [18] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
tair: The Brightest Scuti Star. The Astrophysical Jour- trieved 22 May 2016.
nal. 619 (2): 10721076. arXiv:astro-ph/0405127 . [19] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
Bibcode:2005ApJ...619.1072B. doi:10.1086/426704. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[6] Monnier, J. D.; Zhao, M; Pedretti, E; Thureau, N; Ire- [20] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
land, M; Muirhead, P; Berger, J. P.; Millan-Gabet, R;
Van Belle, G; Ten Brummelaar, T; McAlister, H; Ridg- [21] p. 190, Schaaf 2008.
way, S; Turner, N; Sturmann, L; Sturmann, J; Berger,
D (2007). Imaging the surface of Altair. Science. [22] Altair: The Brightest Scuti Star, D. L. Buzasi
317 (5836): 342345. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..342M. et al., The Astrophysical Journal 619, #2 (February
doi:10.1126/science.1143205. PMID 17540860. See 2005), pp. 10721076, doi:10.1086/426704, Bibcode:
second column of Table 1 for stellar parameters. 2005ApJ...619.1072B.
[7] Resolving the Eects of Rotation in Altair with Long- [23] The stellar interferometer at Narrabri Observatory-II. The
Baseline Interferometry, D. M. Peterson et al., The Astro- angular diameters of 15 stars, R. Hanbury Brown, J.
physical Journal 636, #2 (January 2006), pp. 10871097, Davis, L. R. Allen, and J. M. Rome, Monthly Notices of
doi:10.1086/497981, Bibcode: 2006ApJ...636.1087P; the Royal Astronomical Society 137 (1967), pp. 393417,
see Table 2 for stellar parameters. Bibcode: 1967MNRAS.137..393H.
[24] Asymmetric Surface Brightness Distribution of Altair [38] NASA names next-gen lunar lander Altair, December 13,
Observed with the Navy Prototype Optical Interferom- 2007, collectspace.com. Accessed on line November 26,
eter, Naoko Ohishi, Tyler E. Nordgren, and Donald J. 2008.
Hutter, The Astrophysical Journal 612, #1 (September
1, 2004), pp. 463471, doi:10.1086/422422, Bibcode: [39] Press release #58, Beriev Aircraft Company, February 12,
2004ApJ...612..463O. 2003. Accessed on line November 26, 2008.
[25] Gravitational-darkening of Altair from interferometry, A. [40] BD+08 4236B -- Star in double system, database entry,
Domiciano de Souza, P. Kervella, S. Jankov, F. Vak- SIMBAD. Accessed on line November 25, 2008.
ili, N. Ohishi, T. E. Nordgren, and L. Abe, Astron-
[41] BD+08 4238 -- Star in double system, database entry,
omy and Astrophysics 442, #2 (November 2005), pp.
SIMBAD. Accessed on line November 25, 2008.
567578, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042476, Bibcode:
2005A&A...442..567D.
[26] Gazing up at the Man in the Star?, Press Release 07-062, 14.7 External links
National Science Foundation, May 31, 2007. Accessed on
line November 25, 2008.
Star with Midri Bulge Eyed by Astronomers, JPL
[27] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al press release, July 25, 2001.
darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket. Imaging the Surface of Altair, University of Michi-
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. gan news release detailing the CHARA array direct
55 (8): 429438. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K. imaging of the stellar surface in 2007.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
PIA04204: Altair, NASA. Image of Altair from the
[28] pp. 1718, A Dictionary of Modern Star Names, Paul Ku- Palomar Testbed Interferometer.
nitzsch and Tim Smart, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky
Publishing, 2006, ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7. Altair at SolStation.
[29] p. 5960, Star-names and Their Meanings, Richard Secrets of Sun-like star probed, BBC News, June 1,
Hinckley Allen, New York: G. E. Stechert, 1899. 2007.
[30] Gingerich, O. (1987). Zoomorphic Astrolabes Astronomers Capture First Images of the Surface
and the Introduction of Arabic Star Names into Eu- Features of Altair, astromart.com.
ences. 500: 89104. Bibcode:1987NYASA.500...89G. Image of Altair from Aladin.
doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37197.x.
Altair on Constellation Guide
[31] p. 4, Aboriginal mythology : an A-Z spanning the history
of aboriginal mythology from the earliest legends to the
present day, Mudrooroo, London: HarperCollins, 1994, Coordinates: 19* h 50* m 46.9990* s, +08 52
ISBN 1-85538-306-3. 05.959
[32] p. 115, Mudrooroo 1994.
[33] (Chinese) - - ,
Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
26, 2008.
[34] pp. 9798, 161, The Chinese Reader's Manual, William

Frederick Mayers, Shanghai: American Presbyterian
Mission Press, 1874.
[35] p. 72, China, Japan, Korea Culture and Customs: Cul-

ture and Customs, Ju Brown and John Brown, 2006, ISBN
978-1-4196-4893-9.
[36] pp. 105107, Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales

from the Han Chinese, Haiwang Yuan and Michael
Ann Williams, Libraries Unlimited, 2006, ISBN 978-1-
59158-294-6.
[37] p. 175, The Lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The Culture and

Environment of Ancestral Oceanic Society: The Physical
Environment, Volume 2, Malcolm Ross, Andrew Paw-
ley and Meredith Osmond, Canberra, The Australian Na-
tional University E Press, 2007.
Chapter 15
Aldebaran
For other uses, see Aldebaran (disambiguation). Not Rohini (the red one) and as one of the twenty-seven
to be confused with Alderamin, Alderaan, or Alderaan daughters of Daksha and the wife of the god Chandra
(astronomy). (moon).
Aldebaran, designated Alpha Tauri ( Tauri, abbre-

viated Alpha Tau, Tau), is an orange giant star lo- 15.1.2 Mythology
cated about 65 light years from the Sun in the zodiac
constellation of Taurus. It is the brightest star in its con- This easily seen and striking star in its suggestive asterism
stellation and usually the fourteenth-brightest star in the is a popular subject for ancient and modern myths.
nighttime sky, though it varies slowly in brightness be-
tween magnitude 0.75 and 0.95. It is likely that Alde- Mexican culture: For the Seris of northwestern
baran hosts a planet several times the size of Jupiter. Mexico, this star provides light for the seven women
The planetary exploration probe Pioneer 10 is currently giving birth (Pleiades). It has three names: Hant
heading in the general direction of the star and should Caalajc Ippj, Queeto, and Azoj Yeen oo Caapstar (
*
make its closest approach in about two million years. [14] that goes ahead). The lunar month corresponding
to October is called Queeto yaaoAldebaran's path
.* [20]
15.1 Nomenclature Aboriginal culture: in the Clarence River of north-

eastern New South Wales, this star is the Ances-
Alpha Tauri is the star's Bayer designation. The name tor Karambal, who stole another man's wife. The
Aldebaran is Arabic ( al-dabarn) and meansthe woman's husband tracked him down and burned the
Follower, presumably because it rises near and soon tree in which he was hiding. It is believed that he
after the Pleiades.* [15] In 2016, the International As- rose to the sky as smoke and became the star Alde-
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star baran.* [21]
Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and standardize proper
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July
2016* [17] included a table of the rst two batches of 15.2 Observation history
names approved by the WGSN; which included Alde-
baran for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog
of Star Names.* [18] On March 11, of 509 AD, a lunar occultation of Alde-
baran was observed in Athens, Greece.* [22] English as-
tronomer Edmund Halley studied the timing of this event,
15.1.1 Names in other languages and in 1718 concluded that Aldebaran must have changed
position since that time, moving several minutes of arc
In Persia it was known as Tascheter. further to the north. This, as well as observations of the
changing positions of stars Sirius and Arcturus, led to the
The Romans called it Palilicium. discovery of proper motion. Based on present day obser-
In the Middle Ages it was sometimes called Cor Tauri vations, the position of Aldebaran has shifted 7 in the
(the Heart of the Bull/Taurus). last 2000 years; roughly a quarter the diameter of the
full Moon.* [23]* [24] Note that 5,000 years ago the vernal
John Gower refers to it as Aldeboran.* [19] equinox was close to Aldebaran.
In Chinese it is known as (Bxiw, the Fifth Star English astronomer William Herschel discovered a faint
of the Net). companion to Aldebaran in 1782;* [25] an 11th magni-
In Hindu astronomy it is identied as the lunar mansion tude star at an angular separation of 117. This star was
128
15.4. VISIBILITY 129
shown to be itself a close double star by S. W. Burn- the main sequence band of the HertzsprungRussell dia-
ham in 1888, and he discovered an additional 14th mag- gram after exhausting the hydrogen at its core. The col-
nitude companion at an angular separation of 31. Fol- lapse of the centre of the star into a degenerate helium
low on measurements of proper motion showed that Her- core has ignited a shell of hydrogen outside the core and
schel's companion was diverging from Aldebaran, and Aldebaran is now a red giant.* [29] This has caused it to
hence they were not physically connected. However, the expand to 44.2 times the diameter of the Sun,* [11]* [30]
companion discovered by Burnham had almost exactly equivalent to approximately 61 million kilometres (see 10
the same proper motion as Aldebaran, suggesting that the gigametres for similar sizes).
two formed a wide binary star system.* [26]
Measurements by the Hipparcos satellite and other
Working at his private observatory in Tulse Hill, England, sources put Aldebaran around 65.3 light-years (20.0 par-
in 1864 William Huggins performed the rst studies of secs) away.* [9] Stellar models predict it only has about
the spectrum of Aldebaran, where he was able to iden- 50% more mass than the Sun, yet it shines with 425 times
tify the lines of nine elements, including iron, sodium, the Sun's luminosity due to the expanded radius. Alde-
calcium, and magnesium. In 1886, Edward C. Pickering baran is a slightly variable star, of the slow irregular vari-
at the Harvard College Observatory used a photographic able type LB. It varies by about 0.2 in apparent magni-
plate to capture fty absorption lines in the spectrum of tude from 0.75 to 0.95.* [5] With a near-infrared J band
Aldebaran. This became part of the Draper Catalogue, magnitude of 2.1, only Betelgeuse (2.9), R Doradus
published in 1890. By 1887, the photographic technique (2.6), and Arcturus (2.2) are brighter.* [7]
had improved to the point that it was possible to measure The photosphere shows abundances of carbon, oxygen,
a star's radial velocity from the amount of Doppler shift and nitrogen that suggest the giant has gone through
in the spectrum. By this means, the recession velocity its rst dredge-up stage a normal step in the evolu-
of Aldebaran was estimated as 30 miles per second (48 tion of a star into a red giant during which material
km/s), using measurements performed at Potsdam Ob- from deep within the star is brought up to the surface
servatory by Hermann C. Vogel and his assistant Julius by convection.* [10] With its slow rotation, Aldebaran
Scheiner.* [27] lacks a dynamo needed to generate a corona and hence
The angular diameter of this star was measured for the is not a source of hard X-ray emission. However, small
rst time in 1921 using an interferometer attached to the scale magnetic elds may still be present in the lower
Hooker Telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory. The atmosphere, resulting from convection turbulence near
result was 0.0237, which was in close agreement with the the surface. (The measured strength of the magnetic
estimated values of the time.* [28] eld on Aldebaran is 0.22 G.* [31]) Any resulting soft
X-ray emissions from this region may be attenuated by
the chromosphere, although ultraviolet emission has been
15.3 Physical properties detected in the spectrum.* [32] The star is currently los-
ing mass at a rate of (11.6) 10* 11 M yr* 1 with
a velocity of 30 km s* 1.* [10] This stellar wind may be
generated by the weak magnetic elds in the lower atmo-
sphere.* [32]
Sun Beyond the chromosphere of Aldebaran is an extended

molecular outer atmosphere (MOLsphere) where the
temperature is cool enough for molecules of gas to form.
This region lies between 1.2 and 2.8 times the radius
of the star, with temperatures of 1,0002,000 K. The
spectrum reveals lines of carbon monoxide, water, and
titanium oxide.* [10] Past this radius, the modest outow
Aldebaran of the stellar wind itself declines in temperature to about
7,500 K at a distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU)the
distance of the Earth from the Sun. The wind continues
to expand until it reaches the termination shock boundary
with the hot, ionized interstellar medium that dominates
the Local Bubble, forming a roughly spherical astrosphere
with a radius of around 1,000 AU, centered on Alde-
baran.* [33]
Size comparison between Aldebaran and the Sun
Aldebaran is classied as a type K5 III star, which indi-

cates it is an orange-hued giant star that has evolved o
130 CHAPTER 15. ALDEBARAN
15.5 Double star

Five faint stars are positioned so that they appear close
to Aldebaran. These double stars were given alphabetic
secondary star designations more or less in the order of
their discovery, with the letter A reserved for the primary
star. Some of the characteristics of these components,
including their position relative to Aldebaran, are listed
in the table at right.
Some surveys have indicated that Alpha Tauri B may have
about the same proper motion and parallax as Aldebaran
and thus may be a physical binary system. However these
measurements are dicult to make because the dim B
component appears so close to the bright primary star.
The resulting margin of error is too large to positively es-
Occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon tablish (or exclude) a physical relationship between the
two stars. So far neither the B component, nor anything
else, has been unambiguously shown to be physically as-
sociated with Aldebaran.* [38]
15.4 Visibility
Alpha Tauri CD is a binary system with the C and D
component stars gravitationally bound to and co-orbiting
Aldebaran is one of the easiest stars to nd in the night each other. These co-orbiting stars have been shown to
sky, partly due to its brightness and partly due to its spatial be located far beyond Aldebaran and are members of the
relation to one of the more noticeable asterisms in the sky. Hyades star cluster. As with the rest of the stars in the
If one follows the three stars of Orion's belt from left to cluster they do not physically interact with Aldebaran in
right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or right to left (in the any way.* [25]
Southern), the rst bright star found by continuing that
line is Aldebaran.
Since the star is located (by chance) in the line of sight be- 15.6 Claims of a planetary system
tween the Earth and the Hyades, it has the appearance of
being the brightest member of the more scattered Hyades Main article: Aldebaran b
open star cluster that makes up the bull's-head-shaped
asterism; however, the star cluster is actually more than In 1993, radial velocity measurements of Aldebaran,
twice as far away, at about 150 light years. Arcturus and Pollux showed that Aldebaran exhibited a
Aldebaran is close enough to the ecliptic to be occulted long-period radial velocity oscillation, which could be in-
by the Moon. Such occultations occur when the Moon's terpreted as a substellar companion. The measurements
ascending node is near the autumnal equinox. A series of for Aldebaran implied a companion with a minimum
49 occultations occur starting at 29 Jan 2015 and ending mass 11.4 times that of Jupiter in a 643-day orbit at a sep-
at 3 Sep 2018.* [34] Each event is visible from a dier- aration of 2.0 AU (300 Gm) in a mildly eccentric orbit.
ent location on Earth, but always in the northern hemi- However, all three stars surveyed showed similar oscilla-
sphere or close to the equator. That means that people tions yielding similar companion masses, and the authors
in e.g. Australia or South Africa can never observe an concluded that the variation was likely to be intrinsic to
Aldebaran occultation. This is due to the fact that Alde- the star rather than due to the gravitational eect of a
baran is slightly too far south of the ecliptic. A reasonably companion.* [39] In 2015 a study showed stable longterm
accurate estimate for the diameter of Aldebaran was ob- evidence for both a planetary companion and stellar ac-
tained during the September 22, 1978 occultation.* [35] tivity.* [40]
Aldebaran is in conjunction with the Sun around June 1
of each year.* [36]
Occultations by planets are not possible at present, as each 15.7 See also
planet passes Aldebaran north. The closest conjunction
of a planet with Aldebaran in the 21st century occurred Aldebaran in astrology
on July 9, 2012, when Venus passed Aldebaran 56' north-
ward. However, in the far future and far past occultations Aldebaran in ction
of Aldebaran by Mercury and Venus occurred as result Iota Draconis
of wandering nodes. The next occultation of Aldebaran
by a planet, Venus, will occur on 5366 August 27. Pollux
15.8 References . Bibcode:2005A&A...433..305R. doi:10.1051/0004-

6361:20041765. We derive an average value of
[1] Oxford Dictionary: Aldebaran 19.960.03 milliarcsec for the uniform disk diameter.
The corresponding limb-darkened value is 20.580.03
[2] Merriam-Webster: Aldebaran milliarcsec, or 44.20.9 R .
[3] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the [12] Piau, L.; et al. (February 2011). Surface con-
new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- vection and red-giant radius measurements. Astron-
omy and Astrophysics. 526: A100. arXiv:1010.3649
trophysics. 474 (2): 653. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- . Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. 6361/201014442.
[4] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- [13] Koncewicz, R.; Jordan, C. (January 2007).OI line emis-
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system sion in cool stars: calculations using partial redistribu-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. tion. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. 374 (1): 220231. Bibcode:2007MNRAS.374..220K.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11130.x.
[5] Query= alf Tau. General Catalogue of Variable Stars.
[14] Nieto, Michael Martin; Anderson, John D. (Jan-
Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Re-
uary 2007). Search for a solution of the Pioneer
trieved 2009-12-16.
anomaly. Contemporary Physics. 48 (1): 41
[6] Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; McFadden, 54. arXiv:0709.3866 . Bibcode:2007ConPh..48...41N.
M. T.; Bubar, E. J.; McGahee, C. E.; O'Donoghue, A. doi:10.1080/00107510701462061.
A.; Knox, E. R. (2006). Contributions to the Nearby
[15] Falkner, David E. (2011). The Winter Constellations
Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars Earlier than
. The Mythology of the Night Sky. Patrick Moore's Prac-
M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample. The Astro-
tical Astronomy Series. p. 19. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-
nomical Journal. 132: 161. arXiv:astro-ph/0603770 . 0137-7_3. ISBN 978-1-4614-0136-0.
Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G. doi:10.1086/504637.
[7] Cutri, R. M.; Skrutskie, M. F.; Van Dyk, S.; Beich- trieved 22 May 2016.
man, C. A.; Carpenter, J. M.; Chester, T.; Cambresy,
L.; Evans, T.; Fowler, J.; Gizis, J.; Howard, E.; Huchra, [17] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
J.; Jarrett, T.; Kopan, E. L.; Kirkpatrick, J. D.; Light, 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
R. M.; Marsh, K. A.; McCallon, H.; Schneider, S.; [18] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Stiening, R.; Sykes, M.; Weinberg, M.; Wheaton, W.
A.; Wheelock, S.; Zacarias, N. (2003). VizieR On- [19] Confessio Amantis VII.1310
line Data Catalog: 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point
[20] Moser, Mary B.; Marlett, Stephen A. (2005). Comcac
Sources (Cutri+ 2003)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
quih yaza quih hant ihip hac: Diccionario seri-espaol-
II/246. Originally published in: 2003yCat.2246....0C.
ingls (PDF) (in Spanish and English). Hermosillo,
2246. Bibcode:2003yCat.2246....0C.
Sonora and Mexico City: Universidad de Sonora and
[8] Famaey, B.; Jorissen, A.; Luri, X.; Mayor, M.; Udry, Plaza y Valds Editores.
S.; Dejonghe, H.; Turon, C. (2005). Local kinematics [21] Clarke, Philip A. (2007). Aboriginal People and Their
of K and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 Plants. New South Wales: Rosenberg Publishing Pty Ltd.
data. Revisiting the concept of superclusters. Astron- p. 30.
omy and Astrophysics. 430: 165. arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
. Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F. doi:10.1051/0004- [22] Lynn, W. T. (1885). Occultation of Aldebaran in the
6361:20041272. sixth century. - Bliss, Astronomer Royal. The Observa-
tory. 8: 86. Bibcode:1885Obs.....8...86L.
[9] Gatewood, George (July 2008). Astrometric Studies
[23] Halley, Edmund (1717). Considerations on the Change
of Aldebaran, Arcturus, Vega, the Hyades, and Other
of the Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixt Stars. By
Regions. The Astronomical Journal. 136 (1): 452
Edmund Halley, R. S. Sec. Philosophical Transactions
460. Bibcode:2008AJ....136..452G. doi:10.1088/0004-
(1683-1775). 30: 736. Bibcode:1717RSPT...30..736H.
6256/136/1/452.
doi:10.1098/rstl.1717.0025.
[10] Ohnaka, K. (May 2013). Spatially resolved, high- [24] Burnham, Robert (1978). Burnham's Celestial Hand-
spectral resolution observation of the K giant Aldebaran book: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the
in the CO rst overtone lines with VLTI/AMBER. Solar System. 3. Courier Corporation. p. 1810. ISBN
Astronomy & Astrophysics. 553: 8. arXiv:1303.4763 0486236730.
. Bibcode:2013A&A...553A...3O. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201321207. A3. [25] Grin, R. F. (September 1985). Alpha Tauri CD
- A well-known Hyades binary. Publications of the
[11] Richichi, A.; Roccatagliata, V. (2005). Aldebaran's an- Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 97: 858859.
gular diameter: How well do we know it?". Astronomy & Bibcode:1985PASP...97..858G. doi:10.1086/131616.
Astrophysics. 433 (1): 305312. arXiv:astro-ph/0502181 ISSN 0004-6280.
132 CHAPTER 15. ALDEBARAN
[26] Gore, John Ellard (1904). Stellar Satellites. Studies [40] Hatzes, A. P.; Cochran, W. D.; et al. Long-lived, long-
in astronomy. Chatto & Windus. pp. 107109. period radial velocity variations in Aldebaran: A plane-
tary companion and stellar activity. arXiv:1505.03454
[27] Clerke, Agnes Mary (1908). A Popular History of Astron-
. Bibcode:2015A&A...580A..31H. doi:10.1051/0004-
omy During the Nineteenth Century (4th ed.). Adam and
6361/201425519.
Charles Black. pp. 381382, 385, 406.
[28] Pease, F. G. (June 1921). The Angular Diameter

of a Bootis by the Interferometer. Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 33 (193): 171.
15.9 External links
Bibcode:1921PASP...33..171P. doi:10.1086/123068.
Media related to Aldebaran at Wikimedia Commons
[29] Inglis, Michael (2015). Life on the Main Sequence.
Astrophysics is Easy!. The Patrick Moore Practical As-
tronomy Series. p. 155. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-11644- Aldebaran 2. SolStation. Archived from the orig-
0_10. ISBN 978-3-319-11643-3. inal on 25 November 2005. Retrieved 14 November
2005.
[30] Richichi & Roccatagliata (2005) derived an angular di-
ameter of 20.580.03 milliarcsec, which given a distance Aldebaran at Constellation Guide
of 65 light years yields a diameter of 61 million km.
[31] Aurire, M.; et al. (February 2015). The magnetic Coordinates: 04* h 35* m 55.2* s, +16 30 33
elds at the surface of active single G-K giants. As-
tronomy & Astrophysics. 574: 30. arXiv:1411.6230
. Bibcode:2015A&A...574A..90A. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201424579. A90.
[32] Ayres, Thomas R.; Brown, Alexander; Harper, Gra-

ham M. (November 2003). Buried Alive in the
Coronal Graveyard. The Astrophysical Journal.
598 (1): 610625. Bibcode:2003ApJ...598..610A.
doi:10.1086/378699.
[33] Wood, Brian E.; et al. (February 2007). The Wind-

ISM Interaction of alpha Tauri. The Astrophysical Jour-
nal. 655 (2): 946957. Bibcode:2007ApJ...655..946W.
doi:10.1086/510404.
[34] Knnen, G. P.; Meeus, J. (1972). Occultation series of

ve stars. Journal of the British Astronomical Associa-
tion. 82: 431. Bibcode:1972JBAA...82..431K.
[35] White, N. M. (June 1979). Lunar occultation of

the Hyades and diameters of Alpha Tauri and Theta-
1 Tauri. The Astronomical Journal. 84: 872876.
Bibcode:1979AJ.....84..872W. doi:10.1086/112489.
[36] Star Maps created using XEphem (2008). LASCO

Star Maps (identify objects in the eld of view for any
day of the year)". Large Angle and Spectrometric Coro-
nagraph Experiment (LASCO). Retrieved 2012-06-01.
2012 (with Venus and Mercury) and 2011
[37] Mason, B. D.; et al. (2014). The Washington Vi-

sual Double Star Catalog. The Astronomical Journal.
122 (6): 34663471. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M.
doi:10.1086/323920.
[38] Poveda, A.; et al. (April 1994). Statistical stud-

ies of visual double and multiple stars. II. A catalogue
of nearby wide binary and multiple systems. Revista
Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrosica. 28 (1): 4389.
Bibcode:1994RMxAA..28...43P.
[39] Hatzes, A.; Cochran, W. (1993). Long-period

radial velocity variations in three K giants.
The Astrophysical Journal. 413 (1): 339348.
Bibcode:1993ApJ...413..339H. doi:10.1086/173002.
Chapter 16
Spica
For other uses, see Spica (disambiguation).
Spica (/spak/), also designated Alpha Virginis (

Virginis, abbreviated Alpha Vir, Vir), is the brightest
star in the constellation of Virgo and the 16th brightest
star in the night sky. Analysis of its parallax shows that
it is located 250 10 light years from the Sun.* [1] It is
a spectroscopic binary and rotating ellipsoidal variable;
a system whose two main stars are so close together they
are egg-shaped rather than spherical, and can only be sep-
arated by their spectra. The primary is a blue giant and a
variable star of the Beta Cephei type.
Spica, along with Denebola or Regulus depending on
the source and Arcturus, is part of the Spring Triangle
asterism, and by extension, also of the Great Diamond
together with the star Cor Caroli.
16.1 Observation history

As one of the nearest massive binary star systems to the How to locate the star Spica
Sun, Spica has been the subject of many observational
studies.* [10]
north of Spica around October 16 every year, and the
Spica is believed to be the star that gave Hipparchus star's heliacal rising occurs about two weeks later. Ev-
the data that led him to discover the precession of the ery 8 years, Venus passes Spica around the time of the
equinoxes.* [11] A temple to Menat (an early Hathor) star's heliacal rising, as in 2009 when it passed 3.5 north
at Thebes was oriented with reference to Spica when it of the star on November 3.* [16]
was built in 3200 BC, and, over time, precession slowly
but noticeably changed Spica's location relative to the A method of nding Spica is to follow the arc of the han-
temple.* [12] Nicolaus Copernicus made many observa- dle of the Big Dipper (Plough) to Arcturus, and then con-
tions of Spica with his home-made triquetrum for his re- tinue on the same angular distance to Spica. This can be
searches on precession.* [13]* [14] recalled by the mnemonic phrase, arc to Arcturus and
spike to Spica.
16.2 Visibility
16.3 Characteristics
Spica is 2.05 degrees from the ecliptic and can be
occulted by the Moon and sometimes by the planets. Spica is a close binary star whose components orbit about
The last planetary occultation of Spica occurred when each other every four days. They stay close enough to-
Venus passed in front of the star (as seen from Earth) gether that they cannot be resolved as two stars through
on November 10, 1783. The next occultation will oc- a telescope. The changes in the orbital motion of this
cur on September 2, 2197, when Venus again passes in pair results in a Doppler shift in the absorption lines
front of Spica.* [15] The Sun passes a little more than 2 of their respective spectra, making them a double-lined
133
134 CHAPTER 16. SPICA
spectroscopic binary.* [7] Initially, the orbital parameters 16.4 Nomenclature

for this system were inferred using spectroscopic mea-
surements. Between 1966 and 1970, the Narrabri Stel- Virginis (Latinised to Alpha Virginis) is the system's
lar Intensity Interferometer was used to observe the pair Bayer designation.
and to directly measure the orbital characteristics and the
angular diameter of the primary, which was found to be The traditional name Spica derives from Latin spca
(0.90 0.04) 10* 3 arcseconds, and the angular size virginis the virgin's ear of [wheat] grain. It was
of the semi-major axis of the orbit was found to be only also anglicized as Virgin's Spike. Johann Bayer cited
slightly larger at (1.54 0.05) 10* 3 arcseconds.* [6] the name Arista. Other traditional names are Azimech,
from Arabic al-simk al-azal 'the Un-
The primary star has a stellar classication of B1 IIIIV. defended'; Alarph, Arabic for 'the Grape Gatherer', and
The luminosity class matches the spectrum of a star that Sumbalet (Sombalet, Sembalet and variants) from Arabic
is midway between a subgiant and a giant star, and it is no sunbulah corn ear.* [22] In 2016, the International
longer a B-type main-sequence star.* [4] This is a massive Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star
star with more than 10 times the mass of the Sun and Names (WGSN)* [23] to catalog and standardize proper
seven times the Sun's radius. The total luminosity of this names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July
star is about 12,100 times that of the Sun, and eight times 2016* [24] included a table of the rst two batches of
the luminosity of its companion. The primary is one of names approved by the WGSN; which included Spica for
the nearest stars to the Sun that has enough mass to end this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star
its life in a Type II supernova explosion.* [8]* [17] Names.* [25]
The primary is classied as a Beta Cephei-type variable In Chinese astronomy, the star is known as Jiao Xiu 1 (
star that varies in brightness over a 0.1738-day period. ), i.e. the rst star of the Jiao Xiu asterism.
The spectrum shows a radial velocity variation with the
same period, indicating that the surface of the star is reg- In Hindu astronomy, Spica corresponds to the Nakshatra
ularly pulsating outward and then contracting. This star Chitr.
is rotating rapidly, with a rotational velocity of 199 km/s
along the equator.* [7]
The secondary member of this system is one of the few 16.5 In culture
stars whose spectrum is aected by the StruveSahade
eect. This is an anomalous change in the strength of Both American ships USS Spica (AK-16) and USNS
the spectral lines over the course of an orbit, where the Spica (T-AFS-9) were named after this star while USS
lines become weaker as the star is moving away from Azimech (AK-124), a Crater-class cargo ship, was given
the observer.* [10] It may be caused by a strong stellar one of the star's medieval names.
wind from the primary scattering the light from secondary
A blue star represents Spica on the ag of the Brazilian
when it is receding.* [18] This star is smaller than the pri-
state of Par. Spica is also the star representing Par on
mary, with about 7 times the mass of the Sun and 3.6
the Brazilian ag.
times the Sun's radius.* [7] Its stellar classication is B2
V, making this a main-sequence star.* [4] A South Korean Girl Group was named after the star.
Spica is a rotating ellipsoidal variable, which is a non- Spica is a Vocaloid song sung by Hatsune Miku
eclipsing close binary star system where the stars are In a non-canonical chapter in Re:Zero -Starting Life in
mutually distorted through their gravitational interaction. Another World-, Subaru had a daughter with Rem named
This eect causes the apparent magnitude of the star sys- Spica.
tem to vary by 0.03 over an interval that matches the or-
bital period. This slight dip in magnitude is barely no- Spica is the pseudonym of Lili in the children's manga
ticeable visually.* [19] Both stars rotate faster than their series, Zodiac P.I.
mutual orbital period. This lack of synchronization and In his Three Books of Occult Philosophy, Cornelius
the high ellipticity of their orbit may indicate that this is Agrippa attributes Spica's kabbalistic symbol to
a young star system. Over time, the mutual tidal inter- Hermes Trismegistus.
action of the pair may lead to rotational synchronization
and orbit circularization.* [20]
Spica is an polarimetric variable, which suggests that pro- 16.6 References
tostellar material is entrained between the two stars.* [21]
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. Vizier catalog entry
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- the International Union of the History and Philosophy of
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system Science. Toru, Poland: Studia Copernicana, Springer.
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. ISBN 90-277-0311-6.
[15] Earth-Sky Tonight, March 26, 2010
[3] Ruban, E. V.; Alekseeva, G. A.; Arkharov, A. A.;
Hagen-Thorn, E. I.; Galkin, V. D.; Nikanorova, [16] Breit, Derek C. (March 12, 2010). Diary of Astro-
I. N.; Novikov, V. V.; Pakhomov, V. P.; Puza- nomical Phenomena 2010. Poyntsource.com. Retrieved
kova, T. Yu. (2006). Spectrophotometric 2010-04-13.
observations of variable stars. Astronomy Let- [17] Firestone, R. B. (July 2014), Observation of 23
ters. 32 (9): 604. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..604R. Supernovae That Exploded <300 pc from Earth during
doi:10.1134/S1063773706090052. the past 300 kyr, The Astrophysical Journal, 789 (1):
[4] Schnerr, R. S.; et al. (June 2008). Magnetic eld mea- 11, Bibcode:2014ApJ...789...29F, doi:10.1088/0004-
surements and wind-line variability of OB-type stars 637X/789/1/29, 29.
(PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 483 (3): 857867. [18] Gies, Douglas R.; Bagnuolo, William G., Jr.; Penny,
arXiv:1008.4260 . Bibcode:2008A&A...483..857S. Laura R. (April 1997). Photospheric Heating
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077740. Retrieved 2010-04- in Colliding-Wind Binaries. Astrophysical Jour-
16. nal. 479: 408. Bibcode:1997ApJ...479..408G.
doi:10.1086/303848.
[5] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953). General Catalogue of Stel-
lar Radial Velocities. Washington: Carnegie Institution of [19] Morris, S. L. (August 1985). The ellipsoidal variable
Washington. Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W. stars. Astrophysical Journal, Part 1. 295: 143152.
Bibcode:1985ApJ...295..143M. doi:10.1086/163359.
[6] Herbison-Evans, D.; Hanbury Brown, R.; Davis,
J.; Allen, L. R. (1971). A study of alpha Vir- [20] Beech, M. (August 1986). The ellipsoidal
ginis with an intensity interferometer. Monthly variables. III - Circularization and synchroniza-
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 151 tion. Astrophysics and Space Science. 125
(2): 161176. Bibcode:1971MNRAS.151..161H. (1): 6975. Bibcode:1986Ap&SS.125...69B.
doi:10.1093/mnras/151.2.161. doi:10.1007/BF00643972.
[7] Harrington, David; Koenigsberger, Gloria; Moreno, [21] Cotton, D. V.; et al. (January 2016). The linear polar-
Edmundo; Kuhn, Jerey (October 2009). Line- ization of Southern bright stars measured at the parts-per-
prole Variability from Tidal Flows in Alpha Virginis million level. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
(Spica)". The Astrophysical Journal. 704 (1): 813830. Society. 455 (2): 16071628. arXiv:1509.07221
arXiv:0908.3336 . Bibcode:2009ApJ...704..813H. . Bibcode:2016MNRAS.455.1607C.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/704/1/813. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2185.
[8] Kaler, Jim. Spica. Stars. Retrieved 2010-04-15. [22] Star Names - Their Lore and Meaning, by Richard Hinck-
ley Allen
[9] V* alf Vir -- Variable Star of beta Cep type. SIMBAD.
Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Re- [23] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
trieved 2010-04-13. trieved 22 May 2016.
[10] Riddle, R. L.; Bagnuolo, W. G.; Gies, D. R. (December [24] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
2001). Spectroscopy of the temporal variations of 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Vir. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 33:
1312. Bibcode:2001AAS...199.0613R.
[11] Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient

Astronomy. Oxford University Press. p. 259. ISBN 0-19- 16.7 External links
509539-1.
[12] Allen, Richard Hinckley (2003). Star Names and Their Spica at Constellation Guide
Meanings. Kessinger Publishing. p. 468. ISBN 0-7661-
4028-8.
Coordinates: 13* h 25* m 11.5793* s, 11 09
[13] Rufus, W. Carl (April 1943). Copernicus, Pol- 40.759
ish Astronomer, 14731543. Journal of the Royal
Astronomical Society of Canada. 37 (4): 134.
Bibcode:1943JRASC..37..129R.
[14] Moesgaard, Kristian P. (1973). Copernican inuence

on Tycho Brahe. In Jerzy Dobrzycki. The reception
of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a sym-
posium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of
Chapter 17
Antares
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Antares Mesopotamian astronomers.* [13] However, some schol-
(disambiguation). ars have speculated that the star may have been named af-
ter Antar, or Antarah ibn Shaddad, the Arab warrior-hero
Antares (/ntriz/), also designated Alpha Scorpii ( celebrated in the pre-Islamic poems Mu'allaqat.* [13] In
Scorpii, abbreviated Alpha Sco, Sco), is on average 2016, the International Astronomical Union organised a
the fteenth-brightest star in the night sky, and the bright- Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [14] to cata-
est star in the constellation of Scorpius. Distinctly reddish log and standardise proper names for stars. The WGSN's
*
when viewed with the naked eye, Antares is a slow irreg- rst bulletin of July 2016 [15] included a table of the rst
ular variable star that ranges in brightness from apparent two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
magnitude to +0.6 to +1.6. Often referred to as the cluded Antares for this star. It is now so entered in the
*
heart of the scorpion, Antares is anked by Sigma and IAU Catalog of Star Names. [16]
Tau Scorpii in the centre of the constellation. Antares is a variable star and is listed in the General Cat-
Classied as a red supergiant of spectral type M1.5Iab, alogue of Variable Stars but as a Bayer-designated* star it
Antares is one of the largest known stars. It is the bright- does not have a separate variable star designation. [17]
est, most massive, and most evolved stellar member of
the nearest OB association (the ScorpiusCentaurus As-
sociation). Antares is a member of the Upper Scorpius 17.2 Properties
subgroup of the ScorpiusCentaurus Association, which
contains thousands of stars with mean age 11 million
years at a distance of approximately 145 parsecs (470 ly).
Sun R 0.7 million km
It is thought to be between 15 and 18 times as massive as
the Sun, and have around 883 times its radius. Hence, if
placed in the center of the Solar System, its outer surface Orange Star
Orbit of Mars
would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. R 227 million km
Arcturus R 20 million km
17.1 Nomenclature
Scorpii (Latinised to Alpha Scorpii) is the star's Bayer Red Giant

designation. It also has the Flamsteed designation 21 Antares R 300 million km
Scorpii, as well as catalogue designations such as HR

6134 in the Bright Star Catalogue and HD 148478 in
the Henry Draper Catalogue. As a prominent infrared
source, it appears in the Two Micron All-Sky Survey cat-
alogue as 2MASS J16292443-2625549 and the Two Mi-
cron All-Sky Survey catalogue as IRAS 16262-2619. It
is also catalogued as a double star WDS J16294-2626 and Comparison between the red supergiant Antares and the Sun,
CCDM J16294-2626. shown as the tiny dot toward the upper right. The black circle
is the size of the orbit of Mars. Arcturus is also included in the
The traditional name Antares derives from the Ancient picture for comparison.
Greek ,* [11] meaningequal to-Ares" (equal
to-Mars), due to the similarity of its reddish hue to Antares is a supergiant star with a stellar classication
the appearance of the planet Mars.* [12] The compari- of M1.5Iab. With a radius that is approximately 883
son of Antares with Mars may have originated with early times that of the Sun, it is one of largest stars,* [4] if
136
17.2. PROPERTIES 137
placed in the center of the Solar System, its outer sur- each year, when the star is at opposition to the Sun. At this
face would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. time, Antares rises at dusk and sets at dawn as seen at the
Based upon parallax measurements, Antares is approxi- equator. For approximately two to three weeks on either
mately 550 light-years (170 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] Its side of November 30, Antares is not visible in the night
visual luminosity is about 10,000 times that of the Sun, sky, because it is near conjunction with the Sun;* [22]
but because the star radiates a considerable part of its en- this period of invisibility is longer in the Northern Hemi-
ergy in the infrared part of the spectrum, the bolometric sphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, since the star's
luminosity equals roughly 65,000 times that of the Sun. declination is signicantly south of the celestial equator.
The mass of the star has been calculated to be in the range
Antares is one of the four rst magnitude stars that
of 15 to 18 solar masses.* [18] A 2012 analysis by Pecaut lies within 5.5 of the ecliptic (like Spica, Regulus and
and colleagues comparing the eective temperature and
Aldebaran) and therefore can be occulted by the Moon
luminosity of Antares to theoretical evolutionary tracks and, though rarely, by Venus. The last occultation of
for massive stars which include rotation an initial progen-
Antares by Venus took place on September 17, 525 BC;
itor mass of approximately 17 solar masses and an age of the next one will take place on November 17, 2400. Other
12 million years.* [19] Initial mass must also take into ac- planets have not occulted Antares in the last millennium
count the mass loss from powerful winds, and this would nor will they do so in the next millennium, as they pass
yield a less massive star not stated in this reference paper. as a result of their actual node position and inclination al-
The size of Antares may be calculated using its par- ways northward of Antares. On 31 July 2009, Antares
allax and angular diameter. The parallax angle is was occulted by the Moon. The event was visible in
given in the adjacent box, and the angular diameter is much of southern Asia and the Middle East.* [23]* [24]
known from lunar occultation measurements (41.3 0.1 Every year around December 2 the Sun passes 5 north
milliarcseconds).* [20] This implies a radius of 890 150 of Antares.* [22]
solar radii at this distance. By analysing its radial veloc-
ity from its spectrum, Pugh and colleagues calculated a
period of 5.93 0.01 years and considered whether this 17.2.2 Companion star
change was orbital or pulsational. If the latter, then the
radius of the star changes by 165 22 solar radii (19% Antares has a magnitude 5.5 companion star, Antares B,
4%). However, if this were the case, Antares' brightness that changed from an angular separation (from its pri-
would vary by a greater amount.* [21] mary, Antares A) of 3.3 arcseconds in 1854 to 2.86 arc-
seconds in 1990. It was rst observed by Scottish as-
Antares is a type LC slow irregular variable star, whose tronomer James William Grant FRSE while in India on
apparent magnitude slowly varies from +0.6 to +1.6.* [2] 23 July 1844.* [25] The last is equal to a projected sep-
aration of about 529 astronomical units (au) at the esti-
mated distance of Antares, giving a minimum value for
17.2.1 Position the separation of the pair. Spectroscopic examination of
the energy states in the outow of matter from the com-
panion star suggests that it is about 224 au beyond the
primary.* [4] Antares B is a blue-white main-sequence
star of spectral type B2.5V; it also has numerous unusual
spectral lines suggesting it has been polluted by matter
ejected by Antares A.* [4]
The companion star is normally dicult to see in small
telescopes due to glare from Antares A, but can some-
times be seen in apertures over 150 millimetres (5.9
inches).* [26] The companion is often described as green,
but this is probably either a contrast eect,* [18] or the re-
sult of the mixing of light from the two stars when they
are seen together through a telescope and are too close
to be completely resolved. Antares B can sometimes be
observed with a small telescope for a few seconds dur-
ing lunar occultations while Antares A is hidden by the
Moon. It was discovered by Johann Tobias Brg during
one such occultation on April 13, 1819,* [27] but until
its existence was conrmed in 1846 it was thought by
Antares near the Sun on 30 November. This date may vary be- some to be merely the light of Antares viewed through
tween 30 November and 2 December every year the Moon's atmosphere (which at the time was theorised
to exist).* [28] When observed by itself during such an
Antares is visible in the sky all night around May 31 of occultation, the companion appears a profound blue or
138 CHAPTER 17. ANTARES
bluish-green color.* [28]

The orbit of the companion star is poorly known, as at-
tempts to analyse the radial velocity of Antares need to
be unravelled from the star's own pulsations.* [21] Orbital
periods are possible within a range of 1,200* [29] to 2,562
years.* [30]
17.2.3 Supernova progenitor
Antares between and Scorpii. Antares appears white in this

WISE false colour infrared image.
In ancient Egypt, Antares represented the scorpion god-

dess Serket (and was the symbol of Isis in the pyramidal
Relative sizes of some planets in the Solar System and several
ceremonies).* [13]
well-known stars, including Antares
1. Mercury < Mars < Venus < Earth In Persia, Antares was known as Satevis, one of the four
2. Earth < Neptune < Uranus < Saturn < Jupiter "royal stars".* [35] In India, it with Sigma and Tau Scorpii
3. Jupiter < Proxima Centauri < Sun < Sirius were Jyeshth (the eldest or biggest), one of the nakshatra
4. Sirius < Pollux < Arcturus < Aldebaran (Hindu lunar mansions).* [13] The ancient Chinese called
5. Aldebaran < Rigel < Antares < Betelgeuse Antares (Chinese: ; pinyin: Xn Sr; literally:
6. Betelgeuse < VY Canis Majoris < NML Cygni < UY Scuti.
second-brightest), because it was the second-brightest
star of the mansion Xin (). It was the national star of
Antares, like the similarly-sized red giant Betelgeuse in the Shang Dynasty, and it was sometimes referred to as
the constellation Orion, will almost certainly explode as (Chinese: ; pinyin: Huxng; literally: ery star
a supernova,* [31] probably within the next few hundred ) because of its reddish appearance.
thousand years. For a few months, the Antares supernova
could be as bright as the full moon and be visible in day- The Mori people of New Zealand call Antares Rehua,
time.* [32] and regard it as the chief of all the stars. Rehua is father
of Puanga/Puaka (Rigel), an important star in the cal-
culation of the Mori calendar. The Wotjobaluk Koori
people of Victoria, Australia, knew Antares as Djuit, son
17.3 Other names of Marpean-kurrk (Arcturus); the stars on each side rep-
resented his wives. The Kulin Kooris saw Antares (Bal-
*
In the Babylonian star catalogues dating from at least ayang) as the brother of Bunjil (Altair). [36]
1100 BCE, Antares was called GABA GIR.TAB, the
Breast of the Scorpion. In MUL.APIN, which dates be-
tween 1100 and 700 BC, it is one of the stars of Ea in the 17.4 See also
southern sky and marks breast of the Scorpion goddess
Ishhara.* [33] Later names that translate as the Heart Antares in ction
of Scorpioninclude Calbalakrab from the Arabic Qalb
al-qrab.* [34] This had been directly translated from the
Ancient Greek Kardia Skorpi. Cor
Scorpii translated above Greek name into Latin.* [13]
17.5 References
In ancient Mesopotamia, Antares may have been known [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
by the following names: Urbat, Bilu-sha-ziri (the Lord the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
of the Seed), Kak-shisa (the Creator of Prosperity), trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
Dar Lugal (The King), Masu Sar (the Hero and the . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
King), and Kakkab Bir (the Vermilion Star).* [13] 6361:20078357.
[2] Kiss, L. L.; Szabo, G. M.; Bedding, T. R. (2006). [13] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
Variability in red supergiant stars: pulsations, (Reprint ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc. pp.
long secondary periods and convection noise. 364366. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
372 (4): 17211734. arXiv:astro-ph/0608438 .
Bibcode:2006MNRAS.372.1721K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2006.10973.x. ISSN 0035-8711. [15] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
[3] Hoeit, D.; Warren, W. H. (1995). VizieR On-
line Data Catalog: Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised [16] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Ed. (Hoeit+, 1991)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
V/50. Originally published in: 1964BS....C......0H. 5050. [17] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
Bibcode:1995yCat.5050....0H. Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
[4] Baade, R.; Reimers, D. (October 2007). Multi- B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1.
component absorption lines in the HST spectra of Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
Scorpii B. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474
[18] Kaler, James. Antares. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
(1): 229237. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..229B.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077308. [19] Mark J. Pecaut; Eric E. Mamajek & Eric J. Bubar (Febru-
ary 2012). A Revised Age for Upper Scorpius and
[5] HR 6134, database entry, The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th the Star Formation History among the F-type Mem-
Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H. bers of the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Association. As-
Warren, Jr., CDS ID . Accessed on line September 07, trophysical Journal. 746 (2): 154. arXiv:1112.1695
2012.
. Bibcode:2012ApJ...746..154P. doi:10.1088/0004-
[6] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of 637X/746/2/154.
the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat- [20] A. Richichi (April 1990). A new accurate de-
ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina- termination of the angular diameter of Antares.
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed- Astronomy and Astrophysics. 230 (2): 355362.
ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra- Bibcode:1990A&A...230..355R.
dial Velocities and their Applications. 30. University
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union. p. 57. [21] Pugh, T.; Gray, D.F. (2013). On the Six-year Period
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. in the Radial Velocity of Antares A. The Astronom-
ical Journal. 145 (2): 4. Bibcode:2013AJ....145...38P.
[7] Buick, Tony (2010). Classication of the Stars. The doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/2/38. 38.
Rainbow Sky. Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy Se-
ries. pp. 4371. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1053-0_4. [22] Star Maps created using XEphem (2008). LASCO Star
ISBN 978-1-4419-1052-3. ISSN 1431-9756. Maps (identify objects in the eld of view for any day of
the year)". Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph
[8] Schrder, K.-P.; Cuntz, M. (April 2007), A criti- Experiment (LASCO). Retrieved 2011-12-01. (2009,
cal test of empirical mass loss formulas applied to in- 2010, 2011)
dividual giants and supergiants, Astronomy and As-
trophysics, 465 (2): 593601, arXiv:astro-ph/0702172 [23] Occultation of Antares on 31 July 09. The Interna-
tional Occultation Timing Association. Archived from the
, Bibcode:2007A&A...465..593S, doi:10.1051/0004- original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
6361:20066633
[24] Sky watchers report occultation of Antares by moon.
[9] Kudritzki, R. P.; Reimers, D. (1978). On the absolute The Times Of India. 2 August 2009.
scale of mass-loss in red giants. II. Circumstellar absorp-
tion lines in the spectrum of alpha Sco B and mass-loss [25] https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Grant,_James_William_
of alpha Sco A. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 70: 227. (DNB00)
Bibcode:1978A&A....70..227K.
[26] Schaaf, Fred (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discovering the
[10] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899). Star-names and their Universe Through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars. John Wi-
meanings. G. E. Stechert. pp. 364367. Retrieved 2011- ley and Sons. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-471-70410-2.
12-31. [27] Burnham, Robert, Jr. (1978). Burnham's Celestial Hand-
book. New York: Dover Publications. p. 1666.
[11] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A
GreekEnglish Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [28] S.J. Johnson,Occultation of Antares.The Observatory,
Vol. 3, pp. 84-86 (1879)
[12] Gettings, Fred The Arkana Dictionary of Astrology
Penguin Books, 1985, p. 24 Antares: Sometimes [29] Hartkopf, W.I.; Mason, B.D.; Worley, C.E. (2001).The
called Antar, in confusion with a literary hero (see Allen), 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. II.
the modern name is said to be derived from its red colour, The Fifth Catalog of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars
in that it was rival even of the planet Marsthe Greek, . The Astronomical Journal. 122 (6): 34723479.
anti-Ares. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3472H. doi:10.1086/323921.
140 CHAPTER 17. ANTARES
[30] Reimers, D.; Hagen, H. -J.; Baade, R.; Braun, K. (2008).

The Antares emission nebula and mass loss of Scor-
pii A. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 491: 229238.
arXiv:0809.4605 . Bibcode:2008A&A...491..229R.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809983.
[31] Firestone, R. B. (July 2014), Observation of 23

Supernovae That Exploded <300 pc from Earth during
the past 300 kyr, The Astrophysical Journal, 789 (1):
11, Bibcode:2014ApJ...789...29F, doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/789/1/29, 29. See p. 10.
[32] Hockey, T.; Trimble, V. (2010). Public reaction to a

V = 12.5 supernova. The Observatory. 130: 167.
Bibcode:2010Obs...130..167H.
[33] Rogers, J. H. (February 1998). Origins of the ancient

constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions. Journal
[34] Kunitzsch, P. (1959). Arabische Sternnamen in Europa.

Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz. p. 169.
[35] Allen, R. H. (1963): According to Charles Franois

Dupuis, a French astronomical writer

legends to the present day. London: HarperCollins. p. 5.
ISBN 1-85538-306-3.
[37] Corbally, C. J. (August 1984), Close visual binaries. I

- MK classications, Astrophysical Journal Supplement
Series, 55: 657677, Bibcode:1984ApJS...55..657C,
doi:10.1086/190973.
[38] From the Pythagorean theorem, the separation s is given

by:
s2 = 5292 + 2242 = 279, 841 + 50, 176 = 330, 017
or s 574
17.6 External links

Antares on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS, GALEX, IRAS,
Hydrogen , X-Ray, Astrophoto, Sky Map, Articles
and images
Antares at Constellation Guide
Coordinates: 16* h 29* m 24* s, 26 25 55

Chapter 18
Pollux (star)
Pollux, also designated Beta Geminorum ( Gemino- already attributed to an asteroid and to one of Jupiter's
rum, abbreviated Beta Gem, Gem), is an orange-hued satellites.* [22]* [23]
evolved giant star approximately 34 light-years from the In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi
Sun in the northern constellation of Gemini. It is the Al Mouakket, this star was designated Muekher al Dzira,
closest giant star to the Sun. which was translated into Latin as Posterior Brachii,
Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one meaning the end in the paw.* [24]
of the stable anchor points by which other stars are
In Chinese, (Bi H), meaning North River, refers
classied.* [14] In 2006, an extrasolar planet (designated to an asterism consisting of Pollux, Geminorum and
Pollux b or Gem b, later named Thestias) was con-
Castor.* [25] Consequently, Pollux itself is known as
rmed to be orbiting it.* [8] (Bi H sn, English: the Third Star of North
River.)* [26]
18.1 Nomenclature
18.2 Stellar characteristics
Geminorum (Latinised to Beta Geminorum) is the star's
Bayer designation. Parallax measurements made with the Hipparcos astrom-
* *
The traditional name Pollux refers specically to the etry satellite [27] [28] place Pollux at a distance of about
*
twins Castor and Pollux in Greek and Roman mythol- 33.78 light-years (10.36 parsecs) from the Sun. [1]
ogy.* [15] In 2016, the International Astronomical
Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
(WGSN)* [16] to catalog and standardize proper names
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [17] in-
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved
by the WGSN; which included Pollux for this star.
Castor and Pollux are the twoheavenly twinstars giv-
ing the constellation Gemini (Latin, 'the twins') its name.
The stars, however, are quite dierent in detail. Cas-
tor is a complex sextuple system of hot, bluish-white A-
type stars and dim red dwarfs, while Pollux is a single, The Sun viewed from the star Pollux (in red circle). Made with
cooler yellow-orange giant. In Percy Shelley's 1818 poem Celestia.
Homer's Hymn To Castor And Pollux, the star is referred At an apparent visual magnitude of 1.1,* [29] Pollux is the
to as "..mild Pollux, void of blame.* [18] brightest star in the constellation, brighter even than its
Following its discovery the planet was designated Pollux neighbor Castor (Alpha Geminorum). The star is larger
b. In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union than the Sun, with about two times its mass and almost
launched a process for giving proper names to certain ex- nine times its radius.* [8] Once an A-type main sequence
oplanets and their host stars.* [19] The process involved star,* [7] Pollux has exhausted the hydrogen at its core
public nomination and voting for the new names.* [20] In and evolved into a giant star with a stellar classication of
December 2015, the IAU announced the winning name K0 III.* [3] The eective temperature of this star's outer
was Thestias for this planet.* [21] The winning name envelope is about 4666 K,* [8] which lies in the range
was based on that originally submitted by theSkyNet of that produces the characteristic orange hue of K-type
Australia; namely Leda, Pollux's mother. At the request stars.* [30] Pollux has a projected rotational velocity of
of the IAU, 'Thestias' (the patronym of Leda, a daughter 2.8 kms* 1.* [11] The abundance of elements other than
of Thestius) was substituted. This was because 'Leda' was hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term the star's
141
142 CHAPTER 18. POLLUX (STAR)
metallicity, is somewhat uncertain, with estimates rang- [5] Famaey, B.; et al. (January 2005),Local kinematics of K
ing from 85% to 155% of the Sun's abundance.* [8]* [31] and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data.
Revisiting the concept of superclusters, Astronomy and
Evidence for a low level of magnetic activity came from Astrophysics, 430 (1): 165186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
the detection of weak X-ray emission using the ROSAT
, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004-
orbiting telescope. The X-ray emission from this star is 6361:20041272
about 1027 erg s* 1, which is roughly the same as the
X-ray emission from the Sun. A magnetic eld with a [6] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008), Rotation
strength below 1 Gauss has since been conrmed on the and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant
surface of Pollux; one of the weakest elds ever detected and Red Horizontal Branch Stars, The Astronom-
on a star. The presence of this eld suggests that Pol- ical Journal, 135 (3): 892906, arXiv:0711.4984
lux was once an Ap star with a much stronger magnetic , Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C, doi:10.1088/0004-
eld.* [7] The star displays small amplitude radial velocity 6256/135/3/892
variations, but is not photometrically variable.* [32]
[7] Aurire, M.; et al. (September 2009), Discovery of a
weak magnetic eld in the photosphere of the single giant
Pollux, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 504 (1): 231237,
18.3 Planetary system arXiv:0907.1423 , Bibcode:2009A&A...504..231A,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912050
Since 1993, scientists have suspected an extrasolar planet [8] Hatzes, A. P.; et al. (2006), Conrmation of
orbiting Pollux,* [33] from measured radial velocity oscil- the planet hypothesis for the long-period radial ve-
lations. The existence of the planet, Pollux b, was con- locity variations of Geminorum, Astronomy and
rmed and announced on June 16, 2006. Pollux b is cal- Astrophysics, 457: 335341, arXiv:astro-ph/0606517
culated to have a mass at least 2.3 times that of Jupiter. , Bibcode:2006A&A...457..335H, doi:10.1051/0004-
The planet is orbiting Pollux with a period of about 590 6361:20065445
days.* [8]
[9] Mallik, Sushma V. (December 1999), Lithium abun-
dance and mass, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 352: 495
507, Bibcode:1999A&A...352..495M
18.4 See also
[10] Koncewicz, R.; Jordan, C. (January 2007),OI line emis-
sion in cool stars: calculations using partial redistribu-
Aldebaran tion, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
374 (1): 220231, Bibcode:2007MNRAS.374..220K,
Castor (star) doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11130.x
Pollux in ction [11] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008), Ro-

tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761
HIPPARCOS Giants and the Role of Binarity
, The Astronomical Journal, 135 (1): 209231,
18.5 References Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M, doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/1/209
[12] Takeda, Yoichi; Sato, Bun'ei; Murata, Daisuke
(August 2008), Stellar parameters and elemental
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , abundances of late-G giants, Publications of the
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- Astronomical Society of Japan, 60 (4): 781802,
6361:20078357
arXiv:0805.2434 , Bibcode:2008PASJ...60..781T,
doi:10.1093/pasj/60.4.781
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system [13] POLLUX -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Don-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. nes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-01-14
[14] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points
[3] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral Clas- for the MK System of Spectral Classication, Bul-
sication, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astro- letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319,
physics, 11: 2950, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M, Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
[15] Pollux. STARS. University of Illinois, Urbana
[4] Petit, M. (October 1990), Catalogue des toiles vari- Champaign Campus. 2008. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
ables ou suspectes dans le voisinage du Soleil, Astron-
omy and Astrophysics Supplement (in French), 85 (2): 971, [16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
Bibcode:1990A&AS...85..971P. trieved 22 May 2016.
[17] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 18.6 External links
[18] http://allpoetry.com/poem/8499261-Homers_Hymn_ Notes for star HD 62509. The Extrasolar Planets

To_Castor_And_Pollux-by-Percy_Bysshe_Shelley Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
[19] NameExoWorlds: An IAU Worldwide Contest to Name Pollux. SolStation. Retrieved 2005-11-21.
Exoplanets and their Host Stars. IAU.org. 9 July 2014
Sabine Reert; et al. (2006-07-07). Pre-
[20] NameExoWorlds The Process cise Radial Velocities of Giant Stars II. Pol-
lux and its Planetary Companion. Astro-
[21] Final Results of NameExoWorlds Public Vote Released, phys. J. 652 (1): 661665. arXiv:astro-
International Astronomical Union, 15 December 2015.
ph/0607136 . Bibcode:2006ApJ...652..661R.
[22] NameExoWorlds The Approved Names doi:10.1086/507516. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
[23] YOU helped name an exoplanet!, TheSkyNet, 2015-12-

17 Coordinates: 07* h 45* m 19.4* s, 28 01 35
[24] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al

darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety. 55: 429438. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
[25] (Chinese) , written by . Published

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[26] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.

Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P
[28] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of His-

tory's Greatest Star Map, AstronomersUniverse, Hei-
delberg: Springer-Verlag, Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P,
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11602-5
[29] Lee, T. A. (October 1970), Photometry of high-

luminosity M-type stars, Astrophysical Journal, 162:
217, Bibcode:1970ApJ...162..217L, doi:10.1086/150648
[30] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and

Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
search Organisation, December 21, 2004, retrieved 2012-
01-16
[31] The abundance is determined by taking the value of

[Fe/H] in the table to the power of 10. Hence, 10* 0.07
= 0.85 while 10* +0.19 = 1.55.
[32] Henry, Gregory W.; et al. (September 2000), Pho-

tometric Variability in a Sample of 187 G and K
Giants, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Se-
ries, 130 (1): 201225, Bibcode:2000ApJS..130..201H,
doi:10.1086/317346.
[33] A. P. Hatzes; et al. (1993). Long-period radial ve-

locity variations in three K giants. The Astrophysical
Journal. 413: 339348. Bibcode:1993ApJ...413..339H.
doi:10.1086/173002.
Chapter 19
Fomalhaut
This article is about the star. For the extrasolar planet, The star's traditional name derives from Fom al-Haut
see Fomalhaut b. from scientic Arabic fam al-t (al-janb)
the mouth of the [Southern] Fish(literally, mouth
Fomalhaut, also designated Alpha Piscis Austrini ( of the whale), a translation of how Ptolemy la-
Piscis Austrini, abbreviated Alpha PsA, PsA) is the beled it.* [18]* [19] In 2016, the International Astronom-
brightest star in the constellation of Piscis Austrinus and ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
one of the brightest stars in the sky. It is a class A star (WGSN)* [20] to catalog and standardize proper names
on the main sequence approximately 25 light-years (7.7 for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [21] in-
pc) from the Sun as measured by the Hipparcos astrom- cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved
etry satellite.* [11] Since 1943, the spectrum of this star by the WGSN, which included the name Fomalhaut for
has served as one of the stable anchor points by which this star.
other stars are classied.* [12] It is classied as a Vega- In July 2014, the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
like star that emits excess infrared radiation, indicating launched a process for giving proper names to certain ex-
it is surrounded by a circumstellar disk.* [13] Fomalhaut, oplanets.* [22] The process involved public nomination
K-type main-sequence star TW Piscis Austrini, and M- and voting for the new names.* [23] In December 2015,
type, red dwarf star LP 876-10 constitute a triple system, the IAU announced the winning name was Dagon for this
even though the companions are separated by several de- planet.* [24]
grees.* [14]
The winning name was proposed by Dr. Todd Vaccaro
Fomalhaut holds a special signicance in extrasolar and forwarded by the St. Cloud State University Planetar-
planet research, as it is the center of the rst stellar ium of St. Cloud, Minnesota, United States of America,
system with an extrasolar planet candidate (designated to the IAU for consideration.* [25] Dagon was a Semitic
Fomalhaut b, later named Dagon) imaged at visible wave- deity, often represented as half-man, half-sh.* [26]
lengths. The image was published in Science in Novem-
ber 2008.* [15] Fomalhaut is the third brightest star (as
viewed from Earth) known to have a planetary system,
after the Sun and Pollux.
19.2 Fomalhaut A
19.1 Nomenclature
Piscis Austrini (Latinised to Alpha Piscis Austrini) is the
system's Bayer designation. It also bears the Flamsteed
designation of 24 Piscis Austrini. The classical as-
tronomer Ptolemy put it in Aquarius, as well as Piscis
Austrinus. In the 1600s Johann Bayer rmly planted it
in the primary position of Piscis Austrinus. Following
Ptolemy, John Flamsteed in 1725 additionally denoted it
79 Aquarii. The current designation reects modern con-
sensus on Bayer's decision, that the star belongs in Pis-
cis Austrinus.* [16] Under the rules for naming objects in Dust ring around Fomalhaut from the Atacama Large Millime-
multiple star systems, the three components - Fomalhaut, ter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)* [27]
TW Piscis Austrini and LP 876-10 - are designated A, B
and C, respectively.* [17] On its discovery, the planet was At a declination of 29.6, Fomalhaut is located south of
designated Fomalhaut b. the celestial equator, and hence is best viewed from the
144
19.2. FOMALHAUT A 145
Southern Hemisphere. However, its southerly declination lhaut system.* [14]

is not as great as that of stars such as Acrux, Alpha Cen-
tauri and Canopus, meaning that, unlike them, Fomalhaut
is visible from a large part of the Northern Hemisphere as 19.2.2 Debris disks and planet
well. Its declination is greater than that of Sirius and sim-
ilar to that of Antares. At 40N, Fomalhaut rises above
the horizon for eight hours and reaches only 20 above the
horizon, while Capella, which rises at approximately the
same time, will stay above the horizon for twenty hours.
From England, the star never appears much brighter than
magnitude 2.2, due to it being so close to the horizon, and
from southern Alaska or Scandinavia, it never rises above
the horizon at all.* [28] Fomalhaut can be located in these
northern latitudes by the fact that the western (right-hand)
side of the Square of Pegasus points to it. Continuing the
The debris disk around the star
line from Beta to Alpha Pegasi towards the southern hori-
zon, Fomalhaut is about 45 south of Alpha Pegasi, with
no bright stars in between.* [29]
19.2.1 Properties
Fomalhaut is a young star, for many years thought to be
only 100 to 300 million years old, with a potential lifespan
of a billion years.* [30]* [31] A 2012 study gave a slightly
higher age of 44040 million years.* [7] The surface tem-
perature of the star is around 8,590 K (8,320 C). Fo-
malhaut's mass is about 1.92 times that of the Sun, its
luminosity is about 16.6 times greater, and its diameter is
roughly 1.84 times as large.* [7]
Fomalhaut is slightly metal-decient compared to the
Sun, which means it is composed of a smaller percent-
Debris ring around Fomalhaut showing location of planet
age of elements other than hydrogen and helium.* [8]
Fomalhaut bimaged by
The metallicity is typically determined by measuring the
Hubble Space Telescope's coronagraph.
abundance of iron in the photosphere relative to the abun- (January 8, 2013) (NASA).
dance of hydrogen. A 1997 spectroscopic study mea-
sured a value equal to 93% of the Sun's abundance of Fomalhaut is surrounded by several debris disks.
iron.* [9]* [nb 1] A second 1997 study deduced a value of
78%, by assuming Fomalhaut has the same metallicity as The inner disk is a high-carbon small-grain (10-300 nm)
ash disk, clustering at 0.1 AU from the star. Next is a disk
the neighboring star TW Piscis Austrini, which has since
been argued to be a physical companion.* [7]* [32] In of larger particles, with inner edge 0.4-1 AU of the star.
The innermost disk is unexplained as yet.* [13]
2004, a stellar evolutionary model of Fomalhaut yielded
a metallicity of 79%.* [8] Finally, in 2008, a spectro- The outermost disk is at a radial distance of 133 AU
scopic measurement gave a signicantly lower value of (1.991010 km; 1.241010 mi), in a toroidal shape with a
46%.* [10] very sharp inner edge, all inclined 24 degrees from edge-
Fomalhaut has been claimed to be one of approximately on.* [33]* [34] The dust is distributed in a belt about 25
16 stars belonging to the Castor Moving Group. This AU wide. The geometric center of the disk is oset by
is an association of stars which share a common motion about 15 AU (2.2109 km; 1.4109 mi) from Fomal-
through space, and have been claimed to be physically haut.* [35] The disk is sometimes referred to as Fo-
associated. Other members of this group include Castor malhaut's Kuiper belt". Fomalhaut's dusty disk is be-
and Vega. The moving group has an estimated age of lieved to be protoplanetary,* [36] and emits considerable
200100 million years and originated from the same lo- infrared radiation. Measurements of Fomalhaut's rota-
cation.* [30] More recent work has found that purported tion indicate that the disk is located in the star's equato-
members of the Castor Moving Group appear to not only rial plane, as expected from theories of star and planet
have a wide range of ages, but their velocities are too dif- formation.* [37]
ferent to have been possibly associated with one another On November 13, 2008, astronomers announced an ob-
in the distant past.* [14] Hence, membershipto this ject, which they assumed to be an extrasolar planet, or-
dynamical group has no bearing on the age of the Foma- biting just inside the outer debris ring. This was the rst
146 CHAPTER 19. FOMALHAUT
extrasolar orbiting object to be seen with visible light, 19.4 Fomalhaut C (LP 876-10)
captured by the Hubble Space Telescope.* [38] A planet's
existence had been previously suspected from the sharp, Main article: Fomalhaut C
elliptical inner edge of that disk.* [39] The mass of the
planet, Fomalhaut b, was estimated to be no more than
three times the mass of Jupiter, but at least the mass of LP 876-10 is also associated with the Fomalhaut sys-
Neptune.* [40] There are indications that the orbit is not tem, making it a trinary star. In October 2013, Eric
apsidally aligned with the dust disk, which may indicate Mamajek and collaborators from the RECONS consor-
that additional planets may be responsible for the dust tium announced that the previously known high-proper-
disk's structure.* [41] motion star LP 876-10 had a distance, velocity, and color-
magnitude position consistent with being another mem-
However, M-band images taken from the MMT Ob- ber of the Fomalhaut system.* [14] LP 876-10 was origi-
servatory put strong limits on the existence of gas gi- nally catalogued as a high-proper-motion star by Willem
ants within 40 AU of the star,* [42] and Spitzer Space Luyten in his 1979 NLTT catalogue, however, a precise
Telescope imaging suggested that the object Fomalhaut trigonometric parallax and radial velocity was only mea-
b was more likely to be a dust cloud.* [43] In 2012, sured quite recently. LP 876-10 is a red dwarf of spectral
two independent studies conrmed that Fomalhaut b type M4V, and located even further from Fomalhaut A
does exist, but it is shrouded by debris, so it may be a than TW PsAabout 5.7 away from Fomalhaut A in the
gravitationally-bound accumulation of rubble rather than sky, in the neighbouring constellation Aquarius, whereas
a whole planet.* [44]* [45] both Fomalhaut A and TW PsA are located in constel-
Herschel Space Observatory images of Fomalhaut reveal lation Piscis Austrinus. Its current separation from Fo-
that a large amount of uy micrometer-sized dust is malhaut A is about 0.77 parsecs (2.5 light years), and it
present in the outer dust belt. Because such dust is exis currently located 0.987 parsecs (3.2 light years) away
pected to be blown out of the system by stellar radiation from TW PsA (Fomalhaut B). LP 876-10 is located well
pressure on short timescales, its presence indicates a con- within the tidal radius of the Fomalhaut system, which is
stant replenishment by collisions of planetesimals. The 1.9 parsecs (6.2 light years).* [14] Although LP 876-10 is
uy morphology of the grains suggests a cometary ori- itself catalogued as a binary star in the Washington Dou-
gin. The collision rate is estimated to be approximately ble Star Catalog (called WSI 138), there was no sign
2000 kilometre-sized comets per day.* [46] of a close-in stellar companion in the imaging, spectral,
or astrometric data in the Mamajek et al. study.* [14] In
Observations of the star's outer dust ring by the Atacama
December 2013, Kennedy et al. reported the discovery
Large Millimeter Array point to the existence of two
of a cold dusty debris disk associated with Fomalhaut C,
planets in the system, neither one at the orbital radius pro-
using infrared images from the Herschel Space Observa-
posed for the HST-discovered Fomalhaut b.* [47]
tory. Multiple-star systems hosting multiple debris disks
If there are additional planets from 4 to 10 AU, they must are exceedingly rare.* [50]
be under 20 MJ ; if from 2.5 outward, then 30 MJ .* [48]
19.5 Etymology and cultural sig-

19.3 Fomalhaut B (TW Piscis Aus- nicance
trini)
Fomalhaut has had various names ascribed to it through
time, and has been recognized by many cultures of the
Fomalhaut forms a binary star with the K4-type star TW
northern hemisphere, including the Arabs, Persians, and
Piscis Austrini (TW PsA), which lies 0.28 parsecs (0.91
Chinese. It marked the solstice in 2500 BC. It was also a
light years) away from Fomalhaut, and its space veloc-
marker for the worship of Demeter in Eleusis.* [51]
ity agrees with that of Fomalhaut within 0.10.5 km/s,
consistent with being a bound companion. A recent age
It was called Hastorang by the Persians, one of the
estimate for TW PsA (40070 million years) agrees very
four "royal stars".* [19]
well with the isochronal age for Fomalhaut (45040 mil-
lion years), further arguing for the two stars forming a The Latin names are s piscis merdini, s piscis
physical binary.* [7] merdionlis, s piscis notii the mouth of the
The designation TW Piscis Austrini is astronomical Southern Fish.* [19]
nomenclature for a variable star. Fomalhaut B is a are The name Difda al Auwel comes from the colloquial
star of the type known as a BY Draconis variable. It Arabic a-ifdi al-awwal the rst
varies slightly in apparent magnitude, ranging from 6.44
frog(the second frog is Beta Ceti).* [19]
to 6.49 over a 10.3 day period. While smaller than the
Sun, it is relatively large for a are star. Most are stars The Chinese name /
are red M-type dwarfs. (Mandarin: Bilushmn), meaning North
Gate of the Military Camp, because this star is 19.8 References

marking itself and stands alone in North Gate of
the Military Camp asterism, Encampment mansion [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
(see: Chinese constellation).* [52] the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
(Bilushmn), westernized into Pi Lo Sze Mun in trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
R.H. Allen's work.* [19] . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357.
To the Moporr Aboriginal people of South Aus-
tralia, it is a masculine being called Buunjill.* [53] [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
called Fomalhaut Menggen white cockatoo.* [54] . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
Fomalhaut/Earthwork B, in Mounds State Park near An- [3] V* TW PsA -- Variable of BY Dra type. SIMBAD.
derson, Indiana, lines up with the rising of the star Foma- Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Re-
lhaut in the fall months, according to the Indiana Depart- trieved 2010-01-20.
ment of Natural Resources. In 1980, astronomer Jack
[4] LP 876-10 -- Double or multiple star. SIMBAD. Cen-
Robinson proposed that the rising azimuth of Fomalhaut
tre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved
was marked by cairn placements at both the Bighorn and
2014-07-30.
Moose Mountain Medicine Wheels in Wyoming, USA
and Saskatchewan, Canada, respectively.* [55] [5] Demory, B.-O.; et al. (October 2009), Mass-radius
relation of low and very low-mass stars revisited with the
The New Scientist magazine termed it the Great Eye of VLTI, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 505 (1): 205215,
Sauron", due to its shape and debris ring, when viewed
arXiv:0906.0602 , Bibcode:2009A&A...505..205D,
from a distance, bearing similarity to the aforementioned doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911976
Eyein the Peter Jackson Lord of the Rings lms.* [56]
[6] Johnson, H. L.; Iriarte, B.; Mitchell, R. I.; Wisniewskj, W.
In Walter Tevis' novel Steps of the Sun, Fomalhaut is vis-
Z. (1966).UBVRIJKL photometry of the bright stars.
ited by the protagonist, and two potentially inhabitable Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory.
planets are found (and described). Parts of Philip K 4 (99): 99. Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
Dick's novel Lies, Inc (originally titled The Unteleported
Man) are set on the ctional planet Fomalhaut IX. Ursula [7] Mamajek, E.E. (August 2012). On the Age
K. Le Guin's rst novel Rocannon's World is also set on a and Binarity of Fomalhaut. Astrophysical Jour-
ctional planet in the Fomalhaut system. nal Letters. 754 (2): L20. arXiv:1206.6353
. Bibcode:2012ApJL..754...20M. doi:10.1088/2041-
USS Fomalhaut (AK-22) was a United States navy 8205/754/2/L20.
amphibious cargo ship.
[8] Di Folco, E.; Thvenin, F.; Kervella, P.; Domiciano de
Souza, A.; Coud du Foresto, V.; Sgransan, D.; Morel,
P. (November 2004).VLTI near-IR interferometric ob-
19.6 See also servations of Vega-like stars. Radius and age of PsA,
Leo, Pic, Eri and Cet. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Exoplanet 426 (2): 601617. Bibcode:2004A&A...426..601D.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20047189. This paper lists
GJ 758 [Fe/H] = 0.10 dex.
HR 8799 [9] Dunkin, S. K.; Barlow, M. J.; Ryan, Sean G.
List of extrasolar planets (April 1997). High-resolution spectroscopy of
Vega-like stars - I. Eective temperatures, grav-
Direct imaging of extrasolar planets ities and photospheric abundances. Monthly
Fomalhaut in ction (3): 604616. Bibcode:1997MNRAS.286..604D.
doi:10.1093/mnras/286.3.604. This paper lists [Fe/H] =
2M1207
0.03 dex.
Vega
[10] Sae, C.; Gmez, M.; Pintado, O.; Gonzlez, E. (Oc-
List of star systems within 2530 light-years tober 2008). Spectroscopic metallicities of Vega-like
stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 490 (1): 297305.
arXiv:0805.3936 . Bibcode:2008A&A...490..297S.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810260. This paper lists
19.7 Notes [Fe/H] = 0.34 dex.
[1] Calculation of metallicity: if m = [Fe/H], then the ratio [11] Perryman, Michael (2010), The Making of History's
of iron to hydrogen for Fomalhaut divided by the ratio of Greatest Star Map, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag,
iron to hydrogen for the Sun is given by 10* m. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11602-5
148 CHAPTER 19. FOMALHAUT
[12] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points [28] Fred Schaaf (2008). The Brightest Stars: Discovering the
for the MK System of Spectral Classication, Bul- Universe through the Sky's Most Brilliant Stars. John Wiley
letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319, & Sons. p. 231. ISBN 047024917X.
Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04
[29] Shallow Sky Object of the Month: Fomalhaut. Houston
[13] Mennesson, B.; Absil, O.; Lebreton, J.; Augereau, J.- Astronomical Society. August 2013. Retrieved 2014-07-
C.; Serabyn, E.; Colavita, M. M.; Millan-Gabet, R.; 30.
Liu, W.; Hinz, P.; Thbault, P. (2012). An in-
terferometric study of the Fomalhaut inner debris disk [30] Barrado y Navascues, D. (1998). The Castor mov-
II. Keck Nuller mid-infrared observations. Astro- ing group. The age of Fomalhaut and VEGA. As-
physical Journal. 763 (2): 119. arXiv:1211.7143 tronomy and Astrophysics. 339: 831839. arXiv:astro-
. Bibcode:2013ApJ...763..119M. doi:10.1088/0004- ph/9905243 . Bibcode:1998A&A...339..831B.
637X/763/2/119.
[31] Elusive Planet Reshapes a Ring Around Neighboring
[14] Mamajek, Eric E.; Bartlett, Jennifer L.; Seifahrt, Andreas; Star. HubbleSite - newscenter. Space Telescope Science
Henry, Todd J.; Dieterich, Sergio B.; Lurie, John C.; Institute (STScI). June 22, 2005.
Kenworthy, Matthew A.; Jao, Wei-Chun; Riedel, Adric
[32] Barrado y Navascues, David; Stauer, John R.; Hart-
R.; Subasavage, John P.; Winters, Jennifer G.; Finch,
mann, Lee; Balachandran, Suchitra C. (January 1997).
Charlie T.; Ianna, Philip A.; Bean, Jacob (2013). The
The Age of Gliese 879 and Fomalhaut. Astro-
Solar Neighborhood. XXX. Fomalhaut C. The As-
physical Journal. 475: 313. arXiv:astro-ph/9704021
tronomical Journal. 146 (6): 154. arXiv:1310.0764
. Bibcode:1997ApJ...475..313B. doi:10.1086/303518.
. Bibcode:2013AJ....146..154M. doi:10.1088/0004-
This paper lists [Fe/H] = 0.11 dex.
6256/146/6/154.
[33] Kalas, Paul; Graham, James R.; Clampin, Mark
[15] Kalas, Paul; et al. (2008). Optical Im-
(2005). A planetary system as the ori-
ages of an Exosolar Planet 25 Light-Years from
gin of structure in Fomalhaut's dust belt.
Earth. Science. 322 (5906): 13451348.
Nature. 435 (7045): 10671070. arXiv:astro-
arXiv:0811.1994 . Bibcode:2008Sci...322.1345K.
ph/0506574 . Bibcode:2005Natur.435.1067K.
doi:10.1126/science.1166609. PMID 19008414.
doi:10.1038/nature03601. PMID 15973402.
[16] Wagman, M. (August 1987). Flamsteed's
[34] The disc was reported by Holland, Wayne S.; et al.
Missing Stars. Journal for the History of
(1998). Submillimetre images of dusty debris
Astronomy, Vol.18, NO. 3/AUG, P.209, 1987.
around nearby stars. Nature. 392 (6678): 788791.
18 (3): 212. Bibcode:1987JHA....18..209W.
Bibcode:1998Natur.392..788H. doi:10.1038/33874.
doi:10.1177/002182868701800305.
They noted that the disc was centered on a cavity, which
[17] Hartkopf, William I.; Mason, Brian D.Addressing con- they suggested might have been swept out by planets.
fusion in double star nomenclature: The Washington Mul- [35] Fomalhaut's Kuiper Belt. Sky & Telescope. Retrieved
tiplicity Catalog. U.S. Naval Observatory. Retrieved October 16, 2007.
2016-01-19.
[36] Hubble Directly Observes a Planet Orbiting Another
[18] Fomalhaut. Star. Retrieved November 13, 2008.
[19] Richard Hinckley Allen:Star Names Their Lore and [37] Le Bouquin, Jean-Baptiste; et al. (2009). The spin-
Meaning (Piscis Australis, the Southern Fish) orbit alignment of the Fomalhaut planetary system probed
[20] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- by optical long baseline interferometry. Astronomy
trieved 22 May 2016. and Astrophysics. 498 (3): L41. arXiv:0904.1688
. Bibcode:2009A&A...498L..41L. doi:10.1051/0004-
[21] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. 6361/200911854.
[38] From afar, the rst optical photos of an exoplanet.
[22] NameExoWorlds: An IAU Worldwide Contest to Name AFP. 2008-11-13. Archived from the original on 2008-
Exoplanets and their Host Stars. IAU.org. 9 July 2014 12-20.
[23] NameExoWorlds The Process [39] Quillen, Alice C. (2006). Predictions for a
planet just inside Fomalhaut's eccentric ring.
[24] Final Results of NameExoWorlds Public Vote Released, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
International Astronomical Union, 15 December 2015.
372 (1): L14L18. arXiv:astro-ph/0605372 .
[25] http://www.sctimes.com/story/news/local/2015/12/25/ Bibcode:2006MNRAS.372L..14Q. doi:10.1111/j.1745-
scsu-planetarium-names-exoplanet/77875858/ 3933.2006.00216.x.
[26] NameExoWorlds The Approved Names [40] Paul Kalas (2008-11-13). Direct Image Of Extrasolar
Planet. Retrieved 2008-11-14. (at 3 minutes 45 seconds:
[27] ALMA Reveals Workings of Nearby Planetary System "... has to be less than three Jupiter masses. In fact our
. ESO Press Release. Retrieved 13 April 2012. lower limit to Fomalhaut b is Neptune)
[41] Chiang, E; et al. (2008). Fomalhaut's Debris Disk and [51] Fomalhaut had rst visible exoplanet., citing Richard
Planet: Constraining the Mass of Fomalhaut b From Disk Hinckley Allen
Morphology. arXiv:0811.1985v1 [astro-ph].
[52] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
[42] Kenworthy, Matthew A.; et al. (2008).MMT/AO 5 miin Astronomy) 2006 7 7
cron Imaging Constraints on the Existence of Giant Plan-
ets Orbiting Fomalhaut at ~13-40 AU. The Astrophys- [53] Dawson, James (1881). Australian Aborigines. Sydney:
ical Journal. 697 (2): 19281933. arXiv:0811.2443v1 George Robertson. p. 100. ISBN 0-85575-118-5.
. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697.1928K. doi:10.1088/0004- [54] Harney, Bill Yidumduma; Cairns, Hugh C. (2004) [2003].
637X/697/2/1928. Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Merimbula, New South
Wales: Hugh C. Cairns. p. 204. ISBN 0-9750908-0-1.
[43] Markus, J.; et al. (2012). Infrared Non-detection
of Fomalhaut b Implications for the Planet Interpre- [55] Robinson, J.H. (September 1980). Fomalhaut and
tation. The Astrophysical Journal. 747 (2): 116. cairn D at the Big Horn and Moose Mountain Medicine
arXiv:1201.4388v2 . Bibcode:2012ApJ...747..116J. Wheels. Bulletin of the Astronomical Society. 12: 887.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/116. Bibcode:1980BAAS...12..887R.
[44] Raphael Galicher; Christian Marois; B. Zuckerman; [56] Ivan Semeniuk (22 June 2005).Hubble spies lord of the
Bruce Macintosh (2013). Fomalhaut b: Indepen- stellar rings. New Scientist.
dent Analysis of the Hubble Space Telescope Public
Archive Data. The Astrophysical Journal. 769:
42. arXiv:1210.6745 . Bibcode:2013ApJ...769...42G.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/769/1/42.
19.9 External links
[45] Thayne Currie; et al. (2012). Direct Imaging Conr- Fomalhaut. SolStation. Retrieved November 23,
mation and Characterization of a Dust-Enshrouded Can- 2005.
didate Exoplanet Orbiting Fomalhaut. The Astrophys-
ical Journal Letters. 760 (2): L32. arXiv:1210.6620 Preprint of planet discovery paper
. Bibcode:2012ApJ...760L..32C. doi:10.1088/2041-
8205/760/2/L32. Astrobites summary of Janson et al. 2012, the
Spitzer IR non-detection of Fomalhaut b
[46] B. Acke; et al. (2012). Herschel images of Fo-
malhaut. An extrasolar Kuiper belt at the height of Astrobites summary of Boley et al. 2012, the
its dynamical activity. Astronomy & Astrophysics ALMA observations of the Fomalhaut ring system
(class: astro-ph). 540: A125. arXiv:1204.5037
. Bibcode:2012A&A...540A.125A. doi:10.1051/0004- Eye of Saurondebris ring
6361/201118581.
Researchers nd that bright nearby double star Fo-
[47] Boley, A.; et al. (2012). Constraining the malhaut is actually a triple (Astronomy magazine :
Planetary System of Fomalhaut Using High-Resolution October 8, 2013)
ALMA Observations. The Astrophysical Journal
(class: astro-ph). 750: L21. arXiv:1204.0007v1
. Bibcode:2012ApJ...750L..21B. doi:10.1088/2041- Coordinates: 22* h 57* m 39.1* s, 29 37 20
8205/750/1/L21.
[48] Kenworthy, Matthew A.; Meshkat, Tiany; Quanz,
Sascha P.; Girard, Julien H.; Meyer, Michael R.; Kasper,
Markus (2012). Coronagraphic Observations of Fo-
malhaut at Solar System Scales. Astrophysical Jour-
nal (class: astro-ph). 764: 7. arXiv:1212.1459
. Bibcode:2013ApJ...764....7K. doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/764/1/7.
[49] Kalas, Paul; Graham, James R.; Fitzgerald, Michael P.;
Clampin, Mark (2013). STIS Coronagraphic Imaging
of Fomalhaut: Main Belt Structure and the Orbit of Foma-
lhaut b. The Astrophysical Journal. 775 (1): article id.
56. arXiv:1305.2222 . Bibcode:2013ApJ...775...56K.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/775/1/56.
[50] Kennedy, Grant M.; et al. (2013-12-17). Discov-
ery of the Fomalhaut C debris disc. Monthly No-
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 438: L96L100.
arXiv:1312.5315 . Bibcode:2014MNRAS.438L..96K.
doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slt168.
Chapter 20
Deneb
For the Deneb processor core, see Phenom II. For the
Italian steamship, see SS Deneb. For the star known as
Deneb Kaitos, see Beta Ceti.
Not to be confused with Denebola, a star in the constel-
lation Leo.
Deneb (/dnb/), also designated Alpha Cygni (

Cygni, abbreviated Alpha Cyg, Cyg), is the bright-
est star in the constellation of Cygnus. It is one of the
vertices of the asterism known as the Summer Triangle
and forms the 'head' of the Northern Cross. It is the 19th
brightest star in the night sky, with an apparent magni-
tude of 1.25. A blue-white supergiant, Deneb is also one
of the most luminous stars. However, its exact distance The Summer Triangle
(and hence luminosity) has been dicult to calculate; it is
estimated to be somewhere between 55,000 and 196,000
times as luminous as the Sun.* [7] Deneb is also easily spotted as the tip of the Northern
Cross asterism made up of the brightest stars in Cygnus,
the others being Beta (Albireo), Gamma, Delta, and
Epsilon Cygni.* [14] It never dips below the horizon at or
20.1 Nomenclature above 45 north latitude, just grazing the northern hori-
zon at its lowest point at such locations as Minneapolis,
Cygni (Latinised to Alpha Cygni) is the star's Bayer Montral and Turin.
designation. The traditional name Deneb is derived In the northern hemisphere Deneb is high in the sky dur-
from dhaneb, Arabic for tail, from the phrase ing summer evenings.* [14]
Dhanab ad-Dajja* h, or tail of the hen
.* [8] In 2016, the International Astronomical Union or- In the southern hemisphere, Deneb is not at all visible
ganized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [9] south of 45 south parallel, so it just barely rises above the
to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The horizon in Tasmania and southern New Zealand during
WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [10] included a table the southern winter (which corresponds to the northern
of the rst two batches of names approved by the WGSN; summer).
which included Deneb for this star. It is now so entered
in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [11]
20.2.1 Pole star
Due to the Earth's axial precession, Deneb will become

20.2 Visibility the Pole star at around 9800 AD.* [15]
Deneb lies at one vertex of a widely spaced asterism called

the Summer Triangle, the other two members of which
are the zero-magnitude stars Vega in the constellation 20.3 Distance and properties
Lyra and Altair in Aquila.* [12] This formation is the ap-
proximate shape of a right triangle, with Deneb located at Deneb's exact distance from the Earth is still rather un-
one of the acute angles. The Summer Triangle is recog- certain. The currently accepted distance of around 2,600
nizable in the northern skies for there are few other bright light-years (and the associated physical data shown in
stars in its vicinity.* [13] the starbox) is derived by a variety of methods, in-
150
20.3. DISTANCE AND PROPERTIES 151
a surface temperature of 8,500 kelvin. Since 1943, its

spectrum has served as one of the stable anchor points by
which other stars are classied.* [4] It is the prototype of a
class of variable stars known as Alpha Cygni variables. Its
surface undergoes non-radial uctuations which cause its
brightness to vary by up to 0.15 magnitude with no clear
periodicity, and the spectral type to change slightly.* [22]
Deneb's mass is estimated at 19 solar masses (M ). Its
stellar wind causes it to lose mass at a rate of 8310* 7
M per year, one hundred thousand times the ow rate
from the Sun.* [23]
20.3.1 Binary companion
Deneb has been reported as a possible single line spec-

troscopic binary, where the radial velocity of the spectral
Deneb's place at top centre on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram lines from the primary star changes in a periodic fashion,
but no spectral features from a companion are seen.* [24]
More detailed analysis of the spectrum over time has not
cluding spectral luminosity classes, atmospheric mod- found any support for this.* [22]
elling, stellar evolution models, assumed membership
of the Cygnus OB7 association, and direct measure-
ments of angular diameter. The original rather inaccu-
rate Hipparcos parallax measurement* [16]* [17] was not
inconsistent with this distance, but the more recent re-
20.3.2 Evolutionary state
analysis* [1] gives a much larger parallax and a distance
barely half the widely accepted value. One 2008 calcu- Deneb spent much of its early life as a 23 M O-type
lation using the Hipparcos data* [18] puts the most likely main-sequence star but it has now exhausted the supply
*
distance at 1,550 light-years, with an uncertainty of only of hydrogen in its core and begun to cool and expand. [6]
around 10%, although parallax measurements of asym- Stars in the mass range of Deneb eventually expand to
metric, pulsating stars embedded within shells are known become the most luminous red supergiants, and within
to be unreliable. The controversy over whether the di- a few million years their cores will collapse producing
rect Hipparcos measurements can be ignored in favour a supernova explosion. It is now known that red super-
of a wide range of indirect stellar models and interstel- giants up to a certain mass explode as the commonly seen
lar distance scales is similar to the better known situa- type II-P supernovae, but more massive ones lose their
tion with the Pleiades.* [1] The Gaia satellite should pro- outer layers to become hotter again. Depending on their
vide distance measurements at least two orders of magni- initial masses and the rate of mass loss, they may ex-
tude more reliable than Hipparcos and resolve many such plode as yellow hypergiants or luminous blue variables,
questions, although it will not measure Deneb itself.* [19] or they may become Wolf-Rayet stars before exploding
in a type Ib or Ic supernova. Identifying whether Deneb
Deneb's absolute magnitude is currently estimated as
is currently evolving towards a red supergiant or is cur-
8.4, placing it among the most luminous stars known, rently evolving bluewards again would place valuable con-
with an estimated luminosity nearly 200,000 times that straints on the classes of stars that explode as red super-
of the Sun. This is towards the upper end of various pub- giants and those that explode as hotter stars.* [25]
lished values over the last few decades.* [7]* [20]* [21]
Stars evolving redwards for the rst time are most likely
Deneb is the most luminous of the stars with apparent fusing hydrogen in a shell around a helium core that has
magnitude brighter than 1.5, and the most distant, by a not yet grown hot enough to start fusion to carbon and
factor of almost 2, of the 30 brightest stars. Based on its oxygen. Convection has begun to dredge up the products
temperature and luminosity, and also on direct measure- of fusion but these are not visible at the surface. Post-
ments of its tiny angular diameter (a mere 0.002 second red supergiant stars are expected to show those fusion
of arc), Deneb appears to have a diameter of about over products at the surface due to stronger convection during
200 times that of the Sun;* [7] if placed at the center of the red supergiant phase and due to loss of the obscuring
the Solar System, Deneb would extend out to the orbit of outer layers of the star. Deneb is thought to be evolving
the Earth. It is one of the largest known white stars. redwards, although current models do not exactly repro-
Deneb is a bluish-white star of spectral type A2Ia, with duce the surface elements showing in its spectrum.* [25]
152 CHAPTER 20. DENEB
20.4 Etymology and cultural sig- 20.4.2 Deneb in ction

nicance Main article: Deneb in ction
The star Deneb, and hypothetical planets orbiting it,

have been used many times in literature, lm, electronic
games, and music. Examples include several episodes of
the Star Trek TV series, the Silver Surfer comic book,
the Rush albums A Farewell to Kings and Hemispheres,
the Descent: FreeSpace The Great War computer game,
Stellaris (video game), science ction novel Hyperion, and
Andy Weir, in his novel The Martian.
20.5 References
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (2009). The Hipparcos cata-
Wide-eld view of the Summer Triangle and Milky Way. Deneb log. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 500: 505506.
is at the left of the frame Bibcode:2009A&A...500..505V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/200912202.
Names similar to Deneb were given to at least seven dif-
ferent stars, most notably Deneb Kaitos, the brightest star
in the constellation of Cetus; Deneb Algedi, the brightest . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
star in Capricornus; and Denebola, the second brightest Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
star in Leo. All these stars are referring to the tail of the
animals that their respective constellations represent. [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
* Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
Denebadigege was used in the Alfonsine Tables, [26]
other variants include Deneb Adige, Denebedigege and B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1:
Arided. This latter name was derived from Al Ridhdh, a 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
name for the constellation. Johann Bayer called it Ar-
rioph, derived from Aridf and Al Ridf, 'the hindmost' [4] Garrison, R. F. (1993). Anchor Points for the
or Gallina. German poet and author Philippus Caesius MK System of Spectral Classication. Bulletin
termed it Os rosae, or Rosemund in German, or Uropy- of the American Astronomical Society. 25: 1319.
gium the parson's nose.* [8] The names Arided and Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G. Retrieved 2012-02-04.
Aridif have fallen out of use.
[5] Gontcharov, G. A. (2006). Pulkovo Compi-
In Chinese, (Tin Jn), meaning Celestial Ford, lation of Radial Velocities for 35 495 Hipparcos
refers to an asterism consisting of Deneb, Cygni, stars in a common system. Astronomy Let-
Cygni, 30 Cygni, Cygni, Cygni, Cygni, Cygni ters. 32 (11): 759. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G.
and Cygni.* [27] Consequently, Deneb itself is known doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065.
as (Tin Jn s, English: the Fourth Star of the
Celestial Ford).* [28] [6] Schiller, F.; Przybilla, N. (2008). Quantita-
tive spectroscopy of Deneb. Astronomy & As-
In the Chinese love story of Qi Xi, Deneb marks the trophysics. 479 (3): 849858. arXiv:0712.0040
magpie bridge across the Milky Way, which allows the . Bibcode:2008A&A...479..849S. doi:10.1051/0004-
separated lovers Niu Lang (Altair) and Zhi N (Vega) to 6361:20078590.
be reunited on one special night of the year in late sum-
mer. In other versions of the story Deneb is a fairy who [7] Chesneau, O.; Dessart, L.; Mourard, D.; Brio, Ph.; Buil,
acts as chaperone when the lovers meet. Ch.; Bonneau, D.; Borges Fernandes, M.; Clausse, J.
M.; Delaa, O.; Marcotto, A.; Meilland, A.; Millour, F.;
The north pole of Mars points to the midpoint of the line Nardetto, N.; Perraut, K.; Roussel, A.; Spang, A.; Stee,
connecting Deneb and the star Alderamin.* [29] P.; Tallon-Bosc, I.; McAlister, H.; Ten Brummelaar, T.;
Sturmann, J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N.; Farrington, C.;
Goldnger, P. J. (2010). Time, spatial, and spectral
resolution of the H line-formation region of Deneb and
20.4.1 Namesakes Rigel with the VEGA/CHARA interferometer. As-
tronomy and Astrophysics. 521: A5. arXiv:1007.2095
USS Arided was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo . Bibcode:2010A&A...521A...5C. doi:10.1051/0004-
ship named after the star. 6361/201014509.
[8] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning [23] Aufdenberg, J. P.; Hauschildt, P. H.; Baron, E.;
(Reprint ed.). Dover Publications. p. 195. ISBN 0-486- Nordgren, T. E.; Burnley, A. W.; Howarth, I. D.;
21079-0. Gordon, K. D.; Stansberry, J. A. (2002). The
Spectral Energy Distribution and Mass-Loss Rate of
[9] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- the A-Type Supergiant Deneb. The Astrophysi-
cal Journal. 570: 344. arXiv:astro-ph/0201218 .
[10] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. Bibcode:2002ApJ...570..344A. doi:10.1086/339740.
[24] Lucy, L. B. (1976).An analysis of the variable radial ve-
[11] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. locity of alpha Cygni. Astrophysical Journal. 206: 499.
Bibcode:1976ApJ...206..499L. doi:10.1086/154405.
[12] Pasacho, J. M. (2000). A Field Guide to Stars and Planets
(4th ed.). Houghton Miin. ISBN 0-395-93431-1. [25] Georgy, Cyril; Saio, Hideyuki; Meynet, Georges (2014).
The puzzle of the CNO abundances of Cygni vari-
[13] Upgren, A. R. (1998). Night Has a Thousand Eyes: A ables resolved by the Ledoux criterion. Monthly No-
Naked-Eye Guide to the Sky, Its Science, and Lore. Basic tices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 439: L6.
Books. ISBN 0-306-45790-3. arXiv:1311.4744 . Bibcode:2014MNRAS.439L...6G.
doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slt165.
[14] Smith, C. E. (1937). Stars of the Summer Sky
. Astronomical Society of the Pacic Leaets. 3: 23. [26] Kunitzsch, P. (1986). The Star Catalogue Com-
Bibcode:1937ASPL....3...23S. monly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables. Journal
for the History of Astronomy. 17 (49): 8998.
[15] Deneb. June 19, 1998. Retrieved November 29, 2015.
Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K.
[16] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg,
E.; Bastian, U.; Bernacca, P. L.; Crz, M.; Donati,
by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
F.; Grenon, M.; Grewing, M.; Van Leeuwen, F.; Van
25-7.
Der Marel, H.; Mignard, F.; Murray, C. A.; Le Poole,
R. S.; Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschl, [28] (Chinese) - -
M.; Petersen, C. S. (1997). The Hipparcos Cata- Archived September 29, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.,
logue. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49L52. Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P. 23, 2010.
[17] Perryman, M. (2010). The Making of History's Great- [29] Barlow, N. G. (2008). Mars: An introduction to its interior,
est Star Map. Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-642- surface and atmosphere. Cambridge University Press. p.
11602-5. ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8. 21. ISBN 0-521-85226-9.
[18] Maz Apellniz, J.; Alfaro, E. J.; Sota, A. (2008).
Accurate distances to nearby massive stars with Coordinates: 20* h 41* m 25.9* s, +45 16 49
the new reduction of the Hipparcos raw data
. 0804: 2553. arXiv:0804.2553 [astro-ph].
Bibcode:2008arXiv0804.2553M.
[19] Turon, Catherine; Luri, Xavier; Masana, Eduard (2012).

Building the cosmic distance scale: From Hipparcos
to Gaia. Astrophysics and Space Science. 341: 15.
arXiv:1202.3645 . Bibcode:2012Ap&SS.341...15T.
doi:10.1007/s10509-012-1026-5.
[20] van de Kamp, P. (1953). The Twenty Brightest Stars.

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 65:
30. Bibcode:1953PASP...65...30V. doi:10.1086/126523.
[21] Lamers, H. J. G. L. M.; Stalio, R.; Kondo, Y. (1978).

A study of mass loss from the mid-ultraviolet spec-
trum of Cygni (A2 Ia), Orionis (B8 Ia), and Leo-
nis (A0 Ib)". The Astrophysical Journal. 223: 207.
Bibcode:1978ApJ...223..207L. doi:10.1086/156252.
[22] Richardson, N. D.; Morrison, N. D.; Kryukova, E.

E.; Adelman, S. J. (2011). A Five-year Spectro-
scopic and Photometric Campaign on the Prototypical
Cygni Variable and A-type Supergiant Star Deneb.
The Astronomical Journal. 141: 17. arXiv:1009.5994
. Bibcode:2011AJ....141...17R. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/141/1/17.
Chapter 21
Beta Crucis
Beta Crucis ( Crucis, abbreviated Beta Cru, Cru), ery 5 years with an estimated separation that varies from
also named Mimosa,* [8] is a binary star system; the 5.4 to 12.0 Astronomical Units.* [5] The system is only 8
second-brightest star in the constellation of Crux (after to 11 million years old.* [4]
Alpha Crucis or Acrux) and the 19th-brightest star in the
The primary, Beta Crucis A, is a massive star with about
night sky. It forms part of the prominent asterism called 16 times the Sun's mass. The projected rotational veloc-
the Southern Cross.
ity of this star is about 35 km s* 1. However, the or-
bital plane of the pair is only about 10, which probably
means the inclination of the star's pole is also likely to be
21.1 Nomenclature low. This suggests that the azimuthal rotational velocity is
quite high, at about 120 km s* 1. With a radius of about
8.4 times the radius of the Sun, this would mean the star
Crucis (Latinised to Beta Crucis) is the system's
has a rotational period of only about 3.6 days.* [4]
Bayer designation. Although Beta Crucis is at roughly
60 declination, and therefore not visible north of 30 Beta Crucis A is a known Beta Cephei variable, although
latitude, in the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans with an eective temperature of about 27,000 K it is at the
it was visible north of 40 due to the precession of high end of the instability strip where such stars are found.
equinoxes, and these civilizations regarded it as part of It has three dierent periods of pulsation, none of which
the constellation of Centaurus.* [10] are radial. All of the pulsation periods are in the range
of 4.034.59 hours. The star has a stellar classication
It bore the traditional names Mimosa and the histori-
of B0.5 III, with the luminosity class of 'III' indicating
cal name Becrux. Mimosa, which is derived from the
that this is a giant star that has exhausted the supply of
Latin for 'actor', may come from the ower of the same
* hydrogen at its core. The high temperature of the star's
name. [11] Becrux is a modern contraction of the Bayer
* outer envelope is what gives the star the blue-white hue
designation. [9] In 2016, the International Astronomi-
that is characteristic of B-type stars.* [17] It is generating
cal Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
a strong stellar wind and is probably losing about 10* 8
times the mass of the Sun per year, or the equivalent of
the mass of the Sun every 100 million years. The wind
is leaving the system with a velocity of 2,000 km s* 1 or
by the WGSN; which included Mimosa for this star.
more.* [4]
In Chinese, (Sh Z Ji), meaning Cross, refers
The secondary companion in this system may be a main
to an asterism consisting of Beta Crucis, Gamma Cru-
sequence star with a stellar class of B2.* [5] In 2007, a
cis, Alpha Crucis and Delta Crucis.* [14] Consequently,
third companion was announced, which may be a low
Beta Crucis itself is known as (Sh Z Ji sn,
* mass, pre-main sequence star. The X-ray emission from
English: the Third Star of Cross.). [15]
this star was detected using the Chandra X-ray Ob-
servatory. Two other stars, located at angular separa-
tions of 44 and 370 arcseconds, are likely optical com-
21.2 Properties panions that are not physically associated with the sys-
tem. The Beta Crucis system may be a member of
Beta Crucis is believed to be the hottest rst-magnitude the Lower Centaurus-Crux *
sub-group of the Scorpius-
star, with an apparent visual magnitude of 1.25. Based on Centaurus Association. [18] This is a stellar association
parallax measurements, it is located at a distance of 280 of stars that share a common origin.* [4]
ly (86 pc) from the Earth. In 1957, German astronomer
Wul-Dieter Heintz discovered that it is a spectroscopic
binary with components that are too close together to re-
solve with a telescope.* [16] The pair orbit each other ev-
154
21.3 In culture [10] Wilkinson, Susan (2007), Mimosa: The Life and Times
of the Ship That Sailed to Patagonia, Y Lolfa, pp. 5657,
ISBN 0-86243-952-3
Beta Crucis is represented in the ags of Australia, New
Zealand, Samoa and Papua New Guinea as one of ve [11] MIMOSA (Beta Crucis)", Stars, university of Illinois,
stars making up the Southern Cross.* [4] It is also featured retrieved 2011-12-30
in the ag of Brazil, along with 26 other stars, each of
which represents a state. Mimosa represents the State of [12] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
Rio de Janeiro.* [19]
A vessel named MV Becrux is used to export live cattle [13] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
from Australia to customers in Asia. An episode dedi- 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
cated to the vessel features in the television documentary [14] (Chinese) , written by . Published
series Mighty Ships. by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[15] (Chinese) - - ,
21.4 References Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
23, 2010.
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and [16] Heintz, W. D. (October 1957), The radial velocity
variation of beta Crucis, The Observatory, 77: 200,
Bibcode:1957Obs....77..200H
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357 [17] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and
[2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
search Organisation, December 21, 2004, archived from
tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99,
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J [18] Rizzuto, Aaron; Ireland, Michael; Robertson, J. G. (Oc-
tober 2011), Multidimensional Bayesian membership
analysis of the Sco OB2 moving group, Monthly Notices
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: arXiv:1106.2857 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.416.3108R,
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19256.x.
[4] Cohen, David H.; et al. (June 2008), Chandra spec- [19] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag. FOTW Flags Of
troscopy of the hot star Crucis and the discovery of The World website.
a pre-main-sequence companion, Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 386 (4): 18551871,
arXiv:0802.4084 , Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386.1855C, 21.5 External links
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13176.x
[5] Aerts, C.; et al. (January 1998), Evidence for bi- http://jumk.de/astronomie/big-stars/becrux.shtml
narity and multiperiodicity in the beta Cephei star beta
Crucis, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 329: 137146,
Bibcode:1998A&A...329..137A Coordinates: 12* h 47* m 43.26877* s, 59 41
19.5792
[6] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of
the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat-
ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina-
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed-
ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra-
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union. p. 57.
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E.
[7] Kilian, J. (February 1994), Chemical abundances in

early B-type stars. 5: Metal abundances and LTE/NLTE
comparison, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 282 (3): 867
873, Bibcode:1994A&A...282..867K
[9] Hoeit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991). The Bright star

catalogue. New Haven. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
Chapter 22
Regulus
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Regulus tial bending of light was measured to be consistent with
(disambiguation). general relativity.* [18] Regulus was occulted by the as-
teroid 163 Erigone in the early morning of March 20,
*
Regulus, also designated Alpha Leonis ( Leonis, ab- 2014. [19] The center of the shadow path passed through
New York and eastern Ontario, but no one is known to
breviated Alpha Leo, Leo), is the brightest star in
the constellation of Leo and one of the brightest stars have seen it, due to cloud cover. The International Oc-
cultation Timing Association recorded no observations at
in the night sky, lying approximately 79 light years from *
the Sun. [1] Regulus is a multiple star system composed all. [20]
*
of four stars that are organized into two pairs. The Although best seen in the evening in northern hemisphere
spectroscopic binary Regulus A consists of a blue-white in late winter and spring, Regulus appears at some time
main-sequence star and its companion, which has not yet of night throughout the year except for about a month
been directly observed, but is probably a white dwarf.* [5] on either side of August 22, when the Sun is too near.
Located farther away are Regulus B, C, and D, which are Regulus passes through SOHO's LASCO C3 every Au-
dim main-sequence stars. gust.* [21] For most Earth observers, the heliacal rising of
Regulus occurs in the rst week of September. Every 8
years, Venus passes Regulus around the time of the star's
22.1 Nomenclature heliacal rising, as on 5 September 2014.
Leonis (Latinized to Alpha Leonis) is the star's Bayer

designation. The traditional name Rgulus is Latin for 22.3 System
'prince' or 'little king'. In 2016, the International As-
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star
Names (WGSN)* [14] to catalog and standardize proper Regulus is a multiple star system consisting of at least four
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July stars. Regulus A is the dominant star, with a binary com-
2016* [15] included a table of the rst two batches of panion 177distant that is thought to be physically re-
names approved by the WGSN; which included Regulus lated. Regulus D is a 12th magnitude companion at 212,
for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of which shares a common motion with the other stars.* [22]
Star Names.* [16] Regulus A is a binary star consisting of a blue-white main
sequence star of spectral type B7V, which is orbited by a
star of at least 0.3 solar masses, which is probably a white
22.2 Observations dwarf. The two stars take approximately 40 days to com-
plete an orbit around their common centre of mass. Given
the extremely distorted shape of the primary, the rela-
Regulus is 0.46 degree from the ecliptic, the closest of the tive orbital motion may be notably altered with respect to
bright stars, and is regularly occulted by the Moon. Oc- the two-body purely Keplerian scenario because of non-
cultations by the planets Mercury and Venus are possible negligible long-term orbital perturbations aecting, for
but rare, as are occultations by asteroids. example, its orbital period. In other words, Kepler's third
The last occultation of Regulus by a planet was on July 7, law, which holds exactly only for two point-like masses,
1959, by Venus.* [17] The next will occur on October 1, would be no longer valid because of the highly distorted
2044, also by Venus. Other planets will not occult Reg- shape of the primary. Regulus A was long thought to be
ulus over the next few millennia because of their node fairly young, only 50 - 100 million years old, calculated
positions. An occultation of Regulus by the asteroid 166 by comparing its temperature, luminosity, and mass. The
Rhodope was observed by 12 researchers from Portugal, existence of a white dwarf companion would mean that
Spain, Italy, and Greece on October 19, 2005. Dieren- the system is at least a 1,000 million years old, just to ac-
156
22.6. SEE ALSO 157
count for the formation of the white dwarf. The discrep- of the four 'royal stars' of the Persian monarchy.* [30] It
ancy can be accounted for by a history of mass transfer was one of the fteen Behenian stars known to medieval
onto a once-smaller Regulus A.* [12] astrologers, associated with granite, mugwort, and the
The primary of Regulus A has about 3.5 times the Sun kabbalistic symbol .
s mass. It is spinning extremely rapidly, with a rotation In MUL.APIN, Regulus is listed as LUGAL, meaning
period of only 15.9 hours, which causes it to have a highly the star that stands in the breast of the Lion:the King.
oblate shape.* [23] This results in so-called gravity dark- .* [31]
ening: the photosphere at Regulus' poles is considerably
hotter, and ve times brighter per unit surface area, than
its equatorial region. If it were rotating only 15% faster,
the star's gravity would be insucient to hold it together,
and it would spin itself apart.* [12]
Regulus BC is 5,000 AU* [24] from Regulus A. They
share a common proper motion and are thought to or-
bit each other.* [4] Designated Regulus B and Regulus C,
the pair has Henry Draper Catalogue number HD 87884.
The rst is a K2V star, while the companion is approxi-
mately M4V.* [23] The companion pair has an orbital pe-
riod of about 600 years* [4] with a separation of 2.5in
1942.* [23]
Regulus through Celestron CGEM DX 1100 @ F6.3, Canon T3i,
Televue 4X Powermate, ISO 800, 30 sec exposure
22.4 Visibility
The Regulus system as a whole is the twenty-rst brightest 22.6 See also
star in the night sky with an apparent magnitude of +1.35.
The light output is dominated by Regulus A. Regulus B, Leo constellation
if seen in isolation, would be a binocular object of mag-
nitude +8.1, and its companion, Regulus C, the faintest Table of stars with Bayer designations
of the three stars that has been directly observed, would
require a substantial telescope to be seen, at magnitude Regulus in ction
+13.5. Regulus A is itself a spectroscopic binary: the
secondary star has not yet been directly observed as it is
much fainter than the primary. The BC pair lies at an an- 22.7 References
gular distance of 177 arc-seconds from Regulus A, mak-
ing them visible in amateur telescopes.* [25] [1] van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
22.5 Etymology and cultural asso- 6361:20078357. Vizier catalog entry
ciations [2] Hg, E.; Fabricius, C.; Makarov, V. V.; Urban, S.;
Corbin, T.; Wyco, G.; Bastian, U.; Schwekendiek,
Rgulus is Latin for 'prince' or 'little king';* [26] its Greek P.; Wicenec, A. (2000). The Tycho-2 catalogue of
equivalent (latinised) is Basiliscus.* [27]* [28] It is also the 2.5 million brightest stars. Astronomy and As-
known as Qalb al-Asad, from the Arabic , trophysics. 355: L27. Bibcode:2000A&A...355L..27H.
meaning 'the heart of the lion', a name already attested in doi:10.1888/0333750888/2862.
the Greek Kardia Leontos* [27]* [29] whose Latin equiv- [3] van Belle, Gerard T.; von Braun, Kaspar (2009).
alent is Cor Lenis. The Arabic phrase is sometimes ap- Directly Determined Linear Radii and Eective Tem-
proximated as Kabelaced. In Chinese it is known as peratures of Exoplanet Host Stars. The Astrophysi-
, the Fourteenth Star of Xuanyuan, the Yellow Em- cal Journal. 694 (2): 10851098. arXiv:0901.1206
peror. In Hindu astronomy, Regulus corresponds to the . Bibcode:2009ApJ...694.1085V. doi:10.1088/0004-
Nakshatra Magha (the bountiful). 637X/694/2/1085.
Babylonians called it Sharru ( the King), and it marked [4] Tokovinin, A. A. (1997).MSC - a catalogue of physical
the 15th ecliptic constellation. In India it was known as multiple stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement
Magh (the Mighty), in Sogdiana Magh (the Great Series. 124: 7584. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T.
), in Persia Miyan
( the Centre) and also as Venant, one doi:10.1051/aas:1997181.
158 CHAPTER 22. REGULUS
[5] Gies, D.R.; Dieterich, S.; Richardson, N. D.; Riedel, A. [18] Sigismondi, Costantino; Troise, Davide (2008).
R.; Team, B. L.; McAlister, H. A.; Bagnuolo, Jr., W. Asteroidal Occultation of Regulus:. Dieren-
G.; Grundstrom, E. D.; te, S.; Rivinius, Th.; Baade, tial Eect of Light Bending. THE ELEVENTH
D.; et al. (2008). A Spectroscopic Orbit for Regu- MARCEL GROSSMANN MEETING on Recent De-
lus. The Astrophysical Journal. 682 (2): L117L120. velopments in Theoretical and Experimental General
arXiv:0806.3473 . Bibcode:2008ApJ...682L.117G. Relativity: 2594. Bibcode:2008mgm..conf.2594S.
doi:10.1086/591148. doi:10.1142/9789812834300_0469. ISBN
9789812834263.
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system [19] Sigismondi, C.; Flatres, T.; George, T.; Braga-Ribas,
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. F. (2014). Stellar limb darkening scan during 163
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. Erigone asteroidal occultation of Regulus on March 20,
2014 at 6:06 UT. The Astronomer's Telegram. 5987: 1.
[7] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR Bibcode:2014ATel.5987....1S.
(Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: [20] Regulus 2014 International Occultation Timing Associa-
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: tion
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
[21] Battams, Karl. Notable objects in LASCO C3. Sun-
[8] Evans, D. S. (1967). The Revision of the Gen- grazing Comets. Navy.mil. Retrieved 2012-09-05.
eral Catalogue of Radial Velocities. Determination
of Radial Velocities and their Applications. 30: 57. [22] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. I.; Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001).
The 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-
[9] Malagnini, M. L.; Morossi, C. (November 1990), Ac- ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog.
curate absolute luminosities, eective temperatures, radii, The Astronomical Journal. 122 (6): 34663471.
masses and surface gravities for a selected sample of eld Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. doi:10.1086/323920.
(3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M. [23] McAlister, H. A.; ten Brummelaar, T. A.; Gies; Huang;
Bagnuolo, Jr.; Shure; Sturmann; Sturmann; Turner; Tay-
[10] Fitzpatrick, E. L.; Massa, D. (March 2005), Deter- lor; Berger; Baines; Grundstrom; Ogden; Ridgway; Van
mining the Physical Properties of the B Stars. II. Cal- Belle; et al. (2005). First Results from the CHARA
ibration of Synthetic Photometry, The Astronomical Array. I. An Interferometric and Spectroscopic Study of
Journal, 129 (3): 16421662, arXiv:astro-ph/0412542 , the Fast Rotator Alpha Leonis (Regulus)". The Astrophys-
Bibcode:2005AJ....129.1642F, doi:10.1086/427855. ical Journal. 628: 439452. arXiv:astro-ph/0501261 .
Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..439M. doi:10.1086/430730.
[11] Zorec, J.; Royer, F. (January 2012), Determin-
ing the Physical Properties of the B Stars. II. [24] Lindroos, K. P. (1985). A study of visual double stars
Calibration of Synthetic Photometry, Astronomy with early type primaries. IV Astrophysical data. As-
& Astrophysics, 537: A120, arXiv:1201.2052 , tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 60: 183.
Bibcode:2012A&A...537A.120Z, doi:10.1051/0004- Bibcode:1985A&AS...60..183L.
6361/201117691.
[25] Pugh, Philip (2009). Simple Deep Sky Viewing.
[12] Rappaport, S.; Podsiadlowski, Ph.; Horev, I. (2009). The Science and Art of Using Telescopes. Patrick Moore's
The Past and Future History of Regulus. The Astro- Practical Astronomy Series. p. 157. doi:10.1007/978-0-
physical Journal. 698 (1): 666675. arXiv:0904.0395 387-76470-2_6. ISBN 978-0-387-76469-6.
. Bibcode:2009ApJ...698..666R. doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/698/1/666. [26] regulus. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin
Dictionary on Perseus Project.
[13] Martin, E. L.; Magazzu, A.; Rebolo, R. (1992). On
the post-T-Tauri nature of late-type visual companions to [27] Geminus, 3.5, Introduction to the Phenomena.
B-type stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 257: 186.
Bibcode:1992A&A...257..186M. [28] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A
GreekEnglish Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
trieved 22 May 2016. [29] in Liddell and Scott.
[15] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. [30] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963). Star Names: Their Lore
1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016. and Meaning. Dover. pp. 2556. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[16] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. [31] Rogers, J. H. (February 1998). Origins of the ancient
[17] Occultations of bright stars by planets between 0 and of the British Astronomical Association, no.1. 108: 928.
4000. Retrieved 2007-10-16. Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R.
22.8 External links

Portrait of a Star on the Edge
Egg-Shaped Regulus is Spinning Fast

APOD Pictures:
Regulus Occulted
Regulus & Leo 1 Dwarf Galaxy
Bright Star Regulus near the Leo I Dwarf
Galaxy
Regulus, Mars & Coma Star Cluster
Regulus 3. SolStation. Retrieved December 1,

2005.
Regulus at Constellation Guide
Coordinates: 10* h 08* m 22.3* s, +11 58 02

Chapter 23
Alpha Crucis
This article is about the star. For the Christian college, and not at all from New Orleans, Louisiana, or Cairo,
see Alphacrucis. Egypt (both about 30N). Because of Earth's axial pre-
cession, however, the star was visible to ancient Hindu as-
tronomers in India who named it Tri-shanku. It was also
Alpha Crucis ( Crucis, abbreviated Alpha Cru,
Cru) is a multiple star system located 321 light-years visible to the ancient Romans and Greeks, who regarded
* * it to be part of the constellation of Centaurus.* [19]
from the Sun [1] [12] in the constellation of Crux and
part of the asterism known as the Southern Cross. With In Chinese, (Sh Z Ji, "Cross"), refers to an as-
a combined visual magnitude of 0.76, it is the brightest terism consisting of Alpha Crucis, Gamma Crucis, Beta
star in Crux and the 13th brightest star in the night sky. It Crucis and Delta Crucis.* [20] Consequently, Crucis it-
is the southernmost rst-magnitude star, just a little more self is known as (Sh Z Ji r, the Second
southerly than Alpha Centauri.* [13] Star of Cross.).* [21]
Two components are visually distinguishable: Crucis This star is known as Estrela de Magalhes (Star of
and Crucis; alternatively designated Crucis A and Magellan") in Portuguese.* [22]
Crucis B. is itself a spectroscopic binary with compo-
nents designated Crucis Aa (also named Acrux* [14])
and Crucis Ab.
23.2 Stellar properties
23.1 Nomenclature
Crucis (Latinised to Alpha Crucis) is the system's Bayer
designation; and Crucis, those of its two con-
stituents. The designations of these two constituents as
Crucis A and B and those of A's components - Cru-
cis Aa and Ab - derive from the convention used by the
Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple
star systems, and adopted by the International Astronom-
ical Union (IAU).* [15]
The historical name Acrux for Crucis is an
'Americanism' coined in the 19th century, but en-
tering common use only by the mid 20th century.* [16] In
Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [17] to catalog Crucis with the nearby HD 108250
and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN
states that in the case of multiple stars the name should be
The two components, and Crucis, are separated by
understood to be attributed to the brightest component 4 arcseconds. is magnitude 1.40 and is magnitude
by visual brightness.* [18] The WGSN approved the 2.09, both early class B stars, with surface temperatures
name Acrux for Crucis Aa on 20 July 2016 and it is of about 28,000 and 26,000 K respectively. Their lu-
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [14] minosities are 25,000 and 16,000 times that of the Sun.
Since Crucis is at 63 declination, the southernmost and orbit over such a long period that motion is
rst-magnitude star, it is only visible south of latitude only barely seen. From their minimum separation of 430
27 North. Therefore, it barely rises from cities such as astronomical units, the period is estimated to be around
Miami, Florida, or Karachi, Pakistan (both around 25N) 1,500 years.* [3]
160
is itself a spectroscopic binary star, with its compo- Arbor : Dept. of Astronomy, Ann Arbor, Michi-
nents thought to be around 14 and 10 times the mass of gan: Dept. of Astronomy, University of Michigan, 1,
the Sun and orbiting in only 76 days at a separation of Bibcode:1978mcts.book.....H
about 1 AU. The masses of and the brighter compo- [5] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953). General Catalogue of Stel-
nent suggest that the stars will someday explode as lar Radial Velocities. Washington: Carnegie Institution of
supernovae. The unseen fainter component of may Washington. Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
survive to become a massive white dwarf.* [9]
[6] Kaltcheva, N. T.; Golev, V. K.; Moran, K. (2014).
The cooler less luminous B class star HR 4729 (HD Massive stellar content of the Galactic supershell GSH
108250) lies 90 arcseconds away from triple Crucis 305+01-24. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 562: A69.
and shares its motion through space, suggesting it may Bibcode:2014A&A...562A..69K. doi:10.1051/0004-
be gravitationally bound to it, and it is therefore generally 6361/201321454.
assumed to be physically associated.* [23]* [24] It is itself [7] Van De Kamp, Peter (1953). The Twenty Bright-
a spectroscopic binary system, sometimes catalogued as est Stars. Publications of the Astronomical Society
component C of the Crucis multiple system, and it has of the Pacic. 65: 30. Bibcode:1953PASP...65...30V.
a faint visual companion listed as component D. A fur- doi:10.1086/126523.
ther seven faint stars are also listed as companions out to
[8] Thackeray, A. D.; Wegner, G. (April 1980), An
a distance of about two arc-minutes.* [25]
improved spectroscopic orbit for 1 Crucis,
Rizzuto and colleagues determined in 2011 that the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
Crucis system was 66% likely to be a member of 191 (2): 217220, Bibcode:1980MNRAS.191..217T,
the Lower Centaurus-Crux sub-group of the Scorpius- doi:10.1093/mnras/191.2.217
Centaurus Association. It was not previously seen to be [9]Acrux. The Hundred Greatest Stars. 2002. p. 4.
a member of the group.* [26] doi:10.1007/0-387-21625-1_2. ISBN 0-387-95436-8.
On 2008 October 2, the CassiniHuygens spacecraft re- [10] Dravins, Dainis; Jensen, Hannes; Lebohec, Stephan;
solved three of the components (A, B and C) of the mul- Nuez, Paul D. (2010). Stellar intensity interferom-
tiple star system as Saturn's disk occulted it.* [27]* [28] etry: Astrophysical targets for sub-milliarcsecond
imaging. Proceedings of the SPIE. Optical
and Infrared Interferometry II. 7734: 77340A.
arXiv:1009.5815 . Bibcode:2010SPIE.7734E..0AD.
23.3 In culture doi:10.1117/12.856394.
Crucis is represented in the ags of Australia, New [11] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (2011).
A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos stars
Zealand, Samoa, and Papua New Guinea as one of ve
within 3 kpc from the Sun. Monthly Notices of
stars which comprise the Southern Cross. It is also fea- the Royal Astronomical Society. 410: 190200.
tured in the ag of Brazil, along with 26 other stars, each Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
of which represents a state; Crucis representing the 2966.2010.17434.x.
State of So Paulo.* [29]
23.4 References Verlag, Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P, doi:10.1007/978-
3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation [13] Bordeleau, Andr G. (12 August 2013). Federative Re-
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and public of Brazil: Constellations in the Breeze. Flags
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , of the Night Sky. New York: Springer. pp. 172.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0929-8_1. ISBN 978-1-4614-
6361:20078357 0928-1. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
[14] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 21 November
[2] Corben, P. M. (1966). Photoelectric magnitudes
2016.
and colours for bright southern stars. Monthly Notes
of the Astron. Soc. Southern Africa. 25: 44. [15] Hessman, F. V.; Dhillon, V. S.; Winget, D. E.; Schreiber,
Bibcode:1966MNSSA..25...44C. M. R.; Horne, K.; Marsh, T. R.; Guenther, E.; Schwope,
A.; Heber, U. (2010). On the naming convention
[3] Tokovinin, A. A. (1997).MSC - a catalogue of physical used for multiple star systems and extrasolar planets.
multiple stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement arXiv:1012.0707 [astro-ph.SR].
Series. 124 (1): 7584. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T.
doi:10.1051/aas:1997181. ISSN 0365-0138. [16] Memoirs of the Rev. Walter M. Lowrie: missionary to
China (1849), p. 93. Described as an Americanism
[4] Houk, Nancy (1979), Michigan catalogue of two- in The Geographical Journal, vol. 92, Royal Geographi-
dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, Ann cal Society, 1938.
162 CHAPTER 23. ALPHA CRUCIS
[17] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/

trieved 22 May 2016. Acrux.html
2 (PDF). Retrieved 12 October 2016. Coordinates: 12* h 26* m 35.89522* s, 63 05
56.7343
[19] Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names: Their Lore and
Meaning, Dover Books, 1963.

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[21] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
[22] Silva, Guilherme Marques dos Santos; Ribas, Felipe

Braga; Freitas, Mrio Srgio Teixeira de (2008). Trans-
formao de coordenadas aplicada construo da
maquete tridimensional de uma constelao. Re-
vista Brasileira de Ensino de Fsica. 30: 1306.1.
doi:10.1590/S1806-11172008000100007.
[23] Shatsky, N.; Tokovinin, A. (2002). The mass

ratio distribution of B-type visual binaries in the
Sco OB2 association. Astronomy and Astro-
physics. 382: 92103. arXiv:astro-ph/0109456 .
Bibcode:2002A&A...382...92S. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20011542.
[24] Eggleton, Peter; Tokovinin, A. (2008). A catalogue of

multiplicity among bright stellar systems. Monthly No-
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 389 (2): 869879.
arXiv:0806.2878 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13596.x.
[25] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William

I.; Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001).
ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog.
The Astronomical Journal. 122 (6): 34663471.
Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. doi:10.1086/323920.
[26] Rizzuto, Aaron; Ireland, Michael; Robertson, J. G. (Oc-

tober 2011), Multidimensional Bayesian membership
analysis of the Sco OB2 moving group, Monthly Notices
arXiv:1106.2857 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.416.3108R,
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19256.x.
[27] NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute. Multimedia - Images

- Raw Images. Retrieved 2008-10-21
[28] CassiniKodak Moments- Unmanned Spaceight.com.

Retrieved 2008-10-21
[29] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag. FOTW Flags Of

The World website.
23.5 External links

http://jumk.de/astronomie/big-stars/acrux.shtml
Chapter 24
Epsilon Canis Majoris
Adhararedirects here. For the village, see Adhara, 24.1.1 Namesake

Bangladesh.
USS Adhara (AK-71) was a United States Navy Crater
Epsilon Canis Majoris ( Canis Majoris, abbreviated class cargo ship named after the star.
Epsilon CMa, CMa), also named Adhara,* [9] is a
binary star and, despite being designated 'epsilon', the
second brightest star in the constellation of Canis Major 24.2 Properties
and one of the brightest stars in the night sky. About 4.7
million years ago, it was the brightest star in the sky, with
an apparent magnitude of 3.99. Adhara is a binary star, estimated by the Hipparcos as-
trometry satellite to lie about 430 light years away from
Earth.* [3]* [4]* [16] The main star possesses an apparent
magnitude of +1.5 and belongs to the spectral classica-
tion B2. Its color is blue or blueish-white, due to the sur-
face temperature of 22,200K. It emits a total radiation
equal to 38,700 times that of the Sun. This star is the
24.1 Nomenclature brightest known extreme ultraviolet source in the night
sky.* [17] It is the strongest source of photons capable of
ionizing hydrogen atoms in interstellar gas near the Sun,
Canis Majoris (Latinised to Epsilon Canis Majoris) is the and is very important in determining the ionization state
star's Bayer designation. of the Local Interstellar Cloud.* [18]
It bore the traditional name Adhara (sometimes spelled The +7.5 magnitude companion star (the absolute mag-
Adara), derived from the Arabic word ara nitude amounts to +1.9) is at 7.5away with a position
, virgins. In 2016, the International Astronomi- angle of 161 of the main star. Despite the relatively large
cal Union organized a Working Group on Star Names angular distance the components can only be resolved in
(WGSN)* [10] to catalogue and standardize proper names large telescopes, since the main star is approximately 250
for stars. The WGSN approved the name Adhara for this times brighter than its companion.
star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the
A few million years ago, Adhara was much closer to the
IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [9]
Sun than it is at present, causing it to be a much brighter
In the 17th century catalogue of stars in the Calendarium star in the night sky. About 4,700,000 years ago, Adhara
of Al Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated Aoul was 34 light years from the Sun, and was the brightest
al Adzari ( - awwal al-adhara), which star in the sky with a magnitude of 3.99. No other star
was translated into Latin as Prima Virginum, meaning has attained this brightness since, nor will any other star
First of the Virgins.* [11] Along with Delta Canis Majoris attain this brightness for at least ve million years.* [19]
(Wezen), Eta Canis Majoris (Aludra) and Omicron Ca-
nis Majoris (Thanih al Adzari), these stars were Al Ad-
hr ( ), 'the Virgins'.* [12]* [13]
24.3 Modern legacy
In Chinese, (H Sh), meaning Bow and Ar-
row,* [14] refers to an asterism consisting of Epsilon Ca-
nis Majoris, Delta Canis Majoris, Eta Canis Majoris, HD Adhara appears on the national ag of Brazil, symbolising
63032, HD 65456, Omicron Puppis, k Puppis, Kappa the state of Tocantins.* [20]
Canis Majoris and Pi Puppis. Consequently, Epsilon Ca- Adhara also appears as a physical character in the 2007
nis Majoris itself is known as (H Sh q, English: animated lm, Nocturna, as the main character Tim's
the Seventh Star of Bow and Arrow).* [15] favourite star.* [21]
163
164 CHAPTER 24. EPSILON CANIS MAJORIS
24.4 See also [11] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al

darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket.
Flag of Brazil
55 (8): 429438. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
24.5 References
[12] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
(Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications. p. 130.
[1] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. [13] CMa as Aoul al Adzari or Prima Virginum (First of the
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. Virgins), Omicron Canis Majoris as Thanih al Adzari or
Secunda Virginum (Second of the Virgins) and Delta Ca-
[2] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January nis Majoris as Thalath al Adzari or Tertia Virginum (Third
2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos of the Virgins). Eta Canis Majoris should be Rabah al
stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices Adzari or Quarta Virginum (Fourth of the Virgins) con-
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 410 (1): 190200, sistently, but it was given by the name Aludra, meaning
arXiv:1007.4883 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T, Virgin (same meaning with Adhara or Al Adhr)
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
[14] (H Sh) is westernized into Koo She. R.H. Allen
[3] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg, opined that Koo She refers to the asterism including Delta
E.; Bastian, U.; Bernacca, P. L.; Crz, M.; Donati, F.; Velorum and Omega Velorum. AEEA opinion is, Delta
Grenon, M.; Grewing, M.; Van Leeuwen, F.; Van Der Velorum is member of (Tin Sh), meaning Celestial
Marel, H.; Mignard, F.; Murray, C. A.; Le Poole, R. S.; Earth God's Temple asterism and Omega Velorum is not a
Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschl, M.; Pe- member of any asterisms. (Tin Sh) is westernized
tersen, C. S.; et al. (1997). The HIPPARCOS Cat- into Tseen She and R.H.Allen used the term Tseen She for
alogue. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49L52. Chinese name of Carinae. See Richard Hinckley Allen:
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P. Star Names Their Lore and Meaning: Argo Navis and
(Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
[4] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation in Astronomy) 2006 7 17 .
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , [15] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- in Astronomy) 2006 7 17
6361:20078357
[5] Snow, Theodore P.; Lamers, Henny J. G. L. M.; Greatest Star Map, The Making of History's Greatest
Lindholm, Douglas M.; Odell, Andrew P. (1994). Star Map:, AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg: Springer-
An atlas of ultraviolet P Cygni proles. The Verlag, Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P, doi:10.1007/978-
Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 95: 163. 3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
Bibcode:1994ApJS...95..163S. doi:10.1086/192099.
[17] Wilkinson, E.; Green, J. C.; McLean, R.; Welsh, B.
[6] Underhill, A. B.; et al. (November 1979), Ef- (1996). Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrum of Canis Ma-
fective temperatures, angular diameters, distances joris Between 600-920 ". Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 28
and linear radii for 160 O and B stars, Monthly (2): 915. Bibcode:1996BAAS...28..915W.
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 189
[18] Vallerga, J. V.; Welsh, B. Y. (1995). "Epsilon Canis
(3): 601605, Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U,
Majoris and the ionization of the local cloud. Astro-
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601
phys. J. 444: 702707. Bibcode:1995ApJ...444..702V.
[7] Lyubimkov, L. S.; Rostopchin, S. I.; Lambert, D. doi:10.1086/175643.
L. (June 2004), Surface abundances of light ele- [19] Tomkin, Jocelyn (April 1998). Once and Future Ce-
ments for a large sample of early B-type stars - III. lestial Kings (PDF). Sky and Telescope. 95 (4): 5963.
An analysis of helium lines in spectra of 102 stars Bibcode:1998S&T....95d..59T.
, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
351 (2): 745767, Bibcode:2004MNRAS.351..745L, [20] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag. FOTW Flags Of The
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07825.x World website. Archived March 30, 2014, at the Wayback
Machine.
[8] Abt, Helmut A.; Levato, Hugo; Grosso, Monica
(July 2002), Rotational Velocities of B Stars [21] Nocturna (2007)". Internet Movie Database (IMDB).
, The Astrophysical Journal, 573 (1): 359365,
Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590.
Coordinates: 06* h 58* m 37.6* s, 28 58 19
[10] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), International

Chapter 25
Lambda Scorpii
Lambda Scorpii ( Scorpii, abbreviated Lambda Sco, period of 6 days and the B companion has a period of
Sco), also named Shaula,* [9] is (despite being desig- 1053 days. The three stars lie in the same orbital plane,
nated 'Lambda') the second brightest star system in the strongly suggesting that they were formed at the same
constellation of Scorpius, and one of the brightest stars in time. The masses of the primary, premain sequence star
the nighttime sky. and the B companion are 14.5, 2.0 and 10.6 solar masses,
respectively. The age of the system is estimated to be in
the range 1013 million years.
25.1 Nomenclature A 15th magnitude star has a separation of 42 arcseconds,
whereas a 12th magnitude star is 95 arcseconds away. It
is not known whether or not these components are physi-
Scorpii (Latinised to Lambda Scorpii) is the star's Bayer
cally associated with Lambda Scorpii. If they both were,
designation.
the rst would have a projected linear separation of ap-
It bore the traditional name Shaula, which comes from proximately 7500 Astronomical units (AU) and the sec-
the Arabic al-awl meaning 'the raised [tail]', ond approximately 17,000 AU (0.27 light years) away.
as it is found in the tail of the scorpion (Scorpius). In
Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [10] to cata-
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's
25.3 In culture
*
rst bulletin of July 2016 [11] included a table of the rst
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in- Shaula appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the state
cluded Shaula for this star. of Rio Grande do Norte.
It is known as Wei Xiu Ba (the Eighth Star of the USS Shaula (AK-118) was a United States Navy Crater
Tail) in Chinese. class cargo ship named after the star.
Together with Upsilon Scorpii (Lesath), Shaula is listed

in the Babylonian compendium MUL.APIN as * dSharur4
u * dShargaz, meaning Sharur and Shargaz.* [12] 25.4 See also
In Coptic, they were called Minamref.* [13]
Scorpii in ction
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria
named it (together with Upsilon Scorpii) as Karik
Karik,* [14] the Falcons.* [15] 25.5 References
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
25.2 Properties Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and Astro-
physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
Lambda Scorpii is located some 570 light years away
6361:20078357.
from the Sun.
Spectroscopic and interferometric observations have [2] Reed, B. Cameron (2003), Catalog of Galactic OB
Stars, The Astronomical Journal, 125 (5): 25312533,
shown that it is actually a triple system consisting of
Bibcode:2003AJ....125.2531R, doi:10.1086/374771.
two B-type stars and a premain sequence star.* [5] The
primary star is a beta Cephei variable star with rapid [3] Holberg, J. B.; Oswalt, T. D.; Sion, E. M.; Barstow,
brightness changes of about a hundredth of a magni- M. A.; Burleigh, M. R. (2013). Where are all
tude.* [8]* [16] The premain sequence star has an orbital the Sirius-like binary systems?". Monthly Notices of
165
166 CHAPTER 25. LAMBDA SCORPII
the Royal Astronomical Society. 435 (3): 2077. [16] Tango, W. J.; Davis, J.; Ireland, M. J.; Aerts, C.;
arXiv:1307.8047 . Bibcode:2013MNRAS.435.2077H. Uytterhoeven, K.; Jacob, A. P.; Mendez, A.; North, J. R.;
doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1433. Seneta, E. B.; Tuthill, P. G. (2006). Orbital elements,
masses and distance of Scorpii a and B determined
[4] Hamdy, M. A.; Abo Elazm, M. S.; Saad, S. M. (1993). with the Sydney University Stellar Interferometer and
A catalogue of spectral classication and photomet- high-resolution spectroscopy. Monthly Notices of the
ric data of B-type stars. Astrophysics and Space Royal Astronomical Society. 370 (2): 884. arXiv:astro-
Science. 203: 53. Bibcode:1993Ap&SS.203...53H. ph/0605311 . Bibcode:2006MNRAS.370..884T.
doi:10.1007/BF00659414. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10526.x.
[5] Handler, G.; Schwarzenberg-Czerny, A. (2013). Time-

resolved multicolour photometry of bright B-type variable Coordinates: 17* h 33* m 36.520* s, 37 06 13.76
stars in Scorpius. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 557: A1.
arXiv:1307.2733 . Bibcode:2013A&A...557A...1H.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321886.
[6] Gontcharov, G. A. (2006). Pulkovo Compi-

lation of Radial Velocities for 35 495 Hipparcos
stars in a common system. Astronomy Let-
ters. 32 (11): 759. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G.
doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065.
[7] Balona, L. A.; Feast, M. W. (1975). The luminosi-

ties of the beta Canis Majoris variables, the zero age
main sequence and the distance of the Sco-Cen asso-
ciation. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 172: 191. Bibcode:1975MNRAS.172..191B.
doi:10.1093/mnras/172.1.191.
[8] Uytterhoeven, K.; Willems, B.; Lefever, K.; Aerts,

C.; Telting, J. H.; Kolb, U. (2004). Interpretation
of the variability of the Cephei star Scorpii
Bibcode:2004A&A...427..581U. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041223.


[12] Rogers, J. H. (February 1998). Origins of the ancient

of the British Astronomical Association, no.1. 108: 928.
[13] p. 1678, Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's

Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System, Volume
3, Robert Burnham, New York, Dover Publication, Inc,
1978.

and Heritage. 13 (3): 22034. arXiv:1010.4610 .
[15] Stanbridge, William Edward (1857). On the astron-

omy and mythology of the Aborigines of Victoria. Pro-
ceedings of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria. 2: 137.
Chapter 26
Gamma Crucis
Gamma Crucis ( Crucis, abbreviated Gamma Cru, Rubdea (or Ruby-like), in reference to its color.
Cru), also named Gacrux,* [10] is the nearest red giant
star to the Sun.* [7] The distance to Gacrux has been de-
termined using parallax measurements made during the 26.2 Physical properties
Hipparcos mission, which yielded a value of 88.6 light-
years (27.2 parsecs) away from the Sun.* [1] With an
Gacrux has a stellar classication M3.5 III.* [3] It has
apparent visual magnitude of +1.63,* [11] this is the third-
evolved o of the main sequence to become a red gi-
brightest star in the southern circumpolar constellation of
ant star, but is most likely on the red giant branch rather
Crux, the Southern Cross, and one of the brightest stars
than the asymptotic giant branch.* [7] Although only 30%
in the night sky. A line from the twoPointers, Alpha
more massive than the Sun,* [6] at this stage the star has
Centauri through Beta Centauri, leads to within a few de-
expanded to 84* [7] times the Sun's radius. It is radiating
grees of this star.
1,500* [8] times the luminosity of the Sun from its ex-
panded outer envelope. With an eective temperature of
3,626 K,* [9] the colour of Gamma Crucis is a prominent
26.1 Nomenclature reddish-orange, well in keeping with its spectral classi-
cation. It is a semi-regular variable with multiple peri-
ods.* [3] (See table at left.)
Crucis (Latinised to Gamma Crucis) is the star's Bayer
designation. The atmosphere of this star is enriched with barium,
which is usually explained by the transfer of material from
Since Gamma Crucis is at roughly 60 declination, it
a more evolved companion. Typically this companion
lacks a traditional name. Nonetheless, it was known to the
will subsequently become a white dwarf.* [20] However,
ancient Greeks and Romans, in whose era it was visible
no such companion has yet been detected. A +6.4 mag-
north of 40 latitude due to the precession of equinoxes.
nitude companion star lies about 2 arcminutes away at
The astronomer Ptolemy counted it as part of the con-
a position angle of 128 from the main star, and can be
stellation of Centaurus.* [12] The historical name Gacrux
observed with binoculars. But it is only an optical com-
is a contraction of the Bayer designation, coined by as-
panion,* [8] which is about 400 light years distant from
tronomer Elijah Hinsdale Burritt (1794-1838).* [13]* [14]
Earth.
rst bulletin of July 2016* [16] included a table of the rst 26.3 In culture
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
cluded Gacrux for this star. Gamma Crucis is represented in the ags of Australia,
In Chinese, (Sh Z Ji), meaning Cross, refers New Zealand and Papua New Guinea as one of ve stars
to an asterism consisting of Gamma Crucis, Alpha Cru- which comprise the Southern Cross. It is also featured in
cis, Beta Crucis and Delta Crucis.* [17] Consequently, the ag of Brazil, along with 26 other stars, each of which
Gamma Crucis itself is known as (Sh Z Ji represents *
a state. Gamma Crucis represents the State of
*
y, English: the First Star of Cross.). [18] Bahia. [21]
The people of Aranda and Luritja tribe around

Hermannsburg, Central Australia named Iritjinga, The
Eagle-hawk, a quadrangular arrangement compris-
26.4 See also
ing this star, Delta Crucis (Palida), Gamma Centauri
(Muhilfain) and Delta Centauri (Ma Wei).* [19] Aldebaran
Among Portuguese-speaking peoples it is also named Alpha Crucis
167
168 CHAPTER 26. GAMMA CRUCIS
Beta Crucis [12] Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names: Their Lore and
Meaning, Dover Press, 1963.
Betelgeuse
[13] Gacrux/Gamma Crucis 2?". SolStation.com. Retrieved
2011-11-03.
26.5 References [14] Lesikar, Arnold V. Gacrux. Dome Of The Sky. Re-
trieved 2011-11-03.
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and [15] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- [16] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
6361:20078357 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- [17] (Chinese) , written by . Published
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. 25-7.
[18] (Chinese) - -
[3] Tabur, V.; et al. (December 2009), Long-term Archived January 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.,
photometry and periods for 261 nearby pulsating M Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
giants, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical 23, 2010.
Society, 400 (4): 19451961, arXiv:0908.3228 ,
Bibcode:2009MNRAS.400.1945T, doi:10.1111/j.1365- [19] p. 8, Explorers of the southern sky: a history of Aus-
2966.2009.15588.x tralian astronomy, Raymond Haynes, Cambridge, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1996.
[4] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Funda-
mental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with [20] Gomez, A. E.; Luri, X.; Grenier, S.; et al. (March
direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelb, 1997), Absolute magnitudes and kinematics of bar-
Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 (35): 1, ium stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 319: 881885,
Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W Bibcode:1997A&A...319..881G
[5] Elgary, ystein; Engvold, Oddbjrn; Lund, Niels [21] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag, FOTW Flags Of The
(March 1999), The Wilson-Bappu eect of the MgII World website
K line - dependence on stellar temperature, activity and
metallicity, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 343: 222228,
Bibcode:1999A&A...343..222E
26.6 External links
[6] Murdoch, Kaylene; Clark, M.; Hearnshaw, J. B. (Jan-
uary 1992), The radial-velocity variability of Gamma Gacrux/Gamma Crucis 2. SolStation. Retrieved
Crucis, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical 2008-09-10.
Society, 254: 2729, Bibcode:1992MNRAS.254...27M,
doi:10.1093/mnras/254.1.27
Coordinates: 12* h 31* m 09.95961* s, 57 06
[7] Ireland, M. J.; et al. (May 2004), Multiwavelength
diameters of nearby Miras and semiregular variables
47.5684
ety, 350 (1): 365374, arXiv:astro-ph/0402326 ,
Bibcode:2004MNRAS.350..365I, doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2004.07651.x
[8] Kaler, James B., GACRUX (Gamma Crucis)", Stars,

University of Illinois, retrieved 2012-03-03
[9] Cohen, Martin; et al. (November 1996), Spec-

tral Irradiance Calibration in the Infrared. VII.New
Composite Spectra, Comparison with Model Atmo-
spheres, and Far-Infrared Extrapolations, Astronomi-
cal Journal, 112: 2274, Bibcode:1996AJ....112.2274C,
doi:10.1086/118180
[11] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho-

tometry of the bright stars. Communications of
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 4 (99): 99.
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
Chapter 27
Bellatrix
For other uses, see Bellatrix (disambiguation). (Alnitak), Epsilon Orionis (Alnilam), and Delta Orionis
(Mintaka). However, this is no longer believed to be the
case, as Bellatrix is now known to be much closer than the
Bellatrix, also designated Gamma Orionis ( Orionis,
abbreviated Gamma Ori, Ori), is the third-brightest rest of the group.* [12] It is not known to have a stellar
star in the constellation of Orion, 5 west of the red gi- companion,* [16] although researchers Maria-Fernanda
ant Alpha Orionis (Betelgeuse). Just between the rst Nieva and Norbert Przybilla raised the possibility it might
and second magnitude and slightly variable, it is about be a spectroscopic binary.* [17] A 2011 search for nearby
the 25th-brightest star in the night sky. companions failed to conclusively nd any objects that
share a proper motion with Bellatrix. Three nearby can-
didates were all found to be background stars.* [18]
27.1 Properties
27.2 Standard star
Bellatrix has been used as both a photometric and spectral
standard star, but both characteristics have been shown to
be unreliable.
In 1963, Bellatrix was included with a set of bright stars
used to dene the UBV magnitude system. These are
used for comparison with other stars to check for vari-
ability, and so by denition, the apparent magnitude of
Bellatrix was set to 1.64.* [19] However, when an all-sky
photometry survey was carried out in 1988, this star was
itself found to be variable. It ranges in apparent magni-
tude from 1.59 to 1.64.* [20]
The spectral types for O and early B stars were dened
From left to right, the stars Bellatrix, the Sun, and Algol B more rigorously in 1971 and Bellatrix was used as a stan-
dard for the B2 III type.* [21] The expected brightness of
Bellatrix is a massive star with about 8.6 times the Sun's Bellatrix from this spectral type is about one magnitude
mass. It has an estimated age of approximately 25 mil- brighter than calculated from its apparent magnitude and
lion years; old enough for a star of this mass to consume Hipparcos distance.* [22] Analysis of the observed char-
the hydrogen at its core and begin to evolve away from the acteristics of the star indicate that it should be a B2 main
main sequence into a giant star.* [12] The eective tem- sequence star, not the giant that it appears from its spec-
perature of the outer envelope of this star is 22000 K,* [9] tral type.* [23] Close analysis of high resolution spectra
which is considerably hotter than the 5,778 K on the Sun. suggest that it is a spectroscopic binary composed of two
This high temperature gives this star the blue-white hue similar stars less luminous than a B2 giant.* [17]
that occurs with B-type stars.* [13] The measured angular
diameter of this star, after correction for limb darkening,
is 0.720.04 mas.* [14] At an estimated distance of 250
light-years (77 parsecs),* [1] this yields a physical size of 27.3 Etymology and cultural sig-
about six times the radius of the Sun.* [15]* [12] nicance
Bellatrix was once thought to belong to the Orion OB1
Association of stars that share a common motion through See also: Bellatrix in ction
space, along with the Orion's Beltstars Zeta Orionis
169
170 CHAPTER 27. BELLATRIX
Gamma Orionis is the star's Bayer designation. The Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
traditional name Bellatrix is Latin for female war- (Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
rior"; it rst appeared in the works of Abu Ma'shar al- B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1.
Balkhi and Johannes Hispalensis, where it originally re- Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
ferred to Capella, but was transferred to Gamma Ori-
[4] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral
onis by the Vienna school of astronomers in the 15th Classication, Annual Review of Astronomy and As-
century, and appeared in contemporary reprints of the trophysics, 11: 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M,
Alfonsine tables.* [24] In 2016, the International As- doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star
Names (WGSN)* [25] to catalog and standardize proper [5] Wilson, R. E. (1953), General Catalogue of Stellar Ra-
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July dial Velocities, Washington, Carnegie Institute of Wash-
2016* [26] included a table of the rst two batches of ington, D.C., Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W
names approved by the WGSN; which included Bellatrix [6] Lamers, H. J. G. L. M.; Harzevoort, J. M. A. G.; Schrijver,
for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of H.; Hoogerwerf, R.; Kudritzki, R. P. (1997).The eect
Star Names.* [27] of rotation on the absolute visual magnitudes of OB stars
Bellatrix was also called the Amazon Star, which Richard measured with Hipparcos. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
325: L25. Bibcode:1997A&A...325L..25L.
Hinckley Allen proposed came from a loose translation of
the Arabic name Al Najd, the Conqueror.* [10] A c.1275 [7] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (2011). A
Arabic celestial globe records the name as the catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos stars within
lion.* [28] Bellatrix is one of the four navigational stars 3 kpc from the Sun. Monthly Notices of the Royal
in Orion that are used for celestial navigation.* [29] The Astronomical Society. 410: 190. arXiv:1007.4883 .
Chinese name for the star is ("The Fifth of the Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
Three Stars"). 2966.2010.17434.x.
In the 17th century catalogue of stars in the Calendar- [8] Challouf, M.; Nardetto, N.; Mourard, D.; Graczyk, D.;
ium of Al Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated Aroui, H.; Chesneau, O.; Delaa, O.; Pietrzyski, G.;
Menkib al Jauza al Aisr, which was translated into Latin Gieren, W.; Ligi, R.; Meilland, A.; Perraut, K.; Tallon-
as Humerus Sinister Gigantis.* [30] Bosc, I.; McAlister, H.; Ten Brummelaar, T.; Sturmann,
J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N.; Farrington, C.; Vargas, N.;
The Wardaman people of northern Australia know Bella-
Scott, N. (2014). Improving the surface brightness-
trix as Banjan, the sparkling pigment used in ceremonies
color relation for early-type stars using optical inter-
conducted by Rigel the Red Kangaroo Leader in a song- ferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 570: A104.
line when Orion is high in the sky. The other stars of
arXiv:1409.1351 . Bibcode:2014A&A...570A.104C.
Orion are his ceremonial tools and entourage. Betelgeuse doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423772.
is Ya-jungin Owl Eyes Flicking, watching the cere-
monies.* [31] [9] Lefever, K.; et al. (June 2010), Spectroscopic deter-
mination of the fundamental parameters of 66 B-type
To the Inuit, the appearance of Betelgeuse and Bellatrix
stars in the eld-of-view of the CoRoT satellite, As-
high in the southern sky after sunset marked the begin- tronomy and Astrophysics, 515: A74, arXiv:0910.2851
ning of spring and lengthening days in late February and
, Bibcode:2010A&A...515A..74L, doi:10.1051/0004-
early March. The two stars were known as Akuttujuuk 6361/200911956
those (two) placed far apart, referring to the distance
between them, mainly to people from North Ban Island [10] Allen, Richard H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and
and Melville Peninsula.* [32] Meaning (reprint ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications
Inc. p. 237. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[11] BELLATRIX -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de

27.4 References Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of [12] Kaler, James B., BELLATRIX (Gamma Orionis)",
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- Stars, University of Illinois, retrieved 2012-12-27
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357.
[2] Crawford, D. L.; Barnes, J. V.; Golson, J. C. the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
(December 1971), Four-color, Hbeta, and UBV
photometry for bright B-type stars in the northern [14] Richichi, A.; Percheron, I.; Khristoforova, M. (February
hemisphere, Astronomical Journal, 76: 10581071, 2005),CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High Angular
Bibcode:1971AJ.....76.1058C, doi:10.1086/111220 Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
431 (2): 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
[3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039
[15] Lang, Kenneth R. (2006), Astrophysical formulae, As- [26] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser, 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
ISBN 3-540-29692-1. The radius (R* ) is given by:
(103 77 0.72) AU
2 R = [28] Dorn, Bernhard (July 1830). Description of the Ce-
0.0046491 AU/R
lestial Globe belonging to Major-General Sir John Mal-
12 R
colm, G.C.B., K.L.S., &c. &c., deposited in the Mu-
seum of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain
[16] Eggleton, P. P.; Tokovinin, A. A. (September 2008),
and Ireland. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic So-
A catalogue of multiplicity among bright stellar
ciety of Great Britain and Ireland. 2 (2): 371392.
systems, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomi-
doi:10.1017/S0950473700000513.
cal Society, 389 (2): 869879, arXiv:0806.2878 ,
Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E, doi:10.1111/j.1365- [29] Bennett, George G. (2011), Complete On-Board Celestial
2966.2008.13596.x Navigation 2011-2015, DoctorZed Publishing, p. 172,
ISBN 0-9870924-0-5
[17] Nieva, Maria-Fernanda; Przybilla, Norbert (2012).
Present-day cosmic abundances. A comprehen- [30] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
sive study of nearby early B-type stars and im- Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
plications for stellar and Galactic evolution and darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
interstellar dust models. Astronomy & Astro- . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
physics. 539A: 14363. arXiv:1203.5787v2 . ety. 55 (8): 429. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
Bibcode:2012A&A...539A.143N. doi:10.1051/0004- doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
6361/201118158.
[18] Janson, Markus; et al. (August 2011), High-contrast Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Merimbula, New South
Imaging Search for Planets and Brown Dwarfs around Wales: Hugh C. Cairns. pp. 13940. ISBN 0-9750908-
the Most Massive Stars in the Solar Neighborhood, 0-1.
The Astrophysical Journal, 736 (2): 89, arXiv:1105.2577
[32] MacDonald, John (1998). The Arctic sky: Inuit astronomy,
, Bibcode:2011ApJ...736...89J, doi:10.1088/0004-
star lore, and legend. Toronto, Ontario/Iqaluit, NWT:
637X/736/2/89
[19] Johnson, H. L. (1963). Photometric Systems. Ba- 5254, 119. ISBN 9780888544278.
sic Astronomical Data: Stars and stellar systems: 204.
Bibcode:1963bad..book..204J.
[20] Krisciunas, K. (May 1994),Further Photometry of alpha 27.5 External links

Ori and gamma Ori, Information Bulletin on Variable
Stars, 4028: 1, Bibcode:1994IBVS.4028....1K Navigational Stars
[21] Walborn, Nolan R. (1971). Some Spectroscopic Char-
acteristics of the OB Stars: An Investigation of the
Space Distribution of Certain OB Stars and the Refer-
Coordinates: 05* h 25* m 07.9* s, +06 20 59
ence Frame of the Classication. Astrophysical Journal
Supplement. 23: 257. Bibcode:1971ApJS...23..257W.
doi:10.1086/190239.
[22] Schrder, S. E.; Kaper, L.; Lamers, H. J. G. L.

M.; Brown, A. G. A. (2004). On the Hip-
parcos parallaxes of O stars. Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 428: 149. arXiv:astro-ph/0408370
. Bibcode:2004A&A...428..149S. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20047185.
[23] Levenhagen, R. S.; Leister, N. V. (2006).Spectroscopic

analysis of southern B and Be stars. Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society. 371: 252. arXiv:astro-
ph/0606149 . Bibcode:2006MNRAS.371..252L.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10655.x.
[24] Kunitzsch, Paul (1986). The Star Catalogue Com-

monly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables. Jour-
nal for the History of Astronomy. 17 (49): 8998.
Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K.

Chapter 28
Beta Tauri
Beta Tauri ( Tauri, abbreviated Beta Tau, Tau), Galaxy a few degrees west of the galactic anticenter, El-
also named Elnath,* [8] is the second-brightest star in the nath heralds a rich collection of nebulae and star clus-
constellation of Taurus, with an apparent magnitude of ters.* [14] Relative to the Sun, Tauri is notable for
1.68.* [1] a high abundance of manganese, but little calcium and
magnesium.* [5]* [6] This star has begun to evolve away
from the main sequence.
28.1 Nomenclature This star can be occulted by the moon. Such occultations
occur when the moon's ascending node is near the vernal
Beta Tauri is the star's Bayer designation. Ptolemy con- equinox, as was the case in 2007. Most occultations are
sidered the star to be shared by Auriga, and Johann Bayer visible only in parts of the Southern Hemisphere, because
assigned it a designation in both constellations: Beta Tauri the star lies at the northern edge of the lunar occultation
and Gamma Aurigae ( Aur). When the modern constel- zone. Rarely, it may be occulted as far north as southern
lation boundaries were xed in 1930, the latter designa- California.* [15]
tion dropped from use.* [9]
The traditional name Elnath, variously El Nath or Alnath,
comes from the Arabic word an-na, meaning
28.3 Double star
the butting(i.e. the bull's horns). As in many other (but
not all) Arabic star names, the article is transliterated There is a faint star that appears close enough to El-
literally as el, despite the fact that in Arabic pronunciation nath for astronomers to consider it a double star. Its vi-
it is assimilated to the following n; it can also be omitted: sual companion, known as BD+28 795B, has a PA of
Nath. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union or- 239 degrees and is separated from the main star by 33.4
ganized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [10] arcseconds.* [16]* [17]
to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The
WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [11] included a table
of the rst two batches of names approved by the WGSN; 28.4 See also
which included Elnath for this star.
In Chinese, (W Ch), meaning Five Chariots, Lists of stars in the constellation Taurus
refers to an asterism consisting of Tauri, Aurigae,
Class B Stars
Capella, Aurigae and Aurigae.* [12] Consequently,
Tauri itself is known as (W Ch W; English: Beta Tauri in ction
Fifth of the Five Chariots.)* [13]
28.5 References
28.2 Properties
[1] SIMBAD query result: ELNATH -- Star in double sys-
Elnath's absolute magnitude is 1.34, similar to another tem. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg.
Taurean star, Maia in the Pleiadian star cluster. Like
Maia, Elnath is a B-class giant with a luminosity 700 [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
times solar.* [5] However, being approximately 130 light- logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
years distant compared to Maia's estimated 360 light- . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
years, Elnath ranks as the second-brightest star in the con- Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
stellation.
[3] Janson, Markus; et al. (August 2011), High-contrast
Uniquely positioned along the plane of the Milky Way Imaging Search for Planets and Brown Dwarfs around
172
the Most Massive Stars in the Solar Neighborhood,

The Astrophysical Journal, 736 (2): 89, arXiv:1105.2577
, Bibcode:2011ApJ...736...89J, doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/736/2/89
[4] Underhill, A. B.; et al. (November 1979), Ef-

fective temperatures, angular diameters, distances
and linear radii for 160 O and B stars, Monthly
(3): 601605, Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U,
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601
[5] Kaler, James B., ELNATH (Beta Tauri), University of Illi-

nois, retrieved 2010-03-07
[6] Heacox, W. D. (1979).Chemical abundances in Hg-Mn

stars. Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 41: 675.
Bibcode:1979ApJS...41..675H. doi:10.1086/190637.
[7] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970). A catalogue of

stellar rotational velocities. Contr. Oss. Astrof. Padova
in Asiago. 239. Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B.
[9] Bayers Uranometria and Bayer letters



by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[13] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
[14] Nemiro, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (5 March 2010). Deep

Auriga. Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. Retrieved
2010-03-07.
[15] Abrams Planetarium - Skywatcher's Diary Archived Au-

gust 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
[16] CCDM (Catalog of Components of Double & Multiple

stars (Dommanget+ 2002)". VizieR. Centre de Donnes
astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[17] Al Nath. Alcyone Bright Star Catalogue. Retrieved

2010-03-07.
28.6 External links

Jim Kaler's Stars:Elnath
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Image of El-

nath (5 March 2010)
Coordinates: 05* h 26* m 17.5134* s, +28 36

27.494
Chapter 29
Beta Carinae
Beta Carinae ( Carinae, abbreviated Beta Car, estimated age of 260 million years.* [8] This star does not
Car), also named Miaplacidus,* [10] is the second show an excess emission of infrared radiation that might
brightest star in the constellation of Carina and one of the otherwise suggest the presence of a debris disk.* [8] It has
brightest stars in the night sky, with apparent magnitude about 3.5 times the Sun's mass and has expanded to al-
1.68.* [6] It is the brightest star in the south polar asterism most seven times the radius of the Sun.* [6] Presently is it
known as the Diamond Cross, marking the southwestern radiating 288 times as much luminosity as the Sun* [6]
end of the asterism. It lies near the planetary nebula IC from its outer envelope at an eective temperature of
2448. Parallax measurements place it at a distance of 8,866 K.* [3] Despite its enlarged girth, this star still
113.2 light-years (34.7 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] shows a rapid rotation rate, with a projected rotational
velocity of 146 km s* 1.* [7]
29.1 Nomenclature
29.3 References
Carinae (Latinised to Beta Carinae) is the star's Bayer
designation. [1] van Leeuwen, Floor (November 2007), Validation
The star's historical name Miaplacidus made its debut Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752v1
on star maps in 1856 when the star atlas Geography , Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
of the Heavens, composed by Elijah Hinsdale Burritt, 6361:20078357 Note: see VizieR catalogue I/311.
was published. The meaning and linguistic origin of
the name remained an enigma for many decades, un- [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
til William Higgins, a great scholar and expert on star logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
names, surmised that the name Miaplacidus is appar- . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
ently a bilingual combination of Arabic miyh
for 'waters' and Latin placidus for 'placid'. In 2016, the [3] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contributions to the
International Astronomical Union organized a Working Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: spectroscopy of stars
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [11] to catalog and stan- earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample, The
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin Astronomical Journal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro-
of July 2016* [12] included a table of the rst two batches ph/0603770 , Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G,
of names approved by the WGSN; which included Mi- doi:10.1086/504637
aplacidus for this star.
In Chinese, (Nn Chun), meaning Southern Boat, tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
refers to an asterism consisting of Carinae, V337 Cari- the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99,
nae, PP Carinae, Theta Carinae and Omega Carinae Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
.* [13] Consequently, Carinae itself is known as
(Nn Chun w, English: the Fifth Star of Southern [5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
Boat.)* [14] damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst.
Heidelb, Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35
(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
[6] Malagnini, M. L.; Morossi, C. (November 1990), Ac-
The stellar classication of A1 III* [3] suggests this is masses and surface gravities for a selected sample of eld
an evolved giant star, although Malagnini and Morossi stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 85
(1990) rated it as an A2 IV subgiant star.* [6] It has an (3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M
174
[7] Daz, C. G.; et al. (July 2011),Accurate stellar rotational

velocities using the Fourier transform of the cross correla-
tion maximum, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 531: A143,
arXiv:1012.4858 , Bibcode:2011A&A...531A.143D,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201016386
[8] Su, K. Y. L.; et al. (December 2006), Debris

Disk Evolution around A Stars, The Astrophysical
Journal, 653 (1): 675689, arXiv:astro-ph/0608563 ,
Bibcode:2006ApJ...653..675S, doi:10.1086/508649
[9] HD 80007 -- High proper-motion Star. SIMBAD As-

tronomical Database. Retrieved 2005-11-05.



by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[14] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
Chapter 30
Epsilon Orionis
Alnilam, designated Epsilon Orionis ( Orionis, abbre- A more recent detailed analysis of Alnilam across multi-
viated Epsilon Ori, Ori) and 46 Orionis (46 Ori), is a ple wavelength bands produces very high luminosity, ra-
large blue supergiant star some 2,000 light-years distant dius, and mass estimates, assuming the distance of 606 pc
in the constellation of Orion. It is estimated to be 275,000 suggested by the Hipparcos new reduction.* [1] Adopting
to 537,000 times as luminous as the Sun, and around 34 the larger parallax from the original Hipparcos reduction
times as massive. gives a distance of 412 pc* [10] and physical parameters
more consistent with earlier publications. The luminosity
of 863,000 L at 606 parsecs is the highest ever derived
30.1 Description for this star.* [7]
It is the 29th-brightest star in the sky (the 4th-brightest

in Orion) and is a blue-white supergiant. Together with 30.3 Nomenclature and history
Mintaka and Alnitak, the three stars make up the belt of
Orion, known by many names across many ancient cul- Epsilon Orionis is the star's Bayer designation and 46 Ori-
tures. Alnilam is the middle star. It is slightly variable, onis its Flamsteed designation.
from magnitude 1.64 to 1.74. Since 1943, the spectrum The traditional name Alnilam derives from the Arabic
of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by Al-nilam, related to the word 'nilam' 'sapphire'.
which other stars are classied.* [4] It is also one of the 58 Related spellings are Alnihan and Alnitam:* [11] all
stars used in celestial navigation. It is at its highest point three variants are evidently mistakes in transliteration or
in the sky around midnight on December 15. Alnilam's copy errors.* [12] In 2016, the International Astronom-
relatively simple spectrum has made it useful for studying ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
the interstellar medium. Within the next million years, (WGSN)* [13] to catalog and standardize proper names
this star may turn into a red supergiant and explode as a for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [14] in-
supernova. It is surrounded by a molecular cloud, NGC cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved
1990, which it illuminates to make a reection nebula. by the WGSN; which included Alnilam for this star. It is
Its stellar winds may reach up to 2000 km/s, causing it to now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [15]
lose mass about 20 million times more rapidly than the
Sun.* [8]
30.3.1 Orion's Belt
30.2 Properties Main article: Orion's Belt

The three belt stars were collectively known by many
Estimates of Alnilam's properties vary. Crowther and names in many cultures. Arabic terms include Al Nijd
colleagues, using stellar wind and atmospheric modelling 'the Belt', Al Nasak 'the Line', Al Alkt 'the Golden Grains
in 2006, came up with a luminosity 275,000 times that or Nuts' and, in modern Arabic, Al Mzn al Hakk 'the
of the Sun (L ), and eective temperature of 27,000 K Accurate Scale Beam'. In Chinese mythology they were
and a radius 24 times that of the Sun (R ).* [8] Searle also known as The Weighing Beam.* [11] The belt was
and colleagues, using CMFGEN code to analyse the spec- also the Three Stars mansion (simplied Chinese: ;
trum in 2008, calculated a luminosity of 537,000 L , an traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Shn Xi), one of the
eective temperature of 27,500 100 K and a radius of Twenty-eight mansions of the Chinese constellations. It
32.4 0.75 R .* [6] Analysis of the spectra and age of the is one of the western mansions of the White Tiger.
members of the Orion OB1 association yields a mass 34.6 In pre-Christian Scandinavia, the belt was known as
times that of the Sun (40.8 M on the main sequence) and Frigg's Dista (Friggerock) or Freyja's dista.* [16] Sim-
an age of 5.7 million years.* [9] ilarly Jacob's Sta and Peter's Sta were European
176
ters. 32 (9): 604607. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..604R.

doi:10.1134/S1063773706090052.
[4] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, Philip C.; Kellman, Edith

(1943). AN ATLAS OF STELLAR SPECTRA. As-
trophysics Monographs.
[5] Gontcharov, G. A. (November 2006). Pulkovo

Compilation of Radial Velocities for 35 495 Hippar-
cos stars in a common system. Astronomy Let-
ters. 32 (11): 759771. Bibcode:2006AstL...32..759G.
doi:10.1134/S1063773706110065.
[6] Searle, S. C.; Prinja, R. K.; Massa, D.; Ryans, R. (2008).

Quantitative studies of the optical and UV spectra of
Galactic early B supergiants. I. Fundamental parame-
ters. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 481 (3): 77797.
arXiv:0801.4289 . Bibcode:2008A&A...481..777S.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077125.
[7] Raul E. Puebla; D. John Hillier; Janos Zsarg;

David H. Cohen; Maurice A. Leutenegger (2015).
Orion X-ray, UV and optical analysis of supergiants:
Ori. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom-
Alnilam is the middle of the three stars in the belt. ical Society. 456 (3): 2907. arXiv:1511.09365
. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.456.2907P.
biblical derived terms, as were the Three Magi, or the
Three Kings. Vinminen's Scythe (Kalevala) and Kale- [8] Crowther, P. A.; Lennon, D. J.; Walborn, N. R. (Jan-
van Sword are terms from Finnish mythology.* [11] uary 2006). Physical parameters and wind proper-
The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three ties of galactic early B supergiants. Astronomy & As-
belt stars Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists
of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), . Bibcode:2006A&A...446..279C. doi:10.1051/0004-
and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and 6361:20053685.
has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto [9] Voss, R.; Diehl, R.; Vink, J. S.; Hartmann, D. H.
Tiburn Island.* [17] (2010). Probing the evolving massive star population
in Orion with kinematic and radioactive tracers. As-
tronomy and Astrophysics. 520: 10. arXiv:1005.3827
30.4 See also . Bibcode:2010A&A...520A..51V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014408. A51.
Alnilam in ction [10] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg,
30.5 References R. S.; Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschl,
M.; Petersen, C. S. (1997). The HIPPARCOS Cat-
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of alogue. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49.
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy & As- Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P.
[11] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1936). Star-names and their
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
meanings. pp. 314315.
6361:20078357.
[12] Knobel, E. B. (September 1909). The name of
epsilon Orionis. The Observatory. 32: 357.
Bibcode:1909Obs....32..357K.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. [13] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
[3] Ruban, E. V.; Alekseeva, G. A.; Arkharov, A. A.;
Hagen-Thorn, E. I.; Galkin, V. D.; Nikanorova, I. [14] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
N.; Novikov, V. V.; Pakhomov, V. P.; Puzakova, 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
T. Yu. (September 2006). Spectrophotomet-
ric observations of variable stars. Astronomy Let- [15] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
178 CHAPTER 30. EPSILON ORIONIS
[16] Schn, Ebbe (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jt-

tar i tro och tradition. Stockholm: Hjalmarson & Hgberg.
p. 228. ISBN 9189660412.
[17] Moser, Mary B.; Stephen A. Marlett (2005). Comcac

Plaza y Valds Editores.
30.6 External links

NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Image of Al-
nilam (29 September 2009)
Coordinates: 05* h 36* m 12.8* s, 01 12 06.9

Chapter 31
Zeta Orionis
Alnitak, designated Zeta Orionis ( Orionis, abbrevi-

ated Zeta Ori, Ori) and 50 Orionis (50 Ori), is a
multiple star several hundred parsecs from the Sun in the
constellation of Orion. It is part of Orion's Belt along with
Alnilam and Mintaka.
The primary star is a hot blue supergiant with an absolute
magnitude of 6.0 and is the brightest class O star in
the night sky with a visual magnitude of +2.0. It has two Alnitak ( Ori)
bluish 4th magnitude companions, one nely resolved and
one only detected interferometrically and spectroscopi- Sun
cally, producing a combined magnitude for the trio of
+1.77. The stars are members of the Orion OB1 asso-
ciation and the Collinder 70 association.
31.1 Observation history Alnitak Aa compared to the Sun (to scale)
Alnitak has been known since antiquity and, as a compo-

nent of Orion's belt, has been of widespread cultural sig- ing up to 33 times as massive as the Sun and to have a di-
nicance. It was reported to be a double star by amateur ameter 20 times greater. It is some 21,000 times brighter
German astronomer George K. Kunowsky in 1819.* [10] than the sun, with a surface brightness (luminance) some
Much more recently, in 1998, the bright primary was 50 times greater. It is the brightest star of class O in the
found by a team from the Lowell Observatory to have a night sky. Alnitak B is a 4th magnitude B-type star which
close companion; this had been suspected from observa- orbits Alnitak A every 1500 years. A fourth star, 9th
tions made with the Narrabri Stellar Intensity Interferom- magnitude Alnitak C, has not been conrmed to be part
eter in the 1970s.* [11] The stellar parallax derived from of the Aa-Ab-B group, and may simply lie along the line
observations by the Hipparcos satellite imply a distance of sight.
around 225pc, but this does not take into account dis- The Alnitak system is bathed in the nebulosity of IC 434.
tortions caused by the multiple nature of the system and
larger distances have been derived by many authors.
31.3 Etymology and cultural sig-

31.2 System nicance
Alnitak is a binary star system at the eastern end of Zeta Orionis is the star's Bayer designation and 50 Orionis
Orion's belt, the second magnitude primary having a 4th its Flamsteed designation. The traditional name Alnitak,
magnitude companion nearly 3 arc-seconds distant, in an alternately spelled Al Nitak or Alnitah, is taken from the
orbit taking over 1,500 years. The primary (Alnitak A) Arabic an-niq,the girdle.* [10] In 2016, the
is itself a close binary, comprising Alnitak Aa (a blue International Astronomical Union organized a Working
supergiant of spectral type O9.5Iab with an absolute mag- Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [12] to catalog and stan-
nitude of 6.0 and an apparent magnitude of 2.0) and Al- dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
nitak Ab (a blue sub-giant of spectral type B1IV with an of July 2016* [13] included a table of the rst two batches
absolute magnitude of 3.9 and an apparent magnitude of names approved by the WGSN; which included Alni-
of 4.3, discovered in 1998.* [11]). Aa is estimated as be- tak for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog
179
180 CHAPTER 31. ZETA ORIONIS
of Star Names.* [14] [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
31.3.1 Orion's belt Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
[3] Hummel, C. A.; Rivinius, T.; Nieva, M. -F.; Stahl,

Main article: Orion's Belt
O.; Van Belle, G.; Zavala, R. T. (2013). Dynami-
cal mass of the O-type supergiant inOrionis A. As-
The three belt stars were collectively known by many tronomy & Astrophysics. 554: A52. arXiv:1306.0330
names in many cultures. Arabic terms include Al . Bibcode:2013A&A...554A..52H. doi:10.1051/0004-
Nijd 'the Belt', Al Nasak 'the Line', Al 6361/201321434.
Alkt 'the Golden Grains or Nuts' and, in modern Arabic,
[4] Fabricius, C.; Hg, E.; Makarov, V. V.; Mason, B. D.;
Al Mzn al aqq 'the Accurate Scale Beam'.
Wyco, G. L.; Urban, S. E. (2002). The Tycho
In Chinese mythology they were known as The Weighing double star catalogue. Astronomy and Astrophysics.
Beam.* [10] 384 (1): 180189. Bibcode:2002A&A...384..180F.
The belt was also the Three Stars mansion (simplied doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011822. ISSN 0004-6361.
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Shn [5] Kharchenko, N.V.; Scholz, R.-D.; Piskunov, A.E.;
Xi), one of the Twenty-eight mansions of the Chinese Rser, S.; Schilbach, E. (2007). Astrophysi-
constellations. It is one of the western mansions of the cal supplements to the ASCC-2.5: Ia. Radial ve-
White Tiger. locities of 55000 stars and mean radial veloci-
In pre-Christian Scandinavia, the belt was known as ties of 516 Galactic open clusters and associations
. Astronomische Nachrichten. 328 (9): 889896.
Frigg's Dista (Friggerock) or Freyja's dista.* [15] Sim-
ilarly Jacob's Sta and Peter's Sta were European arXiv:0705.0878 . Bibcode:2007AN....328..889K.
doi:10.1002/asna.200710776. ISSN 0004-6337.
biblical derived terms, as were the Three Magi, or the
Three Kings. Vinminen's Scythe (Kalevala) and Kale- [6] Malkov, O. Y.; Tamazian, V. S.; Docobo, J. A.;
van Sword are terms from Finnish mythology.* [10] Chulkov, D. A. (2012). Dynamical masses of a se-
lected sample of orbital binaries. Astronomy & As-
The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three
trophysics. 546: A69. Bibcode:2012A&A...546A..69M.
belt stars Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219774.
of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn),
and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and [7] Raassen, A. J. J.; Van Der Hucht, K. A.; Miller, N.
has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto A.; Cassinelli, J. P. (2008). XMM-Newton ob-
Tiburn Island.* [16] servations of Orionis (O9.7 Ib): A collisional ion-
ization equilibrium model. Astronomy and Astro-
In Latin America, this asterism is known as Las Tres physics. 478 (2): 513. Bibcode:2008A&A...478..513R.
Maras or As Trs Marias which stand for The Three doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077891.
Marys in Spanish and Portuguese respectively.
[8] Buysschaert, B.; Neiner, C.; Ramiaramanantsoa, T.;
Richardson, N. D.; David-Uraz, A.; Moat, A. F. J.
(2016). Understanding the photometric variability of
31.4 Namesakes OriAa. arXiv:1610.05625 [astro-ph.SR].
USS Alnitah was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo [9] Blazre, A.; Neiner, C.; Tkachenko, A.; Bouret, J.-
ship named after the star. C.; Rivinius, Th. (2015). The magnetic eld of
Orionis A. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 582: A110.
arXiv:1509.02773 . Bibcode:2015A&A...582A.110B.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526855.
31.5 See also
[10] Richard Hinckley Allen, Star-names and their meanings
Alnitak in ction (1936), p. 314-15.
Flame Nebula [11] Hummel CA; White NM; Elias NM II; Hajian AR;
Nordgren TE (2000). " Orionis A Is a Double Star
. The Astrophysical Journal. 540 (2): L91L93.
Bibcode:2000ApJ...540L..91H. doi:10.1086/312882.
31.6 References
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the trieved 22 May 2016.
new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
trophysics. 474 (2): 653. arXiv:0708.1752 . 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. [14] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[15] Schn, Ebbe. (2004). Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jt-

tar i tro och tradition. Flt & Hssler, Vrnamo. p. 228.
[16] Moser, Mary B.; Stephen A. Marlett (2005). Comcac

Plaza y Valds Editores.
31.7 External links

Alnitak 3. SolStation. Retrieved 2005-12-15.
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Image of Al-

nitak (12 January 2010)

Alnitak on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS, GALEX, IRAS,
Hydrogen , X-Ray, Astrophoto, Sky Map, Articles
and images
Coordinates: 05* h 40* m 45.5* s, 01 56 34

Chapter 32
Alpha Gruis
Alpha Gruis ( Gruis, abbreviated Alpha Gru, However, a luminosity class of 'IV' would suggest that this
Gru), also named Alnair,* [13] is the brightest star in the is a subgiant star; meaning the supply of hydrogen at its
southern constellation of Grus. core is becoming exhausted and the star has started the
process of evolving away from the main sequence. It has
no known companions.* [23]
32.1 Nomenclature The measured angular diameter of this star, after cor-
recting for limb darkening, is 1.02 0.07 mas.* [6]
Gruis (Latinised to Alpha Gruis) is the star's Bayer des- At a parallax-measured distance of 101 light-years (31
ignation. (Its rst depiction in a celestial atlas was in parsecs) from Earth, this yields a physical size of 3.4
Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.* [14]) times the radius of the Sun.* [24] It is rotating rapidly,
with a projected rotational velocity of about 215 km/s
It bore the traditional name Alnair or Al Nair (sometimes
providing a lower bound for the rate of azimuthal rotation
Al Na'ir in lists of stars used by navigators* [15]), from the
along the equator.* [10] This star has around four times
Arabic al-nayyir [an-nai:r], meaningthe bright one, it-
the Sun's mass and is radiating 263 times the luminosity
self derived from its Arabic name, al-Nayyir min Dhanab
of the Sun.* [5]
al-t (al-Janbiyy),the Bright (star) belongs to the Tail
of (the constellation of) the (Southern) Fish".* [16] Con- The eective temperature of Alpha Gruis's outer enve-
fusingly, Alnair was also given as the proper name for lope is 13,920 K,* [8] giving it the blue-white hue charac-
Zeta Centauri in an astronomical ephemerides in the mid- teristic of B-type stars.* [25] The abundance of elements
dle of the 20th century.* [17] In 2016, the International other than hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term
Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star the metallicity, is about 74% of the abundance in the
Names (WGSN)* [18] to catalog and standardize proper Sun.* [9]
names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Alnair Based on the estimated age and motion, it may be a
for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered member of the AB Doradus moving group that share a
in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [13] common motion through space. This group has an age
With Beta, Delta, Theta, Iota, and Lambda Gruis, Alnair of about 70 million years,* [26] which is consistent with
belonged to Piscis Austrinus in traditional Arabic astron- Gruis's 100-million-year* [11] estimated age (allowing
omy.* [19] for a margin of error). The space velocity components of
this star in the Galactic coordinate system are [U, V, W]
In Chinese, (H), meaning Crane, refers to an asterism
= [7.0 1.1, 25.6 0.7, 15.5 1.4] km/s.* [26]
consisting of Alpha Gruis, Beta Gruis, Epsilon Gruis,
Eta Gruis, Delta Tucanae, Zeta Gruis, Iota Gruis, Theta
Gruis, Delta2 Gruis and Mu1 Gruis.* [20] Consequently,
Alpha Gruis itself is known as (H y, English: First 32.3 References
Star of the Crane).* [21] The Chinese name gave rise to
another English name, Ke.* [22] [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
32.2 Properties 6361:20078357.
Alpha Gruis has a stellar classication of B6 V,* [3] al- [2] Hoeit, D.; Warren, W. H. Jr. HR 8425, database en-
try. The Bright Star Catalogue (5th Revised (Prelimi-
though some sources give it a classication of B7 IV.* [23]
nary) ed.). CDS. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
The rst classication indicates that this is a B-type star
on the main sequence of stars that are generating energy [3] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contributions to the
through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at the core. Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: spectroscopy of stars
182
earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample, The [16] Kunitzsch, P.; Smart, T. (2006), A Dictionary of Modern
Astronomical Journal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro- star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their
ph/0603770 , Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G, Derivations (2nd ed.), Cambridge, MA: Sky Publishing,
doi:10.1086/504637 p. 39, ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7
[4] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953),General catalogue of stel- [17] Kunitzsch, P. (1959), Arabische Sternnamen in Europa,
lar radial velocities, Washington, Carnegie Institution of Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, p. 128
Washington, Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W
[5] Malagnini, M. L.; Morossi, C. (November 1990), Ac- Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016.
masses and surface gravities for a selected sample of eld [19] Allen, Richard H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and
stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 85 Meaning (reprint ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications
(3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M Inc. p. 237. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[6] Richichi, A.; Percheron, I.; Khristoforova, M. (February [20] (Chinese) , written by . Published
2005),CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High Angular by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 25-7.
431 (2): 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039 [21] (Chinese) - - ,
[7] Fitzpatrick, Edward L.; Massa, Derck (November 1999), 23, 2010.
Determining the Physical Properties of the B Stars. I.
Methodology and First Results, The Astrophysical Jour- [22] Richard Hinckley Allen: Star Names Their Lore and
Meaning: Grus
Bibcode:1999ApJ...525.1011F, doi:10.1086/307944 [23] Eggleton, P. P.; Tokovinin, A. A. (September 2008),
[8] Zorec, J.; et al. (July 2009), Fundamental parame- A catalogue of multiplicity among bright stellar
ters of B supergiants from the BCD system. I. Calibra- systems, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomi-
tion of the (_1, D) parameters into Te, Astronomy cal Society, 389 (2): 869879, arXiv:0806.2878 ,
and Astrophysics, 501 (1): 297320, arXiv:0903.5134 Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E, doi:10.1111/j.1365-
, Bibcode:2009A&A...501..297Z, doi:10.1051/0004- 2966.2008.13596.x
6361/200811147 [24] Lang, Kenneth R. (2006), Astrophysical formulae, As-
[9] Niemczura, E. (June 2003), Metallicities of the tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser,
SPB stars from the IUE ultraviolet spectra, ISBN 3-540-29692-1. The radius (R* ) is given by:
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 404 (2): 689700,
(103 31 1.02) AU
Bibcode:2003A&A...404..689N, doi:10.1051/0004- 2 R =
0.0046491 AU/R
6361:20030546. The fractional abundance relative to the
Sun is given by: 6.8 R
10* 0.13 = 0.74, or 74%.

[10] Dachs, J.; et al. (March 1981), Photoelectric scan- Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
ner measurements of Balmer emission line proles for search Organisation, December 21, 2004, retrieved 2012-
southern Be stars. II - A survey for variations, Astron- 01-16
omy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 43: 427453,
Bibcode:1981A&AS...43..427D [26] Zuckerman, B.; et al. (May 2011), The Tu-
cana/Horologium, Columba, AB Doradus, and Ar-
[11] Su, K. Y. L.; et al. (December 2006), Debris gus Associations: New Members and Dusty De-
Disk Evolution around A Stars, The Astrophysical bris Disks, The Astrophysical Journal, 732 (2):
Journal, 653 (1): 675689, arXiv:astro-ph/0608563 , 61, arXiv:1104.0284 , Bibcode:2011ApJ...732...61Z,
Bibcode:2006ApJ...653..675S, doi:10.1086/508649 doi:10.1088/0004-637X/732/2/61
[12]LTT 8869 -- High proper-motion Star, SIMBAD, Centre
de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2011-
12-24 32.4 External links
Kaler, James B.,AL NAIR (Alpha Gruis)", Stars,
[14] Scalzi, John (2008), Rough Guide to the Universe, Pen- University of Illinois, retrieved 2011-12-26
guin, p. 306, ISBN 1-4053-8370-4
[15] Bowditch, LL.D., Nathaniel (2002) [1802]. 15: Navi-
gational Astronomy. The American Practical Navigator:
An Epitome of Navigation (PDF). Bethesda, MD: National
Imagery and Mapping Agency. p. 248. ISBN 0-939837-
54-4. Retrieved 2016-09-20.
Chapter 33
Epsilon Ursae Majoris
Aliothredirects here. For the free software develop- cally sorted elements into the line of sight between Alioth
ment service, see Alioth (Debian). and the Earth. The intervening elements react dierently
at dierent frequencies of light as they whip in and out
of view, causing Alioth to have very strange spectral lines
Epsilon Ursae Majoris ( Ursae Majoris, abbreviated
Epsilon UMa, UMa), also named Alioth, [8] is (de- that uctuate over a period of 5.1 days. The kB9 suf-
*
x to the spectral type indicates that the calcium K line
spite being designated 'epsilon') the brightest star in the
constellation of Ursa Major, and at magnitude 1.76 is the is present and representative of a B9 spectral type even
though the rest of the spectrum indicates A1.
thirty-rst-brightest star in the sky.
It is the star in the tail of the bear closest to its body, With Alioth, the rotational and magnetic axes are at al-
and thus the star in the handle of the Big Dipper (Plough) most 90 degrees to one another. Darker (denser) regions
closest to the bowl. It is also a member of the large and of chromium form a band at right angles to the equator.
diuse Ursa Major moving group. Historically, the star A recent study suggests Alioth's 5.1-day variation may be
was frequently used in celestial navigation in the maritime due to a substellar object of about 14.7 Jupiter masses in
trade, because it is listed as one of the 57 navigational an eccentric orbit (e=0.5) with an average separation of
stars.* [1] 0.055 astronomical units.
Alioth has a relatively weak magnetic eld, 15 times
weaker than CVn, but it is still 100 times stronger than
33.1 Stellar properties that of the Earth.
33.2 Name and etymology
Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Epsilon Ursae Majoris) is

the star's Bayer designation.
The traditional name Alioth comes from the Arabic alyat
(fat tail of a sheep). In 2016, the International Astronom-
ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
(WGSN)* [9] to catalog and standardize proper names for
stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [10] in-
by the WGSN; which included Alioth for this star.
Book plate by Sidney Hall depicting Ursa Major's stars
This star was known to the Hindus as Agiras, one of the
According to Hipparcos, Alioth is 81 light-years (25 Seven Rishis.* [11]
parsecs) from the Sun. Its spectral type is A1p; the p In Chinese, (Bi Du), meaning Northern Dipper,
stands for peculiar, as the spectrum of its light is char- refers to an asterism consisting of Epsilon Ursae Majoris,
acteristic of an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable. Alpha Ursae Majoris, Beta Ursae Majoris, Gamma Ur-
Alioth, as a representative of this type, may harbor two sae Majoris, Delta Ursae Majoris, Zeta Ursae Majoris
interacting processes. First, the star's strong magnetic and Eta Ursae Majoris. Consequently, Epsilon Ursae Ma-
eld separating dierent elements in the star's hydrogen joris itself is known as (Bi Du wu, English: the
'fuel'. In addition, a rotation axis at an angle to the mag- Fifth Star of Northern Dipper) and (Y Hng, En-
netic axis may be spinning dierent bands of magneti- glish: Star of Jade Sighting-Tube).* [12]
184
33.3 Namesakes [10] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
USS Allioth (AK-109) was a United States Navy Crater [11] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
class cargo ship named after the star. (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 438.
ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.

33.4 See also in Astronomy) 2006 6 15
Stars and planetary systems in ction 1. * ^ This article incorporates text from a publication
now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed.
(1728). "* article name needed". Cyclopdia, or an
33.5 References Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (rst ed.).
James and John Knapton, et al.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357

[3] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry;

General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Determina-
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, University
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union, 30: 57,
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E
[4] Tektunali, H. G. (June 1981), The spectrum of the

CR star Epsilon Ursae Majoris, Astrophysics and Space
Science, 77 (1): 4158, Bibcode:1981Ap&SS..77...41T,
doi:10.1007/BF00648756
[5] Shaya, Ed J.; Olling, Rob P. (January 2011), Very

Wide Binaries and Other Comoving Stellar Compan-
ions: A Bayesian Analysis of the Hipparcos Cata-
logue, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 192 (1):
2, arXiv:1007.0425 , Bibcode:2011ApJS..192....2S,
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/2
[6] Sokolov, N. A. (March 2008), Radial velocity

study of the chemically peculiar star Ursae Ma-
joris, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society: Letters, 385 (1): L1L4, arXiv:0904.3562 ,
Bibcode:2008MNRAS.385L...1S, doi:10.1111/j.1745-
3933.2008.00419.x.
[7] Royer, F.; et al. (October 2002), Rotational ve-

locities of A-type stars in the northern hemisphere.
II. Measurement of v sin i, Astronomy and As-
trophysics, 393 (3): 897911, arXiv:astro-ph/0205255
, Bibcode:2002A&A...393..897R, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20020943

Chapter 34
Gamma Velorum
34.2 Components
The Gamma Velorum system is composed of at least four
stars. The brightest member, Velorum or Velorum A,
is a spectroscopic binary composed of a blue supergiant
of spectral class O7.5 (~30 M ), and a massive Wolf-
Rayet star (~9 M , originally ~35 M ).* [9] The binary
has an orbital period of 78.5 days and separation varying
from 0.8 to 1.6 astronomical units. The Wolf-Rayet star is
likely to end its life in a Type Ib supernova explosion; it is
one of the nearest supernova candidates to the Sun.* [15]
The Wolf Rayet star has traditionally been regarded as the
primary since its emission lines dominate the spectrum,
but the O star is visually brighter and also more luminous.
For clarity, the components are now often referred to as
Location of Velorum (circled) WR and O.* [6]
The bright (apparent magnitude +4.2) Velorum or
Gamma Velorum ( Vel, Velorum) is a multiple star Velorum B, is a spectroscopic binary with a period of
system in the constellation Vela. At magnitude +1.7, it 1.48 days. Only the primary is detected and it is a blue-
is one of the brightest stars in the night sky, and by far white giant. It is separated from the Wolf-Rayet binary
the closest and brightest Wolf-Rayet star. It has the tra- by 41.2, easily resolved with binoculars.* [8] The pair
ditional name Suhail al Muhlif and the modern name are too close to be separated without optical assistance,
Regor, but neither is approved by the International As- and they appear to the naked eye as a single star of ap-
tronomical Union. parent magnitude 1.72 (at the average brightness of 2 of
1.83).
Gamma Velorum has several fainter companions that
share a common motion and are likely to be members of
the Vela OB2 association.* [8] The magnitude +7.3 CD-
46 3848 is a white F0 star at is 62.3 arcseconds from the
A component. At 93.5 arcseconds is another binary star,
34.1 Distance an F0 star of magnitude +9.2.
Velorum is associated with several hundred pre main
Gamma Velorum is close enough to have accurate paral- sequence stars within less than a degree. The ages of these
lax measurements as well as distance estimates by more stars would be at least 5 million years.* [8]
indirect means. The Hipparcos parallax for 2 implies a
distance of 342 pc. A dynamical parallax derived from
calculations of the orbital parameters gives a value of
336 pc, similar to spectrophotometric derivations. A 34.3 Etymology
VLTI interferometry measurement of the distance gives
a slightly larger value of 368+38 The Arabic name is al Suhail al Mulf. al Muhlif refers
13 pc. All these distances are somewhat less than the to the oath-taker, and al Suhail is originally derived from
commonly assumed distance of 450 pc for the Vela OB2 a word meaning the plain. Suhail is used for at least three
association which is the closest grouping of young mas- other stars: Canopus; Velorum (al Suhail al Wazn); and
sive stars.* [14] Puppis (Suhail Hadar). Suhail is also a common Arabic
186
male rst name.* [16] of the Royal Astronomical Society. 377: 415. arXiv:astro-
The Chinese name for the star is (Mandarin: tin ph/0702375 . Bibcode:2007MNRAS.377..415N.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11608.x.
sh y), which means "The First Star of the Celestial Earth
God's Temple. [7] De Marco, O.; Schmutz, W.; Crowther, P. A.; Hillier, D.
The name Regor (Rogerspelled in reverse) was in- J.; Dessart, L.; De Koter, A.; Schweickhardt, J. (2000).
vented as a practical joke by the Apollo 1 astronaut Gus The gamma Velorum binary system. II. WR stellar pa-
Grissom for his fellow astronaut Roger Chaee.* [17] rameters and the photon loss mechanism. Astronomy
and Astrophysics. 358: 187. arXiv:astro-ph/0004081 .
Due to the exotic nature of its spectrum (bright emission Bibcode:2000A&A...358..187D.
lines in lieu of dark absorption lines) it is also dubbed the
Spectral Gem of Southern Skies.* [18] [8] Jeries, R. D.; Naylor, T.; Walter, F. M.; Pozzo, M.
P.; Devey, C. R. (2009). The stellar association
around Gamma Velorum and its relationship with
Vela OB2. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
34.4 Trivia
nomical Society. 393 (2): 538. arXiv:0810.5320 .
Bibcode:2009MNRAS.393..538J. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
Velorum is the South Star of Neptune. 2966.2008.14162.x.
[9] Eldridge, J. J. (2009). A new-age determination

34.5 See also for 2 Velorum from binary stellar evolution models
ety: Letters. 400: L20L23. arXiv:0909.0504 .
Gamma Cassiopeiae, informally named Navi for as- Bibcode:2009MNRAS.400L..20E. doi:10.1111/j.1745-
tronaut Virgil Ivan GusGrissom 3933.2009.00753.x.
Iota Ursae Majoris, informally named Dnoces for [10] Schmutz, W.; Schweickhardt, J.; Stahl, O.; Wolf,
astronaut Edward H. White II B.; Dumm, T.; Gang, Th.; Jankovics, I.; Kaufer,
A.; Lehmann, H.; Mandel, H.; Peitz, J.; Rivinius,
Th. (1997). The orbital motion of gamma^2 Velo-
34.6 References rum. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 328: 219.
Bibcode:1997A&A...328..219S.
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation [11] Hog, E.; Kuzmin, A.; Bastian, U.; Fabricius, C.; Kuimov,
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and K.; Lindegren, L.; Makarov, V. V.; Roeser, S. (1998).
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , The TYCHO Reference Catalogue. Astronomy and As-
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- trophysics. 335: L65. Bibcode:1998A&A...335L..65H.
6361:20078357
[12] Hernandez, C. A.; Sahade, J. (1980). The Spectro-
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- scopic Binary GAMMA-1-VELORUM. Publications
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system of the Astronomical Society of the Pacic. 92: 819.
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. Bibcode:1980PASP...92..819H. doi:10.1086/130756.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. ISSN 0004-6280.
[13] Hg, E.; Fabricius, C.; Makarov, V. V.; Urban, S.;
Corbin, T.; Wyco, G.; Bastian, U.; Schwekendiek,
P.; Wicenec, A. (2000). The Tycho-2 catalogue of
the 2.5 million brightest stars. Astronomy and As-
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
trophysics. 355: L27. Bibcode:2000A&A...355L..27H.
[4] Roche, P. F.; Colling, M. D.; Barlow, M. J. (2012). doi:10.1888/0333750888/2862.
The outer wind of Velorum. Monthly No-
tices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 427: 581. [14] Millour, F.; Petrov, R. G.; Chesneau, O.; Bonneau, D.;
Dessart, L.; Bechet, C.; Tallon-Bosc, I.; Tallon, M.;
arXiv:1208.6016 . Bibcode:2012MNRAS.427..581R. Thibaut, E.; Vakili, F.; Malbet, F.; Mourard, D.; An-
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.22005.x. tonelli, P.; Beckmann, U.; Bresson, Y.; Chelli, A.; Dugu,
M.; Duvert, G.; Gennari, S.; Glck, L.; Kern, P.; La-
[5] Niemela, V. S.; Sahade, J. (1980). The orbital el-
garde, S.; Le Coarer, E.; Lisi, F.; Perraut, K.; Puget,
ements of Gamma 2 Velorum. The Astrophysical
P.; Rantakyr, F.; Robbe-Dubois, S.; Roussel, A.; et
Journal. 238: 244. Bibcode:1980ApJ...238..244N.
al. (2007). Direct constraint on the distance of 2
doi:10.1086/157981. ISSN 0004-637X.
Velorum from AMBER/VLTI observations. Astron-
[6] North, J. R.; Tuthill, P. G.; Tango, W. J.; Davis, J. omy and Astrophysics. 464: 107. arXiv:astro-ph/0610936
(2007). "2 Velorum: Orbital solution and fundamental . Bibcode:2007A&A...464..107M. doi:10.1051/0004-
parameter determination with SUSI. Monthly Notices 6361:20065408.
188 CHAPTER 34. GAMMA VELORUM
[15] Beech, Martin (2011). The past, present and

future supernova threat to Earth's biosphere.
Astrophysics and Space Science. 336 (2): 287.
Bibcode:2011Ap&SS.336..287B. doi:10.1007/s10509-
011-0873-9.

(rep. ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN
0-486-21079-0.
[17] Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal, Post-landing Activities,

commentary at 105:11:33

catalogue. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Obser-
vatory, 5th rev.ed. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
Chapter 35
Epsilon Sagittarii
Epsilon Sagittarii ( Sagittarii, abbreviated Epsilon secondary.* [16] Prior to its 1993 identication using an
Sgr, Sgr), also named Kaus Australis,* [10] is a adaptive optics coronagraph, this companion may have
binary star system in the southern zodiac constellation of been responsible for the spectral anomalies that were at-
Sagittarius. The apparent visual magnitude of +1.85* [2] tributed to the primary star.* [17] There is a candidate
makes it the brightest star in the constellation. Based stellar companion at an angular separation of 32.3 arc-
upon parallax measurements, this star is around 143 light- seconds.* [5]
years (44 parsecs) from the Sun.
35.2 Nomenclature
35.1 Properties Sagittarii (Latinised to Epsilon Sagittarii) is the star's
Bayer designation.
The primary component of this binary star system has a
It bore the traditional name Kaus Australis, which de-
stellar classication of B9.5 III,* [3] with the luminosity
rived from the Arabic qaws 'bow' and Latin aus-
class of III suggesting this is an evolved giant star
trlis 'southern'. In 2016, the International Astronom-
that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core.
The interferometry-measured angular diameter of this
star, after correcting for limb darkening, is 1.44
0.06 mas,* [11] which, at its estimated distance, equates
to a physical radius of about 6.8 times the radius of
by the WGSN; which included Kaus Australis for this star.
the Sun.* [6] This is a close match to the empirically-
determined value of 6.9 solar radii.* [12] It has about 3.5 In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al
times the mass of the Sun and is radiating around 363 Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated Thalath
times the Sun's luminosity from its outer atmosphere at al Waridah, or Thalith al Waridah, meaning 'third of
an eective temperature of 9,960 K.* [5] At this heat, the Warida'.* [20]
star glows with a blue-white hue.* [13] In Chinese, (J), meaning Winnowing Basket, refers
This star is spinning rapidly with a projected rotational to an asterism consisting of Epsilon Sagittarii, Gamma
velocity of 236 km s* 1.* [9] It has a magnetic eld with Sagittarii, Delta Sagittarii and Eta Sagittarii. Conse-
a strength in the range 10.5130.5 G* [14] and it is an X- quently, Epsilon Sagittarii itself is known as
ray source with a luminosity of about 1030 erg s* 1.* [5] (J S sn, English: the Third Star of Winnowing Bas-
The system displays an excess emission of infrared radi- ket.)* [21]
ation, which suggests the presence of a circumstellar disk This star, together with :
of dust. Based upon the temperature of this disk, it is
orbiting at a mean separation of 155 AU from the pri- Gamma Sagittarii, Delta Sagittarii, Zeta Sagittarii,
mary.* [15] Lambda Sagittarii, Sigma Sagittarii, Tau Sagit-
As of 2001, the secondary companion is located at an tarii and Phi Sagittarii, comprise the Teapot aster-
angular separation of 2.392 arcseconds from the primary ism.* [22]
along a position angle of 142.3. At the distance of this
Gamma Sagittarii, Delta Sagittarii and Eta Sagittarii
system, this angle is equivalent to a physical separation
were Al Nam al Wrid () , the 'Going
of about 106 AU, which places it inside the debris disk.
Ostriches'.* [23]
It is a main sequence star with about 95% of the mass
of the Sun. The system has a higher optical linear polar- Gamma Sagittarii and Delta Sagittarii were
isation than expected for its distance from the Sun; this Akkadian Sin-nuntu, or Si-nu-nutum, 'the Swal-
has been attributed to light scattered o the disk from the low'.* [23]
189
190 CHAPTER 35. EPSILON SAGITTARII
Kaus Australis is listed in the Babyloanian compendium [9] Royer, F.; et al. (October 2002), Rotational ve-
MUL.APIN as MA.GUR8 , meaning the Bark.* [24] locities of A-type stars in the northern hemisphere.
II. Measurement of v sin i, Astronomy and As-
, Bibcode:2002A&A...393..897R, doi:10.1051/0004-
35.3 References 6361:20020943
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation [10] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[11] Richichi, A.; Percheron, I.; Khristoforova, M. (February
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , 2005),CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High Angular
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
6361:20078357 431 (2): 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039
tometry of the bright stars, Communications of [12] Jerzykiewicz, M.; Molenda-Zakowicz, J. (September
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4: 99100, 2000),Empirical Luminosities and Radii of Early-Type
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J Stars after Hipparcos, Acta Astronomica, 50: 369380,
Bibcode:2000AcA....50..369J
[3] Houk, Nancy; Smith-Moore, M. (1979),Michigan cata-
logue of two-dimensional spectral types for the HD stars [13] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and
, Michigan Catalogue of Two-dimensional Spectral Types Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
for the HD stars. Volume_3. Declinations 40_0 to search Organisation, December 21, 2004, archived from
26_0, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Dept. of Astronomy, the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
University of Michigan, 3, Bibcode:1982mcts.book.....H
[14] Bychkov, V. D.; Bychkova, L. V.; Madej, J. (August
[4] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of 2003), Catalogue of averaged stellar eective magnetic
the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat- elds. I. Chemically peculiar A and B type stars, Astron-
ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina- omy and Astrophysics, 407 (2): 631642, arXiv:astro-
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed- ph/0307356 , Bibcode:2003A&A...407..631B,
ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra- doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030741
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union. p. 57. [15] Rodriguez, David R.; Zuckerman, B. (February 2012),
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. Binaries among Debris Disk Stars, The Astro-
physical Journal, 745 (2): 147, arXiv:1111.5618 ,
[5] Hubrig, S.; Le Mignant, D.; North, P.; Krautter, J. Bibcode:2012ApJ...745..147R, doi:10.1088/0004-
(June 2001), Search for low-mass PMS companions 637X/745/2/147
around X-ray selected late B stars, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 372: 152164, arXiv:astro-ph/0103201 [16] Cotton, D. V.; et al. (January 2016). The linear polar-
, Bibcode:2001A&A...372..152H, doi:10.1051/0004- ization of Southern bright stars measured at the parts-per-
6361:20010452 million level. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 455 (2): 16071628. arXiv:1509.07221
[6] Lang, Kenneth R. (2006), Astrophysical formulae, As- . Bibcode:2016MNRAS.455.1607C.
tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser, doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2185.
[17] Golimowski, David A.; Durrance, Samuel T.; Clampin,
(103 43.9 1.44) AU Mark (March 1993), Detection of an apparent star
2 R =
0.0046491 AU/R 2.1 arcsec from the circumstellar disk candidate Epsilon
Sagittarii, Astronomical Journal, 105 (3): 11081113,
13.6 R
Bibcode:1993AJ....105.1108G, doi:10.1086/116498
[7] Adelman, Saul J. (December 2004). The physical prop- [18] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
erties of normal A stars. In Zverko, J.; Ziznovsky, trieved 22 May 2016.
J.; Adelman, S. J.; Weiss, W. W. The A-Star Puzzle,
held in Poprad, Slovakia, July 8-13, 2004. IAU Sym- [19] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
posium. 2004 (224). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni- 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
versity Press. pp. 111. Bibcode:2004IAUS..224....1A. [20] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
doi:10.1017/S1743921304004314. Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
[8] Zorec, J.; et al. (July 2009), Fundamental parame-
ters of B supergiants from the BCD system. I. Calibra-
ety. 55 (8): 435. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
tion of the (_1, D) parameters into Te, Astronomy
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
and Astrophysics, 501 (1): 297320, arXiv:0903.5134
, Bibcode:2009A&A...501..297Z, doi:10.1051/0004- [21] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
6361/200811147 in Astronomy) 2006 5 11
[22] Teapot. constellation-guide.com. Retrieved 2017-05-

13.

(Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 355.
ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
[24] Rogers, J. H. (February 1998), Origins of the ancient

constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions, Jour-
nal of the British Astronomical Association, 108 (1): 928,
Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R
35.4 External links

Kaus Australis
Chapter 36
Alpha Persei
Alpha Persei ( Persei, abbreviated Alpha Per, Per), meaning 'Elbow' and also written Mirphak, Mar-
also named Mirfak,* [9] is the brightest star in the north- fak or Mirzac, comes from the Arabic Mirfaq al-
ern constellation of Perseus, just outshining the constella- Thurayya, while Algenib, also spelt Algeneb, El-
tion's best known star, Algol. Persei has an apparent vi- genab, Gnib, Chenib or Alchemb, is derived from
sual magnitude of 1.8,* [5] and is a circumpolar star when al-janb, or al-jnib, 'the ank' or
viewed from mid-northern latitudes. 'side'.* [14]* [15] and was also the traditional name
Mirfak lies in the midst of a cluster of stars named as the for Gamma Pegasi.* [16] In 2016, the International
Astronomical Union organized a Working Group
eponymous Alpha Persei Cluster, or Melotte 20, which
is easily visible in binoculars and includes many of the on Star Names (WGSN)* [17] to catalog and stan-
fainter stars in the constellation.* [10] Determined dis- dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst
tance using the trigonometric parallax, places the star 510 bulletin of July 2016* [18] included a table of the
light-years (160 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] rst two batches of names approved by the WGSN;
which included Mirfak for this star (Gamma Pegasi
was given the name Algenib).
36.1 Properties Hinali'i is the name of the star in Native Hawai-
ian astronomy. The name of the star is meant to
The spectrum of Alpha Persei matches a stellar classi- commemorate a great tsunami and mark the begin-
cation of F5 Ib,* [2] revealing it to be a supergiant star ning of the migration of Maui. According to some
in the latter stages of its evolution. It has a similar spec- Hawaiian folklore, Hinali'i is the point of separation
trum to Procyon, though the latter star is much less lu- between the Earth and the sky that happened during
minous. This dierence is highlighted in their spectral the creation of the Milky Way.* [19]
designation under the Yerkes spectral classication, pub-
Assemani alluded to a title on the Borgian globe,
lished in 1943, where stars are ranked on luminosity as
Mughammid (), or Muliammir al Thurayya
well as spectral typing. Procyon is thus F5 IV,* [11] a
(), the Concealer of the Pleiades,
subgiant star. Since 1943, the spectrum of Alpha Persei
which, from its location, may be for this star.* [14]
has served as one of the stable anchor points by which
other stars are classied.* [12] This star, together with Per, Per, Per, Per and
Mirfak has about 8.5* [2] times the Sun's mass and has Per, has been called the Segment of Perseus.* [14]
expanded to roughly 60* [6] times the size of the Sun. It
is radiating 5,000* [10] times as much luminosity as the In Chinese, (Tin Chun), meaning Celestial
Sun from its outer atmosphere at an eective tempera- Boat, refers to an asterism consisting of Persei,
ture of 6,350 K,* [2] which creates the yellow-white glow Persei, Persei, Persei, Persei, 48 Persei,
of an F-type star. In the HertzsprungRussell Diagram, Persei and HD 27084. Consequently, Persei itself
Mirfak lies inside the region in which Cepheid variables is known as (Tin Chun sn, English: the
are found.* [13] It is thus useful in the study of these stars, Third Star of Celestial Boat.)* [20]
which are important standard candles.* [10]
36.3 References
36.2 Nomenclature
Alpha Persei is the star's Bayer designation. of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
The star also bore the traditional names Mirfak and Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
Algenib, which are Arabic in origin. The former, 6361:20078357
192
[2] Lyubimkov, Leonid S.; et al. (February 2010), Accu- [15] Davis Jr., G. A. (October 1944), The Pronuncia-
rate fundamental parameters for A-, F- and G-type Su- tions, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List
pergiants in the solar neighbourhood, Monthly Notices of Star Names, Popular Astronomy, 52 (3): 14,
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 402 (2): 13691379, Bibcode:1944PA.....52....8D
arXiv:0911.1335 , Bibcode:2010MNRAS.402.1369L,
[16] Pegasus
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15979.x
[3] Arellano Ferro, A. (October 2010), Functional re-
lationships for T_e and log g in F-G supergiants
from uvby-beta photometry, Revista Mexicana de As- [18] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
tronoma y Astrofsica, 46: 331338, arXiv:1007.0771 , 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Bibcode:2010RMxAA..46..331A
[19] Astronomer charts skies in Hawaiian (PDF), Mla-
[4] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho- malama, the Magazine of the University of Hawai'i System,
tometry of the bright stars, Communications of 29 (2): 8, May 2004, retrieved 2012-03-14
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J [20] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
in Astronomy) 2006 7 11
[5] Mermilliod, J. C.; Mayor, M.; Udry, S. (July 2008),
Red giants in open clusters. XIV. Mean radial
velocities for 1309 stars and 166 open clusters,
Bibcode:2008A&A...485..303M, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:200809664
[6] Nordgren, Tyler E.; et al. (December 1999), Stellar

Angular Diameters of Late-Type Giants and Supergiants
Measured with the Navy Prototype Optical Interferom-
eter, The Astronomical Journal, 118 (6): 30323038,
Bibcode:1999AJ....118.3032N, doi:10.1086/301114
[7] Gray, R. O.; Graham, P. W.; Hoyt, S. R. (April 2001),

The Physical Basis of Luminosity Classication in the
Late A-, F-, and Early G-Type Stars. II. Basic Pa-
rameters of Program Stars and the Role of Microturbu-
lence, The Astronomical Journal, 121 (4): 21592172,
Bibcode:2001AJ....121.2159G, doi:10.1086/319957
[8] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970), A cata-

logue of stellar rotational velocities, Contributi Os-
servatorio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago, 239 (1),
Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B
[10] Kaler, James B., Mirfak, Stars, University of Illinois,

[11] Ramanamurthy, G. (2007), Biographical Dictionary of

Great Astronomers, Sura Books, p. 167, ISBN 81-7478-
697-X

for the MK System of Spectral Classication, Bul-
[13] Mrand, Antoine; et al. (August 2007), Ex-

tended Envelopes around Galactic Cepheids. III. Y
Ophiuchi and Persei from Near-Infrared Interfer-
ometry with CHARA/FLUOR, The Astrophysical
Journal, 664 (2): 10931101, arXiv:0704.1825 ,
Bibcode:2007ApJ...664.1093M, doi:10.1086/518597

ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
Chapter 37
Delta Canis Majoris
Delta Canis Majoris ( Canis Majoris, abbreviated log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's
Delta CMa, CMa), also named Wezen,* [10] is a star rst bulletin of July 2016* [18] included a table of the rst
in the constellation of Canis Major. It is a yellow-white two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
F-type supergiant with an apparent magnitude of +1.83. cluded Wezen for this star.
Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one In Chinese, (H Sh), meaning Bow and Ar-
of the stable anchor points by which other stars are clas- row,* [19] refers to an asterism consisting of Canis Ma-
sied.* [11] joris, Canis Majoris, HD 63032, HD 65456, Puppis,
k Puppis, Canis Majoris, Canis Majoris and Pup-
pis. Consequently, Canis Majoris itself is known as
37.1 Visibility (H Sh y, English: the First Star of Bow and Ar-
row.)* [20]
Delta Canis Majoris is the third-brightest star in the con- In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi
stellation after Sirius and Adhara, with an apparent mag- Al Mouakket, this star was designated Thalath al Adzari
nitude of +1.83, and is white or yellow-white in colour. ( - taalit al-arii), which was trans-
Lying about 10 degrees south southeast of Sirius, it only lated into Latin as Tertia Virginum, meaning the third vir-
rises to about 11 degrees above the horizon at the lati- gin.* [21] This star, along with CMa (Adhara), CMa
tude of the United Kingdom.* [12] The open cluster NGC (Aludra) and 2 CMa (Thanih al Adzari), were Al Ad-
2354 is located only 1.3 degrees east of Delta Canis Ma- hr ( ), the Virgins.* [22]* [23]
joris.* [13] As with the rest of Canis Major, Wezen is
most visible in winter skies in the northern hemisphere,
and summer skies in the southern. In Bayer's Uranome-
tria, it is in the Great Dog's hind quarter.* [14] 37.3 Properties
Wezen is a supergiant of class F8 with a radius around 237
37.2 History and naming times that of the Sun. Its surface temperature is around
5,818 K,* [24] and it weighs around 17 solar masses. Its
absolute magnitude is 6.87,* [6] and it lies around 1,600
Canis Majoris (Latinised to Delta Canis Majoris) is the light-years away. It is rotating at a speed of around 28
star's Bayer designation. km/s, and hence may take a year to rotate fully. Only
The traditional name, Wezen (alternatively Wesen, or around 10 million years old, Wezen has stopped fusing
Wezea), is derived from the medieval Arabic al- hydrogen in its core. Its outer envelope is beginning to
wazn, which means 'weight' in modern Arabic. The name expand and cool, and in the next 100,000 years it will be-
was for one of a pair of stars, the other being Hadar, come a red supergiant as its core fuses heavier and heavier
which has now come to refer to Beta Centauri. It is un- elements. Once it has a core of iron, it will collapse and
clear whether the pair of stars was originally Alpha and explode as a supernova.* [16]
Beta Centauri or Alpha and Beta Columbae. In any case, If Wezen were as close to Earth as Sirius is, it would be
the name was somehow applied to both Delta Canis Ma- as bright as a half-full moon.* [25]
joris and Beta Columbae.* [15] Richard Hinckley Allen
muses that the name alludes to the diculty the star has
rising above the (northern hemisphere) horizon.* [14] As-
tronomer Jim Kaler has noted the aptness of the tradi- 37.4 Modern legacy
tional name given the star's massive nature.* [16]
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized Wezen appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the state
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [17] to cata- of Roraima.* [26]
194
37.5 References [12] Mobberly, Martin (2009). The Caldwell Objects and How
to Observe Them. Springer. p. 136. ISBN 1-4419-0325-
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of 9. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
[13] http://www.angelfire.com/ky/astronomers/Canis.html
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [14] Allen, R H (1963) [1899]. Star Names: Their Lore and
6361:20078357. Meaning (rep. ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications
Inc. p. 130. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; et al. (1966). A System
of photometric standards. Publ. Dept. Astron. Univ. [15] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of
Chile. Publicaciones Universidad de Chile, Department Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names
de Astronomy. 1: 117. Bibcode:1966PDAUC...1....1G. and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA:
Sky Pub. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
[3] Lyubimkov, Leonid S.; et al. (February 2010). Accu-
rate fundamental parameters for A-, F- and G-type Su- [16] Kaler, James B. Wezen. Stars website. University of
pergiants in the solar neighbourhood. Monthly Notices Illinois. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
arXiv:0911.1335 . Bibcode:2010MNRAS.402.1369L.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15979.x.
[4] Koen, Chris; Eyer, Laurent (2002). New periodic
variables from the Hipparcos epoch photometry
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci- [19] (H Sh) is westernized into Koo She. R.H. Allen
ety. 331 (1): 4559. arXiv:astro-ph/0112194 . had opinion that Koo She refers to the asterism including
Bibcode:2002MNRAS.331...45K. doi:10.1046/j.1365- Velorum and Velorum. AEEA opinion is, Velorum
8711.2002.05150.x. ISSN 0035-8711. is member of (Tin Sh), meaning Celestial Earth
God's Temple asterism and Velorum is not member of
[5] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). Batten, Alan Henry; any asterisms. (Tin Sh) is westernized into Tseen
Heard, John Frederick, eds. The Revision of the Gen- She and R.H.Allen used the term Tseen She for Chinese
eral Catalogue of Radial Velocities. Determination name of Carinae. See Richard Hinckley Allen: Star
of Radial Velocities and their Applications. University Names Their Lore and Meaning: Argo Navis and (Chi-
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union. 30: 57. nese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education in
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. Astronomy) 2006 7 17 .
[6] Arellano Ferro, A.; Giridhar, S.; Rojo Arellano, E. (April [20] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
2003). A Revised Calibration of the MV-W(O I in Astronomy) 2006 7 17
7774) Relationship using Hipparcos Data: Its Applica-
tion to Cepheids and Evolved Stars. Revista Mexicana [21] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
de Astronoma y Astrofsica. 39: 315. arXiv:astro- Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
ph/0210695 . Bibcode:2003RMxAA..39....3A. darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket.
[7] Davis, J.; et al. (October 2007).The Emergent Flux and 55 (8): 429438. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
Eective Temperature of Canis Majoris. Publications doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 24 (3): 151158.
arXiv:0709.3873 . Bibcode:2007PASA...24..151D. [22] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
doi:10.1071/AS07017. (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 130.
ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
[8] Prugniel, Ph.; Vauglin, I.; Koleva, M. (July 2011). The
atmospheric parameters and spectral interpolator for the [23] CMa as Aoul al Adzari or Prima Virginum (the rst vir-
MILES stars. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 531: A165. gin), 2 CMa as Thanih al Adzari or Secunda Virginum
(the second virgin) and CMa as Thalath al Adzari or Ter-
arXiv:1104.4952 . Bibcode:2011A&A...531A.165P.
tia Virginum (the third virgin). CMa should be Rabah
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116769.
al Adzari or Quarta Virginum (the fourth virgin) consis-
[9] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970). A catalogue tently, but it was given by the name Aludra, meaning 'the
of stellar rotational velocities. Contributi Osserva- virgin' (same meaning with Adhara ( CMa) or Al Ad-
torio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago. 239 (1): 1. hr)
Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B.
[24] Davis, J.; Booth, A. J.; Ireland, M. J.; Jacob, A. P.; North,
[10] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. J. R.; Owens, S. M.; Robertson, J. G.; Tango, W. J.;
Tuthill, P. G. (2013). The Emergent Flux and Ef-
[11] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993). Anchor Points fective Temperature of Canis Majoris. Publications
for the MK System of Spectral Classication. Bul- of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 24 (3): 151.
letin of the American Astronomical Society. 25: 1319. arXiv:0709.3873 . Bibcode:2007PASA...24..151D.
Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G. Retrieved 2012-02-04. doi:10.1071/AS07017.
196 CHAPTER 37. DELTA CANIS MAJORIS
[25] Ridpath, Ian; Tirion, Will (2003). The Monthly Sky Guide.
Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-521-53306-
6.

The World website.
Chapter 38
Eta Ursae Majoris
ern Dipper) or (the Star of Twinkling Brilliance) in

Coordinates: 13* h 47* m 32.4* s, +49 18 47.8
Chinese.
Eta Ursae Majoris ( Ursae Majoris, abbreviated Eta
The Hindus knew this star as Marci, one of the Seven
UMa, UMa), also named Alkaid,* [11] is a star in the
Rishis.* [18]
constellation of Ursa Major. It is the most eastern (left-
most) star in the Big Dipper (Plough) asterism. However, In Japan and Korea, Alkaid is known as Hagunsei and
unlike most stars of the Big Dipper, it is not a member Mukokseong respectively (the military breaking staror
of the Ursa Major moving group.* [12] With an apparent most corner star). Both meanings come from ancient
visual magnitude of +1.84,* [13] it is the third-brightest China's inuence in both countries.
star in the constellation and one of the brightest stars in
the night sky.
Eta Ursae Majoris is a 10-million-year-old* [5] B-type 38.2 In culture
main sequence star with a stellar classication of B3
V.* [3] Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served USS Alkaid (AK-114) was a United States Navy Crater
as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars class cargo ship named after the star.
are classied.* [14] It has six* [5] times the mass; 3.4* [6]
In the Nintendo DS game Devil Survivor 2, Benetnasch
times the radius, and is radiating around 1,350* [7] times
appears as the last of the Septentriones, a series of strange
as much luminosity as the Sun, the latter from its outer
beings that invade Japan throughout the game. The other
atmosphere at an eective temperature of about 16,823
six are also named after stars in the Big Dipper (Dubhe,
K,* [6] giving it the blue-white hue of a B-type star.* [15]
Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth, Mizar).
This star is an X-ray emitter with a luminosity of 9.3
1028 erg s* 1.* [7] The role-playing video game trilogy .hack//G.U. has the
character Alkaid, who is named after the star.
In Chinese fortune-telling, north is believed to be a very
unlucky direction. Northwest is even worse. Hunters and
38.1 Nomenclature soldiers traditionally did not point guns and weapons in
the direction of this star.* [19]
Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Eta Ursae Majoris) is the
star's Bayer designation.
It bore the traditional names Alkaid (or Elkeid from 38.3 References
the Arabic ) and Benetnash (Benetnasch).
Alkaid derives from the Arabic phrase meaning The [1] van Leeuwen, Floor (November 2007), Validation
leader of the daughters of the bier" ( q'id of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
bint nash). The daughters of the bier, i.e. the mourn- Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752v1
ing maidens, are the three stars of the handle of the Big , Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
Dipper, Alkaid, Mizar, and Alioth; while the four stars 6361:20078357 Note: see VizieR catalogue I/311.
of the bowl, Megrez, Phecda, Merak, and Dubhe, are the [2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata-
bier. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union or- logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system
ganized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] . CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0.
to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
of the rst two batches of names approved by the WGSN; [3] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral
Classication, Annual Review of Astronomy and As-
which included Alkaid for this star.
trophysics, 11: 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M,
It is known as (the Seventh Star of the North- doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
197
198 CHAPTER 38. ETA URSAE MAJORIS
[4] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Funda- [18] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
mental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 438.
direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelb, ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 (35): 1,
Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W [19] Littleton, C. Scott (2005), Gods, goddesses, and mythol-
ogy, 11, New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, p.
[5] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January 1338, ISBN 9780761475590
2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos
stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices
arXiv:1007.4883 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T,
38.4 External links
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
at Jim Kaler's Stars website
(3): 601605, Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U,
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601
[7] Cassinelli, J. P.; et al. (February 1994), X-ray emission

from near-main-sequence B stars, Astrophysical Journal,
Part 1, 421 (2): 705717, Bibcode:1994ApJ...421..705C,
doi:10.1086/173683
[8] Niemczura, E. (June 2003), Metallicities of the

SPB stars from the IUE ultraviolet spectra,
Bibcode:2003A&A...404..689N, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20030546

(July 2002), Rotational Velocities of B Stars
Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590
[10] Rumrill, H. B. (1936). Star Name Pronuncia-

tion. Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacic. 48: 139. Bibcode:1936PASP...48..139R.
doi:10.1086/124681.
[12] Motz, Lloyd; Nathanson, Carol (1988). The Constella-

tions: An Enthusiast's Guide To The Night Sky. Doubleday.
p. 39. ISBN 978-0385176002.
[13] Crawford, D. L.; Barnes, J. V.; Golson, J. C. (1971),

Four-color, H-beta, and UBV photometry for bright B-
type stars in the northern hemisphere, The Astronom-
ical Journal, 76: 1058, Bibcode:1971AJ.....76.1058C,
doi:10.1086/111220




Chapter 39
Theta Scorpii
Theta Scorpii ( Scorpii, abbreviated Theta Sco, 39.3 Modern legacy

Sco), also named Sargas,* [11] is a binary star in the
southern zodiac constellation of Scorpius. The apparent Sargas appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the state
visual magnitude of this star is +1.87,* [4] making it read- of Alagoas.* [15]
ily visible to the naked eye and one of the brightest stars in
the night sky. It is suciently near that the distance can
be measured directly using the parallax technique, which
yields an estimate of roughly 300 light years (90 parsecs) 39.4 References
from the Sun.* [1]
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
39.1 Nomenclature 6361:20078357.
[2] Hg, E.; Fabricius, C.; Makarov, V. V.; Urban, S.;

Scorpii (Latinised to Theta Scorpii) is the system's Bayer Corbin, T.; Wyco, G.; Bastian, U.; Schwekendiek,
designation. P.; Wicenec, A. (2000). The Tycho-2 catalogue of
the 2.5 million brightest stars. Astronomy and As-
It bore the traditional name Sargas, of Sumerian trophysics. 355: L27. Bibcode:2000A&A...355L..27H.
origin.* [12] In 2016, the International Astronomical doi:10.1888/0333750888/2862.
(WGSN)* [13] to catalogue and standardize proper names [3] Houk, Nancy (1978), Michigan catalogue of two-
for stars. The WGSN approved the name Sargas for this dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, Ann Arbor
: Dept. of Astronomy, Ann Arbor: Dept. of Astronomy,
star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the
In Chinese astronomy, it is referred to as [4] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
(Wisuw), the Fifth Star of the Tail. tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
[5] Wilson, R. E. (1953). General Catalogue of Stellar Ra-

dial Velocities. Carnegie Institute of Washington D.C.
39.2 Properties Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
[6] Hohle, M. M.; Neuhuser, R.; Schutz, B. F.

The primary is an evolved bright giant star with a stellar (April 2010), Masses and luminosities of O-
classication of F0 II.* [3] With a mass 5.7 times that of and B-type stars and red supergiants, As-
the Sun, it has expanded to about 26* [7] times the Sun's tronomische Nachrichten, 331 (4): 349360,
radius. It is radiating 1,834* [6] times as much luminosity arXiv:1003.2335 , Bibcode:2010AN....331..349H,
as the Sun from its outer envelope at an eective temper- doi:10.1002/asna.200911355
ature of 7,268,* [6] giving it the yellow-white hued glow
of an F-type star. This star is rotating rapidly, giving it [7] Pasinetti-Fracassini, L. E.; et al. (February 2001)
[December 2000 (arXiv)], Catalogue of Stellar
an oblate shape with an equatorial radius 19% larger than
Diameters (CADARS)", Astronomy and Astro-
the polar radius.* [9] physics, 367 (2): 521524, arXiv:astro-ph/0012289
The magnitude 5.36 companion is at an angular separa- , Bibcode:2001A&A...367..521P, doi:10.1051/0004-
tion of 6.470 arcseconds.* [14] 6361:20000451
199
200 CHAPTER 39. THETA SCORPII
[8] Samedov, Z. A. (1988),Investigation of the atmospheres

of the stars 1 Sco (F2 Ia) and Sco (F1 II)", Astro-
physics, 28 (3): 335341, Bibcode:1988Ap.....28..335S,
doi:10.1007/BF01112969
[9] van Belle, Gerard T. (March 2012), Interfero-

metric observations of rapidly rotating stars, The
Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, 20 (1): 51,
arXiv:1204.2572 , Bibcode:2012A&ARv..20...51V,
doi:10.1007/s00159-012-0051-2.
[10] "* tet Sco. SIMBAD. Centre de donnes astronomiques

de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
[12] Burnham, Robert (1978), Burnham's celestial handbook:

an observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar sys-
tem, Dover books explaining science, 3 (2nd ed.), Courier
Dover Publications, p. 1676, ISBN 0-486-23673-0

[14] Eggleton, P. P.; Tokovinin, A. A. (September 2008).

A catalogue of multiplicity among bright stellar sys-
tems. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 389 (2): 869879. arXiv:0806.2878 .
Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2008.13596.x.

The World website.
39.5 External links

Theta Sco
Chapter 40
Alpha Ursae Majoris
Alpha Ursae Majoris ( Ursae Majoris, abbreviated tion modes have been detected, with periods between 6.4
Alpha UMa, UMa), also named Dubhe,* [10] is (de- hours and 6.4 days.* [11]
spite being designated 'alpha') the second-brightest star in Although it is part of the constellation of Ursa Major, it
the constellation of Ursa Major.
does not form part of the Ursa Major Moving Group of
stars that have a common motion through space.* [12]
40.1 Description
40.2 Nomenclature
Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Alpha Ursae Majoris) is the

It bore the traditional names Dubhe and Ak. Dubhe de-
rives from the Arabic for 'bear', dubb, from the phrase
ahr ad-dubb al-akbar 'the back of the Greater
Bear'. The rarer Ak means 'The Eye'.* [13] In 2016, the
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [14] to catalog and stan-
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
of July 2016* [15] included a table of the rst two batches
of names approved by the WGSN; which included Dubhe
for this star.
The Hindus refer to the star as Kratu, one of the Seven
Dubhe Aand faint companion binaries
Rishis.* [13]
Alpha Ursae Majoris forms part of the Big Dipper (also In Chinese, Bi Du, meaning Northern Dipper,
known as the Plough or the Great Bear), and is the refers to an asterism consisting of Alpha Ursae Majoris,
northern of the 'pointers' (or 'guards'), the two stars of Beta Ursae Majoris, Gamma Ursae Majoris, Delta Ursae
Ursa Major which point towards Polaris, the North Star. Majoris, Epsilon Ursae Majoris, Zeta Ursae Majoris and
Dubhe is about 123 light years from the Sun and is a giant Eta Ursae Majoris. Consequently, Alpha Ursae Majoris
star that has evolved away from the main sequence after itself is known as Bi Du y, (English: the First
consuming the hydrogen at its core. It is a spectroscopic Star of Northern Dipper) and Tin Sh, (English:
binary with a main sequence companion UMa B that has Star of Celestial Pivot).* [16]
a stellar classication of F0V. The companion star orbits
at a mean separation of about 23 astronomical units (AU)
and completes an orbit every 44.4 years.* [4]
There is another spectroscopic binary 8 arc minutes dis-
tant, a 7th magnitude pair showing an F8 spectral type. It 40.3 In culture
is sometimes referred to as Alpha Ursae majoris C, but
is separately catalogued as HD 95638.* [4] Dubhe is the ocial star of the State of Utah. Dubhe was
Ursae Majoris has been reported to vary in brightness a ship in the United States Navy. The Danish National
by about a thousandth of a magnitude. Ten radial oscilla- Home Guard Navy ship MHV 806 is also named Dubhe.
201
202 CHAPTER 40. ALPHA URSAE MAJORIS
40.4 References [13] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. [15] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
tometry of the bright stars, Communications of [16] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99, in Astronomy) 2006 6 15
[3] Guenther, D. B.; Demarque, P.; Buzasi, D.; Catan-

zarite, J.; Laher, R.; Conrow, T.; Kreidl, T. (2000).
Evolutionary Model and Oscillation Frequencies for
Ursae Majoris: A Comparison with Observations
. The Astrophysical Journal. 530 (1): L45L48.
Bibcode:2000ApJ...530L..45G. doi:10.1086/312473.
PMID 10642202.
[4] Tokovinin, A. A. (1997). MSC - a catalogue of physi-

cal multiple stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supple-
ment Series. 124: 75. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T.
doi:10.1051/aas:1997181.

B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1.
[6] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953),General catalogue of stel-

lar radial velocities, Washington, Carnegie Institution of
[7] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008), Rotation

and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant
and Red Horizontal Branch Stars, The Astronom-
ical Journal, 135 (3): 892906, arXiv:0711.4984
, Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C, doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/3/892
[8] McWilliam, Andrew (December 1990),High-resolution

spectroscopic survey of 671 GK giants. I - Stel-
lar atmosphere parameters and abundances, Astro-
Bibcode:1990ApJS...74.1075M, doi:10.1086/191527
[9] DUBHE -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD, Centre

12-23
[11] Buzasi, D.; Catanzarite, J.; Laher, R.; Conrow, T.;

Shupe, D.; Gautier, T. N.; Kreidl, T.; Everett,
D. (2000). The Detection of Multimodal Oscil-
lations on Ursae Majoris. The Astrophysical
Journal. 532 (2): L133. arXiv:astro-ph/0002512
. Bibcode:2000ApJ...532L.133B. doi:10.1086/312573.
PMID 10715242.
[12] Motz, Lloyd; Nathanson, Carol (1988). The Constella-

tions: An Enthusiast's Guide To The Night Sky. Doubleday.
p. 39. ISBN 978-0385176002.
Chapter 41
Gamma Geminorum
Gamma Geminorum ( Geminorum, abbreviated In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi
Gamma Gem, Gem), also named Alhena,* [10] is the Al Mouakket, this star was designated Nir al Henat, which
third-brightest star in the constellation of Gemini. It has was translated into Latin as Prima al Henat, meaning
an apparent visual magnitude of 1.9,* [2] making it eas- 'the brightest of Al Henat'.* [16]
ily visible to the naked eye even in urban regions. Based In Chinese, (Jng Su), meaning Well (asterism),
upon parallax measurements with the Hipparcos satellite,
refers to an asterism consisting of Geminorum, Gemi-
it is located at a distance of roughly 109 light-years (33 norum, Geminorum, Geminorum, Geminorum,
parsecs) from the Sun.* [1]
36 Geminorum, Geminorum and Geminorum.* [17]
Consequently, Geminorum itself is known as
(Jng Su sn, English: the Third Star of Well.)* [18]
41.1 Properties
Alhena is an evolving star that is exhausting the sup- 41.3 In culture
ply of hydrogen at its core and has entered the subgiant
stage. The spectrum matches a stellar classication of A0
Alhena was the name of a Dutch ship that rescued
IV.* [11] Compared to the Sun it has 2.8* [5] times the
many people from an Italian cruise liner, the Principessa
mass and 3.3* [6] times the radius. It is radiating around
Mafalda, in October 1927.* [19] In addition, the Ameri-
123* [6] times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer en-
can attack cargo ship USS Alhena (AKA-9) was named
velope at an eective temperature of 9,260 K.* [7] This
after the star.
gives it a white hue typical of an A-class star.* [12]
This is a spectroscopic binary system with a period of
12.6 years (4,614.51 days) in a highly eccentric Keplerian
orbit.* [4]
41.4 References
41.2 Etymology Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
Geminorum (Latinised to Gamma Geminorum) is the 6361:20078357
star's Bayer designation. The traditional name Alhena is
[2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; et al. (1966), A System
derived from the Arabic Al Han'ah, 'the brand'
of photometric standards, Publ. Dept. Astron. Univ.
(on the neck of the camel), whilst the alternate name
Chile, Publicaciones Universidad de Chile, Department de
Almeisan is from the Arabic Al Maisan, 'the Astronomy, 1: 117, Bibcode:1966PDAUC...1....1G
shining one.' Al Hanah was the name of star associa-
tion consisting of this star, along with Mu Geminorum [3] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of
(Tejat Posterior), Nu Geminorum, Eta Geminorum (Te- the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat-
jat Prior) and Xi Geminorum (Alzirr). They also were ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina-
associated in Al Nutai, the dual form of Al Nut, tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed-
'a Camel's Hump'.* [13] In 2016, the International As- ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra-
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star dial Velocities and their Applications. 30. University
2016* [15] included a table of the rst two batches of [4] Lehmann, H.; et al. (February 2002), The spec-
names approved by the WGSN; which included Alhena troscopic binaries 21 Her and gamma Gem,
for this star. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 383 (2): 558567,
203
204 CHAPTER 41. GAMMA GEMINORUM
Bibcode:2002A&A...383..558L, doi:10.1051/0004- [18] (Chinese) - -

6361:20011746 Archived October 25, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.,
[5] Shaya, Ed J.; Olling, Rob P. (January 2011), Very 23, 2010.
Wide Binaries and Other Comoving Stellar Compan-
ions: A Bayesian Analysis of the Hipparcos Cata- [19] http://www.markos.it/quaderni/plata.htm Italian account
logue, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 192 (1): of the Principessa Malfeda.
2, arXiv:1007.0425 , Bibcode:2011ApJS..192....2S,
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/2

(3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M
[7] Adelman, Saul J.; Philip, A. G. Davis (December

1994), Elemental abundances of the B and A stars.
2: Gamma Geminorum, HD 60825, 7 Sextantis, HR
4817, and HR 5780, Publications of the Astronom-
ical Society of the Pacic, 106 (706): 12391247,
Bibcode:1994PASP..106.1239A, doi:10.1086/133501
[8] Royer, F.; Zorec, J.; Gmez, A. E. (February 2007),

Rotational velocities of A-type stars. III. Veloc-
ity distributions, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20065224
[9] ALHENA -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD, Centre

02-04
[11] Cowley, A.; et al. (April 1969), A study of

the bright A stars. I. A catalogue of spectral
classications, Astronomical Journal, 74: 375406,
Bibcode:1969AJ.....74..375C, doi:10.1086/110819


ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2010-12-12.



doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
Chapter 42
Alpha Pavonis
Alpha Pavonis ( Pavonis, abbreviated Alpha Pav, terial found in the outer atmosphere is not processed by
Pav), also named Peacock, is a binary star in the southern the nuclear fusion occurring at the core. This means that
constellation of Pavo, near the border with the constella- the surface abundance of elements should be represen-
tion Telescopium. tative of the material out of which it originally formed.
In particular, the surface abundance of deuterium should
not change during the star's main sequence lifetime. The
42.1 Nomenclature measured ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in this star
amounts to less than 5 10* 6, which suggests this star
may have formed in a region with an unusually low abun-
Pavonis (Latinised to Alpha Pavonis) is the star's Bayer dance of deuterium, or else the deuterium was consumed
designation. by some means. A possible scenario for the latter is that
The historical name Peacock was assigned by Her the deuterium was burned through while Alpha Pavonis
*
Majesty's Nautical Almanac Oce in the late 1930s dur- was a pre-main-sequence star. [16]
ing the creation of the Air Almanac, a navigational al- The system is likely to be a member of the Tucana-
manac for the Royal Air Force. Of the fty-seven stars Horologium association of stars that share a common mo-
included in the new almanac, two had no classical names: tion through space.* [5] The estimated age of this associ-
Alpha Pavonis and Epsilon Carinae. The RAF insisted ation is 45 million years.* [5] Pavonis star has a peculiar
that all of the stars must have names, so new names velocity of 13 km s* 1 relative to its neighbors.* [17]
were invented. Alpha Pavonis was named Peacock
('pavo' is Latin for 'peacock') whilst Epsilon Carinae was
calledAvior.* [9] In 2016, the International Astronom-
ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names 42.3 Companions
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [11] in- Three stars have been listed as companions to Pavonis:
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved two ninth magnitude stars at about four arc minutes; and
by the WGSN; which included Peacock for this star and a 12th magnitude F5 main sequence star at about one arc
Avior for Epsilon Carinae.* [12] minute.* [18]* [3] The two ninth magnitude companions
are only 17 arc seconds from eachother.* [18]
Pavonis A is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a
42.2 Properties pair of stars that orbit around each other with a period
of 11.753 days.* [16] However, in part because the two
At an apparent magnitude of 1.94,* [2] this is the bright- stars have not been individually resolved, little is known
est star in Pavo. Based upon parallax measurements, this about the companion other than a mass of at least 0.26
star is about 179 light-years (55 parsecs) distant from M * [19] One attempt to model a composite spectrum es-
the Earth.* [1] It has an estimated six times the Sun's timated components with spectral types of B0.5 and B2,
mass and 6 times the Sun's radius, but 2,200 times the and a brightness dierence between the two components
luminosity of the Sun.* [7] The eective temperature of of 1.3 magnitudes.* [20]
the photosphere is 17,700 K, which gives the star a blue-
white hue.* [13] It has a stellar classication of B3 V,* [3]
although older studies have often given it a subgiant 42.4 References
luminosity class.* [14] It is classied as B2.5 IV in the
Bright Star Catalogue.* [15]
Stars with the mass of Alpha Pavonis are believed not to the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
have a convection zone near their surface. Hence the ma- trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
205
206 CHAPTER 42. ALPHA PAVONIS
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [16] Vidal-Madjar, A.; et al. (August 1988), Deu-

6361:20078357. terium in early-type stars - The case of Alpha-Pavonis
, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 201 (2): 273275,
[2] Nicolet, B. (1978),Photoelectric photometric Catalogue Bibcode:1988A&A...201..273V
of homogeneous measurements in the UBV System, As-
tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 34: 149, [17] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January
Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N 2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos
[3] Gahm, G. F.; Ahlin, P.; Lindroos, K. P. (1983).A study of the Royal Astronomical Society, 410 (1): 190200,
of visual double stars with early type primaries. I - Spec-
troscopic results. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supple-
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
ment Series. 51: 143. Bibcode:1983A&AS...51..143G.
[4] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953),General catalogue of stel- [18] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William I.;
lar radial velocities, Washington, Carnegie Institution of Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001). The
Washington, Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. I.
The Washington Double Star Catalog. The Astronomical
[5] Bell, Cameron P. M.; Mamajek, Eric E.; Nay- Journal. 122 (6): 3466. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M.
lor, Tim (2015). A self-consistent, absolute doi:10.1086/323920.
isochronal age scale for young moving groups
in the solar neighbourhood. Monthly Notices [19] Bonavita, M.; Desidera, S.; Thalmann, C.; Janson, M.; Vi-
of the Royal Astronomical Society. 454: 593. gan, A.; Chauvin, G.; Lannier, J. (2016). SPOTS: The
Search for Planets Orbiting Two Stars. II. First constraints
arXiv:1508.05955 . Bibcode:2015MNRAS.454..593B.
on the frequency of sub-stellar companions on wide cir-
cumbinary orbits. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 593: A38.
[6] David, Trevor J.; Hillenbrand, Lynne A. (2015). The arXiv:1605.03962 . Bibcode:2016A&A...593A..38B.
Ages of Early-type Stars: Strmgren Photometric Meth- doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628231.
ods Calibrated, Validated, Tested, and Applied to Hosts
and Prospective Hosts of Directly Imaged Exoplan- [20] Beavers, W. I.; Cook, D. B. (1980). Scanner
ets. The Astrophysical Journal. 804 (2): 146. studies of composite spectra. I - Dwarfs. As-
trophysical Journal Supplement Series. 44: 489.
arXiv:1501.03154 . Bibcode:2015ApJ...804..146D.
Bibcode:1980ApJS...44..489B. doi:10.1086/190702.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/146.
[7] Jerzykiewicz, M.; Molenda-Zakowicz, J. (September

2000),Empirical Luminosities and Radii of Early-Type
Stars after Hipparcos, Acta Astronomica, 50: 369380,
42.5 External links
Bibcode:2000AcA....50..369J
Peacock - Jim Kaler's Stars
[8] PEACOCK -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD, Centre
12-23
[9] Sadler, D. H. (1993), A Personal History of H.M. Nautical

Almanac Oce (PDF), Edited and privately published by
Wilkins, G. A., p. 48



01-16
[14] Ski, B. A. (2014). VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cat-

alogue of Stellar Spectral Classications (Ski, 2009-
2016)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/mk. Originally
published in: Lowell Observatory (October 2014). 1.
Bibcode:2014yCat....1.2023S.
[15] Hoeit, D.; Jaschek, C. (1991). The Bright star cat-

alogue. New Haven: Yale University Observatory.
Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
Chapter 43
Alpha Trianguli Australis
Alpha Trianguli Australis ( Trianguli Australis, ab- Such a star would have a mass similar to the Sun, with
breviated Alpha TrA, TrA), also named Atria,* [7] an orbital period of at least 130 years. Young, G-type
is the brightest star in the southern constellation of stars have a high temperature corona and frequently emit
Triangulum Australe, forming an apex of a triangle with ares causing sudden increases in luminosity. The pair
Beta and Gamma Trianguli Australis that gives the con- may be separated by about 50 Astronomical Units.* [5]
stellation its name (Latin for southern triangle).
43.3 In culture
43.1 Nomenclature
Atria appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolizing the state
*
Trianguli Australis (Latinised to Alpha Trianguli Aus- of Rio Grande do Sul. [13]
tralis) is the star's Bayer designation. The historical name
Atria is a contraction.* [8]* [9] In 2016, the International
Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star 43.4 References
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
2016* [11] included a table of the rst two batches of the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
names approved by the WGSN; which included Atria for trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
this star. . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357.
In traditional Chinese it is called (Mandarin:
sn jio xn sn), the Third Star of the Triangle. [2] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
43.2 Properties (35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
[3] Kovacs, N. (April 1983), Model-atmosphere analysis

Alpha Trianguli Australis is a bright giant star with an
of high-dispersion spectra of four red giants and super-
apparent magnitude of +1.91. Based upon parallax mea-
giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 120 (1): 2135,
surements, this star is located roughly 391 light-years Bibcode:1983A&A...120...21K
(120 parsecs) distant from the Earth.* [1] The estimated
age of the star is 48 million years old; suciently old for [4] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho-
a massive star to evolve away from the main sequence and tometry of the bright stars. Communications of
expand into a giant.* [3] It has a mass roughly seven times the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 4 (99): 99.
the mass of the Sun, but is emitting about 5,500 times the Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
Sun's luminosity. The eective temperature of the star's [5] Ayres, Thomas R.; Brown, Alexander; Harper,
outer envelope is 4,150 K,* [3] which gives it the charac- Graham M. (April 2007), " TrA Junior,
teristic orange hue of a K-type star.* [12] With a diameter The Astrophysical Journal, 658 (2): L107L110,
130 times that of the Sun, it would almost reach the orbit Bibcode:2007ApJ...658L.107A, doi:10.1086/514818
of Venus if placed at the centre of the Solar System.
[6] alf TrA -- Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes as-
There is evidence that Atria may be a binary star. It dis- tronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2011-12-26
plays unusual properties for a star of its class, including
stellar ares and a higher than normal emission of X-rays.
These can be explained by a young, magnetically active [8] Ridpath, Ian (1989), Star tales, James Clarke & Co., p.
companion with a stellar classication of about G0 V. 125, ISBN 0-7188-2695-7
207
208 CHAPTER 43. ALPHA TRIANGULI AUSTRALIS
[9] Kaler, Jim. Atria (Alpha Trianguli Australis)". Stars.

University of Illinois. Retrieved 17 October 2012.



01-16

The World website. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
43.5 External links

Kaler, James B., ATRIA (Alpha Trianguli Aus-
tralis)", Stars, University of Illinois, retrieved 2011-
12-26
Chapter 44
Castor (star)
Castor, also designated Alpha Geminorum ( Gemi- naries and Castor is a complex multiple star system made
norum, abbreviated Alpha Gem, Gem) is the second- up of six individual stars. Castor A and B both have or-
brightest star in the constellation of Gemini and one of the bits of a few days with a much fainter companion. The
brightest stars in the night sky. Although it has the iden- Castor C components orbit in less than a day. Castor C
tier 'alpha', it is fainter than Beta Geminorum (Pollux). is believed to be in orbit around the bright pair, but with
an extremely long period of several thousand years.* [14]
The combined apparent magnitude of all six stars is
44.1 The Castor System +1.58.
44.2 Physical characteristics

Castor is 51 light-years away from Earth, determined
from its large annual parallax. The two brightest stars
are both A-class main-sequence stars, more massive
and brighter than the Sun. The properties of their red
dwarf companions are dicult to determine, but are both
thought to have less than half the mass of the Sun.* [14]
The two red dwarfs of Castor C are almost identical, with
masses around a half M and luminosities less than 10%
of the Sun.* [9]
Castor B is an Am star, with particularly strong spectral
lines of certain metals.
Castor C is a variable star, classied as a BY Dra type.
BY Draconis variables are cool dwarf stars which vary as
they rotate due to star spots or other variations in their
photospheres.
Castor A and B
All the red dwarfs in the Castor system have emissions
lines in their spectra, and all are Flare stars.* [11]
Castor was recorded as a double star in 1718 by James
Pound. It may have been resolved in 1678 by Cassini.
The separation of the two stars has increased from 2 44.3 Etymology and culture
in 1907* [15] to 7in 1997.* [14] The two stars have
magnitudes of 1.9 and 3.0. Geminorum (Latinised to Alpha Geminorum) is the
A third star is 73distant from the main compo- star's Bayer designation.
nents.* [14] It was discovered to vary in brightness with Castor and Pollux are the twoheavenly twinstars that
a regular period and was thought to be an eclipsing bi- give the constellation Gemini (meaning twins in Latin)
nary, but the variations are now considered to be due to its name. The name Castor refers specically to Castor,
areas of dierent brightness on the surface of one or both one of the twin sons of Zeus and Leda in Greek and Ro-
stars. It was given the variable star designation YY Gemi- man mythology. In 2016, the International Astronom-
norum.* [9] ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
All three of the visual components are spectroscopic bi- (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and standardize proper names
209
210 CHAPTER 44. CASTOR (STAR)
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [17] in- [8] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953), General Catalogue
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved of Stellar Radial Velocities, Washington, Wash-
by the WGSN; which included Castor for this star. ington: Carnegie Institution of Washington: 0,
Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
The star was annotated by the Arabic description Al-Ras
al-Taum al-Muqadim, which translates as the head of the [9] Torres, Guillermo; Ribas, Ignasi (2002). Absolute Di-
foremost twin. In the catalogue of stars in the Calendar- mensions of the MType Eclipsing Binary YY Gemi-
ium of Al Achsasi Al Mouakket, this star was designated norum (Castor C): A Challenge to Evolutionary Mod-
Aoul al Dzira, which was translated into Latin as Prima els in the Lower Main Sequence. The Astrophysical
Journal. 567 (2): 11401165. arXiv:astro-ph/0111167
Brachii, meaning the rst in the paw.* [18]
. Bibcode:2002ApJ...567.1140T. doi:10.1086/338587.
In Chinese, (Bi H), meaning North River, refers ISSN 0004-637X.
to an asterism consisting of Castor, Geminorum, and
Pollux.* [19] Consequently, Castor itself is known as [10] Tokovinin, A. (September 2008),Comparative statistics
(Bi H r, English: the Second Star of North and origin of triple and quadruple stars, Monthly No-
* tices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 389 (2): 925938,
River.) [20]
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13613.x
44.4 References [11] Stelzer, B.; Burwitz, V. (May 2003), Castor A

and Castor B resolved in a simultaneous Chandra
and XMM-Newton observation, Astronomy and As-
[1] Fabricius, C.; et al. (March 2002), The Tycho double
star catalogue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 384: 180
189, Bibcode:2002A&A...384..180F, doi:10.1051/0004- , Bibcode:2003A&A...402..719S, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20011822 6361:20030286
[12] Smith, M. A. (April 1974),Metallicism in border regions

[2] Pourbaix, D.; Tokovinin, A. A.; Batten, A. H.; Fekel,
of the Am domain. III. Analysis of the hot stars Alpha
F. C.; Hartkopf, W. I.; Levato, H.; Morrell, N. I.; Tor-
Geminorum A and B and Theta Leonis, Astrophysical
res, G.; Udry, S. (2004). SB9: The ninth catalogue
Journal, 189: 101111, Bibcode:1974ApJ...189..101S,
of spectroscopic binary orbits. Astronomy and As-
doi:10.1086/152776
. Bibcode:2004A&A...424..727P. doi:10.1051/0004- [13] Royer, F.; Zorec, J.; Gmez, A. E. (February 2007),
6361:20041213. ISSN 0004-6361. Rotational velocities of A-type stars. III. Veloc-
[3] Barrado y Navascues, D. (1998). The Castor moving
463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
group. The age of Fomalhaut and VEGA. Astronomy
Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
and Astrophysics. 339: 831. arXiv:astro-ph/9905243 . 6361:20065224
Bibcode:1998A&A...339..831B.
[14] Tokovinin, A. A. (1997).MSC - a catalogue of physical
[4] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- multiple stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system Series. 124 (1): 7584. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T.
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. doi:10.1051/aas:1997181. ISSN 0365-0138.
[15] Heintz, W. D. (1980). Micrometer Observations
[5] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR of Double Stars and New Pairs - Part Ten. The
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 44: 111.
(Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: Bibcode:1980ApJS...44..111H. doi:10.1086/190686.
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: ISSN 0067-0049.
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
[6] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation trieved 22 May 2016.
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357 [18] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
[7] Evans, D. S. (1967). The Revision of the General Cat- darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
alogue of Radial Velocities. In Batten, Alan Henry; . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
Heard, John Frederick. Determination of Radial Veloc- ety. 55 (8): 429. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
ities and their Applications, Proceedings from IAU Sym- doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
posium no. 30 held at the University of Toronto 20-24
June, 1966. Determination of Radial Velocities and their [19] (Chinese) , written by . Published
Applications. 30. Academic Press, London. p. 57. by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. 25-7.
[20] (Chinese) - -
Archived September 29, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.,
23, 2010.
44.5 External links

Castor 6. SolStation. Retrieved December 5,
2005.
Coordinates: 07* h 34* m 36* s, +31 53 18

Chapter 45
Polaris
North Starredirects here. For other uses, see North Polaris B can be seen even with a modest telescope.
Star (disambiguation) and Polaris (disambiguation). William Herschel discovered the star in 1780 while us-
ing a hand-built reecting telescope, one of the most
Polaris, designated Alpha Ursae Minoris ( Ursae Mi- powerful telescopes at the time. In 1929 it was discov-
noris, abbreviated Alpha UMi, UMi), commonly the ered, by examining the spectrum of Polaris A, that it was
North Star or Pole Star, is the brightest star in the a very close binary, with the secondary being a dwarf
constellation of Ursa Minor. It is very close to the north (variously UMi P, UMi an or UMi Ab), which
celestial pole, making it the current northern pole star. had been theorized in earlier observations (Moore, J. H.
The revised Hipparcos parallax gives a distance to Polaris and Kholodovsky, E. A.). In January 2006, NASA re-
of about 433 light-years (133 parsecs), while calculations leased images, from the Hubble telescope, that showed
by other methods derive distances around 30% closer. the three members of the Polaris ternary system. The
nearest dwarf star is in an orbit of only 18.5 au (2.8 billion
Polaris is a multiple star, comprising the main star (Po- km) from Polaris A,* [12] about the distance between the
laris Aa, a yellow supergiant) in orbit with a smaller com- Sun and Uranus), which explains why its light is swamped
panion (Polaris Ab); the pair in orbit with Polaris B (dis- by its close and much brighter companion.* [13]
covered in 1780 by William Herschel). There were once
thought to be two more distant componentsPolaris C
and Polaris Dbut these have been shown not to be phys-
ically associated with the Polaris system.* [10]* [11]
45.2 Variable star
45.1 Stellar system
Ursa Major and Ursa Minor in relation to Polaris
Polaris A, the supergiant primary component, is a low-

Polaris components as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope
amplitude Population I classical Cepheid variable, al-
Polaris Aa is a 4.5 solar mass (M ) F7 yellow supergiant though it was once thought to be a type II Cepheid due to
of spectral type Ib. This is the rst classical Cepheid to its high galactic latitude. Cepheids constitute an impor-
have a mass determined from its orbit. The two smaller tant standard candle for determining distance, so Polaris,
companions are Polaris B, a 1.39 M F3 main-sequence as the closest such star, is heavily studied. The variability
star orbiting at a distance of 2400 astronomical units (au), of Polaris had been suspected since 1852; this variation
and Polaris Ab (or P), a very close F6 main-sequence star was conrmed by Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1911.* [14]
with an 18.8 au radius orbit and 1.26 M . The range of brightness of Polaris during its pulsations
212
45.3. NAMES 213
is given as 1.862.13,* [3] but the amplitude has changed

since discovery. Prior to 1963, the amplitude was over
0.1 magnitude and was very gradually decreasing. Af-
ter 1966 it very rapidly decreased until it was less than
0.05 magnitude; since then, it has erratically varied near
that range. It has been reported that the amplitude is
now increasing again, a reversal not seen in any other
Cepheid.* [2]
The period, roughly 4 days, has also changed over time.
It has steadily increased by around 4.5 seconds per year
except for a hiatus in 19631965. This was originally
thought to be due to secular redward evolution across the
Cepheid instability strip, but it may be due to interfer-
ence between the primary and the rst-overtone pulsa-
tion modes.* [13]* [15]* [16] Authors disagree on whether
Polaris is a fundamental or rst-overtone pulsator and on
whether it is crossing the instability strip for the rst time
or not.* [16]
The temperature of Polaris varies by only a small amount
during its pulsations, but the amount of this variation is
variable and unpredictable. The erratic changes of tem-
perature and the amplitude of temperature changes dur-
ing each cycle, from less than 50 K to at least 170 K, may This artist's concept shows: supergiant Polaris A, dwarf Polaris
be related to the orbit with Polaris Ab.* [8] Ab, and the distant dwarf companion Polaris B.
Research reported in Science suggests that Polaris is
2.5 times brighter today than when Ptolemy observed
it, changing from third to second magnitude.* [17] As- period, it became associated with the Marian title of Stella
tronomer Edward Guinan considers this to be a remark- Maris Star of the Sea (so in Bartholomeus Anglicus,
able change and is on record as saying that if they are c. 1270s)* [21] An older English name, attested since the
real, these changes are 100 times larger than [those] pre- 14th century, is lodestarguiding star, cognate with the
dicted by current theories of stellar evolution". Old Norse leiarstjarna, Middle High German leitsterne.
The ancient name of the constellation Ursa Minor, Cyno-
sura (from the Greek the dogs tail)
45.3 Names became associated with the pole star in particular by the
early modern period. An explicit identication of Mary
The modern name Polaris* [18] is shortened from New as stella maris with the polar star (Stella Polaris), as well
Latin stella polaris "polar star", coined in the Renaissance as the use of Cyonsura as a name of the star, is evident in
era, when the star had approached the celestial pole to the title Cynosura seu Mariana Stella Polaris (i.e.Cyno-
within a few degrees. Gemma Frisius, writing in 1547, sure, or the Marian Polar Star), a collection of Marian
referred to it as stella illa quae polaris dicitur (that star poetry published by Nicolaus Lucensis (Niccolo Barsotti
which is called 'polar'"), placing it 3 7' from the celestial de Lucca) in 1655.
pole.* [19]
Its name in medieval Islamic astronomy was variously re-
In antiquity, Polaris was not yet the closest naked-eye star ported as Mismar needle, nail, al-kutb al-shamaliyy
closest to the celestial pole, and the entire constellation of the northern axle/spindle, and al-kaukab al-shamaliyy
Ursa Minor was used for navigation rather than any sin- north star. The name Alruccabah or Ruccabah that
gle star. Polaris moved close enough to the pole to be was reported in 16th century Western sources was that of
the closest naked-eye star, even though still at a distance the constellation.* [22]
of several degrees, in the early medieval period, and nu- It as invoked as a symbol of steadfastness in poetry, as
merous names referring to this characteristic as polar starsteadfast starby Spenser. Shakespeare's sonnet 116 is
have been in use since the medieval period. In Old En- an example of the symbolism of the north star as a guid-
glish, it was known as 'scip-steorra (ship-star); In the ing principle: "[Love] is the star to every wandering bark
Old English rune poem, the T-rune is apparently associ- / Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.
ated with a circumpolar constellation, compared to In Julius Caesar, he has Caesar explain his refusal to grant
the quality of steadfastness or honour.* [20] a pardon by saying, I am as constant as the northern
In the the Hindu Puranas, it became personied under the star/Of whose true-xed and resting quality/There is no
name Dhruvaimmovable,
( xed). In the later medieval fellow in the rmament./The skies are painted with un-
214 CHAPTER 45. POLARIS
numbered sparks,/They are all re and every one doth Practical Navigator, where it is listed as one of the
shine,/But theres but one in all doth hold his place;/So navigational stars.* [25] At present, Polaris is 0.75 away
in the world(III, i, 65-71). Of course, Polaris will not from the pole of rotation (1.4 times the Moon disc) and
constantlyremain as the north star due to precession, hence revolves around the pole in a small circle 1.5 in di-
but this is only noticeable over centuries. ameter. Only twice during every sidereal day does Polaris
In Inuit astronomy, Polaris is known as Niqirtsuituq. It accurately dene the true north azimuth; the rest of the
is depicted on the ag and coat of arms of the Canadian time, it is slightly displaced eastward or westward, and the
Inuit territory of Nunavut, as well as on the ag of the bearing must be corrected using tables or a rough rule of
thumb. The best approximate* [26] was made using the
U.S. state of Alaska.
leading edge of the "Big Dipper" asterism in the constel-
lation Ursa Major as a point of reference. The leading
edge (dened by the stars Dubhe and Merak) was ref-
45.4 Role as pole star erenced to a clock face, and the true azimuth of Polaris
worked out for dierent latitudes.
Main article: Pole star
Because Polaris lies nearly in a direct line with the axis
45.5 Distance
Distant stars
Apparent parallax
motion of near star
p
Parallax angle
= 1 arc second
A typical Northern Hemisphere star trail with Polaris in the center Near star
of the Earth's rotation abovethe North Pole the

north celestial polePolaris stands almost motionless in
the sky, and all the stars of the northern sky appear to
1 Parsec
rotate around it. Therefore, it makes an excellent xed

point from which to draw measurements for celestial nav-
igation and for astrometry. The moving of Polaris to-
wards and, in the future, away from the celestial pole, is
due to the precession of the equinoxes.* [23] The celestial
pole will move away from UMi after the 21st century,
passing close by Gamma Cephei by about the 41st cen-
tury. Historically, the celestial pole was close to Thuban
around 2750 BCE,* [23] and during classical antiquity it 1 AU
was closer to Kochab ( UMi) than to Polaris.* [24] It was
about the same angular distance from UMi as to UMi
by the end of late antiquity. The Greek navigator Pytheas Earth's motion around Sun
in ca. 320 BCE described the celestial pole as devoid of
stars. However, as one of the brighter stars close to the
Stellar parallax is the basis for the parsec, which is the distance
celestial pole, Polaris was used for navigation at least from from the Sun to an astronomical object which has a parallax an-
late antiquity, and described as (aei phans) gle of one arcsecond. (1 au and 1 pc are not to scale, 1 pc =
always visibleby Stobaeus (5th century), and it could about 206265 au)
reasonably be described as stella polaris from about the
High Middle Ages. Many recent papers calculate the distance to Polaris at
In more recent history, in Shakespeare's play Julius Cae- about 433 light-years (133 parsecs),* [13] in agreement
sar, written around 1599, Caesar describes himself as be- with parallax measurements from the Hipparcos astrom-
ing as constant as the northern star, though in Cae- etry satellite. Older distance estimates were often slightly
sar's time there was no constant northern star. It was ref- less, and recent research based on high resolution spectral
erenced in Nathaniel Bowditch's 1802 book, American analysis suggests it may be up to 100 light years closer
45.7. SEE ALSO 215
(323 ly/99 pc).* [6] Polaris is the closest Cepheid variable 45.7 See also
to Earth so its physical parameters are of critical impor-
tance to the whole astronomical distance scale.* [6] It is Polar alignment
also the only one with a dynamically measured mass.
Polaris in ction
The Hipparcos spacecraft used stellar parallax to take
measurements from 1989 and 1993 with the accuracy of
0.97 milliarcseconds (970 microarcseconds), and it ob-
tained accurate measurements for stellar distances up to 45.8 References
1,000 pc away.* [28] The Hipparcos data was examined
again with more advanced error correction and statisti- [1] Evans, N. R.; Schaefer, G. H.; Bond, H. E.; Bono, G.;
cal techniques.* [5] Despite the advantages of Hipparcos Karovska, M.; Nelan, E.; Sasselov, D.; Mason, B. D.
astrometry, the uncertainty in its Polaris data has been (2008). Direct Detection of the Close Companion of
pointed out and some researches have questioned the ac- Polaris with The Hubble Space Telescope. The As-
curacy of Hipparcos when measuring binary Cepheids
like Polaris.* [6] The Hipparcos reduction specically for . Bibcode:2008AJ....136.1137E. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/136/3/1137.
Polaris has been re-examined and rearmed but there is
still not widespread agreement about the distance.* [29] [2] Lee, B. C.; Mkrtichian, D. E.; Han, I.; Park, M. G.;
The next major step in high precision parallax measure- Kim, K. M. (2008). Precise Radial Velocities of
Polaris: Detection of Amplitude Growth. The As-
ments will come from Gaia, a space astrometry mission
launched in 2013 and intended to measure stellar paral-
lax to within 25 microarcseconds (as).* [30] It was ex- . Bibcode:2008AJ....135.2240L. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/6/2240.
pected that Gaia would not be able to take measurements
on bright stars like Polaris, but it may help with mea- [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
surements of other members of assumed associations and Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
with the general galactic distance scale. Radio telescopes (Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
have also been used to produce accurate parallax mea- B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1:
surements at large distances, but these require a compact 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
radio source in close association with the star which is
[4] Usenko, I. A.; Klochkova, V. G. (2008). Po-
typically only the case for cool supergiants with masers laris B, an optical companion of the Polaris ( UMi)
in their circumstellar material.* [31] Gaia was launched system: Atmospheric parameters, chemical compo-
in 2013 and began its mission to record data sition, distance and mass. Monthly Notices of
Although it was originally planned to limit Gaia's obser- the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 387: L1.
vations to stars fainter than magnitude 5.7, tests carried arXiv:0708.0333 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.387L...1U.
out during the commissioning phase indicated that Gaia doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00426.x.
could autonomously identify stars as bright as magnitude [5] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
3. When Gaia entered regular scientic operations in July Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and Astro-
2014, it was congured to routinely process stars in the physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
magnitude range 3 20.* [32] Beyond that limit, special Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
procedures are used to download raw scanning data for 6361:20078357.
the remaining 230 stars brighter than magnitude 3; meth-
ods to reduce and analyse these data are being developed; [6] Turner, D. G.; Kovtyukh, V. V.; Usenko, I. A.; Gorlova,
and it is expected that there will be complete sky cov- N. I. (2013). The Pulsation Mode of the Cepheid
erage at the bright endwith standard errors of a few Polaris. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 762:
dozen as.* [33] L8. arXiv:1211.6103 . Bibcode:2013ApJ...762L...8T.
doi:10.1088/2041-8205/762/1/L8.
Getting an accurate distance to Polaris is a big deal for the
cosmic distance ladder, because until new data comes, it [7] Fadeyev, Y. A. (2015). Evolutionary status of
is the only Cepheid variable for which precision distance Polaris. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
data exists, which has a ripple eect on distance measure- nomical Society. 449: 1011. arXiv:1502.06463
ments that use this ruler.* [34] . Bibcode:2015MNRAS.449.1011F.
[8] Usenko, I. A.; Miroshnichenko, A. S.; Klochkova, V.

G.; Yushkin, M. V. (2005). Polaris, the nearest
Cepheid in the Galaxy: Atmosphere parameters, red-
45.6 History of observations dening and chemical composition. Monthly Notices
Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1219U. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
Polaris in stellar catalogues and atlases 2966.2005.09353.x.
216 CHAPTER 45. POLARIS
[9] Cayrel de Strobel, G.; Soubiran, C.; Ralite, N. [20] Bruce Dickins, Runic and heroic poems of the old Teutonic
(2001). Catalogue of [Fe/H] determinations for peoples (1915), p. 18; Dickins' a circumpolar constel-
FGK stars: 2001 edition. Astronomy and As- lationis attributed to L. Botkine, La Chanson des Runes
trophysics. 373: 159. arXiv:astro-ph/0106438 . (1879).
Bibcode:2001A&A...373..159C. doi:10.1051/0004-
[21] J. O. Halliwell, (ed.), The Works of William Shakespeare
6361:20010525.
vol. 5 (1856), p. 40.]
[10] Wielen, R.; Jahrei, H.; Dettbarn, C.; Lenhardt, H.; [22] Richard Hinckley Allen, Star names: their lore and mean-
Schwan, H. (2000). Polaris: Astrometric orbit, ing (1899), p. 457.
position, and proper motion. Astronomy and As-
[23] Ridpath, Ian (ed.) (2004). Norton's Star Atlas. New York:
trophysics. 360: 399. arXiv:astro-ph/0002406 .
Pearson Education. p. 5. ISBN 0-13-145164-2. Around
Bibcode:2000A&A...360..399W.
4800 years ago Thuban ( Draconis) lay a mere 0.1 from
[11] Evans, Nancy Remage; Guinan, Edward; Engle, Scott; the pole. Deneb ( Cygni) will be the brightest star near
Wolk, Scott J.; Schlegel, Eric; Mason, Brian D.; the pole in about 8000 years' time, at a distance of 7.5.
Karovska, Margarita; Spitzbart, Bradley (2010). Chan- [24] Star Tales - Ursa Minor. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
dra Observation of Polaris: Census of Low-mass Com-
panions. The Astronomical Journal. 139 (5): [25] Nathaniel Bowditch; National Imagery and Mapping
1968. Bibcode:2010AJ....139.1968E. doi:10.1088/0004- Agency (2002). 15 Navigational Astronomy. The
6256/139/5/1968. American practical navigator : an epitome of navigation.
Paradise Cay Publications. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-939837-
[12] There's More to the North Star Than Meets the Eye. 54-0.
Hubblesite.org. 2006-01-09. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
[26] A visual method to correct a ship's compass using Polaris
[13] Evans, N. R.; Sasselov, D. D.; Short, C. I. (2002). using Ursa Major as a point of reference. Retrieved Aug
Polaris: Amplitude, Period Change, and Compan- 7, 2016.
ions. The Astrophysical Journal. 567 (2): 1121. [27] Neilson, H. R. (2014).Revisiting the fundamental prop-
Bibcode:2002ApJ...567.1121E. doi:10.1086/338583. erties of the Cepheid Polaris using detailed stellar evolu-
tion models. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 563: A48.
[14] Hertzsprung, Ejnar (August 1911). Nach-
weis der Vernderlichkeit von Ursae Mi- arXiv:1402.1177 . Bibcode:2014A&A...563A..48N.
noris. Astronomische Nachrichten (in Ger- doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423482.
man). 189 (6): 89. Bibcode:1911AN....189...89H. [28] Van Leeuwen, F. (1997). The Hippar-
doi:10.1002/asna.19111890602. cos Mission. Space Science Reviews. 81
(3/4): 201. Bibcode:1997SSRv...81..201V.
[15] Turner, D. G.; Savoy, J.; Derrah, J.; AbdelSabour Ab- doi:10.1023/A:1005081918325.
delLatif, M.; Berdnikov, L. N. (2005). The Pe-
riod Changes of Polaris. Publications of the As- [29] Van Leeuwen, F. (2013). The HIPPARCOS paral-
tronomical Society of the Pacic. 117 (828): 207. lax for Polaris. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 550: L3.
Bibcode:2005PASP..117..207T. doi:10.1086/427838. arXiv:1301.0890 . Bibcode:2013A&A...550L...3V.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220871.
[16] Neilson, H. R.; Engle, S. G.; Guinan, E.; Langer, N.;
Wasatonic, R. P.; Williams, D. B. (2012). The Pe- [30] Liu, C.; Bailer-Jones, C. A. L.; Sordo, R.; Vallenari, A.;
riod Change of the Cepheid Polaris Suggests Enhanced et al. (2012). The expected performance of stellar
Mass Loss. The Astrophysical Journal. 745 (2): L32. parametrization with Gaia spectrophotometry. Monthly
arXiv:1201.0761 . Bibcode:2012ApJ...745L..32N. Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 426 (3): 2463.
doi:10.1088/2041-8205/745/2/L32. arXiv:1207.6005 . Bibcode:2012MNRAS.426.2463L.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21797.x.
[17] Irion, R (2004). American Astronomical Society meet-
ing. As inconstant as the Northern Star. Science. 304 [31] Radio Telescopes' Precise Measurements Yield Rich
(5678): 17401. doi:10.1126/science.304.5678.1740b. Scientic Payos.
PMID 15205508. [32] Martn-Fleitas, J.; Mora, A.; Sahlmann, J.; Kohley, R.;
Massart, B.; et al. (2 August 2014), Oschmann, Jacobus
[18] IAU Working Group on Star NamesIAU Catalog of Star
M.; Clampin, Mark; Fazio, Giovanni G.; MacEwen,
Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Howard A., eds., Enabling Gaia observations of naked-
[19] Gemmae Frisii de astrolabo catholico liber: quo latis- eye stars, Proc. SPIE, 9143, arXiv:1408.3039v1 ,
sime patentis instrumenti multiplex usus explicatur, & quic- doi:10.1117/12.2056325
quid uspiam rerum mathematicarum tradi possit contine- [33] T. Prusti; GAIA Collaboration (2016), The Gaia
tur, Steelsius (1556), p. 20; see also Kunitzsch, Paul; mission (PDF), Astronomy and Astrophysics (forth-
Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of Modern star Names: coming article), doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629272, re-
A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations trieved 21 September 2016
(2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky Publish-
ing. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7. [34]
45.9 External links

Info on Polaris
Finding the Pole Star

Polaris at Constellation Guide
Coordinates: 02* h 31* m 48.7* s, +89 15 51

Chapter 46
Beta Canis Majoris
Beta Canis Majoris ( Canis Majoris, abbreviated velope, which follow a complex pattern with three dier-
Beta CMa, CMa), also named Mirzam,* [13] is a star ent cycles; all about six hours in length. The two domi-
in the southern constellation of Canis Major, the Great nant pulsation frequencies have a combined beat period
Dog, located at a distance of about 500 light-years (150 of roughly 50 days. The strongest pulsation mode is a
parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] In the modern constellation it radial rst overtone, while the second is non-radial.* [8]
lies at the position of the dog's front leg. This star has a mass of about 1314 times the mass of
the Sun* [8] with 811 times the Sun's radius.* [9] The
eective temperature of the star's outer envelope is about
46.1 Nomenclature 23,150 K, which is much higher than the Sun's at 5,778 K.
The energy emitted at the high temperature of the former
Beta Canis Majoris is the star's Bayer designation. The is what gives this star a blue-white hue characteristic of
traditional names Mirzam, Al-Murzim or Murzim,* [11] a B-type star.* [10]* [20] The estimated age of Mirzam is
derive from the Arabic ( )for 'The Herald', and prob- 1213 million years, which is long enough for a star of
ably refers to its position, heralding (i.e., rising before) this mass to have evolved into a giant star. The stellar
Sirius in the night sky. In 2016, the International As- classication of B1 II-III* [4] indicates that the spectrum
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star matches a star part way between a giant star and a bright
Names (WGSN)* [14] to catalog and standardize proper giant.
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July Beta Canis Majoris is located near the far end of the Local
2016* [15] included a table of the rst two batches of Bubble, a cavity in the local interstellar medium through
names approved by the WGSN; which included Mirzam which the Sun is traveling.
for this star.
In Chinese, (Jn Sh), meaning 'Market for Sol-
diers', refers to an asterism consisting of Canis Ma- 46.3 In culture
joris, Nu3 Canis Majoris, 15 Canis Majoris, Pi Canis
Majoris, Omicron1 Canis Majoris and Xi1 Canis Ma-
Mirzam appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the
joris.* [16] Consequently, Canis Majoris itself is known
state of Amap.* [21]
as (Jn Sh y, English: the First Star of Mar-
ket for Soldiers).* [17] From this Chinese name arose the Murzim (AK-95) was a United States Navy Crater class
name Kuen She.* [11] cargo ship named after one of the star's alternative tradi-
tional names.
The Dunhuang Star Chart noted Canis Majoris as Yeji
Pheasant Cock, though was located about 10 degrees A small Dutch lamp company used the star in one of their
too far north of its correct position.* [18] commercials.
Beta Canis Majoris was called Oupo by the people of the
Tuamotus.* [19]
46.4 References
46.2 Properties [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
Mirzam is a Beta Cephei variable that varies in apparent
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
magnitude between +1.97 and +2.01 over a six-hour pe- 6361:20078357
riod, a change in brightness that is too small to be dis-
cerned with the naked eye. It exhibits this variation in [2] Cousins, A. W. J. (1972), UBV Photometry of
luminosity because of periodic pulsations in its outer en- Some Very Bright Stars, Monthly Notes of the
218
46.5. SOURCES 219
Astronomical Society of Southern Africa, 31: 69, [16] (Chinese) , written by . Published
Bibcode:1972MNSSA..31...69C by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[3] Balona, L. A.; Bregman, L.; Letsapa, B. A.; Magoro, B.
T.; Walsh, S. E. (1996). The Pulsation Frequencies of [17] (Chinese) - - ,
beta CMa. Information Bulletin on Variable Stars. 4313: Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
1. Bibcode:1996IBVS.4313....1B. 23, 2010.
[4] Abt, Helmut A.; et al. (July 2002),Rotational Velocities [18] Jean-Marc Bonnet-Bidaud; Dr Franoise Praderie & Dr
of B Stars, The Astrophysical Journal, 573 (1): 359365, Susan Whiteld (16 June 2009).The Dunhuang Chinese
Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590 Sky: A Comprehensive Study Of The Oldest Known Star
Atlas.
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars [19] Makemson 1941, p. 239.
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: [20] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
[6] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953), General Cata- the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
logue of Stellar Radial Velocities, Washington,
Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington,
The World website.
Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W
[7] Shobbrook, R. R.; Handler, G.; Lorenz, D.; Mogorosi,

D. (2006). Photometric studies of three multi- 46.5 Sources
periodic Cephei stars: CMa, 15 CMa and KZ
Mus. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomi-
Makemson, Maud Worcester (1941), The Morning
cal Society. 369: 171. arXiv:astro-ph/0603754 .
Bibcode:2006MNRAS.369..171S. doi:10.1111/j.1365- Star Rises: An Account of Polynesian Astronomy,
2966.2006.10289.x. Yale University Press
[8] Mazumdar, A.; et al. (November 2006), An asteroseis-

mic study of the Cephei star Canis Majoris, Astron-
omy and Astrophysics, 459 (2): 589596, arXiv:astro-
ph/0607261 , Bibcode:2006A&A...459..589M,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064980
[9] Hubrig, S.; et al. (June 2006), Discovery of magnetic

elds in the Cephei star 1 CMa and in several slowly
pulsating B stars*", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society: Letters, 369 (1): L61L65, arXiv:astro-
ph/0604283 , Bibcode:2006MNRAS.369L..61H,
doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00175.x

, Bibcode:2009A&A...501..297Z, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/200811147
[11] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star-names and their

meanings, New York, G. E. Stechert: 129130,
Bibcode:1899sntm.book.....A
[12] V* bet CMa -- Variable Star of beta Cep type, SIM-

BAD, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg,


Chapter 47
Alphard
For the programming language, see Alphard (program- a spectral classication of K3 and luminosity class be-
ming language). For the vehicle, see Toyota Alphard. tween II and III.* [5] The angular diameter has been
measured using long-baseline interferometry, yielding a
value of 9.09 0.09 milliarcseconds, only beaten in it by
Alphard, also designated Alpha Hydrae ( Hydrae, ab- *
breviated Alpha Hya, Hya) is the brightest star in the Betelgeuse and R Doradus.* [16] It has expanded to 50
times the radius of the Sun. [5]
constellation of Hydra.
Alphard's spectrum shows a mild excess of barium, an
element that is normally produced by the s-process of
nucleosynthesis. Typically a barium star belongs to a
47.1 Nomenclature binary system and the anomalies in abundances are ex-
plained by mass transfer from a companion white dwarf
Hydrae (Latinised to Alpha Hydrae) is the star's Bayer star.* [17]
designation.
Precise radial velocity measurements have shown varia-
The traditional name Alphard is from the Arabic tions in the stellar radial velocities and spectral line pro-
(al-fard),the solitary one, there being no other bright les. The oscillations are multi-periodic with periods
stars near it. It was also known as the backbone of from several hours up to several days. The short-term os-
the Serpentto the Arabs. In the catalogue of stars in cillations were assumed to be a result of stellar pulsations,
the Calendarium of Al Achsasi Al Mouakket, it was des- similar to the solar ones. A correlation between the varia-
ignated Soheil al Fard, which was translated into Latin tions in the asymmetry of the spectral line prole and the
as Soheil Solitarius, meaning the bright solitary one.* [9] radial velocity has also been found. The multi-periodic
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized oscillations make HD 81797 (Alphard) an object of in-
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [10] to cata- terest for asteroseismologic investigations.* [18]
rst bulletin of July 2016* [11] included a table of the rst
cluded Alphard for this star. It is now so entered in the 47.3 Modern legacy
Alphard appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the
The European astronomer Tycho Brahe dubbed it Cor
state of Mato Grosso do Sul.* [19]
Hydr, Latin for 'the heart of Hydra'.* [13]
In Chinese, (Xng Xi), meaning Star, refers to an
asterism consisting of Alphard, 1 Hydrae, 2 Hydrae,
Hydrae, 26 Hydrae, 27 Hydrae, HD 82477 and HD
47.4 References
82428.* [14] Consequently, Alphard itself is known as
(Xng Xi y), the First Star of Star.* [15] In [1] Perryman, M. A. C.; et al. (1997), The Hipparcos
ancient China it formed part of an asterism called thered Catalogue, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 323: L49L52,
bird.
[2] Piau, L.; et al. (February 2011), Surface con-
vection and red-giant radius measurements, Astron-
47.2 Properties omy and Astrophysics, 526: A100, arXiv:1010.3649
, Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014442
Alphard has three times the mass of the Sun. Its esti-
mated age is 420 million years and it has evolved away [3] Peiderer, J.; Mayer, U. (October 1971). Near-
from the main sequence to become a giant star with ultraviolet surface photometry of the southern Milky
220
Way. Astronomical Journal. 76: 691700. [17] Mennessier, M. O.; et al. (October 1997).
Bibcode:1971AJ.....76..691P. doi:10.1086/111186. Barium Stars, Galactic Populations and Evolution
. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 326: 722730.
[4] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of the Bibcode:1997A&A...326..722M. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Batten, Alan
Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determination of Radial [18] Setiawan, J.; Roth, M.; Weise, P.; Dlinger, M. P.
Velocities and their Applications, Proceedings from IAU (2006). Multi-periodic oscillations of HD 32887
Symposium no. 30. University of Toronto: International and HD 81797. Memorie della Societa Astronom-
Astronomical Union. Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. ica Italiana. 77: 510514. arXiv:astro-ph/0505184 .
Bibcode:2006MmSAI..77..510S. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
[5] da Silva, L.; et al. (November 2006). Basic physical
parameters of a selected sample of evolved stars. Astron- [19] Astronomy of the Brazilian Flag. FOTW Flags Of
omy and Astrophysics. 458 (2): 609623. arXiv:astro- The World website.
ph/0608160 . Bibcode:2006A&A...458..609D.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065105.
[6] Cenarro, A. J.; et al. (January 2007). Medium-

resolution Isaac Newton Telescope library of empiri-
cal spectra - II. The stellar atmospheric parameters
ety. 374 (2): 664690. arXiv:astro-ph/0611618 .
Bibcode:2007MNRAS.374..664C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2006.11196.x.
[7] Setiawan, J.; et al. (July 2004), Precise radial

velocity measurements of G and K giants. Multi-
ple systems and variability trend along the Red Gi-
ant Branch, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 421: 241
254, Bibcode:2004A&A...421..241S, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041042-1
[8] Alphard. SIMBAD. Centre de Donnes astronomiques

de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2009-10-09.

darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket.
55 (8): 429438. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.


[13] Olcott, William Tyler (2004). Star Lore: Myths, Legends,

and Facts. Courier Dover Publications. p. 226. ISBN
0-486-43581-4.

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[15] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
[16] Le Bouquin, J.-B.; et al. (January 2009). Post-

processing the VLTI fringe-tracking data: rst
measurements of stars. Astronomy and Astro-
physics. 493 (2): 747752. arXiv:0812.2328 .
Bibcode:2009A&A...493..747L. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:200810613.
Chapter 48
Alpha Arietis
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Hamal in its spectrum. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has
(disambiguation). served as one of the stable anchor points by which other
stars are classied.* [21] It is estimated to have about
50%* [9] more mass than the Sun, while interferometric
Hamal, alternatively designated Alpha Arietis ( Ari- *
etis, abbreviated Alpha Ari, Ari), is the brightest star measurements show it to be 15 [10] times larger in diam-
eter. Despite its enlarged girth, this star is still spinning
in the northern zodiacal constellation of Aries.* [5]* [12]
with a slightly faster equatorial azimuthal velocity than
With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.0,* [3] it is among the Sun, having a projected rotational velocity of 3.44 km
the brightest stars in the night sky. Based upon parallax s* 1.* [9]
measurements made with the Hipparcos astrometry satel- *
lite,* [13]* [14] Hamal is about 65.8 light-years (20.2 Hamal is radiating about 91 [10] times the Sun's lumi-
parsecs) from Earth.* [2] It is a giant star that may host nosity from its outer*
envelope at an eective tempera-
*
an orbiting planet with a mass greater than Jupiter. [9] ture of 4,480 K. [10] This is cooler than the surface of
the Sun, giving it the orange-hued glow of a K-type star.
It is suspected to be slightly variable, with an amplitude
of 0.06 magnitude.* [6] The abundance of elements other
48.1 Nomenclature than hydrogen and helium, what astronomers term the
star's metallicity, is only around half that in the Sun.* [10]
Alpha Arietis is the star's Bayer designation. It also bears In 2011, the likely presence of a planet in orbit around
the Flamsteed designation of 13 Arietis. this star was reported by Byeong-Cheol Lee et al. It
The traditional name Hamal (also written Hemal, Hamul, was detected using the radial velocity method, based
Ras Hammel) derives from the Arabic rs al- upon measurements made between 2003 and 2010 at
amal head of the ram, in turn from the name for the Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory in Ko-
the constellation as a whole, Al amalthe ram.* [15] rea. The object has an orbital period of 381 days
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized and an eccentricity of 0.25. The lower bound on this
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to cata- object's mass is about 1.8 times the mass of Jupiter.
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's The estimated semi-major axis of the planet's orbit is
rst bulletin of July 2016* [17] included a table of the rst 1.2 astronomical units (AU),* [9] which would give it a
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in- periapsis distance of 0.9 AU and an apoapsis distance
cluded Hamal for this star. of 1.5 AU. By comparison, the star has a radius of 0.07
AU.* [22]
In Chinese, (Lu Su), meaning Bond (asterism),
refers to an asterism consisting of Hamal, Arietis and
Arietis.* [18] Consequently, Hamal itself is known as
(Lu Su sn, English: the Third Star of Bond.)* [19] 48.3 In culture
Hamal's orientation with relation to the Earth's orbit

48.2 Properties around the Sun gives it a certain importance not appar-
ent from its modest brightness. Between 2000 and 100
The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classication BCE, the apparent path of the Sun through the Earth's sky
of K2 III Ca-1, with the luminosity class of III indicat- placed it in Aries at the northern vernal equinox, the point
ing that it is an evolved giant star that has exhausted the in time marking the start of spring in the Northern Hemi-
supply of hydrogen at its core and is now on the red giant sphere.* [24] This is why most astrology columns in mod-
branch.* [20] The 'Ca-1' portion of the classication indi- ern newspapers begin with Aries.* [25] While the vernal
cates that it shows weaker than normal lines of calcium equinox has moved to Pisces since then due to precession
222
of the equinoxes,* [24] Hamal has remained in mind as a [11] Bonfanti, A.; et al. (2015). Revising the ages of planet-
bright star near what was apparently an important place hosting stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 575. A18.
when people rst studied the night sky.* [12] Currently arXiv:1411.4302 . Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..18B.
(epoch J2000) its declination is almost exactly equal to doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424951.
the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer, meaning it can be
used to nd the position of that imaginary line when the [12] Hamal, Stars, Jim Kaler. Accessed on line December 16,
Sun is not nearby. 2008.
The other name of Hamal, Hamul, is used for the name [13] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky,
of United States navy ship, USS Hamul (AD-20). J.; et al. (July 1997), The Hipparcos Cata-
48.4 References
Greatest Star Map, AstronomersUniverse, Heidelberg:
[1] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11602-5
[15] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star-names and Their
Meanings, New York: G. E. Stechert, pp. 78, 80
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- [16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
6361:20078357 trieved 22 May 2016.
[3] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966).UBVRIJKL photometry of
the bright stars. Communications of the Lunar and Plan- [17] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
etary Laboratory. 4 (99). Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[4] NAME HAMAL -- Variable Star, database entry, [18] (Chinese) , written by . Published
SIMBAD. Accessed on line December 16, 2008. by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H. [19] (Chinese) - - ,
Warren, Jr., CDS ID V/50. Accessed on line December Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
16, 2008. 23, 2010.
[6] NSV 725, database entry, New Catalogue of Suspected [20] Stoesz, Jerey A.; Herwig, Falk (April 2003), Oxy-
Variable Stars, the improved version, Sternberg Astro- gen isotopic ratios in rst dredge-up red giant stars
nomical Institute, Moscow, Russia. Accessed on line De- and nuclear reaction rate uncertainties revisited
cember 16, 2008. , Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
[7] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan ety, 340 (3): 763770, arXiv:astro-ph/0212128 ,
Henry; Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision Bibcode:2003MNRAS.340..763S, doi:10.1046/j.1365-
of the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Uni- 8711.2003.06332.x
versity of Toronto: International Astronomical Union,
Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E, retrieved 2009-09-10 [21] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points
[8] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008), Rotation letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319,
and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04
ical Journal, 135 (3): 892906, arXiv:0711.4984 [22] For a = 1.2 AU and e = 0.25, the periapsis is given by a
, Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C, doi:10.1088/0004- (1 - e) = 9 AU and the apoapsis is a (1 + e) = 15 AU.
6256/135/3/892 The solar radius is 0.0046491 AU, so the star's radius is
14.9 0.0046491 = 0.069 AU.
[9] Lee, B.-C.; et al. (May 2011), A likely exo-
planet orbiting the oscillating K-giant Arietis, As- [23] Schneider, Jean (2011), Notes for Planet alf Ari b,
tronomy & Astrophysics, 529: A134, arXiv:1104.4431 Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, retrieved 2011-10-12
, Bibcode:2011A&A...529A.134L, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201016293 [24] Kaler, James B. (2002), The Ever-changing Sky: A Guide
to the Celestial Sphere, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni-
[10] Piau, L.; et al. (February 2011), Surface con- versity Press, pp. 151, 152, ISBN 0-521-49918-6
omy and Astrophysics, 526: A100, arXiv:1010.3649 [25] Raymo, Chet (1982), 365 Starry Nights: An Introduction
, Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P, doi:10.1051/0004- to Astronomy for Every Night of the Year, New York: Si-
6361/201014442 mon and Schuster, p. 196, ISBN 0-671-76606-6
224 CHAPTER 48. ALPHA ARIETIS
48.5 External links

Jean Schneider (2011). Notes for star alf Ari
. Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 12
October 2011.
GJ 84.3, entry in the GlieseJahrei catalogue (Pre-

liminary Version of the Third Catalogue of Nearby
Stars, W. Gliese and H. Jahreiss, 1991, CDS ID
V/70A.)
Image of Hamal from Aladin.
The Constellations and Named Stars, Purple Hell.

Renamed Lesley Hughes 50on the 29-03-2016
at the Star Registration database
Chapter 49
Delta Velorum
Delta Velorum ( Vel, Velorum) is a star system in the eective temperature of 9,370 K. The two stars are spin-
southern constellation Vela, near the border with Carina. ning rapidly and are about 400 million years old.* [5]
Based on parallax measurements, it is approximately 80.6
A second binary system is located at an angular separation
light-years (24.7 parsecs) from Earth. This star appears of 69 arcseconds. It is composed of an 11th magnitude
in an asterism with the given name of Koo She (Chinese:
and 13th magnitude pair, which are 6 arcseconds apart.
, h sh,Bow and Arrow), comprising Velorum
and Velorum.* [9]
The south celestial pole will pass close to Velorum 49.2 References
around 9000 AD because of precession.* [10] The False
Cross is an asterism formed of the Velorum and Velo-
[1] Fabricius, C.; Hg, E.; Makarov, V. V.; Mason, B.
rum and Carinae and Carinae. It is so called because
D.; Wyco, G. L.; Urban, S. E. (2002). The Ty-
it is sometimes mistaken for the Southern Cross, causing cho double star catalogue. Astronomy and Astro-
errors in astronavigation.* [11] physics. 384: 180. Bibcode:2002A&A...384..180F.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011822.

49.1 Components Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
Delta Velorum is a triple star system. The outward com- 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
ponents A and B have a wide orbit with a 142-year orbital
period. The primary component A has an apparent mag- [3] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
nitude of 1.99, while the secondary component B is mag- tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
nitude 5.57, with a combined magnitude measured at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99,
1.96.* [12] In 1978 the primary component was reported Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
to be a spectroscopic binary in the Proceeding of the Aus- [4] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contributions to the
tralian Astronomical observatory, and this was conrmed Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: spectroscopy of stars
by the Hipparcos satellite. Observations of variability earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample, The
in the Velorum system were made independently by Astronomical Journal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro-
ground-based astronomers and the Galileo spaceprobe at ph/0603770 , Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G,
Jupiter.* [13] doi:10.1086/504637
In 2000 it was announced that the components Aa and
[5] Pribulla, T.; et al. (April 2011), The nearby eclipsing
Ab form an eclipsing binary, having an orbital period of stellar system Velorum. II. First reliable orbit for the
45.15 days and an eccentricity of 0.230.* [5] Delta Velo- eclipsing pair, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 528: A21,
rum is the brightest known eclipsing binary, although arXiv:1012.5886 , Bibcode:2011A&A...528A..21P,
Algol has a deeper minimum and is easier to observe vi- doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201016227
sually. Only the primary component Velorum A is suf-
ciently bright to explain such variation. [6] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953),General catalogue of stel-
lar radial velocities, Washington, Carnegie Institution of
Both members of the spectroscopic binary Vel A are
evolved stars that have left the main sequence. Compo-
nent Aa has 2.5 times the mass of the Sun, 2.6 times the [7] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
Sun's radius, and is radiating 56 times the luminosity of of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
the Sun at an eective temperature of 9,470. Component Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
Ab is only slightly smaller, with 2.4 times the Sun's mass Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
and radius, with a luminosity of 47 times the Sun and an 6361:20078357
225
226 CHAPTER 49. DELTA VELORUM

463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20065224
[9] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963), Star Names: Their Lore

and Meaning (Revised ed.), New York: Dover Publica-
tions, p. 73, ISBN 0-486-21079-0
[10] Kaler, James B., Delta Velorum, Stars, University of

Illinois, retrieved 2012-08-04
[11] Moore, Patrick (2010). Patrick Moore's Astronomy:

Teach Yourself. Hachette. ISBN 1444129775.
[12] Hoeit, D.; Warren, W. H. (1995). VizieR On-

line Data Catalog: Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised
Ed. (Hoeit+, 1991)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
V/50. Originally published in: 1964BS....C......0H. 5050:
0. Bibcode:1995yCat.5050....0H.
[13] Otero, Fieseler & Lloyd; Fieseler, Paul D.; Lloyd, Christo-
pher (2000), Delta Velorum is an Eclisping Binary,
Information Bulletin on Variable Stars, IBVS 4999, 4999:
1, Bibcode:2000IBVS.4999....1O
49.3 External links

Delta Velorum on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS, GALEX,
IRAS, Hydrogen , X-Ray, Astrophoto, Sky Map,
Articles and images
Coordinates: 08* h 44* m 42.22658* s, 54 42

31.7493
Chapter 50
Beta Ceti
Beta Ceti ( Ceti, abbreviated Beta Cet, Cet), thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core.* [14] Beta Ceti
also named Diphda,* [13] is the brightest star in the will remain in this mode for over 100 million years.* [11]
constellation of Cetus. Although designated 'beta', it is The eective temperature of the star's outer envelope
actually brighter than the 'alpha' star in the constellation
is about 4,797 K,* [9] giving it the characteristic orange
(Alpha Ceti). This orange giant is easy to identify due to hue of a K-type star.* [15] In spite of its cooler tem-
its location in an otherwise dark section of the celestial
perature, Diphda is much brighter than the Sun with a
sphere. Based on parallax measurements, it lies at an es- bolometric luminosity of about 145 times the luminosity
timated distance of 96.3 light-years (29.5 parsecs) from
of the Sun,* [16] resulting from a radius 18* [8] times as
the Sun.* [1] large as the Sun and a mass that is 2.8 times the Sun's
mass.* [7]
This star displays aring activity that results in random
50.1 Properties outbursts that increase the luminosity of the star over in-
tervals lasting several days. This is a much longer dura-
tion than for comparable solar are activity on the Sun,
which typically last for periods measured in hours.* [14]
In 2005, a relatively high rate of X-ray emission was de-
tected with the XMM-Newton space observatory.* [7] It
is emitting about 2,000 times the X-ray luminosity of the
Sun, allowing the star to be imaged with the Chandra X-
ray Observatory.* [11]
50.2 Nomenclature
Ceti (Latinised to Beta Ceti) is the star's Bayer designa-
tion.
It bore the traditional names Diphda and Deneb Kaitos.
Diphda is Arabic for 'frog', from the phrase
a-ifda a-n 'the second frog' (the rst frog'
is Fomalhaut); Deneb Kaitos is from
Al Dhanab al aios al Janbyy 'southern tail
Image of orange giant Beta Ceti from NASA's Chandra X-ray of Cetus'.* [17]
Observatory.
Diphda has an apparent visual magnitude of 2.02, [2] * a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [18] to cat-
making it the brightest star in Cetus. The stellar classi- alogue and standardize proper names for stars. The
cation of this star is K0 III,* [3] although some sources WGSN approved the name Diphda for this star on 21 Au-
list a classication of G9.5 III* [7] indicating that it lies gust 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of
along the dividing line separating G-type from K-type Star Names.* [13]
stars. The luminosity class of 'III' means that it is a In Chinese astronomy, Deneb Kaitos is called ,
giant star that has consumed the hydrogen at its core and Pinyin: Tskng, meaning Master of Constructions, be-
evolved away from an A-type main sequence star.* [7] Af- cause this star is marking itself and stands alone in the
ter passing through the red giant stage, it underwent the Master of Constructions asterism, Legs mansion (see :
helium ash event and is generating energy through the Chinese constellation).* [19] (Tskng), west-
227
228 CHAPTER 50. BETA CETI
ernized into Too Sze Kung by R.H. Allen and the meaning [9] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008). Ro-
is Superintendent of Earthworks.* [20] tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761
. The Astronomical Journal. 135 (1): 209231.
50.2.1 Namesake Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/1/209.
USS Diphda (AKA-59) was a U.S. Navy ship.
[10] Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Hoeit+,
1991)". VizieR. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de
Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-09-30.
50.3 See also
[11] Beta Ceti: Giant Star's Corona Brightens with Age.
Chandra Photo Album. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Lists of stars in the constellation Cetus Astrophysics. February 20, 2009. Retrieved 2011-12-28.
[12] bet Cet -- Variable Star. SIMBAD. Centre de Donnes

50.4 References astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-09-30.

the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- [14] Ayres, Thomas R.; Osten, Rachel A.; Brown, Alexander
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 (November 2001). 3 Ms in the Life of Ceti: Sus-
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- tained Flare Activity on a Clump Giant Detected by the
6361:20078357. Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer. The Astrophysical Jour-
nal. 562 (1): L83L86. Bibcode:2001ApJ...562L..83A.
[2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho- doi:10.1086/337971.
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99, [15] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
[3] Montes, D.; et al. (November 2001), Late-type the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
members of young stellar kinematic groups - I. Sin-
gle stars, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomi- [16] Kaler, James B. DENEB KAITOS (Beta Ceti)". Uni-
cal Society, 328 (1): 4563, arXiv:astro-ph/0106537 , versity of Illinois. Retrieved 2010-09-30.
Bibcode:2001MNRAS.328...45M, doi:10.1046/j.1365- [17] Allen, Richard H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and
8711.2001.04781.x Meaning (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications
[4] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR Inc. p. 163. ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2010-12-
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars 12.
[5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. [20] Star Name - R.H. Allen p. 160
(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
[6] Elgary, ystein; Engvold, Oddbjrn; Lund, Niels 50.5 External links
(March 1999), The Wilson-Bappu eect of the MgII
metallicity, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 343: 222228, Beta Ceti: Giant Star's Corona Brightens with Age
Bibcode:1999A&A...343..222E
[7] Sgesser, S. N.; Jordan, C. (March 2005). Emission
measures for the single giant Ceti. In Favata, F.; Hus-
sain, G. A. J.; Battrick, B. Proceedings of the 13th Cam-
bridge Workshop on Cool Stars, Stellar Systems and the
Sun, held 5-9 July, 2004 in Hamburg, Germany. European
Space Agency. p. 931. Bibcode:2005ESASP.560..931S.
[8] Berio, P.; et al. (November 2011), Chromosphere
of K giant stars. Geometrical extent and spatial struc-
ture detection, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 535: A59,
arXiv:1109.5476 , Bibcode:2011A&A...535A..59B,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117479
Chapter 51
Kappa Orionis
Saiph, also designated Kappa Orionis ( Orionis, ab- the Sun's mass every 1.1 million years.* [6] Using a com-
breviated Kappa Ori, Ori) and 53 Orionis (53 Ori), bination of parallax as determined by HIPPARCOS and
is the sixth-brightest star in the constellation of Orion. Of spectrum yields a mass 15.50 1.25 times and luminosity
the four bright stars that compose Orion's main quadran- 56,881 times that of the Sun.* [7] Analysis of the spectra
gle, it is the star at the south-eastern corner. A northern- and age of the members of the Orion OB1 association
hemisphere observer facing south would see it at the lower yields a mass 28 times that of the Sun (from an original
left of Orion, and a southern-hemisphere observer fac- mass 31.8 times that of the Sun) and an age of 6.2 mil-
ing north would see it at the upper right. Parallax mea- lion years.* [15] Large stars such as Saiph (and many other
surements yield an estimated distance of 650 light-years stars in Orion) are destined to collapse on themselves and
(198 parsecs) from the Sun, which is about the same as explode as supernovae.* [16]
Betelgeuse.* [1] However, despite being a hotter star, it
is smaller and less luminous than Rigel with an apparent
visual magnitude of 2.1.* [2] The luminosity of this star 51.3 Cultural signicance
changes slightly, varying by 0.04 magnitudes.* [4]
The Wardaman people of northern Australia know Saiph
as the Guman digging stick, used to make a canyon by
51.1 Nomenclature Black-headed Python.* [17]
Kappa Orionis is the star's Bayer designation and 53 Orio-

nis its Flamsteed designation. The traditional name Saiph 51.4 References
is from the Arabic saif al jabbar, ' ' literally
sword of the giant. This name was originally applied to [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
Eta Orionis.* [10] In 2016, the International Astronom- of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
(WGSN)* [11] to catalog and standardize proper names Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [12] in- 6361:20078357
[2] Crawford, D. L.; Barnes, J. V.; Golson, J. C. (1971),
by the WGSN; which included Saiph for this star. It is
Four-color, H-beta, and UBV photometry for bright B-
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [13] type stars in the northern hemisphere, The Astronom-
In the 17th century catalogue of stars in the Calendarium ical Journal, 76: 1058, Bibcode:1971AJ.....76.1058C,
of Al Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated Rek- doi:10.1086/111220
bah al Jauza al Yemeniat, which was translated into Latin
[3] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973). Spectral
as Genu Dextrum Gigantisright knee of the giant.* [14] Classication. Annual Review of Astronomy and As-
trophysics. 11: 29. Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M.
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333.
51.2 Properties [4] Lefvre, L.; et al. (November 2009), A system-
atic study of variability among OB-stars based on HIP-
Saiph has a stellar classication of B0.5 Ia. The PARCOS photometry, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
luminosity class 'Ia' represents a bright supergiant star 507 (2): 11411201, Bibcode:2009A&A...507.1141L,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912304
that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and
evolved away from the main sequence. Saiph has a strong [5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
stellar wind and is losing mass at the rate of 9.0 10* 7 damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
times the mass of the Sun per year, or the equivalent of with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst.
229
230 CHAPTER 51. KAPPA ORIONIS

(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
[6] Crowther, P. A.; Lennon, D. J.; Walborn, N. R. (Jan-

uary 2006), Physical parameters and wind properties
of galactic early B supergiants, Astronomy and As-
, Bibcode:2006A&A...446..279C, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20053685
[7] Hohle, M. M.; Neuhuser, R.; Schutz, B. F. (April 2010),

Masses and luminosities of O- and B-type stars and red
supergiants, Astronomische Nachrichten, 331 (4): 349,
arXiv:1003.2335 , Bibcode:2010AN....331..349H,
doi:10.1002/asna.200911355
[8] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
[9] SAIPH -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes

[10] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899). Star-names and their

meanings. G. E. Stechert. p. 317.



doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
[15] Voss, R.; Diehl, R.; Vink, J. S.; Hartmann, D. H.

(2010). Probing the evolving massive star population
in Orion with kinematic and radioactive tracers. As-
tronomy and Astrophysics. 520: 10. arXiv:1005.3827
. Bibcode:2010A&A...520A..51V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014408. A51.
[16] Kaler, James B., SAIPH (Kappa Orionis)", Stars, Uni-

versity of Illinois, retrieved 2012-01-27

Dark Sparklers (Revised ed.). Merimbula, New South
Wales: Hugh C. Cairns. p. 139. ISBN 0-9750908-0-1.
Coordinates: 05* h 47* m 45.4* s, 09 40 11

Chapter 52
Sigma Sagittarii
Sigma Sagittarii ( Sagittarii, abbreviated Sigma Sgr, This star, together with :
Sgr), also named Nunki,* [10] is the second brightest
star in the constellation of Sagittarius. It has an apparent Gamma Sagittarii, Delta Sagittarii, Epsilon Sagit-
* tarii, Zeta Sagittarii, Lambda Sagittarii, Tau Sagit-
magnitude of +2.05, [3] making it readily visible to the
naked eye. The distance to this star, determined using tarii and Phi Sagittarii, comprised the Teapot
parallax measurements from the Hipparcos astrometry asterism.* [17]
satellite,* [11] yields an estimated value of 228 light-years
Phi Sagittarii, Zeta Sagittarii, Chi Sagittarii and
(70 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1]* [2]
Tau Sagittarii were the Arabic Al Nam al dirah
() , the Returning Ostriches.* [18]
52.1 Properties Zeta Sagittarii and Pi Sagittarii may have been the
Akkadian Gu-shi-rabba, the Yoke of the Sea.* [18]
Sigma Sagittarii has a spectrum matching a stellar classi- In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi
cation of B2.5 V,* [4] which indicates this is a B-type al Mouakket, this star was designated Thanih al Sadirah,
main sequence star. Its total luminosity is 3300* [12] which was translated into Latin as Secunda al Sadi-
times that of the Sun while it has a surface temperature rah, meaning second returning ostrich.* [19]
of 18,890 K.* [8] X-ray emission has been detected from
this star, which has an estimated X-ray luminosity of 1.2 In Chinese, (Du), meaning Dipper, refers to an aster-
1028 erg s* 1.* [13] ism consisting of Delta Sagittarii, Phi Sagittarii, Lambda
Sagittarii, Mu Sagittarii, Tau Sagittarii and Zeta Sagit-
It has a 10th magnitude optical companion located 5.2 tarii. Consequently, Delta Sagittarii itself is known as
arcminutes away.* [14] (Du S s, English: the Fourth Star of Dip-
*
Because it is close to the ecliptic, it can be occulted by per.) [20]
the Moon and very rarely by planets. The last occultation
by a planet took place on November 17, 1981, when it
was occulted by Venus. Furthermore, this is the brightest 52.3 References
star that can be principally occulted by an exterior planet
between 5000 BC and 5000 AD. However, only Mars can [1] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg,
do this, and only rarely; the last time was on September E.; Bastian, U.; Bernacca, P. L.; Crz, M.; Donati,
3, 423. F.; Grenon, M.; Grewing, M.; Van Leeuwen, F.; Van
R. S.; Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschl,
M.; Petersen, C. S. (July 1997), The Hipparcos Cat-
52.2 Nomenclature alogue, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 323: L49L52,
Sagittarii (Latinised to Sigma Sagittarii) is the star's
Bayer designation. the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
It bore the traditional name of Nunki, which was an trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
Assyrian or Babylonian name recovered by archaeologists . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
and made public by R. H. Allen.* [15] In 2016, the 6361:20078357.
International Astronomical Union organized a Working [3] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Funda-
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalogue and mental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with
standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelb,
the name Nunki for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 (35): 1,
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [10] Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
231
232 CHAPTER 52. SIGMA SAGITTARII
[4] Houk, Nancy (1979), Michigan catalogue of two- [17] Teapot. constellation-guide.com. Retrieved 2017-05-
dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, Michigan 13.
Catalogue of Two-dimensional Spectral Types for the HD
stars. Volume_3. Declinations 40_0 to 26_0, Ann [18] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
Arbor, Michigan: Dept. of Astronomy, University of (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 355.
Michigan, 3, Bibcode:1982MSS...C03....0H ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
[5] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (June 1968), [19] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al
A photometric investigation of the Scorpio-Centaurus Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
association, Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 15: 459, darium of Mohammad Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G, doi:10.1086/190168 . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
[6] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices [20] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 410 (1): 190200, in Astronomy) 2006 5 11
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x

(3): 601605, Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U,
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601

, Bibcode:2009A&A...501..297Z, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/200811147

Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590

3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[12] James B. Kaler,NUNKI (Sigma Sagatarii)", Stars, Uni-

versity of Illinois, retrieved 2012-01-31
[13] Cassinelli, J. P.; et al. (February 1994), X-ray emission

from near-main-sequence B stars, Astrophysical Journal,
Part 1, 421 (2): 705717, Bibcode:1994ApJ...421..705C,
doi:10.1086/173683
[14] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William I.;
2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. I.
Journal. 122 (6): 3466. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M.
doi:10.1086/323920.
[15] Allen, Richard Hinckley, Star Names, their lore and mean-
ing, p. 359

Chapter 53
Theta Centauri
Theta Centauri ( Centauri, abbreviated Theta Cen, 53.2 References

Cen), also named Menkent,* [10] is a star in the southern
constellation of Centaurus, the centaur. With an apparent [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
visual magnitude of +2.06,* [2] it is the fourth-brightest the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
member of the constellation. Close enough so that its dis- trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
tance can be measured using the parallax technique, it is . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
58.8 light-years (18.0 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] 6361:20078357.
This is an evolved giant star with a stellar classication of [2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho-
K0 III.* [3] The interferometry-measured angular diame- tometry of the bright stars. Communications of
ter of this star, after correcting for limb darkening, is 5.46 the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 4 (99): 99.
0.06 milliarcseconds,* [11] which, at its estimated dis- Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
tance, equates to a physical radius of about 10.6 times the
radius of the Sun.* [6] The outer envelope has an eective [3] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contribu-
temperature of 4,980 K,* [8] giving it the orange-hued tions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spec-
glow of a cool, K-type star.* [12] Soft X-ray emission has troscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 parsecs:
The Northern Sample I, The Astronomical Jour-
been detected from this star, which has an estimated X-
ray luminosity of 1.4 1027 erg s* 1.* [13] nal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro-ph/0603770 ,
Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G, doi:10.1086/504637

(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
[5] Elgary, ystein; Engvold, Oddbjrn; Lund, Niels

53.1 Nomenclature (March 1999), The Wilson-Bappu eect of the MgII
metallicity, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 343: 222228,
Centauri (Latinised to Theta Centauri) is the star's Bayer Bibcode:1999A&A...343..222E
designation.
[6] Lang, Kenneth R. (2006), Astrophysical formulae, As-
The traditional name Menkent is possibly an abbrevia- tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser,
tion of the Arabic al mankib al- ISBN 3-540-29692-1. The radius (R* ) is given by:
qanturis meaningshoulder of the Centaur. In 2016, the
International Astronomical Union organized a Working (18.03 5.46 103 ) AU
2 R =
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [14] to catalog and stan- 0.0046491 AU/R
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the 21.2 R
name Menkent for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [10] [7] Kaler, James B., MENKENT (Theta Centauri)", Stars,
In Chinese, (K Lu), meaning Arsenal, refers University of Illinois, retrieved 2012-03-01
to an asterism consisting of Theta Centauri, Zeta Cen-
[8] Jones, K. L.; et al. (June 1992), Spectroscopic
tauri, Eta Centauri, 2 Centauri, HD 117440, Xi Cen- investigation of cool giants and the authenticity
tauri, Gamma Centauri, Tau Centauri, D Centauri and of their reported microwave emission, Monthly
Sigma Centauri.* [15] Consequently, Theta Centauri it- Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 256
self is known as (K Lu sn, English: the Third (3): 535544, Bibcode:1992MNRAS.256..535J,
Star of Arsenal.)* [16] doi:10.1093/mnras/256.3.535
233
234 CHAPTER 53. THETA CENTAURI
[9] LHS 2858 -- High proper-motion Star, SIMBAD

Astronomical Object Database, Centre de Donnes as-
tronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-03-01

2005),CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High Angular
Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
431 (2): 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039

01-16
[13] Schroeder, K.-P.; Huensch, M.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (July

1998), X-ray activity and evolutionary status of late-
type giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 335: 591595,
Bibcode:1998A&A...335..591S


by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[16] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
Chapter 54
Alpha Andromedae
21 Andromedaeredirects here. For the galaxy, see the chained woman here being Andromeda. Other Arabic
Andromeda XXI. names include al-ka al-khab and ka al-nar.* [18]
In the Hindu lunar zodiac, this star, together with the
Alpha Andromedae ( Andromedae, abbreviated Al- other stars in the Great Square of Pegasus (, , and
pha And or And), also named Alpheratz,* [12] is lo- Pegasi), makes up the nakshatras of Prva Bhdrapad
cated 97 light-years from the Sun and is the brightest star and Uttara Bhdrapad.* [15]
in the constellation of Andromeda. Located immediately In Chinese, (B S), meaning wall, refers to an as-
northeast of the constellation of Pegasus, it is the north-terism consisting of Andromedae and Pegasi.* [19]
eastern star of the Great Square of Pegasus. Consequently, Andromedae itself is known as
Although it appears to the naked eye as a single star, (B S r, English: the second star of the wall.)* [20]
with overall apparent visual magnitude +2.06, it is actu- It is also known as one of theThree Guidesthat mark
ally a binary system composed of two stars in close orbit. the prime meridian of the heavens, the other two being
The chemical composition of the brighter of the two Beta Cassiopeiae and Gamma Pegasi. It was believed
stars is unusual as it is a mercury-manganese star whose to bless those born under its inuence with honour and
atmosphere contains abnormally high levels of mercury,
riches.* [21]
manganese, and other elements, including gallium and
xenon.* [13] It is the brightest mercury-manganese star
known.* [13]
54.2 System
54.1 Nomenclature
Andromedae (Latinised to Alpha Andromedae) is the
star's Bayer designation. Ptolemy considered Alpha An-
dromedae to be shared by Pegasus, and Johann Bayer as-
signed it a designation in both constellations: Alpha An-
dromedae ( And) and Delta Pegasi ( Peg). When the
modern constellation boundaries were xed in 1930, the
latter designation dropped from use.* [14]
The star bore the traditional names Alpheratz or Alpherat
and Sirrah deriving from the Arabic name, Relative sizes of the components to the Sun (top right). Circle
surrat al-faras the navel of the mare. ( alone sizes relate to solar radii, italic numbers are solar mass estimates
to correct to 4SF.
is surrah.) The word horse reects the star's historical
placement in Pegasus.* [15] In 2016, the International As-
The radial velocity of a star away from or towards the
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star observer can be determined by measuring the red shift
Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and standardize proper or blue shift of its spectrum. The American astronomer
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July Vesto Slipher made a series of such measurements from
2016* [17] included a table of the rst two batches of 1902 to 1904 and discovered that the radial velocity of
names approved by the WGSN; which included Alpheratz Andromedae varied periodically. He concluded that it
for this star. was in orbit in a spectroscopic binary star system with
Another term for this star used by medieval astronomers a period of about 100 days.* [22] A preliminary orbit
writing in Arabic was rs al-mar'a was published by Hans Ludendor in 1907,* [23] and a
al-musalsala the head of the woman in chains,* [15] more precise orbit was later published by Robert Horace
235
236 CHAPTER 54. ALPHA ANDROMEDAE
Baker.* [24] its brightness to be constant to within less than 0.01 mag-
The fainter star in the system was rst resolved nitude.* [33] However, Adelman and his co-workers have
interferometrically by Xiaopei Pan and his coworkers discovered, in observations made between 1993 and 1999
during 1988 and 1989, using the Mark III Stellar Inter- and published in 2002, that the mercury line in its spec-
ferometer at the Mount Wilson Observatory, California, trum at 398.4 nm varies as the primary rotates. This is be-
United States. This work was published in 1992.* [25] cause the distribution of mercury in its atmosphere is not
Because of the dierence in luminosity between the two uniform. Applying Doppler imaging to the observations
stars, its spectral lines were not observed until the early allowed Adelman et al. to nd that it was concentrated in
clouds near the equator.* [34] Subsequent Doppler imag-
1990s, in observations made by Jocelyn Tomkin, Xiaopei
Pan, and James K. McCarthy between 1991 and 1994 and ing studies, published in 2007, showed that these clouds
drift slowly over the star's surface.* [9]
published in 1995.* [4]
The two stars are now known to orbit each other with a
period of 96.7 days.* [2] The larger, brighter star, called 54.3 Observation
the primary, has a spectral type of B8IVpMnHg, a mass
of approximately 3.6 solar masses, a surface temperature
of about 13,800 K, and, measured over all wavelengths,
a luminosity of about 200 times the Sun's. Its smaller,
fainter companion, the secondary, has a mass of approx-
imately 1.8 solar masses and a surface temperature of
about 8,500 K, and, again measured over all wavelengths,
a luminosity of about 10 times the Sun's. It is an early-
type A star whose spectral type has been estimated as
A3V.* [4]
54.2.1 Chemical peculiarities
In 1906, Norman Lockyer and F. E. Baxandall reported

that Andromedae had a number of unusual lines in its
spectrum.* [26] In 1914, Baxandall pointed out that most Andromeda constellation. Andromedae, labeled Sirrah, is at
of the unusual lines came from manganese, and that sim- the lower right of the constellation, bordering Pegasus.
ilar lines were present in the spectrum of Leporis.* [27]
In 1931, W. W. Morgan identied 12 additional stars The location of Andromedae in the sky is shown on the
with lines from manganese appearing in their spec- left. It can be seen by the naked eye and is theoretically
tra.* [28] Many of these stars were subsequently identied visible at all latitudes north of 60 S. During evening from
as part of the group of mercury-manganese stars,* [29] a August to October, it will be high in the sky as seen from
class of chemically peculiar stars which have an excess of the northern midlatitudes.* [35]
elements such as mercury, manganese, phosphorus, and
gallium in their atmospheres.* [30]* , 3.4. In the case of
Andromedae, the brighter primary star is a mercury- 54.4 Optical companion
manganese star which, as well as the elements already
mentioned, has excess xenon. The binary system described above has an optical visual
In 1970, Georges Michaud suggested that such companion, discovered by William Herschel on July 21,
chemically peculiar stars arose from radiative dif- 1781.* [10]* [37]* [38] Designated as ADS 94 B in the
fusion. According to this theory, in stars with unusually Aitken Double Star Catalogue, it is a G-type star with an
calm atmospheres, some elements sink under the force apparent visual magnitude of approximately 10.8.* [36]
of gravity, while others are pushed to the surface by Although by coincidence it appears near to the other two
radiation pressure.* [30]* , 4.* [31] This theory has stars in the sky, it is not close to them in space.* [37]
successfully explained many observed chemical peculiar-
ities, including those of mercury-manganese stars.* [30]* ,
4. 54.5 Notes and references
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the
54.2.2 Variability of primary new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
Andromedae has been reported to be slightly Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
variable,* [32] but observations from 1990 to 1994 found 6361:20078357.
54.5. NOTES AND REFERENCES 237
[2] Entry, WDS identier 00084+2905, Sixth Catalog of Or- [19] (2005). (in Chinese).
bits of Visual Binary Stars, William I. Hartkopf & Brian . p. 170. ISBN 978-986-7332-25-7.
D. Mason, U.S. Naval Observatory. Accessed on line Au-
gust 12, 2008. [20] - - (in Chi-
nese). Hong Kong Space Museum. Archived from the
[3] Hoeit, D.; Warren, W. H. Jr. HR 15. The Bright original on 25 October 2008. Retrieved November 26,
Star Catalogue (5th Revised ed.). VizieR. and Hoeit, 2008.
D.; Warren, W. H. Jr. Detailed Description of V/50
. The Bright Star Catalogue (5th Revised ed.). Centre de [21] Olcott, W. T. (1911). Star Lore of All Ages. G.P. Put-
Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. nam's Sons. p. 26. LCCN 11031153.
[4] Tomkin, J.; Pan, X.; McCarthy, J. K. (1995). Spec- [22] Slipher, V. M. (1904).A list of ve stars having variable
troscopic detection of the secondaries of the Hyades radial velocities. The Astrophysical Journal. 20: 146.
interferometric spectroscopic binary theta2 Tauri and Bibcode:1904ApJ....20..146S. doi:10.1086/141148.
of the interferometric spectroscopic binary alpha An-
dromedae. Astronomical Journal. 109: 780. [23] Ludendor, H. (1907). Provisorische Bah-
Bibcode:1995AJ....109..780T. doi:10.1086/117321. nelemente des spektroskopischen Doppelsterns
Andromedae. Astronomische Nachrichten.
[5] Value is for the center of mass of the system. 176 (20): 327. Bibcode:1907AN....176..327L.
doi:10.1002/asna.19071762007.
[6] V* alf And Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD. August
12, 2008. [24] Baker, R. H. (1910). The orbit of An-
dromedae. Publications of the Allegheny Observa-
[7] Ryabchikova, T. A.; Malanushenko, V. P.; Adelman,
tory of the Western University of Pennsylvania. 1: 17.
S. J. (1999). Orbital elements and abundance analy-
Bibcode:1910PAllO...1...17B.
ses of the double-lined spectroscopic binary alpha An-
dromedae. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 351: 963. [25] Pan, X.; et al. (1992). Determination of the vi-
Bibcode:1999A&A...351..963R. sual orbit of the spectroscopic binary Alpha Andromedae
[8] Ryabchikova, T.; Malanushenko, V.; Adelman, S. J. with submilliarcsecond precision. The Astrophysi-
(1998). The double-lined spectroscopic binary al- cal Journal. 384: 624. Bibcode:1992ApJ...384..624P.
pha Andromedae: Orbital elements and elemental abun- doi:10.1086/170904.
dances. Contributions of the Astronomical Observatory [26] Lockyer, N.; Baxandall, F. E. (1906). Some
Skalnate Pleso. 27: 356. arXiv:astro-ph/9805205 . Stars with Peculiar Spectra. Proceedings
Bibcode:1998CoSka..27..356R. of the Royal Society of London. Series A. 77
(520): 550. Bibcode:1906RSPSA..77..550L.
[9] Kochukhov, O.; et al. (2007). Weather in stellar at-
doi:10.1098/rspa.1906.0049. JSTOR 92668.
mosphere revealed by the dynamics of mercury clouds
in Andromedae. Nature Physics. 3 (8): 526. [27] Baxandall, F. E. (1914). Stars, Spectra of, on the en-
arXiv:0705.4469 . Bibcode:2007NatPh...3..526K. hanced lines of Manganese in the spectrum of An-
doi:10.1038/nphys648. dromedae. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 74 (3): 250. Bibcode:1914MNRAS..74..250B.
[10] Entry 00084+2905, discoverer code H 5 32, components
doi:10.1093/mnras/74.3.250.
Aa-B, The Washington Double Star Catalog, United States
Naval Observatory. Accessed on line August 12, 2008. [28] Morgan, W. W. (1931). Studies in Peculiar Stel-
lar Spectra. I. The Manganese Lines in An-
[11] Entry 00084+2905, discoverer code MKT 11, compo-
dromedae. The Astrophysical Journal. 73: 104.
nents Aa, The Washington Double Star Catalog, United
Bibcode:1931ApJ....73..104M. doi:10.1086/143299.
States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line September 3,
2008. [29] Cowley, C. R.; Aikman, G. C. L. (1975). A study
[12] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. of the lambda 3984 feature in the mercury-manganese
stars. Publications of the Astronomical Society of
[13] Alpheratz, Kaler Stars 2/14/2013 the Pacic. 87: 513. Bibcode:1975PASP...87..513C.
doi:10.1086/129801.
[14] Bayers Uranometria and Bayer letters
[30] Smith, K. C. (1996). Chemically pecu-
[15] Allen, R. A. (1899). Star-names and Their Meanings. G.
liar hot stars. Astrophysics and Space Sci-
E. Stechert. p. 35. LCCN 99004138.
ence. 237: 77. Bibcode:1996Ap&SS.237...77S.
[16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- doi:10.1007/BF02424427.
[31] Michaud, G. (1970). Diusion Processes in Pecu-
[17] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No. liar a Stars. The Astrophysical Journal. 160: 641.
1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016. Bibcode:1970ApJ...160..641M. doi:10.1086/150459.
[18] Goldstein, B. R. (1985). Star Lists in Hebrew. [32] alf And * (entry 019001)". General Catalogue of Vari-
Centaurus. 28 (3): 185. Bibcode:1985Cent...28..185G. able Stars. Sternberg Astronomical Institute. Retrieved
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00745.x. August 12, 2008.
238 CHAPTER 54. ALPHA ANDROMEDAE
[33] Adelman, S. J.; et al. (1994). uvby pho-

tometry of the chemically peculiar stars Alpha An-
dromedae, HD 184905, HR 8216, and HR 8434.
Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 106: 333.
Bibcode:1994A&AS..106..333A.
[34] Adelman, S. J.; et al. (2002). The Variability of

the Hgii3984 Line of the MercuryManganese Star
Andromedae. The Astrophysical Journal. 575: 449.
Bibcode:2002ApJ...575..449A. doi:10.1086/341140.
[35] Alpheratz. MSN Encarta. Archived from the original

on 2009-10-31. Retrieved August 19, 2008.
[36] BD+28 4B Star in double system, SIMBAD. Accessed

on line August 12, 2008.
[37] Burnham, R. (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An

Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System.
1. Courier Dover Publications. p. 111. ISBN 0-486-
23567-X.
[38] See p.140, entry 32 in Herschel, M.; Watson, D. (1782).

Catalogue of Double Stars. By Mr. Herschel, F. R.
S. Communicated by Dr. Watson, Jun. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 72: 112
162. doi:10.1098/rstl.1782.0014. JSTOR 106455.
54.6 External links

Alpheratz on AstroDwarf
Coordinates: 00* h 08* m 23.2586* s, 29 05 25.555

Chapter 55
Beta Andromedae
This article is about the star. For the target drones, see
Galileo Mirach 150 and Galileo Mirach 26.
Beta Andromedae ( Andromedae, abbreviated Beta

And, And), also named Mirach,* [13] is a prominent
star in the northern constellation of Andromeda. It is lo-
cated northeast of the Great Square of Pegasus and is the-
oretically visible to all observers north of 54 S. It is com-
monly used by stargazers to nd the Andromeda Galaxy.
The galaxy NGC 404, also known as Mirach's Ghost, is
visible seven arc-minutes away.* [14]
This star has an average apparent visual magnitude of
2.05,* [2] which makes it the brightest star in the constel-
lation. However, the luminosity varies slightly from mag-
nitude +2.01 to +2.10.* [3] Based upon parallax measure-
ments, it is located at a distance of roughly 197 light-years
(60 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] The apparent magnitude
of this star is reduced by 0.06 from extinction caused by
Relative sizes of the components to the Sun (top right). Circle
the gas and dust along the line of sight.* [7] sizes relate to solar radii, italic numbers are solar mass estimates
to 4SF.
55.1 Properties description in the Alfonsine Tables of 1521 as su-

per mizar. Here, mirat is a corruption of the Arabic
Beta Andromedae is a red giant with a stellar classica- mzar girdle, which appeared in a Latin
tion of M0 III.* [4] Since 1943, the spectrum of this star translation of the Almagest.* [12] This word refers
has served as one of the stable anchor points by which to Mirach's position at the left hip of the princess
other stars are classied.* [15] It is suspected of being Andromeda.* [17]
a semiregular variable star whose apparent visual mag- In 2016, the International Astronomical Union
nitude varies from +2.01 to +2.10.* [3] At this stage of organized a Working Group on Star Names
the star's evolution, the outer envelope has expanded to (WGSN)* [18] to catalog and standardize proper
around 100 times the size of the Sun.* [10] It is radiating names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July
1995* [10] times the luminosity of the Sun at an eective 2016* [19] included a table of the rst two batches
temperature of 3842 K.* [11] of names approved by the WGSN; which included
Mirach for this star.
Medieval astronomers writing in Arabic called
55.2 Nomenclature Andromedae Janb al-Musalsalah (English: The
Side of the Chained (Lady)); it was part of the 26th
Beta Andromedae is the star's Bayer designation. manzil (Arabian lunar mansion) Ban al-t, the
Belly of the Fish, or Qalb al-t, the Heart of the
It had the traditional name of Mirach, and its varia- Fish.* [12]* [20] The star has also been called Cingu-
tions, such as Mirac, Mirar, Mirath, Mirak, etc. (the lum and Ventrale.* [12] This al-t was an indige-
name is spelled Merach in Burritt's The Geography nous Arabic constellation, not the WesternNorth-
of the Heavens),* [16] which come from the star's ern Fishpart of the constellation Pisces.* [20]
239
240 CHAPTER 55. BETA ANDROMEDAE
These names are not from the Arabic marqq, [8] Elgary, ystein; Engvold, Oddbjrn; Lund, Niels
loins, because it was never called al-Marqq in (March 1999), The Wilson-Bappu eect of the MgII
Arabian astronomy.* [20] Al Rish', the Cord (of K line - dependence on stellar temperature, activity and
the well-bucket), on al-Sf's star map. It is ori- metallicity, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 343: 222228,
gin of the proper name Alrescha for Alpha Pis- Bibcode:1999A&A...343..222E
cium.* [12]* [21]* [22] [9] Mirach Archived December 16, 2008, at the Wayback
Machine., Stars, Jim Kaler. Accessed on line August 13,
In Chinese, (Ku S), meaning Legs (asterism), 2008.
refers to an asterism consisting of Andromedae,
Andromedae, 65 Piscium, Andromedae, An- [10] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008), Ro-
dromedae, Andromedae, Andromedae, An- tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761
dromedae, Andromedae, Piscium, Piscium,
91 Piscium, Piscium, Piscium, Piscium and Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M, doi:10.1088/0004-
Piscium. Consequently, Andromedae itself is 6256/135/1/209
known as (Ku S ji, English: the Ninth
Star of Legs.)* [23] [11] Soubiran, C.; et al. (2008), Vertical distribution of
Galactic disk stars. IV. AMR and AVR from clump
The people of Micronesia named this star Kyyw, giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 480 (1): 91101,
meaningThe Porpoise, and this was used as one arXiv:0712.1370 , Bibcode:2008A&A...480...91S,
of the names of the months in Micronesia.* [24] doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078788
Mirach is listed in MUL.APIN as [12] Allen, R. A. (1899), Star-names and Their Meanings, p.
36
KA.MUSH.I.KU.E, meaning the Deleter
(the alternative star is Cas).* [25] [13] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[14] Darling, David, Mirach's Ghost (NGC 404)", The In-
ternet Encyclopedia of Science, retrieved 2008-08-15
55.3 References [15] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319,
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- [16] p. 18, The Geography of the Heavens, Elijah Hinsdale
6361:20078357 Burritt, Hiram Mattison, and Henry Whitall, New York:
Sheldon & Company, 1856.
[2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966),UBVRIJKL photometry of
[17] Mirach, MSN Encarta. Accessed on line August 19, 2008.
the bright stars, Communications of the Lunar and Plan-
Archived 2009-10-31.
etary Laboratory, 4 (99), Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
[3] NSV 414, database entry, table of suspected variable stars, trieved 22 May 2016.
Combined General Catalog of Variable Stars (GCVS4.2,
2004 Ed.), N. N. Samus, O. V. Durlevich, et al., CDS ID [19] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
II/250. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[4] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral Clas- [20] George A.Davis Jr. (1971) Selected List of Star Names, p.
sication, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astro- 5.
physics, 11 (1): 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M, [21] ibid. p. 19.
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
[22] Kunitsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of Mod-
[5] NAME MIRACH -- Variable Star, database entry, ern Star names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and
SIMBAD. Accessed on line August 12, 2008. Their Derivations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky Pub-
lishing Corp. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H. [23] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
Warren, Jr., CDS ID V/50. Accessed on line August 12, in Astronomy) 2006 5 19
2008.
[24] p. 345, Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and
[7] Famaey, B.; et al. (January 2005),Local kinematics of K Cultural Astronomy, David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone,
and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data. Anthony F. (FRW) Aveni, Berlin, Springer, 2011.
Revisiting the concept of superclusters, Astronomy and [25] Rogers, J. H. (February 1998). Origins of the ancient
Astrophysics, 430 (1): 165186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579 constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions. Journal
, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004- of the British Astronomical Association, no.1. 108: 928.
6361:20041272 Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R.
55.4 Further reading

Davis Jr., G. A., (1971) Pronunciations, Derivations,
and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names, (rep.)
Cambridge, Sky Publishing Corp.
Kunitzsch, P., (1959) Arabische Sternnamen in Eu-

ropa
Kunitzsch. P., (ed.) (1990) Der Sternkatalog des

Almagest, Band II
55.5 External links

Image MIRACH

Beta Andromedae on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS,
GALEX, IRAS, Hydrogen , X-Ray, Astrophoto,
Sky Map, Articles and images
Coordinates: 01* h 09* m 43.9236* s, +35 37

14.008
Chapter 56
Beta Ursae Minoris
For Ursa Minor Beta, see Places in The Hitchhiker's 56.2 Properties
Guide to the Galaxy.
This is a giant star with a stellar classication of K4
Beta Ursae Minoris ( Ursae Minoris, abbreviated III.* [3] It is 130 times more luminous than the Sun.
Beta UMi, UMi), also named Kochab,* [10] is the Kochab has reached a state in its evolution where the outer
brightest star in the bowl of the Little Dipper asterism envelope has expanded to 42* [7] times the girth of the
(which is part of the constellation of Ursa Minor), and Sun. This enlarged atmosphere is radiating 390* [7] times
only slightly fainter than Polaris, the northern pole star as much luminosity as the Sun from its outer atmosphere
and brightest star in Ursa Minor. Kochab is 16 degrees at an eective temperature of 4,030 K.* [7] This heat gives
from Polaris and has an apparent visual magnitude of the star the orange-hued glow of a K-type star.* [18]
2.08.* [2] The distance to this star from the Sun can be de- By modelling this star based upon evolutionary tracks,
duced from the parallax measurements made during the the mass of this star can be estimated as 2.2
Hipparcos mission, yielding a value of 130.9 light-years 0.3 that of the Sun. A mass estimate using the
(40.1 parsecs).* [1] interferometrically-measured radius of this star and its
Amateur astronomers can use Kochab as a very precise spectroscopically-determined surface gravity yields 2.5
guide for setting up a telescope, as the celestial north pole 0.9 solar masses.* [6] The star is known to undergo peri-
is located 43 arcminutes away from Polaris, very close to odic variations in luminosity over roughly 4.6 days, with
the line connecting Polaris with Kochab.* [11] the astroseismic frequencies depending sensitively on the
star's mass. From this, a much lower mass estimate of
1.3 0.3 solar is reached.* [6]
Kochab and its neighbor Pherkad served as twin pole
56.1 Nomenclature stars, circling the North Pole, from 1500 BC until 500
AD. Ancient Egyptian astronomers referred to them as
"The Indestructibles".* [19] Neither star was as proxim-
Ursae Minoris (Latinised to Beta Ursae Minoris) is the itous to the celestial north pole as Polaris is now.* [20]
star's Bayer designation. Today, they are sometimes referred to as theGuardians
It bore the traditional name Kochab which appeared of the Pole.* [20] Due to precession of the equinoxes,
in the Renaissance and its meaning is uncertain. It the previous holder of the title was Thuban, and the next
may be from Arabic al-kawkab or Hebrew was the present-day Polaris. This succession of pole stars
kkhv, both of which mean 'star', or more likely derived is a result of Earth's precessional motion.
from Alrucaba or Rucaba, a name applied to Theta Ur-
sae Majoris.* [12] In 2016, the International Astronom-
ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names 56.2.1 Planetary companion
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [14] in- Estimated to be around 2.95 billion years old, give or take
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved 1 billion years, Kochab was announced to have a plane-
by the WGSN; which included Kochab for this star. tary companion around 6.1 times as massive as Jupiter
with an orbit of 522 days.* [21]
In Chinese, (Bi J), meaning North Pole, refers to
an asterism consisting of Beta Ursae Minoris, Gamma
Ursae Minoris, 5 Ursae Minoris, 4 Ursae Minoris and
1694.* [15] Consequently, Beta Ursae Minoris itself is 56.3 References
known as (Bi J r, English: the Second Star
of North Pole.),* [16] representing (D), meaning Em- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
peror.* [17] of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
242
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , [16] (Chinese) ()

Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357 [17] (Chinese) - -
Archived August 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.,
[2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966),UBVRIJKL photometry of Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
the bright stars, Communications of the Lunar and Plan- 23, 2010.
etary Laboratory, 4 (99), Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
[3] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral Education, Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Re-
Classication, Annual Review of Astronomy and As- search Organisation, December 21, 2004, archived from
trophysics, 11: 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M, the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
[19] article Planet Earth: Ancient Astronomy Calendars,
[4] Famaey, B.; et al. (January 2005), Local kinematics Navigation, Predictions
[20] Benningeld, Damond (14 June 2015).Kochab. Star-
data. Revisiting the concept of superclusters, Astronomy
date Magazine. University of Texas McDonald Observa-
and Astrophysics, 430: 165186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
tory. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041272 [21] Lee, B.-C.; Han, I.; Park, M.-G.; Mkrtichian, D.E.;
Hatzes, A.P.; Kim, K.-M. (2014). Planetary Compan-
[5] Park, Sunkyung; et al. (2013), Wilson-Bappu ions in K giants Cancri, Leonis, and Ursae Minoris
Eect: Extended to Surface Gravity, The As- . Astronomy & Astrophysics. 566: 7. arXiv:1405.2127
tronomical Journal, 146 (4): 73, arXiv:1307.0592
. Bibcode:2014A&A...566A..67L. doi:10.1051/0004-
, Bibcode:2013AJ....146...73P, doi:10.1088/0004- 6361/201322608. A67.
6256/146/4/73.
[22] Schneider, Jean. Notes on Planet beta Umi b. Extra-
[6] Tarrant, N. J.; et al. (June 2008), Oscillations in Ur- solar Planets Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
sae Minoris. Observations with SMEI, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 483 (3, 2008): L43L46, arXiv:0804.3253
, Bibcode:2008A&A...483L..43T, doi:10.1051/0004- Coordinates: 14* h 50* m 42.3* s, +74 09 20
6361:200809738

omy and Astrophysics, 526: A100, arXiv:1010.3649
, Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014442
[8] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970), A cata-

logue of stellar rotational velocities, Contributi Os-
servatorio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago, 239 (1),
Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B
[9] KOCHAB -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Don-

nes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-01-11
[11] Sherrod, Clay (2001). ""Clay's Kochab Clock": Precise

Portable Polar Alignment EVERY Time!". Arkansas Sky
Observatories. Retrieved 2013-07-16.
[12] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of

Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names
and Their Derivations (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts: Sky Pub. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.



by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
Chapter 57
Alpha Ophiuchi
Alpha Ophiuchi ( Ophiuchi, abbreviated Alpha Oph, drogen at its core. The pair reached periastron passage,
Oph), also named Rasalhague,* [11] is a binary star or closest approach, around April 19, 2012, when they
and the brightest star in the constellation of Ophiuchus. had an angular separation of 50 milliarcseconds.* [4]
This star system has a combined apparent magnitude of
+2.08 and is located at a distance of about 48.6 light-years
57.1 Nomenclature (14.9 parsecs) from the Earth. The stellar classication
of A5 III indicates that the primary is a giant star that has
Ophiuchi (Latinised to Alpha Ophiuchi) is the star's evolved away from the main sequence after consuming
Bayer designation. the hydrogen at its core. It is radiating about 25 times the
luminosity of the Sun and has an eective temperature of
It bore the traditional name Ras Alhague, often con- about 8,000 K, giving it the characteristic white hue of an
densed to Rasalhague. The name is from the Arabic A-type star.* [8]* [16]
(rais al-aww ), meaning the Head of the
Serpent collector.* [12] In 2016, the International As- Alpha Ophiuchi A is a rapidly rotating* star* with a
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star projected rotational velocity of 240 km s 1. [8] It is
Names (WGSN)* [13] to catalog and standardize proper spinning at a rate of about 88.5% *
of the velocity that
names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July would cause the star to break up. [17] The resulting equa-
*
2016 [14] included a table of the rst two batches of torial bulge is about 20% larger than the polar radius, giv-
names approved by the WGSN; which included Rasal- ing the star the shape of an oblate spheroid. Because of
hague for this star. this distorted shape, the poles have an eective temper-
ature about 1,840 K greater than along the equator.* [4]
The Chinese name (Mandarin: Hu) meaning 'As- The axis of rotation of the star is inclined about 87.7
trologer', because this star is marking itself and stand 04 to the line of sight from the Earth, so that it is being
alone in the 'Astrologer' asterism, Heavenly Market en- observed from nearly equator-on.* [17]
closure (see : Chinese constellation).* [15] (Hu) west-
ernized into How in R.H. Allen's work, meaning the The spectrum of Alpha Ophiuchi shows an anomalously
Duke.* [12] high level of absorption of the lines for singly-ionized cal-
cium (Ca II). However, this is likely the result of inter-
stellar matter between the Earth and the star, rather than
a property of the star or circumstellar dust.* [18]
57.2 Properties
Alpha Ophiuchi is a binary star system with an orbital 57.3 References
period of about 8.62 years. The orbital parameters were
only poorly known until 2011 when observations using [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
adaptive optics produced a better orbital t, allowing the of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
individual masses of the two components to be deter- Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
mined. The primary component, Alpha Ophiuchi A, has Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
a mass of about 2.4 times the mass of the Sun, while the 6361:20078357
secondary, Alpha Ophiuchi B, has 0.85 solar masses.* [4]
Estimates of the mass of the primary by other means [2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
range from a low of 1.92 to 2.10 solar masses, up to 2.84 tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
or even 4.8 solar masses.* [9] The mass of the secondary
suggests that it has a stellar classication in the range K5V
to K7V, which indicates it is a main sequence star that is [3] Cowley, A.; et al. (April 1969), A study of
still generating energy by the thermonuclear fusion of hy- the bright A stars. I. A catalogue of spectral
244
classications, Astronomical Journal, 74: 375406, [17] Zhao, M.; et al. (February 2010), Rivinius, Th.; Cur, M.,
Bibcode:1969AJ.....74..375C, doi:10.1086/110819 eds.,Imaging and Modeling Rapid Rotators: Cep and
Oph, The Interferometric View on Hot Stars, Revista
[4] Hinkley, Sasha; et al. (January 2011), Establish- Mexicana de Astronoma y Astrofsica (Serie de Conferen-
ing Oph as a Prototype Rotator: Improved Astro- cias), 38: 117118, Bibcode:2010RMxAC..38..117Z
metric Orbit, The Astrophysical Journal, 726 (2):
[18] Redeld, Seth; Kessler-Silacci, Jacqueline E.; Cieza,
104, arXiv:1010.4028 , Bibcode:2011ApJ...726..104H,
Lucas A. (June 2007),Spitzer Limits on Dust Emission
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/726/2/104
and Optical Gas Absorption Variability around Nearby
Stars with Edge-on Circumstellar Disk Signatures, The
Astrophysical Journal, 661 (2): 944971, arXiv:astro-
General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Determina- ph/0703089 , Bibcode:2007ApJ...661..944R,
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, University doi:10.1086/517516
57.4 External links
[6] Gatewood, George (2005). An Astrometric Study of
the Binary Star Ophiuchi. The Astronomical Jour-
nal. 130 (2): 809814. Bibcode:2005AJ....130..809G. Kaler, James B., RASALHAGUE (Alpha Ophi-
doi:10.1086/431723. ISSN 0004-6256. uchi)", Stars, University of Illinois, retrieved 2011-
12-25
(3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M
[8] Deupree, Robert G. (November 2011), Theoreti-

cal p-Mode Oscillation Frequencies for the Rapidly
Rotating Scuti Star Ophiuchi, The Astro-
physical Journal, 742 (1): 9, arXiv:1110.1345 ,
Bibcode:2011ApJ...742....9D, doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/742/1/9
[9] Zhao, M.; et al. (August 2009), Imaging and Mod-

eling Rapidly Rotating Stars: Cephei and Ophi-
uchi, The Astrophysical Journal, 701 (1): 209
224, arXiv:0906.2241 , Bibcode:2009ApJ...701..209Z,
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/701/1/209
[10] RASALHAGUE -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre

12-25
[12] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star-names and

their meanings, New York, G. E. Stechert: 300,
Bibcode:1899sntm.book.....A, retrieved 2011-12-25




01-16
Chapter 58
Algol
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Algol The association of Algol with a demon-like creature
(disambiguation). (Gorgon in the Greek tradition, ghoul in the Arabic tra-
dition) suggests that its variability was known long before
*
Algol, designated Beta Persei ( Persei, abbreviated the 17th century, [13] but except for the Ancient Egyp-
tian discovery there is still no indisputable evidence for
Beta Per, Per), known colloquially as the Demon Star, *
is a bright multiple star in the constellation of Perseus. It this. [14]
is the rst and best known eclipsing binary, and one of The variability of Algol was noted in 1667 by Italian as-
the rst non-nova variable stars to be discovered. It is tronomer Geminiano Montanari,* [15] but the periodic
a three-star system, consisting of Beta Persei Aa1, Aa2, nature of its variations in brightness was not recognized
and Ab - in which the large and bright primary Persei until more than a century later, when the British amateur
Aa1 is regularly eclipsed by the dimmer Persei Aa2. astronomer John Goodricke also proposed a mechanism
Thus, Algol's magnitude is usually near-constant at 2.1, for the star's variability.* [16] In May 1783, he presented
but regularly dips to 3.4 every 2.86 days (2 days, 20 hours his ndings to the Royal Society, suggesting that the pe-
and 49 minutes) during the roughly 10-hour-long partial riodic variability was caused by a dark body passing in
eclipses. There is also a secondary eclipse (the sec- front of the star (or else that the star itself has a darker
ond minimum) when the brighter star occults the fainter region that is periodically turned toward the Earth). For
secondary. This secondary eclipse can only be detected his report he was awarded the Copley Medal.* [17]
photoelectrically.* [9] In 1881, the Harvard astronomer Edward Charles Picker-
Algol gives its name to its class of eclipsing variable, ing presented evidence that Algol was actually an eclips-
known as Algol variables. ing binary.* [18] This was conrmed a few years later, in
1889, when the Potsdam astronomer Hermann Carl Vo-
gel found periodic doppler shifts in the spectrum of Algol,
inferring variations in the radial velocity of this binary
58.1 Observation history system.* [19] Thus Algol became one of the rst known
spectroscopic binaries. Joel Stebbins at the University of
Illinois Observatory used an early selenium cell photome-
ter to produce the rst-ever photoelectric study of a vari-
able star. The light curve revealed the second minimum
and the reection eect between the two stars.* [20] Some
diculties in explaining the observed spectroscopic fea-
tures led to the conjecture that a third star may be present
in the system; four decades later this conjecture was
found to be correct.* [21]
The Algol system on 12 August 2009. This is a CHARA inter-

ferometer image with 1/2-milliarcsecond resolution in the near-
infrared H-band. The elongated appearance of Algol Aa2 (la-
58.2 System
belled B) and the round appearance of Algol Aa1 (labelled A)
are real, but the form of Algol Ab (labelled C) is an artifact.
From the point of view of the Earth, Algol Aa1 and Algol
Aa2 form an eclipsing binary because their orbital plane
An Ancient Egyptian Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky contains the line of sight to the Earth. To be more precise,
Days composed some 3,200 years ago is claimed to be Algol is a triple-star system: the eclipsing binary pair is
the oldest historical document of the discovery of Al- separated by only 0.062 astronomical units (au) from each
gol.* [10]* [11] * [12] other, whereas the third star in the system (Algol Ab) is
246
58.3. NAMES 247
Applegate mechanism.* [26] Mass transfer between the

components is small in the Algol system* [27] but could
be a signicant source of period change in other Algol-
type binaries.
Algol is about 92.8 light years from the Sun, but about 7.3
million years ago it passed within 9.8 light years of the
Solar System* [28] and its apparent magnitude was about
2.5, which is considerably brighter than the star Sirius
is today. Because the total mass of the Algol system is
about 5.8 solar masses, at the closest approach this might
have given enough gravity to perturb the Oort cloud of
the Solar System somewhat and hence increase the num-
ber of comets entering the inner Solar System. However,
the actual increase in net cometary collisions is thought
to have been quite small.* [29]
Algol Aa2 orbits Algol Aa1. This animation was assembled from
58.3 Names
55 images of the CHARA interferometer in the near-infrared H-
band, sorted according to orbital phase. Because some phases Beta Persei is the star's Bayer designation. The name Al-
are poorly covered, Aa2 jumps at some points along its path. gol derives from Arabic ras al-ghl : head (ras)
of the ogre (al-ghl) (see "ghoul").* [30] The English
name "Demon Star" is a direct translation of this.* [31]
at an average distance of 2.69 au from the pair, and the
mutual orbital period of the trio is 681 Earth days. The
total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the
mass ratios of Aa1, Aa2, and Ab are about 4.5 to 1 to 2.
The three components of the bright triple star used to be, two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
and still sometimes are, referred to as Per A, B, and C. cluded Algol for this star. It is so entered on the IAU
The Washington Double Star Catalog lists them as Aa1, Catalog of Star Names.* [34]
Aa2, and An, with two very faint stars B and C about one
In Hebrew folklore, Algol was called Rsh ha Sn or
arcmin distant. A further ve faint stars are also listed as
Satan's Head, as stated by Edmund Chilmead, who
companions.* [22]
called itDivels heador Rosch hassatan. A Latin name
Studies of Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory for Algol from the 16th century was Caput Larvae orthe
of stellar evolution: although components of a binary star Spectre's Head.* [31] Hipparchus and Pliny made this
form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much a separate, though connected, constellation.* [31]
faster than the less massive stars, the more massive com-
In Chinese, (D Lng), meaning Mausoleum, refers
ponent Algol A is still in the main sequence, but the less
to an asterism consisting of Persei, 9 Persei, Persei,
massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolution-
Persei, Persei, Persei, 16 Persei and 12 Persei. Conse-
ary stage. The paradox can be solved by mass transfer:
quently, Persei itself is known as (D Lng wu,
when the more massive star became a subgiant, it lled
English: The Fifth Star of Mausoleum.).* [35] According
its Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to
to R.H. Allen the star bore the grim name of Tseih She
the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some
(Di Sh), meaningPiled up Corpses* [31] but this
binaries similar to Algol, a gas ow can be seen.* [23]
appears to be a misidentication, and Di Sh is correctly
This system also exhibits x-ray and radio wave ares. The Persei, which is inside the Mausoleum.* [36]
x-ray ares are thought to be caused by the magnetic
elds of the A and B components interacting with the
mass transfer.* [24] The radio-wave ares might be cre-
ated by magnetic cycles similar to those of sunspots, but 58.4 Cultural signicance
because the magnetic elds of these stars are up to ten
times stronger than the eld of the Sun, these radio ares See also: Algol in astrology
are more powerful and more persistent.* [25]
Magnetic activity cycles in the chromospherically active Historically, the star has received a strong association
secondary component induce changes in its radius of with bloody violence across a wide variety of cultures.
gyration that have been linked to recurrent orbital pe- In the Tetrabiblos, the 2nd-century astrological text of
riod variations on the order of P/P 10* 5 via the the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, Algol is referred to
248 CHAPTER 58. ALGOL
as the Gorgon of Perseus" and associated with death [8] Tomkin, J.; Huisong, T. (1985).The rotation of the pri-
by decapitation: a theme which mirrors the myth of mary of Algol. Publications of the Astronomical Soci-
the hero Perseus's victory over the snake-haired Gorgon ety of the Pacic. 97: 51. Bibcode:1985PASP...97...51T.
Medusa.* [37] Astrologically, Algol is considered one of doi:10.1086/131493.
the unluckiest stars in the sky,* [31] and was listed as one [9] Beta Persei (Algol)". AAVSO. January 1999. Archived
of the 15 Behenian stars.* [38] from the original on 8 July 2006. Retrieved 31 July 2006.
[10] Porceddu, S.; Jetsu, L.; Lyytinen, J.; Kajatkari, P.; Lehti-
nen, J.; Markkanen, T; et al. (2008). Evidence of Peri-
58.5 See also odicity in Ancient Egyptian Calendars of Lucky and Un-
lucky Days. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 18 (3):
327339. doi:10.1017/S0959774308000395.
Algol in ction
[11] Jetsu, L.; Porceddu, S.; Lyytinen, J.; Kajatkari, P.;
Lehtinen, J.; Markkanen, T; et al. (2013). Did
the Ancient Egyptians Record the Period of the Eclips-
58.6 References ing Binary Algol - The Raging One?". The Astrophys-
ical Journal. 773 (1): A1 (14pp). arXiv:1204.6206
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new . Bibcode:2013ApJ...773....1J. doi:10.1088/0004-
Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and Astro- 637X/773/1/1.
physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 . [12] Jetsu, L.; Porceddu, S. (2015). Shifting Mile-
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- stones of Natural Sciences: The Ancient Egyp-
6361:20078357. tian Discovery of Algol's Period Conrmed
. PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e.0144140 (23pp).
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system arXiv:1601.06990 . Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1044140J.
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144140.
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. [13] Wilk, Stephen R. (1996). Mythological Evidence for
Ancient Observations of Variable Stars. The Journal of
[3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR the American Association of Variable Star Observers. 24
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars (2): 12933. Bibcode:1996JAVSO..24..129W.
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: [14] G.A. Davis, Why did the Arabs Call Beta Persei al-
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. Ghul"?", Sky and Telescope, 16 (1957), 177 ADS.
[15] G. Montanari,Sopra la sparizione d'alcune stelle et altre

[4] Lestrade, Jean-Francois; Phillips, Robert B.; Hodges,
novit celesti, in: Prose de Signori Accademici Gelati di
Mark W.; Preston, Robert A. (1993). VLBI
Bologna (Bologna: Manolessi, 1671), pp. 369-92 (Google
astrometric identication of the radio emitting re-
books).
gion in Algol and determination of the orientation
of the close binary. The Astrophysical Jour- [16] ADS O.J. Eggen,"An Eighteenth Century Discussion of
nal. 410: 808. Bibcode:1993ApJ...410..808L. Algol, The Observatory, 77 (1957), 191-197.
doi:10.1086/172798. ISSN 0004-637X.
[17] John Goodricke, The Discovery of the Occultating Vari-
[5] Soderhjelm, S. (1980). Geometry and dynamics of the able Stars. 6 August 2003. Archived from the original
Algol system. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 89: 100. on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 31 July 2006.
Bibcode:1980A&A....89..100S.
[18] Pickering, Edward C. (1881). Dimensions of the Fixed
Stars, with especial reference to Binaries and Variables of
[6] Baron, F.; Monnier, J. D.; Pedretti, E.; Zhao, M.; Schae-
the Algol type. Astronomical Register. 50 (1-2): 253
fer, G.; Parks, R.; Che, X.; Thureau, N.; Ten Brummelaar,
56. Bibcode:1881AReg...19..253.
T. A.; McAlister, H. A.; Ridgway, S. T.; Farrington, C.;
Sturmann, J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N. (2012).Imaging [19] A. H. Batten (1989). Two Centuries of Study
the Algol Triple System in the H Band with the CHARA of Algol Systems. Space Science Reviews.
Interferometer. The Astrophysical Journal. 752: 50 (1/2): 18. Bibcode:1989SSRv...50....1B.
20. arXiv:1205.0754 . Bibcode:2012ApJ...752...20B. doi:10.1007/BF00215914.
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/752/1/20.
[20] J. Stebbins (1910). The Measurement of the Light
of Stars with a Selenium Photometer with an Applica-
[7] Zavala, R. T.; Hummel, C. A.; Boboltz, D. A.; Ojha,
tion to the Variation of Algol. Astrophysical Jour-
R.; Shaer, D. B.; Tycner, C.; Richards, M. T.; Hut-
nal. 32: 185214. Bibcode:1910ApJ....32..185S.
ter, D. J. (2010). The Algol Triple System Spa-
doi:10.1086/141796.
tially Resolved at Optical Wavelengths. The Astro-
physical Journal Letters. 715: L44. arXiv:1005.0626 [21] Meltzer, Alan S., A Spectroscopic Investigation of Al-
. Bibcode:2010ApJ...715L..44Z. doi:10.1088/2041- gol. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 125, (1957), p.359,
8205/715/1/L44. BibCode:1957ApJ...125..359M
[22] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William [37] Robbins, Frank E. (ed.) 1940. Ptolemy: Tetrabib-
I.; Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001). los. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
The 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD- (Loeb Classical Library). ISBN 0-674-99479-5, IV.9,
ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog. p.435.
Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. doi:10.1086/323920. [38] Henry Cornelius Agrippa. Three Books of Occult Philos-
ophy. Lyons, 1531/33. Llewellyn reprint, 1993; tr. J.
[23] Pustylnik, Izold (1995). On Accretion Component of Freake (1651), ed. D. Tyson, p.411.
the Flare Activity in Algol. Baltic Astronomy. 4 (1-2):
6478. Bibcode:1995BaltA...4...64P.
[24] M.J. Sarna; S.K. Yerli; A.G. Muslimov (1998). Mag-

58.7 External links
netic Activity and Evolution of Algol-type Stars - II
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Algol 3. SolStation. Retrieved 31 July 2006.
297 (3): 76068. Bibcode:1998MNRAS.297..760S.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01539.x. 4C02517. ARICNS. 4 March 1998. Archived
from the original on 10 February 2006. Retrieved
[25] Blue, Charles E. (3 June 2002). Binary Stars Flare 31 July 2006.
With Predictable Cycles, Analysis of Radio Observa-
tions Reveals. National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Algol. Alcyone ephemeris. Retrieved 8 June
Archived from the original on 2 July 2006. Retrieved 31 2006.
July 2006.
Bezza, Giuseppe. Al-ghl, the ogre. Translated
[26] Applegate, James H. (1992). A mechanism by Daria Dudziak. Cielo e Terra. Archived from the
for orbital period modulation in close binaries original on 20 June 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2006.
. Astrophysical Journal, Part 1. 385: 621629.
Bibcode:1992ApJ...385..621A. doi:10.1086/170967.
Coordinates: 03* h 08* m 10.1315* s, +40 57
[27] Wecht, Kristen (2006). Determination of Mass Loss 20.332
and Mass Transfer Rates of Algol (Beta Persei) from the
Analysis of Absorption Lines in the UV Spectra Obtained
by the IUE Satellite. arXiv:astro-ph/0611855 .
[28] Garcia-Sanchez, J.; Preston, R. A.; Jones, D. L.;

Lestrade, J.-F.; et al. (25 August 1997). A Search
for Stars Passing Close to the Sun. The First Re-
sults of Hipparcos and Tycho. Kyoto, Japan: IAU.
Bibcode:1997IAUJD..14E..51G.
[29] J. Garca-Snchez; R.A. Preston; D.L. Jones; P.R. Weiss-

man (1999). Stellar Encounters with the Oort Cloud
Based on Hipparcos Data. The Astronomical Jour-
nal. 117 (2): 104255. Bibcode:1999AJ....117.1042G.
doi:10.1086/300723.
[30] P. Kunitzsch & T. Smart, Short Guide to Modern Star

Names and Their Derivations (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras-
sowitz, 1986), p 49.
[31] Allen, R. H. (1963) [1899]. Star Names: Their Lore and

Meaning (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover Publications
Inc. p. 331. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.



[36] Ian Ridpath's Star Tales Perseus

Chapter 59
Beta Gruis
Beta Gruis ( Gruis, Gru) is the second brightest star with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst.
in the southern constellation of Grus. It was once con- Heidelb, Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35
sidered the rear star in the tail of the constellation of the (35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
(Southern) Fish: it, with , , . , and Gru, belonged
[6] Park, Sunkyung; et al. (2013), Wilson-Bappu
to Piscis Austrinus in medieval Arabic astronomy.* [11] Eect: Extended to Surface Gravity, The As-
This is a red giant star* [3] with an estimated mass of tronomical Journal, 146 (4): 73, arXiv:1307.0592
about 2.4 times that of the Sun and a surface temperature , Bibcode:2013AJ....146...73P, doi:10.1088/0004-
of approximately 3,480 K,* [9] just over half the surface 6256/146/4/73.
temperature of the Sun. This low temperature accounts
[7] Gondoin, P. (December 1999), Evolution of X-ray ac-
for the dull red color of an M-type star. The total lu- tivity and rotation on G-K giants, Astronomy and Astro-
minosity is about 2,500 times that of the Sun, and it has physics, 352: 217227, Bibcode:1999A&A...352..217G
estimated 180 times the Sun's radius.* [7]
[8] Judge, P. G. (November 1986), Constraints on the
Beta Gruis is a type semiregular variable (SRb) star that Outer Atmospheric Structure of Late Type Giant Stars
varies in magnitude by about 0.4. It varies between inter- with IUE Application to Alpha-Tauri K5III and Beta-
vals when it displays regular changes with a 37-day peri- Gruis M5III, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
odicity and times when it undergoes slow irregular vari- Society, 223 (2): 239, Bibcode:1986MNRAS.223..239J,
ability.* [3] doi:10.1093/mnras/223.2.239
Beta Gruis played a crucial part in Perth Observatory's [9] Engelke, Charles W.; Price, Stephan D.; Kraemer, Kath-
tracking of comet 2000 WM1 LINEAR in December leen E. (October 2006), Spectral Irradiance Cali-
2001.* [12] bration in the Infrared. XVI. Improved Accuracy in
the Infrared Spectra of the Secondary and Tertiary
Standard Calibration Stars, The Astronomical Jour-
nal, 132 (4): 14451463, Bibcode:2006AJ....132.1445E,
59.1 References doi:10.1086/505865
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation [10] V* bet Gru -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Don-
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and nes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2010-01-05
[11] Allen, R. H. (1963), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
(rep ed.), New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc., p. 238,
6361:20078357
ISBN 0-486-21079-0
[12] Astronomy News. December 16, 2001.
Astronomy, 1: 117, Bibcode:1966PDAUC...1....1G
[3] Otero, S. A.; Moon, T. (December 2006), The Charac-

59.2 External links
teristic Period of Pulsation of Gruis, The Journal of
the American Association of Variable Star Observers, 34 MSN Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31)
(2): 156164, Bibcode:2006JAVSO..34..156O
[4] Houk, Nancy (1978), Michigan catalogue of two- Coordinates: 22* h 42* m 40.1* s, 46 53 05
dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, Ann Arbor
: Dept. of Astronomy, Ann Arbor: Dept. of Astronomy,

250
Chapter 60
Denebola
This article is about the star. For other uses, see Al arfah, the Changer (i.e. of the weather), as the star's
Denebola (disambiguation). individual title.* [16] Al-Biruni, a Muslim scholar and
Not to be confused with Deneb, a star in the constellation polymath of the 11th century, wrote of it: The heat
Cygnus. turns away when it rises, and the cold turns away when it
disappears.* [16]
Denebola, also designated Beta Leonis ( Leonis, ab- Ancient Chinese astronomers designated it the rst star
breviated Beta Leo, Leo) is the third-brightest star in of the ve-star asterism Seat of the Five Emperors,
the zodiac constellation of Leo. It is an A-type main se- hence its Chinese name (Wdzu-y ).
quence star with 75% more mass than the Sun and fteen In Hindu astronomy, Denebola corresponds to the
times the Sun's luminosity. Based on parallax measure- Nakshatra (a sector along the ecliptic) named Uttara
ments from the Hipparcos astrometry satellite, the star is Phalgun (second reddish one).
at a distance of about 36 light-years (11 parsecs) from
the Sun. Its apparent visual magnitude is 2.14, making Denebola, along with Spica and Arcturus, is part of the
it readily visible to the naked eye. Denebola is a sus- Spring Triangle asterism, and by extension, also of the
pected Delta Scuti type variable star, meaning its lumi- Great Diamond together with the star Cor Caroli.
nosity varies very slightly over a period of a few hours.
60.2 Properties
60.1 Nomenclature Denebola is a relatively young star with an age estimated
at less than 400 million years. Interferometric observa-
Leonis (Latinised to Beta Leonis) is the star's Bayer des- tions give a radius that is about 173% that of the Sun.
ignation. In Johann Bayer's Uranometria (1603), it was However, the high rate of rotation results in an oblate
designated (Beta) as the second-brightest star in the shape with an equatorial bulge. It has 75% more mass
constellation. It also bears the Flamsteed designation of than the Sun, which results in a much higher overall lu-
94 Leonis (assigned on the basis of increasing right as- minosity and a shorter life span on the main sequence.* [6]
cension rather than luminosity) and additional designa- Based upon the star's spectrum, it has a stellar classica-
tions followed as the star was recorded in subsequent star
tion of A3 V,* [17] with the luminosity class 'V' indicat-
catalogues. ing this is a normal main sequence star that is generating
The traditional name Denebola is shortened from Deneb energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core.
Alased, from the Arabic phrase anab al-asad The eective temperature of Denebola's outer envelope is
'tail of the lion', as it represents the lion's tail, the star's about 8,500 K, which results in the white hue typical of
position in the Leo constellation.* [11] (Deneb in Cygnus A-type stars. Denebola has a high projected rotational ve-
has a similar name origin.) In the Alphonsine Tables it locity of 128 km/s, which is of the same order of magni-
was recorded as Denebalezeth.* [12] On R. A. Proctor's tude as for the very rapidly rotating star Achernar. Com-
1871 star chart of the Northern Hemisphere it was desig- pare this to the Sun's more leisurely equatorial rotation
nated Deneb Aleet. In 2016, the International Astronom- velocity of 2 km/s.* [7] This star is believed to be a Delta
ical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names Scuti variable star that exhibits uctuations in luminosity
(WGSN)* [13] to catalog and standardize proper names of 0.025 magnitudes roughly ten times per day.* [4]
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [14] in- Denebola shows a strong infrared excess, which most
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved likely means there is a circumstellar debris disk of cool
by the WGSN; which included Denebola for this star. It dust in orbit around it.* [18] As the solar system is be-
is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [15] lieved to have formed out of such a disk, Denebola and
Fifteenth-century astronomer Ulugh Beg, gives the name similar stars such as Vega and Beta Pictoris may be candi-
251
252 CHAPTER 60. DENEBOLA
date locations for extrasolar planets. The dust surround- [5] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry;
ing Denebola has a temperature of about 120 K (153 Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision of the
C). Observations with the Herschel Space Observatory General Catalogue of Radial Velocities, Determina-
have provided resolved images, which show the disk to be tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, University
located at a radius of 39 astronomical units from the star, of Toronto: International Astronomical Union, 30: 57,
or 39 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun.* [19]
Kinematic studies have shown that Denebola is part of [6] Di Folco, E.; et al. (2004). VLTI near-IR in-
a stellar association dubbed the IC 2391 supercluster. terferometric observations of Vega-like stars.
All the stars of this group share a roughly common mo- Astronomy and Astrophysics. 426 (2): 601617.
Bibcode:2004A&A...426..601D. doi:10.1051/0004-
tion through space, although they are not gravitationally
6361:20047189.
bound. This suggests that they were born in the same
location, and perhaps initially formed an open cluster. [7] Acke, B.; Waelkens, C. (2004). Chemical analysis of
Other stars in this association include Alpha Pictoris, 24 dusty (pre-)main sequence stars. Astronomy and As-
Beta Canis Minoris and the open cluster IC 2391. In to- trophysics. 427 (3): 10091017. arXiv:astro-ph/0408221
tal more than sixty probable members of the group have . Bibcode:2004A&A...427.1009A. doi:10.1051/0004-
been identied.* [20] 6361:20041460.

60.3 In culture ity distributions, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
In astrology, Denebola was believed to portend misfor- Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
tune and disgrace.* [21] 6361:20065224
[9] SIMBAD query result: V* bet Leo -- Variable Star of

delta Sct type. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de
60.4 See also Strasbourg. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
List of nearest bright stars [10] Denebola. Alcyone. Retrieved 2006-08-10.

(Reprint ed.), New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc, p.
60.5 References 258, ISBN 0-486-21079-0, retrieved 2010-12-12
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of [12] Kunitzsch, Paul (1986). The Star Catalogue Com-
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- monly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables. Jour-
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 nal for the History of Astronomy. 17 (49): 8998.
Bibcode:1986JHA....17...89K.
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357. [13] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
[2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; et al. (1966), A System trieved 22 May 2016.
Astronomy, 1: 117, Bibcode:1966PDAUC...1....1G
[3] Akeson, R. L.; Chen, X.; Ciardi, D.; Crane, M.; Good, [15] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
J.; Harbut, M.; Jackson, E.; Kane, S. R.; Laity, A.
[16] LacusCurtius Allen's Star Names Leo
C.; Leifer, S.; Lynn, M.; McElroy, D. L.; Papin, M.;
Plavchan, P.; Ramrez, S. V.; Rey, R.; von Braun, K.; [17] Cowley, A.; et al. (April 1969), A study of
Wittman, M.; Abajian, M.; Ali, B.; Beichman, C.; Beek- the bright A stars. I. A catalogue of spectral
ley, A.; Berriman, G. B.; Beruko, S.; Bryden, G.; Chan, classications, Astronomical Journal, 74: 375406,
B.; Groom, S.; Lau, C.; Payne, A. N.; et al. (2013). Bibcode:1969AJ.....74..375C, doi:10.1086/110819
The NASA Exoplanet Archive: Data and Tools for Ex-
oplanet Research. Publications of the Astronomical So- [18] Cote, J. (1987). B and A type stars with unex-
ciety of the Pacic. 125 (930): 989. arXiv:1307.2944 . pectedly large colour excesses at IRAS wavelengths
Bibcode:2013PASP..125..989A. doi:10.1086/672273. . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 181 (1): 7784.
Bibcode:1987A&A...181...77C.
[4] Mkrtichian, D. E.; Yurkov, A. (57 November 1997). "
Leo - Back to Delta Scuti Stars?". Proceedings of the 20th [19] Matthews, B. C.; et al. (2010). Resolving debris discs
Stellar Conference of the Czech and Slovak Astronomical in the far-infrared: Early highlights from the DEBRIS
Institutes. Brno, Czech Republic: Dordrecht, D. Reidel survey. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 518: L135.
Publishing Co. p. 172. Bibcode:1998vsr..conf..143M. Bibcode:2010A&A...518L.135M. doi:10.1051/0004-
ISBN 80-85882-08-6. 6361/201014667.
[20] Eggen, O. J. (1991). The IC 2391 superclus-

ter. Astronomical Journal. 102: 20282040.
Bibcode:1991AJ....102.2028E. doi:10.1086/116025.
[21] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899). Star Names and their

Meanings. New York, Leipzig: G. E. Stechert.
60.6 External links

Kaler, Jim. Denebola. Stars. University of Illi-
nois. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
Chapter 61
Zeta Puppis
Zeta Puppis ( Puppis, abbreviated Zeta Pup, Pup), 61.2 Physical characteristics
also named Naos,* [10] is a star in the constellation of
Puppis.
The spectral class of O4 means this is one of the hottest, Zeta Puppis has been extensively studied because of its
and most luminous, stars visible to the naked eye. It is rareness and relative closeness to Earth, but its physical
one of the sky's few naked-eye class O-type stars as well parameters and distance are still poorly known. It should
as one of the closest to Earth.* [5] It is a blue supergiant, be a valuable step on the cosmic distance ladder, clari-
one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way. Visu- fying the distance of other high luminosity stars in the
ally it is over 10,000 times brighter than the Sun, but its Milky Way galaxy and external galaxies.
high temperature means that most of its radiation is in the
The spectral type is O4If(n)p. O4 indicates a
ultraviolet and its bolometric luminosity is over 500,000
hot massive hydrogen-burning star, typically 40,000-
times that of the Sun. It is also the 62nd brightest star in
44,000K.* [5]* [6]* [8] The findicates that the spec-
terms of apparent magnitude from Earth.
trum has emission lines of ionised Helium and Nitrogen,
Naos is typical of O-type stars in having an extremely not uncommon in somewhat evolved hot O stars and typi-
strong stellar wind, measured at 2,500 km/s,* [11] which cally identied by the composite emission and absorption
sees the star shed more than a millionth of its mass each prole of the 468.6nm HeII spectral line. The n(for
year,* [11] or about 10 million times that shed by the Sun nebulous) indicates broadened absorption lines, caused
over a comparable time period. by rapid rotation of the star, in this case over 220 km/s
at the equator. The pis a general spectral indicator
of peculiarity. This combination of spectral characters is
unusual because evolved hot stars are expected to rotate
relatively slowly after braking by a strong stellar wind, and
only 8 stars of this type are known in the Milky Way.* [13]
61.1 Nomenclature The spectral type complicates determination of physical
parameters as the standard spectral luminosity indicator
Puppis (Latinised to Zeta Puppis) is the star's Bayer des- lines are peculiar and this type of star cannot be fully
ignation. modelled. The enhanced Helium and Nitrogen and the
lower surface gravity indicates some degree of evolution
It also bears the traditional names Naos (/ne.s/, from away from the zero age main sequence and Zeta Puppis
the Greek ship) and Suhail Hadar ( , is ranked as a supergiant.* [6]
possibly roaring bright one) in Arabic. In 2016, the
The angular size of Zeta Puppis has been measured in-
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [12] to catalogue and terferometrically to be 0.41 mas,* [14] and photometri-
cally to be 0.38 mas.* [15] A known distance would di-
standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved
rectly give the actual size of the star, which would con-
the name Naos for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is
ne other characters such as luminosity and mass. Publi-
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [10]
cations of the distance of Zeta Puppis vary from around
300pc based on dynamical measurements or parallax to
over 600pc based on physical modelling.* [5] This leads
to estimates of luminosity between 550,000 and 800,000
times the Sun, mass between 22.5 and 56 times the Sun,
61.1.1 Namesake and radius between 14 and 26 times the Sun. The revised
Hipparcos parallax value give a distance of 335 parsecs
USS Naos (AK-105) was a United States Navy Crater (1,093 ly) 4%,* [16] much lower than expected from the
class cargo ship named after the star. observed characteristics of the star.
254
Zeta Puppis has been reported to be variable and is clas- 50. arXiv:1101.4002 . Bibcode:2011ApJS..193...24S.
sied as a suspected Alpha Cygni variable. It shows vari- doi:10.1088/0067-0049/193/2/24.
ations in H spectral line proles and x-ray luminosity on
timescales less than a day.* [17]* [18]
61.2.1 Helium 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
In 1896, Williamina Fleming observed mysterious spec- [5] Schilbach, E.; Rser, S. (2008). On the origin of eld
tral lines from Zeta Puppis, which t the Rydberg for- O-type stars. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 489: 105.
mula if half-integers were used instead of whole inte- arXiv:0806.0762 . Bibcode:2008A&A...489..105S.
gers. It was later found that these were due to ionized doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809936.
helium.* [19]
[6] Bouret, J. -C.; Hillier, D. J.; Lanz, T.; Fullerton, A. W.
(2012).Properties of Galactic early-type O-supergiants:
A combined FUV-UV and optical analysis. Astron-
61.3 Origin omy & Astrophysics. 544: A67. arXiv:1205.3075v1
[astro-ph.SR]. Bibcode:2012A&A...544A..67B.
Early suggestions for the birthplace of Zeta Puppis were doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118594.
the very young Vela R2 stellar association at around [7] Underhill, A. B.; Divan, L.; Prevot-Burnichon, M. - L.;
800pc and the Vela OB2 association at 450pc.* [20] Nei- Doazan, V. (1979). Eective temperatures, angular
ther origin is satisfactory. A distance of 800pc requires diameters, distances and linear radii for 160 O and B
an abnormally high luminosity, while the Vela OB2 as- stars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So-
sociation is much older than Zeta Puppis and the space ciety. 189 (3): 601. Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U.
velocity does not lead back to that cluster. doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601.
Many physical models and the original Hipparchos paral- [8] Markova, N.; Puls, J.; Simn-Daz, S.; Herrero, A.;
lax measurements did lead to a distance value of around Markov, H.; Langer, N. (2014). Spectroscopic and
450pc, but the revised Hipparchos reduction gave a much physical parameters of Galactic O-type stars. As-
lower distance near 333pc. A recent dynamical study tronomy & Astrophysics. 562: A37. arXiv:1310.8546
points to Zeta Puppis originating in the Trumpler 10 OB . Bibcode:2014A&A...562A..37M. doi:10.1051/0004-
association at around 300pc, but this is also a much older 6361/201322661.
cluster and physical models still lead to a distance of 450-
[9] Dany Vanbeveren (2011). Zeta Pup: The merger of
600pc.* [5]
at least two massive stars. Proceedings of a Scientic
Zeta Puppis shows a high space velocity and very high ro- Meeting in Honor of Anthony F. J. Moat held at Auberge
tation rate, and it has been speculated that it is a runaway du Lac Taureau. 465: 342. arXiv:1109.6497v1 [astro-
star resulting from a supernova in a binary system, possi- ph.GA]. Bibcode:2012ASPC..465..342V.
bly the progenitor of the Gum Nebula* [21] but evidence
supporting this is sparse.* [22] [10] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[11] Eversberg, T.; Lepine, S.; Moat, A. F. J. (1998). Out-

moving Clumps in the Wind of the Hot O Supergiant
61.4 References Puppis. The Astrophysical Journal. 494 (2): 799.
Bibcode:1998ApJ...494..799E. doi:10.1086/305218.
[1] Van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the [12] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), International
new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016.
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [13] Walborn, Nolan R.; Howarth, Ian D.; Evans, Christopher
6361:20078357. J.; Crowther, Paul A.; Moat, Anthony F. J.; St-Louis,
Nicole; Farina, Cecilia; Bosch, Guillermo L.; Morrell,
[2] Ducati, J. R. (2002).VizieR Online Data Catalog: Cata- Nidia I.; Barba, Rodolfo H.; van Loon, Jacco Th. (2010).
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system The Onfp Class in the Magellanic Clouds. The As-
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. tronomical Journal. 139 (3): 1283. arXiv:1001.4032v1
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. [astro-ph.SR]. Bibcode:2010AJ....139.1283W.
doi:10.1088/0004-6256/139/3/1283.
[3] Sota, A.; Maz Apellniz, J.; Walborn, N. R.; Alfaro,
E. J.; Barb, R. H.; Morrell, N. I.; Gamen, R. C.; [14] Hanbury Brown, R.; Davis, J.; Allen, L. R.
Arias, J. I. (2011). The Galactic O-Star Spectro- (1974). The Angular Diameters of 32 Stars
scopic Survey. I. Classication System and Bright North- . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ern Stars in the Blue-Violet at R 2500. The As- ety. 167: 121. Bibcode:1974MNRAS.167..121H.
trophysical Journal Supplement Series. 193 (2): 24 doi:10.1093/mnras/167.1.121.
256 CHAPTER 61. ZETA PUPPIS
[15] Kudritzki, R. P.; Simon, K. P.; Hamann, W.-R. (1983).

Non-LTE analysis of massive O-stars. II - the O4 star
Zeta Puppis. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 118: 245.
Bibcode:1983A&A...118..245K.
[16] Maz Apellniz, J.; Alfaro, E. J.; Sota, A. (2008). Ac-

curate distances to nearby massive stars with the new
reduction of the Hipparcos raw data. 0804: 2553.
arXiv:0804.2553 . Bibcode:2008arXiv0804.2553M.
[17] Berghoefer, T. W.; Baade, D.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M.; Ku-

dritzki, R.-P.; Puls, J.; Hillier, D. J.; Pauldrach, A. W. A.
(1996).Correlated variability in the X-ray and H emis-
sion from the O4If supergiant Puppis. Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 306: 899. Bibcode:1996A&A...306..899B.
[18] Oskinova, L. M.; Todt, H.; Huenemoerder, D. P.; Hubrig,

S.; Ignace, R.; Hamann, W.-R.; Balona, L. (2015). On
X-ray pulsations in Cephei-type variables. Astron-
omy & Astrophysics. 577: A32. arXiv:1503.05749
. Bibcode:2015A&A...577A..32O. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201525908.
[19] Bohr, N. (1913).The Spectra of Helium and Hydrogen

. Nature. 92 (2295): 231. Bibcode:1913Natur..92..231B.
doi:10.1038/092231d0.
[20] Van Rensbergen, W.; Vanbeveren, D.; De Loore, C.

(1996). OB-runaways as a result of massive star
evolution. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 305: 825.
Bibcode:1996A&A...305..825V.
[21] Woermann, B.; Gaylard, M. J.; Otrupcek, R. (2001).

Kinematics of the Gum nebula region. Monthly No-
Bibcode:2001MNRAS.325.1213W. doi:10.1046/j.1365-
8711.2001.04558.x.
[22] Choudhury, R.; Bhatt, H. C. (2009). Kinemat-

ics of the young stellar objects associated with the
cometary globules in the Gum Nebula. Monthly No-
arXiv:0811.4389 . Bibcode:2009MNRAS.393..959C.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14189.x.
Chapter 62
Lambda Velorum
Lambda Velorum ( Velorum, abbreviated Lambda tudes +2.14 to +2.30.* [3]

Vel, Vel), also named Suhail,* [10] is a star in the south-
Velorum is an evolved star that has exhausted the hy-
ern constellation of Vela. With a mean apparent visual
drogen in its core region. It has about seven times the
magnitude of 2.21,* [2] this is the third-brightest star inmass of the Sun. It is likely to be on or approaching the
the constellation and one of the brighter stars in the sky.
asymptotic giant branch (AGB), although its properties
The distance to this star can be measured directly using do not exclude it being a slightly more massive star on
the parallax technique, yielding an estimated 545 light-
the red giant branch (RGB).* [15] As an AGB star it has
years (167 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] an inert core of carbon and oxygen and is alternately fus-
ing helium and hydrogen in two shells outside the core.
The star's outer envelope has expanded to form a deep,
62.1 Nomenclature convective, hydrogen burning layer that is generating a
magnetic eld. The surface strength of this eld has been
measured at 1.72 0.33 G.* [16] Massive stars use their
Velorum (Latinised to Lambda Velorum) is the star's
hydrogen fuelmuch faster than do smaller stars and
Bayer designation.
Lambda Velorum is estimated to be only some 32 million
It bore the traditional Arabic name suhayl years old.* [9]
al-wazn (Al Suhail al Wazn), but as a modern navigation
Velorum is near the upper end of the mass range
star this was shortened to Suhail. 'Suhail' (a common
for intermediate stars, which end their lives by produc-
Arabic male rst name) was traditionally used for at least
ing a planetary nebula and a white dwarf remnant. It
three other stars: Canopus; Gamma Velorum (al Suhail
may be massive enough to produce an electron capture
al Muhlif); and Zeta Puppis (Suhail Hadar). In 2016, the
supernova.* [17]
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [11] to catalogue and
standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved
the name Suhail for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is 62.3 References
now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names (Cano-
pus had its name approved as is, and Zeta Puppis was [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
given the name Naos).* [10] of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
In Chinese astronomy, Suhail is called , Pinyin: Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
Tinj, meaning Judge for Estimating the Age of Animals, 6361:20078357
because this star is marking itself and stands alone in
the Judge for Estimating the Age of Animals asterism, [2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
Ghost mansion (see : Chinese constellation).* [12] tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
(Tinj), westernized into Tseen Ke, but the name Tseen
Ke was designated for Psi Velorum by R. H. Allen works
and the meaning is Heaven's Record.* [13] [3] Ruban, E. V.; et al. (September 2006),
"=Spectrophotometric observations of vari-
able stars, Astronomy Letters, 32 (9):
604607, Bibcode:2006AstL...32..604R,
62.2 Properties doi:10.1134/S1063773706090052. See the
J/PAZh/32/672 VizieR catalogue entry.
The outer envelope of Velorum has an eective temper- [4] Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). The
ature of about 4,000 K, giving it the cool orange hue of a Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars
K-type star.* [14] It is an Lc-type, slow irregular variable . Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 71: 245.
star with its brightness varying between apparent magni- Bibcode:1989ApJS...71..245K. doi:10.1086/191373.
257
258 CHAPTER 62. LAMBDA VELORUM

dial Velocities. Carnegie Institute of Washington D.C.
Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
[6] Setiawan, J.; Pasquini, L.; Da Silva, L.; Hatzes, A. P.;

von Der Lhe, O.; Girardi, L.; De Medeiros, J. R.; Guen-
ther, E. (2004). Precise radial velocity measurements
of G and K giants. Multiple systems and variability
trend along the Red Giant Branch. Astronomy and As-
trophysics. 421: 241. Bibcode:2004A&A...421..241S.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041042-1.
[7] Carpenter, Kenneth G.; Robinson, Richard D.; Harper,

Graham M.; Bennett, Philip D.; Brown, Alexander; Mul-
lan, Dermott J. (1999). GHRS Observations of Cool,
Low-Gravity Stars. V. The Outer Atmosphere and Wind
of the Nearby K Supergiant Velorum. The Astrophys-
ical Journal. 521: 382. Bibcode:1999ApJ...521..382C.
doi:10.1086/307520.
[8] Luck, R. Earle (2014). Parameters and Abundances in

Luminous Stars. The Astronomical Journal. 147 (6):
137. Bibcode:2014AJ....147..137L. doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/147/6/137.

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x


[13] Allen, Richard Hinckley, Star Names Their Lore and

Meaning: Argo Navis

the original on March 10, 2012, retrieved 2012-01-16
[15] Carpenter, Kenneth G. (1998). The Structure

of the Outer Atmosphere and Wind of lambda
Vel. Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars. 191.
Bibcode:1998IAUS..191P.206C.
[16] Grunhut, J. H.; et al. (November 2010), System-

atic detection of magnetic elds in massive, late-type
supergiants, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom-
ical Society, 408 (4): 22902297, arXiv:1006.5891 ,
Bibcode:2010MNRAS.408.2290G, doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2010.17275.x
[17] Nomoto, K. (1984). Evolution of 8-10 solar mass stars

toward electron capture supernovae. I - Formation of
electron-degenerate O + NE + MG cores. Astrophys-
ical Journal. 277: 791. Bibcode:1984ApJ...277..791N.
doi:10.1086/161749.
Chapter 63
Gamma Draconis
Eltaninand Etaminredirect here. For other uses, suggests it is a red dwarf star.* [14]
see Eltanin (disambiguation) and Etamin (disambigua-
tion).
Gamma Draconis ( Draconis, abbreviated Gamma

63.2 Nomenclature
Dra, Dra), also named Eltanin,* [8] is a star in the
northern constellation of Draco. Despite the gamma des- Draconis (Latinised to Gamma Draconis) is the star's
ignation, it is actually the brightest star in Draco at mag- Bayer designation.
nitude 2.4,* [1] outshining Rastaban (Beta Draconis) by It bore the traditional name Eltanin (or Etamin, Et-
nearly half a magnitude. In 1.5 million years, Eltanin will tanin)* [9]* [15] derived from the Arabic At-
pass within 28 light years of Earth. At this point (assum- Tinnin 'The great serpent'. The name Rastaban was for-
ing its current absolute magnitude does not change) it will merly used for Gamma Draconis, and the two terms
be the brightest star in the night sky, nearly as bright as share an Arabic root meaning serpentor dragon
Sirius is at present.* [9] . In 2016, the International Astronomical Union orga-
Its proximity to the zenith point directly overhead of nized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to
London has earned it the name Zenith Star.As for catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The
other locations, it is still relatively easy to locate in the WGSN approved the name Eltanin for this star on 21 Au-
night sky; if one nds Vega, Eltanin is the red star just gust 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of
north-northwest of it. Star Names.* [8]
Eltanin is at a distance of 154.3 light-years (47.3 parsecs) Gamma Draconis, along with Beta Draconis (Rastaban),
from the Sun,* [1] as determined by parallax measure- Mu Draconis (Erakis), Nu Draconis (Kuma) and Xi Dra-
ments from the Hipparcos astrometry satellite.* [10]* [11] conis (Grumium) were Al Awd the Mother Camels
In 1728, while unsuccessfully attempting to measure , which was later known as the Quinque Dromedarii.* [17]
the parallax of this star, James Bradley discovered the In Chinese, (Tin Bng), meaning Celestial Flail,
aberration of light resulting from the movement of the refers to an asterism consisting of Gamma Draconis,
Earth. Bradley's discovery conrmed Copernicus' theory Xi Draconis, Nu Draconis, Beta Draconis and Iota
that the Earth revolved around the Sun.* [9] Herculis.* [18] Consequently, Gamma Draconis itself is
known as (Tin Bng s, English: the Fourth Star
of Celestial Flail.)* [19]
63.1 Properties
Gamma Draconis is an evolved giant star with a stellar 63.2.1 Namesake
classication of K5 III.* [3] Since 1943, the spectrum of
this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by USS Etamin (AK-93) was a United States Navy Crater
which other stars are classied.* [12] It has 72%* [6] more class cargo ship named after the star.
mass than the Sun and it has expanded to around 48* [5]
times the Sun's girth. It is radiating about 471* [5] times
as much luminosity as the Sun from its outer atmosphere
at an eective temperature of 3,930 K.* [5] This is cooler 63.3 See also
than the Sun, giving this star the orange-hued glow of a
K-type star.* [13] List of stars in Draco
It may have a physical companion. If so, the two are sep-
arated by about 1000 AU. The luminosity of this object Gamma Draconis in ction
259
260 CHAPTER 63. GAMMA DRACONIS
63.4 References [14] Ayres, Thomas R.; Brown, Alexander; Harper, Gra-
ham M. (November 2006), The Coronae of Draco-
[1] van Leeuwen, F (November 2007). Hipparcos, nis, The Astrophysical Journal, 651 (2): 11261129,
the New Reduction. Astronomy and Astrophysics. Bibcode:2006ApJ...651.1126A, doi:10.1086/507763
VizieR; Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
[15] " Dra (Eltanin)". Wikisky.org. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
bourg. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [16] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), International
6361:20078357. Retrieved 2010-11-21. Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016.
[2] Oja, T. (August 1991). UBV photometry of stars [17] Allen, R. H. (1963), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
whose positions are accurately known. VI. Astron- (Reprint ed.), New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc, p.
omy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 89 (2): 415419. 207, ISBN 0-486-21079-0, retrieved 2010-12-12
Bibcode:1991A&AS...89..415O.
[3] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral Clas- by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
sication, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astro- 25-7.
physics, 11 (1): 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M,
doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333 [19] (Chinese) - -
Archived January 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.,
[4] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008), Ro- Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761 23, 2010.
Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M, doi:10.1088/0004- Coordinates: 17* h 56* m 36.37* s, +51 29 20.02
6256/135/1/209

omy and Astrophysics, 526: A100, arXiv:1010.3649
, Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014442
[6] Dehaes, S.; et al. (September 2011), Structure of the

outer layers of cool standard stars, Astronomy & As-
trophysics, 533: A107, Bibcode:2011A&A...533A.107D,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912442
[7] McWilliam, Andrew (December 1990).High-resolution

spectroscopic survey of 671 GK giants. Astrophys-
ical Journal Supplement Series (PDF). 74: 10751128.
Bibcode:1990ApJS...74.1075M. doi:10.1086/191527.
[9] Kaler, James B.ELTANIN (Gamma Draconis)". Stars.

University of Illinois. Retrieved 2010-11-21.


3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8


Chapter 64
Alpha Coronae Borealis
Alpha Coronae Borealis ( Coronae Borealis, abbre- 64.2 Nomenclature

viated Alpha CrB, CrB), also named Alphecca,* [8] is
a binary star in the constellation of Corona Borealis. It is Coronae Borealis (Latinised to Alpha Coronae Borealis)
located about 75 light years from the Sun. is the star's Bayer designation.
It bore the traditional names Alphecca (or Alphekka),
Gemma, Gnosia (Gnosia Stella Coronae), and Aster-
oth (or Ashtaroth). Alphecca is Arabic, short for
nayyir al-fakka the bright (star) of the broken
64.1 Properties (ring of stars)". Gemma is Latin for jewel. Gnosia
is also Latin, short for Gnsia stella corn star of the
The primary component is a white main sequence star crown of Knossos". Asteroth is Hebrew, atert
that has a stellar classication of A0V and 2.6 times the "Astarte (idols)". As the brightest star in Corona Bore-
mass of the Sun. Estimates of the star's radius range alis, it lent its name to Alphekka Meridiana, the bright-
from 2.89 to 3.04 times the radius of the Sun.* [4]* [6] est in the constellation of Corona Australis. In 2016, the
An excess of infrared radiation at 24 m and 70 m has International Astronomical Union organized a Working
been detected about the primary star by the IRAS.* [9] Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [12] to catalog and stan-
This suggests the presence of a large disc of dust and ma- dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bul-
terial around Alphecca, prompting speculation of a plan- letin of July 2016* [13] included a table of the rst two
etary or proto-planetary system similar to that currently batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in-
assumed around Vega. The disk extends out to a radius cluded Alphecca for this star.
of around 60 astronomical units (AU).* [10] The term nayyir al-fakka or Nir al Feccah appeared in
*
The secondary component is a yellow main sequence star the Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue. [14]
with an estimated stellar class of G5, 0.92 times the Sun's In Chinese, (Gun Su), meaning Coiled Thong,
mass and 0.90 times the Sun's radius. The X-ray lumi- refers to an asterism consisting of Alpha Coronae Bo-
nosity of this star is 6 1028 erg s* 1, which is 30 times realis, Pi Coronae Borealis, Theta Coronae Borealis,
greater than the peak activity level of the Sun. This higher Beta Coronae Borealis, Gamma Coronae Borealis, Delta
activity level is expected for a young star of this class. The Coronae Borealis, Epsilon Coronae Borealis, Iota Coro-
corona has a temperature of about 5 MK, which is much nae Borealis and Rho Coronae Borealis.* [15] Conse-
hotter than the Sun's corona. The upper limit of 14 km/s quently, Alpha Coronae Borealis itself is known as
for the equatorial rotation velocity is equivalent to a rota- (Gun Su s, English: the Fourth Star of Coiled
tion period of 3 days. More likely, the rotation period is Thong.).* [16]
79 days.* [4]* [6]
The stars are orbiting about each other in an eccentric
orbit one every 17.36 days. Because the plane of this or- 64.3 See also
bit is inclined at an angle of 88.2 to the line of sight to
the Earth,* [6] the pair form an eclipsing binary system Alpha Coronae Borealis in ction
similar to Algol ( Per). The periodic eclipses result in
a magnitude variation of +2.21 to +2.32, which is hardly
noticeable to the unaided eye. 64.4 References
The space velocity components of this star system are U =
+14.257, V = +0.915 and W = +3.147 km/s. CrB is be- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (2007). Validation of the new
lieved to be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and Astro-
of stars that have a common motion through space.* [11] physics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 .
261
262 CHAPTER 64. ALPHA CORONAE BOREALIS
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [14] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al

6361:20078357. Vizier catalog entry Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen-
[2] Johnson, H. L.; Iriarte, B.; Mitchell, R. I.; Wisniewskj, W. . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
Z. (1966).UBVRIJKL photometry of the bright stars. ety. 55 (8): 429. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
4 (99): 99. Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
[3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars 25-7.
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1: [16] (Chinese) - - ,
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
23, 2010.
[4] Tomkin, J.; Popper, D. M. (June 1986). Redis-
cussion of eclipsing binaries. XV - Alpha Coronae
Borealis, a main-sequence system with components of
types A and G. Astronomical Journal. 91: 1428.
Bibcode:1986AJ.....91.1428T. doi:10.1086/114121.

dial Velocities. Carnegie Institute of Washington, D.C.
Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
[6] Gdel, M.; Arzner, K.; Audard, M.; Mewe, R. (May

2003). Tomography of a stellar X-ray corona:
alpha Coronae Borealis. Astronomy and Astro-
physics. 403: 155171. Bibcode:2003A&A...403..155G.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030257.
[7] Royer, F.; Grenier, S.; Baylac, M.-O.; Gmez, A.

E.; Zorec, J. (October 2002). Rotational veloci-
ties of A-type stars in the northern hemisphere. II.
Measurement of v sin i. Astronomy and Astro-
physics. 393 (3): 897911. arXiv:astro-ph/0205255
. Bibcode:2002A&A...393..897R. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20020943. Table 8.
[9] Su, K. Y. L.; et al. (December 2006). Debris Disk

Evolution around A Stars. The Astrophysical Jour-
nal. 653 (1): 675689. arXiv:astro-ph/0608563 .
Bibcode:2006ApJ...653..675S. doi:10.1086/508649.
[10] Pawellek, Nicole; Krivov, Alexander V.; Marshall,

Jonathan P.; Montesinos, Benjamin; brahm, Pter;
Mor, Attila; et al. (2014). Disk Radii and Grain
Sizes in Herschel-resolved Debris Disks. The As-
trophysical Journal. 792 (1): 19. arXiv:1407.4579
. Bibcode:2014ApJ...792...65P. doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/792/1/65. 65.
[11] King, Jeremy R.; Villarreal, Adam R.; Soderblom, David

R.; Gulliver, Austin F.; Adelman, Saul J. (April 2003).
Stellar Kinematic Groups. II. A Reexamination of the
Membership, Activity, and Age of the Ursa Major Group
. The Astronomical Journal. 125 (4): 19802017.
Bibcode:2003AJ....125.1980K. doi:10.1086/368241.


Chapter 65
Gamma Cygni
For other uses of Sadr, see Sadr (disambiguation). of the stable anchor points by which other stars are clas-
sied.* [15]
Gamma Cygni ( Cygni, abbreviated Gamma Cyg,
Cyg), also named Sadr,* [10] is a star in the northern
constellation of Cygnus, forming the intersection of an
asterism of ve stars called the Northern Cross.
65.1 Nomenclature
Cygni (Latinised to Gamma Cygni) is the star's Bayer
designation.
It bore the traditional name Sadr (also spelled Sadir or
Sador), derived from the Arabic adrchest, the
same word which gave rise to the star Schedar (Alpha IC1318 and neighboring regions. Image by Erik Larsen.
Cassiopeiae). In 2016, the International Astronomi-
cal Union organized a Working Group on Star Names Compared to the Sun this is an enormous star, with 12
(WGSN)* [11] to catalogue and standardize proper names times the Sun's mass and about 150 times the Sun's ra-
for stars. The WGSN approved the name Sadr for this dius.* [7] It is emitting over 33,000 times as much en-
star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the ergy as the Sun, at an eective temperature of 6,100 K
IAU Catalog of Star Names.* [10] in its outer envelope.* [7] This temperature is what gives
In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi the star the characteristic yellow-white hue of an F-type
al Mouakket, this star was designated Sadr al Dedjadjet, star. Massive stars such as this consume their nuclear fuel
( / adr al-dajjati), which was translated much more rapidly than the Sun, so the estimated age of
into Latin as Pectus Gallin, meaning the hen's chest.* [12] this star is only about 12 million years old* [8]
In Chinese, (Tin Jn), meaning Celestial Ford, The spectrum of this star shows some unusual dynamic
refers to an asterism consisting of Gamma Cygni, Delta features, including variations in radial velocity of up to
Cygni, 30 Cygni, Alpha Cygni, Nu Cygni, Tau Cygni, 2 km/s, occurring on a time scale of 100 days or more.
Upsilon Cygni, Zeta Cygni and Epsilon Cygni.* [13] Con- Indeed, on the HertzsprungRussell diagram, Gamma
sequently, Gamma Cygni itself is known as (Tin Cygni lies close to the instability strip and its spectrum
Jn y, English: the First Star of Celestial Ford.).* [14] is markedly like that of a Cepheid variable.* [3] This star
is surrounded by a diuse nebula called IC1318, or the
Gamma Cygni region.
65.2 Properties
With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.23,* [2] this is 65.3 References
among the brighter stars visible in the night sky. Parallax
measurements give a distance estimate of 1,800 light [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
years (560 parsecs), with a 15% margin of error.* [1] The the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
stellar classication of this star is F8 Iab, indicating that trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
it has reached the supergiant stage of its stellar evolution. . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one 6361:20078357.
263
264 CHAPTER 65. GAMMA CYGNI
[2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho- [14] (Chinese) - -

tometry of the bright stars, Communications of Archived August 18, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.,
the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99, Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J 23, 2010.
[3] Gray, David F. (November 2010), Photospheric Varia- [15] Garrison, R. F. (December 1993), Anchor Points
tions of the Supergiant Cyg, The Astronomical Jour- for the MK System of Spectral Classication, Bul-
nal, 140 (5): 13291336, Bibcode:2010AJ....140.1329G, letin of the American Astronomical Society, 25: 1319,
doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/5/1329 Bibcode:1993AAS...183.1710G, retrieved 2012-02-04

65.4 External links
Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. Sadr by Jim Kaler.
[5] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry; http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/nebulae/

Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision of the ic1318.html
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, University Astronomy Picture of the Day: Supergiant Star
of Toronto: International Astronomical Union, 30: 57, Gamma Cygni, NASA, July 9, 2013
[6] Kovtyukh, V. V.; Gorlova, N. I.; Belik, S. I. (2012).

Accurate luminosities from the oxygen 7771-4
triplet and the fundamental parameters of F-G super-
giants. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 423 (4): 32683273. arXiv:1204.4115 .
Bibcode:2012MNRAS.423.3268K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2012.21117.x. ISSN 0035-8711.

doi:10.1002/asna.200911355
[8] Lyubimkov, Leonid S.; et al. (February 2010), Accu-

rate fundamental parameters for A-, F- and G-type Su-
pergiants in the solar neighbourhood, Monthly Notices
arXiv:0911.1335 , Bibcode:2010MNRAS.402.1369L,
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15979.x
[9] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970). A cata-

logue of stellar rotational velocities. Contributi Os-
servatorio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago. 239 (1).

[12] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895), Al Achsasi Al

ety, 55 (8): 429, Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K,
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
Chapter 66
Alpha Cassiopeiae
sists of Alpha Cassiopeiae, Beta Cassiopeiae, Kappa Cas-

Coordinates: 00* h 40* m 30.5* s, +56 32 14.5
siopeiae, Eta Cassiopeiae and Lambda Cassiopeiae.* [14]
Alpha Cassiopeiae ( Cassiopeiae, abbreviated Alpha Consequently, Alpha Cassiopeiae itself is known as
Cas, Cas), also named Schedar,* [11] is a second mag- (Wng Ling s, English: the Fourth Star of Wang
nitude star in the constellation of Cassiopeia. Though Liang.)* [15]
listed as the "alpha starby Johann Bayer, Cas's vi-
sual brightness closely rivals the 'beta' () star in the con-
stellation (Beta Cassiopeiae, also named Caph* [11]) and
it may appear marginally brighter or dimmer, depend-
66.2 Visibility
ing on which passband is used. However, recent calcu-
lations from NASA's WISE telescope conrm that Cas
is the brightest in Cassiopeia, with a apparent magnitude
of 2.240. Its absolute magnitude is 18 times greater than
Cas, although it is located farther away from the Sun
(228 light years versus 54).
66.1 Nomenclature
Cassiopeiae (Latinised to Alpha Cassiopeiae) is the
It bore the traditional name Schedar, which was rst
encountered in the Alfonsine tables of the thirteenth Cassiopeia in the context of the Milky Way.
century. It derives from the Arabic word adr,
meaning breast, a word which is derived from With a declination of 56 32' North, Schedar is princi-
its relative position in the heart of the mythological pally visible in the northern hemisphere. The star is yet
queen Cassiopeia.* [12] Johannes Hevelius used the name discernible to most observers across the globe reaching
Schedir in his writings, although there were additional as far south as Perth, Australia, Santiago, Chile and other
traditional spellings of this Arabic transliteration such as settlements north 33 South latitude, albeit just above
Shedar, Shadar, Sheder, Seder, Shedis, and Shedir. Al- the horizon. Schedar is located in line-of-sight of the
Su and Ulug Beg named the star Al Dht al Kursiyy Milky Way galaxy, so there are other notable celestial ob-
(Arabic , meaning the lady in the chair jects one can view close to this starthe Pacman Nebula,
), which Giovanni Battista Riccioli changed to Dath Elka- NGC 436 and NGC 457 being a few.
rti.* [12] Alpha Cas reaches its zenith above cities like Edinburgh,
Copenhagen and Moscow. It is circumpolar throughout
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [13] to cat- Europe, Russia, and as far south as Los Angeles, Cali-
alogue and standardize proper names for stars. The fornia on the North American continent as well as other
WGSN approved the name Schedar for this star on 21 locations around the globe having a latitude greater than
33 North. Since Schedar is listed as a second magni-
August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog
of Star Names.* [11] tude star (equal to Beta Cas), it is easily observable to the
In Chinese, (Wng Ling) refers to the Chinese naked eye as long as one's stargazing is not hindered by
asterism Wang Liang, a famous charioteer during the the light pollution common to most cities.
Spring and Autumn period. The stellar pattern con- The best time for observation is during the late autumn
265
266 CHAPTER 66. ALPHA CASSIOPEIAE
months of the northern hemisphere, when Cassiopeia Schedar is an orange giant star whose spectral classi-
passes the meridian at midnight, but given its circumpolar cation in the SIMBAD astronomical database is listed
nature in many northern localities, it is visible to many of as K0IIIa, a stellar class that is notably cooler than the
the world's inhabitants throughout the year. Sun.* [1] However, because the orange giant is nearing the
nal stages of its evolution, the photosphere has expanded
substantially, yielding a bolometric luminosity that is ap-
66.2.1 Photometric variations proximately 676 L * [17]
According to Hipparcos, the New Reduction (van
Depending on the photometric system used, Schedar's ap- Leeuwen, 2007), the estimated distance to the star is
parent magnitude is marginally brighter or dimmer than about 70 parsecs or 228 light years.* [5] Like all giant
Caph, the beta star in the constellation. The Johnson stars, Schedar rotates slowly with an approximate veloc-
UBV system throughout the latter half of the twentieth ity of 21 km/sa speed which takes the star approxi-
century indicated a visual magnitude that ranged from mately 102 days to make one complete revolution on its
about 2.20 to 2.23, thus making it slightly brighter than axis.* [10]
Caph with its variable magnitude ranging from 2.25 to
2.31.* [1] However recent calculations in the optical V Schedar has been sometimes classied as a variable star,
band between 500600 nanometers (nm) by Floor Van but no variability has been detected since the 19th cen-
Leeuwen in 2007 produced a new measurement for both tury.* [6] Also, three companions to the star have been
stars, 2.4107 for Schedar and 2.3579 for Caph, suggest- listed in the Washington Double Star Catalog, but it seems
ing that Caph ranks as the brightest in the constella- that all of them are just line-of-sight optical components.
tion.* [5] The confusion arises because of the use of dif- Schedar is thought to be around 100 to 200 million years
ferent passbands. old, having spent much of its time as a blue-white b-type
main-sequence star.* [6]
66.2.2 Angular analysis
With the advances in optical interferometry in the 1990s,

66.4 Depiction
Schedar's angular diameter was measured in 1998 at var-
ious wavelengths ranging from 500850 nm. The result
was a limb darkened angular measurement of 5.62 0.06
milliarcseconds (mas),* [7] a diameter which equates to
roughly 0.393 AU or 42.3 R , assuming a parallax of
14.29 mas.* [16] With the planet Mercury orbiting the
Sun at approximately 0.4 AU, Schedar's photosphere ex-
tends to roughly half the mercurial orbit.
66.3 Properties
Illustration from Gerardus Mercator showing Schedar near the

heart of the celestial Queen.* [18]
Cassiopeia stareld showing Cas, the orange giant, in relation In 1551, Gerardus Mercator, a Flemish cartographer,
to the other stars in the constellation. produced a celestial globe portraying the 48 traditional
Ptolemaic constellations in addition to two others, Coma arXiv:0712.1370 . Bibcode:2008A&A...480...91S.

Berenices and Antinous.* [18] On this globe, he repre- doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078788. Retrieved 2010-12-
sents Cassiopeia as the Queen of Ethiopia, punished for 31.
her boasting by being chained to a chair hanging upside-
down. Schedar is found near her left breast, reecting its [10] Bright Star Catalogue (Hoeit+, 1991)". VizieR (5th
Revised ed.). Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
Arabic etymological origin.
bourg. Retrieved 2010-12-31.

66.5 See also
[12] Richard Hinckley Allen (1963).Star Names: Their Lore
and Meaning. Dover Publications. p. 142. Retrieved
Class K Stars 2010-12-31.
Angular diameter
Betelgeuse for an in-depth discussion red giants. Astronomical Union, retrieved 22 May 2016.

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
66.6 References 25-7.
[1] SIMBAD query result: SCHEDAR -- Star. Centre de [15] (Chinese) - - ,

Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010- Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
02-22. 23, 2010.
[2] Kharchenko, N. V.; Roeser, S. (September 2009). [16] To determine Schedar's average radius in terms of solar
All-sky Compiled Catalogue of 2.5 million stars. units, the calculations begin with the formula for angular
VizieR. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras- diameter as follows:
bourg. Bibcode:2009yCat.1280....0K. Retrieved 2011- d
= DS
01-06. The absolute magnitude is computed using the S
Kharcheko apparent magnitude of 2.240 and the Van

Leeuwen parallax of 14.29 where equals the angular diameter of Schedar in
arcseconds, dS the star's diameter in AU, and DS the
[3] Mermilliod, J.-C. (1986).Compilation of Eggen's UBV Distance from Earth in parsecs. If one knows the angular
data, transformed to UBV (unpublished)". Catalogue of diameter and the Distance, then one can solve for dS as
Eggen's UBV data. Bibcode:1986EgUBV........0M. follows:
[4] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR dS =DS =0.0056270.0=0.393AU
(Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: To obtain Schedar's radius:
B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1. (d )
Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. RS = 2S =( 0.393
2 )
=0.197AU
[5] van Leeuwen, F (November 2007).Hipparcos, the New To convert 0.197 AU into Solar units, the math is straight-
Reduction. Astronomy and Astrophysics. Centre de Don- forward. Since 1 AU = 149,597,871 km and the mean di-
nes astronomiques de Strasbourg. 474 (2): 653664. ameter of the Sun = 1,392,000 km (hence a mean radius
arXiv:0708.1752 . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. of 696,000 km), the calculation is as follows:
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. ( )
dS =(0.197AU ) 149,597,871km
696,000km
=42.31R (rounded)
[6] Professor James B. (Jim) Kaler. SHEDAR (Alpha Cas-
siopeiae)". University of Illinois. Archived from the orig-
[17] The formula for Schedar's bolometric luminosity is as fol-
inal on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-22.
lows:
[7] Hajian, Arsen R.; Armstrong, J. T.; Hummel, C. A.; LS
(
R
)2 (
TS
)4
= RS
Benson, J. A.; et al. (March 1998). Direct Conr- L T
mation of Stellar Limb Darkening with the Navy Proto-

type Optical Interferometer. The Astrophysical Jour- Therefore:
nal. 496 (1): 484. Bibcode:1998ApJ...496..484H. LS 2
(
4,530
)4
=( 42.3
1 )
=676L
doi:10.1086/305388. L 5,778
[8] See Notes section for calculations Note: Luminosity calculations are highly dependent on
angular diameter and distance variables.
[9] Soubiran, C.; Bienaym, O.; Mishenina, T. V.; Kov-
tyukh, V. V. (2008). Vertical distribution of Galac- [18] Gerard Mercator (15121594). Cassiopeia The
tic disk stars. IV. AMR and AVR from clump giants Queen. The Mercator Globes at Harvard Map Collec-
(PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics. 480 (1): 91101. tion. Retrieved 2011-01-02.
268 CHAPTER 66. ALPHA CASSIOPEIAE
66.7 External links

Harvard Map Collection The Mercator Globes
The Internet Encyclopedia of Science: Shedar (Alpha

Cassiopeiae)
Chapter 67
Iota Carinae
For i Carinae, see HD 79447. 67.2 Properties
Iota Carinae ( Carinae, abbreviated Iota Car, Car), Based on parallax measurements, this star is located at a
also named Aspidiske,* [10] is a star in the southern distance of about 690 light-years (210 parsecs) from the
circumpolar constellation (circumpolar if viewed at any Earth. It has a stellar classication of A9 Ib,* [3] with the
location from approximately 40 S to the South Pole) of luminosity class of 'Ib' indicating it has reached the stage
Carina. With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.2,* [2] it of its evolution where it has expanded to become a lower
is one of the brighter stars in the night sky. It can be seen luminosity supergiant star.
from the latitude of Alexandria or Mobile, Alabama and Iota Carinae has more than seven times the Sun's
southward.* [11] mass* [7] and has expanded to roughly 43 times the Sun's
*
The False Cross is an asterism formed from Iota Carinae, radius. [17] It is radiating about 4,900 times the luminos-
*
Delta Velorum, Kappa Velorum and Epsilon Carinae. ity of the Sun. [7] However, this luminosity appears to
It is so called because it is sometimes mistaken for the vary, causing the star's apparent magnitude to range be-
Southern Cross, causing errors in astronavigation.* [12] tween 2.232.28.* [5] This energy is being radiated into
space from the star's outer envelope at an eective tem-
perature of 7,500 K,* [7] giving Iota Carinae the white
hue typical of an A-type star.* [18]
Due to precession of the Earth's axis of rotation, in the
next 7500 years the south Celestial pole will pass close to
this star and Upsilon Carinae and Iota Carinae will be the
South Star around 8100 CE.* [19]
67.1 Nomenclature
Carinae (Latinised to Iota Carinae) is the star's Bayer 67.3 References

designation.
It bore the traditional names Aspidiske (not be confused of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
with Asmidiske, the proper name of Xi Puppis), Scutulum
and Turais (or Tureis, a name shared with Rho Pup- Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
pis). Turais is from the Arabic turais shield 6361:20078357
(diminutive), while Aspidiske and Scutulum are the Greek
and Latin translations, the diminutives of and [2] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
sctum shield.* [11] In 2016, the International As- damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
tronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst.
*
Names (WGSN) [13] to catalog and standardize proper Heidelb, Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35
(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
*
2016 [14] included a table of the rst two batches of [3] Houk, Nancy (1978), Michigan catalogue of two-
names approved by the WGSN; which included Aspidiske dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, University
for this star. of Michigan Catalogue of two-dimensional spectral types
for the HD stars. Volume I. Declinations 90_ to 53_0,
In Chinese, (Hi Dn), meaning Sea Rock, refers to
Ann Arbor: Dept. of Astronomy, University of Michigan,
an asterism consisting of Iota Carinae, Epsilon Carinae,
1, Bibcode:1975mcts.book.....H
HD 83183, HD 84810 and Upsilon Carinae.* [15] Conse-
quently, Iota Carinae itself is known as (Hi Dn [4] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho-
r, English: the Second Star of Sea Rock).* [16] tometry of the bright stars. Communications of
269
270 CHAPTER 67. IOTA CARINAE

[5] Ruban, E. V.; et al. (September 2006), Spectrophoto-

metric observations of variable stars, Astronomy Let-
ters, 32 (9): 604607, Bibcode:2006AstL...32..604R,
doi:10.1134/S1063773706090052
[6] Tanrverdi, T.; Batrk, . (2016). Abundance anal-

ysis of the supergiant stars HD 80057 and HD 80404
based on their UVES Spectra. New Astronomy. 47: 46.
arXiv:1512.03762 . Bibcode:2016NewA...47...46T.
doi:10.1016/j.newast.2016.02.006.
[7] Smiljanic, R.; et al. (April 2006), CNO in

evolved intermediate mass stars, Astronomy and As-
, Bibcode:2006A&A...449..655S, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20054377

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
[9] iot Car -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes






by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[16] (Chinese) - -
Archived 2010-08-11 at the Wayback Machine., Hong
Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November 23,
2010.
[17] Kaler, James B., ASPIDISKE (Iota Carinae)", Stars,

University of Illinois, retrieved 2012-01-14

the original on March 10, 2012, retrieved 2012-01-16
[19] http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/moonkmft/Articles/
Precession.html
Chapter 68
Gamma Andromedae
Not to be confused with Y Andromedae. Gamma And, And) is the third-brightest point of light
Gamma Andromedae ( Andromedae, abbreviated in the constellation of Andromeda.
In 1778, Johann Tobias Mayer discovered that An-
dromedae was a double star. When examined in a small
telescope, it appears to be a bright, golden-yellow star
(1 Andromedae, also named Almach* [1]) next to a
dimmer, indigo-blue star (2 Andromedae), separated
by approximately 10 arcseconds. It is often considered
by stargazers to be a beautiful double star with a strik-
ing contrast of color.* [2]* [3]* [4] It was later discovered
that 2 Andromedae is itself a triple star system. What
appears as a single star to the naked eye is thus a quadru-
ple star system, approximately 350 light-years from the
Earth.* [2]* [5]
68.1 Nomenclature
Gamma Andromedae is the star's Bayer designation.
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union orga-

Almach nized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [6]
to catalog and standardize proper names for stars.
The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [7] included
a table of the rst two batches of names approved
by the WGSN, which included Almach for 1 An-
dromedae.
Almach was the traditional name (also spelt as Al-

maach, Almaack, Almak, Almaak, or Alamak), de-
rived from the Arabic ( al-anq al-
ar),* [8] the caracal" (desert lynx).* [9]
Ba Another term for this star used by medieval as-

A C tronomers writing in Arabic was
(Al Rijl al Musalsalah), the Woman's Foot.* [8]
Bb
In Chinese, (Tin D Jing Jn), meaning
Heaven's Great General, refers to an asterism con-
sisting of Andromedae, Persei, 51 Andromedae,
49 Andromedae, Andromedae, Andromedae,
Andromedae, 56 Andromedae, Trianguli, Trian-
guli and Trianguli. Consequently, Andromedae
itself is known as (Tin D Jing Jn
y, English: the First Star of Heaven's Great Gen-
The star system (not scaled) eral).* [10]
271
272 CHAPTER 68. GAMMA ANDROMEDAE
In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of 68.3 Location

Al Achsasi al Mouakket, this star was designated
( Al Khamis al Na'amah), which The star's location is shown in the following chart of the
was translated into Latin as Quinta Struthionum, Andromeda constellation:
meaning the fth ostrich.* [11]* [12]
In the Babylonian star catalogues, Andromedae,

together with Triangulum, formed the constellation
known as * MULAPIN ( ) The Plough.* [13]
Astrologically, this star was consideredhonourable

and eminent.* [14]
Andromeda Constellation
68.4 Almach as a name

USS Almaack (AKA-10) was the name of United States
navy ship.
68.5 See also

Gamma Andromedae in ction
NGC 752
Relative sizes of the components to the Sun (top right). Circle

sizes relate to solar radii, italic numbers are solar mass estimates
68.6 References
to 4SF. Sizes of BA, BB, and C are estimates.
1 Andromedae is a bright giant star with a spectral clas- [2] pp. 113114, vol. 1, Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An
sication of K3IIb. It has an apparent visual magnitude Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System,
of approximately 2.26.* [15] Robert Burnham, New York: Courier Dover Publications,
1978, ISBN 0-486-23567-X.
2 Andromedae, with an overall apparent visual magni-
tude of 4.84,* [20] is 9.6 arcseconds away from 1 An- [3] NAME ALMACH -- Star in double system, database en-
dromedae at a position angle of 63 degrees.* [18] try, SIMBAD. Accessed on line August 19, 2008.
In October 1842, Wilhelm Struve found that 2 An- [4] HD 12534 -- Spectroscopic binary, database entry,
dromedae was itself a double star whose components SIMBAD. Accessed on line August 19, 2008.
were separated by less than an arcsecond.* [8] The com-
ponents are an object of apparent visual magnitude 5.5, [5] 01578+4151, database entry, MSC - a catalogue of phys-
Andromedae B, and a type-A main sequence star with ical multiple stars, A. A. Tokovinin, CDS database ID
apparent visual magnitude 6.3, Andromedae C.* [20] J/A+AS/124/75.
They have an orbital period of about 64 years.* [23] Spec-
trograms taken from 1957 to 1959 revealed that An- trieved 22 May 2016.
dromedae B was itself a spectroscopic binary, composed
of two type-B main sequence stars orbiting each other [7] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
with a period of 2.67 days.* [21] 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[8] p. 3637, Star-names and Their Meanings, Richard [22] Entry 02039+4220, discoverer code STT 38BC, The
Hinckley Allen, New York: G. E. Stechert, 1899. Washington Double Star Catalog, United States Naval Ob-
servatory. Accessed on line August 19, 2008.
[9] p. 23, Star tales, Ian Ridpath, James Clarke & Co., 1989,
ISBN 0-7188-2695-7. [23] Entry 02039+4220, Sixth Catalog of Orbits of Visual Bi-
nary Stars, William I. Hartkopf & Brian D. Mason, United
[10] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line August 21,
in Astronomy) 2006 7 10 2007.
[11] Knobel, E. B. (June 1895). Al Achsasi Al [24] BD+41 395C -- Star in double system, database entry,
Mouakket, on a catalogue of stars in the Calen- SIMBAD. Accessed on line August 21, 2008.
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety. 55: 429. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
68.7 External links
[12] Cet (Deneb Algenubi), Cet (Deneb Algenubi), Cet Almaak (Gamma Andromedae) at The Internet En-
(Durre Menthor), Cet (Baten Kaitos), and Cet, were cyclopedia of Science
Al Namt, the Hen Ostriches See Star Name - R.H.Allen
p. 160. In Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue, Cet Image ALMACH
as Aoul al Naamat or Prima Struthionum (the rst os-
trich), Cet as Thanih al Naamat or Secunda Struthionum Almaak on AstroDwarf
(the second ostrich), Cet as Thalath al Naamat or Ter-
tia Struthionum (the third ostrich), and Cet as Rabah al
Naamat or Quarta Struthionum (the fourth ostrich). Cet
Gamma Andromedae on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS,
should be Khamis al Naamat or Quinta Struthionum (the
fth ostrich) consistently, but Al Achsasi Al Mouakket
designated the title the fth ostrich to Gam with un- Sky Map, Articles and images
cleared consideration.
[13] Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Coordinates: 02* h 03* m 53.9531* s, +42 19
Mesopotamian traditions, J. H. Rogers, Journal of 47.009
the British Astronomical Association 108, #1 (February
1998), pp. 928, Bibcode: 1998JBAA..108....9R.
[14] p.27, Star Lore of All Ages, William Tyler Olcott, G.P.
Putnam's Sons, New York and London, The Knicker-
bocker Press, 1911

Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H.
Warren, Jr., CDS ID V/50. Accessed on line August 19,
2008.
[16] From apparent magnitude and parallax.
[17] Almach, Jim Kaler, Stars. Accessed on line August 19,

2008.
[18] Entry 02039+4220, discoverer code STF 205, com-

ponents A-BC, The Washington Double Star Catalog,
United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line Au-
gust 27, 2008.
[19] Component 2, HIP 9640, database entry, Hipparcos cat-

alogue, CDS ID I/239.

Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version), D. Hoeit and W. H.
Warren, Jr., CDS ID V/50. Accessed on line August 19,
2008.
[21] A Preliminary Study of the Spectroscopic Binary Gamma

Andromedae B, L. A. Maestre and J. A. Wright, As-
trophysical Journal 131 (January 1960), pp. 119121,
Bibcode: 1960ApJ...131..119M.
Chapter 69
Mizar and Alcor
Mizar and Alcor are two stars forming a naked eye

double star in the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough)
asterism in the constellation of Ursa Major. Mizar is the
second star from the end of the Big Dipper's handle, and
Alcor its faint companion.
Mizar, also designated Zeta Ursae Majoris ( Ursae
Majoris, abbreviated Zeta UMa, UMa), is itself a
quadruple system and Alcor, also designated 80 Ursae
Majoris (80 UMa), is a binary, the pair together forming
a sextuple system. The whole system lies about 83 light-
years away from the Sun, as measured by the Hipparcos
astrometry satellite.* [1]* [5]* [6]
The Big Dipper's bowl and part of the handle photographed from
the International Space Station. Mizar and Alcor are at the upper
69.1 Nomenclature right.
Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Zeta Ursae Majoris) is

Mizar's Bayer designation. 80 Ursae Majoris is Alcor's Mizar and Alcor's proper motions show they move to-
Flamsteed designation. gether (along with the other stars of the Big Dipper - ex-
cept Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) and Eta Ursae Ma-
The traditional name Mizar derives from the Arabic
* joris (Alkaid) - they are members of the Ursa Major
mizar meaning 'apron; wrapper, covering, cover'. [7] Al-
Moving Group, a mostly dispersed group of stars shar-
cor was also originally Arabic suh, meaning either
* ing a common birth), but it has yet to be demonstrated
the forgottenor neglectedone.; [8] notable as a
conclusively that they are gravitationally bound. Re-
faintly perceptible companion of Mizar.
cent studies indicate that the Alcor binary and Mizar
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized quadruple are somewhat closer together than previously
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [9] to cata- thought: approximately 74,000 39,000 AU or 0.51.5
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's light years.* [13]
More components of the Mizar system were discovered
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which
with the advent of the telescope and spectroscopy; an eas-
included Mizar for Zeta UMa and Alcor for 80 UMa.
ily split visual target, Mizar was the rst telescopic binary
They are now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star
* discovered, most probably by Benedetto Castelli who in
Names. [11]
1617 asked Galileo Galilei to observe it. Galileo then pro-
duced a detailed record of the double star. Later, around
1650, Riccioli wrote of Mizar appearing as a double. The
69.2 Stellar system secondary star (designated Mizar B) has magnitude 4.0
and spectral class A7, and comes within 380 AU of the
Mizar is a visual double with a separation of 14.4 arcsec- primary (Mizar A); the two take thousands of years to
onds, each of which is a spectroscopic binary. Its appar- revolve around each other.
ent magnitude is 2.23 and its spectral class is A2V. Mizar A was the rst spectroscopic binary to be discov-
With normal eyesight Alcor appears at about 12 minutes ered, by Pickering in 1889. Some spectroscopic binaries
of arc from Mizar. Alcor is of magnitude 3.99 and spec- cannot be visually resolved and are discovered by study-
tral class A5V. It has a faint red dwarf companion sepa- ing the spectral lines of the suspect system over a long
rated by 1 second of arc.* [12] period of time. The two components of Mizar A are both
274
69.4. TEST OF EYESIGHT 275
about 35 times as bright as the Sun, and revolve around the Mi'kmaq myth of the great bear and the seven
each other in about 20 days 12 hours and 55 minutes. hunters.* [16]
Mizar B was later found to be a spectroscopic binary as
well, its components completing an orbital period every
six months. In 1996, 107 years after their discovery, the 69.3.1 Military namesakes
components of the Mizar A binary system were imaged in
extremely high resolution using the Navy Prototype Op- USS Mizar and USNS Mizar, both United States
tical Interferometer. navy ships.
USS Alcor (AD-34) and USS Alcor (AK-259), both

69.3 Other names United States navy ships.
69.4 Test of eyesight

The ability to resolve Mizar and Alcor with the naked eye
is often quoted as a test of eyesight, although even people
with quite poor eyesight can see the two stars.* [8] Ara-
bic literature says that only those with the sharpest eye-
sight can see the companion of Mizar. The 14th century
Arabian lexicographer Firuzabadi called it Our Rid-
dle, while the 13th century Persian astronomical writer
Zakariya al-Qazwini said that people tested their eye-
sight by this star.Humboldt wrote of it as being seen with
diculty, and Arago similarly alluded to it. Astronomer
Big Dipper map Sir Patrick Moore suggested that this in fact refers to an-
other star that lies visually between Mizar and Alcor.* [17]
Mizar is known as Vashistha and Alcor as Arundhati, two This star is occasionally known as "Ludwig's Star", it
of the Saptarishi, in traditional Indian astronomy.* [14] was observed on 2 December 1722 by the German as-
As a married couple, they are considered to symbolize tronomer Johann Georg Liebknecht (23 April 1679 -
marriage and in some Hindu communities to this day 17 September 1749) and named in honour of his pa-
priests conducting a wedding ceremony allude to or point tron the Landgrave Ludwig of Hessen-Darmstadt.* [18]
out the constellation as a symbol of the closeness mar- Liebknecht thought it was a planet, but it had already
riage brings to a couple.* [15] been observed in exactly the same position by Benedetto
Al-Sahja was the rhythmical form of the usual Suha. It Castelli (15771643) approximately a century earlier in
1616, which indicated it was a background star.
appears as al-Khawwar, 'the Faint One', in an in-
teresting list of Arabic star names, published in Popular The Arabs in the desert regarded it as a test of penetrat-
Astronomy, January 1895, by Professor Robert H. West, ing vision; and they were accustomed to opposeSuhel
of the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut. toSuha(Canopus to Alcor) as occupying respectively
the highest and lowest posts in the celestial hierarchy. So
Although the statement has been made that Alcor was not
thatVidit Alcor, at non lunam plenam, (Latin forhe
known to the ancient Greeks, there is an old story that it
saw Alcor, but not the full moon) came to be a prover-
was the Lost Pleiad Electra, which had wandered here
bial description of one keenly alive to tries, but dull of
from her companions and became Alopex, the Fox. A
apprehension for broad facts.
Latin title was Eques Stellula, the Little Starry Horseman;
Eques, the Cavalier, is from the 17th-century German as- In Japanese mythology, Alcor is known as the lifespan
tronomer Bayer. Mizar and Alcor together are sometimes star or jumyouboshi() as it was believed that
called theHorse and Rider(and popularly, in England, one who could not see this star would pass away by year's
Jack on the Middle Horse), with Mizar being the horse. end. The Japanese manga Fist of the North Star used this
The Persian astronomer Al Biruni (9731048 A.D.) men- legend as a model for its death-omen star (), in
tioned its importance in the family life of the Arabs on the which it was said that people who saw the star would die
18th day of the Syrian month Adar, the March equinox; later in the year.
and a modern story of that same people makes it the in-
fant of the walidan (mother?) among the three Banat (the
Mourners: Alioth, Mizar, and Alkaid).
69.5 See also
Chinese Taoism personies Ursa Majoris as the Lu star.
Mizar is Chickadee and Alcor is his cooking pot in Mizar in ction
276 CHAPTER 69. MIZAR AND ALCOR
69.6 References Richard; Shao, Michael; Bouchez, Antonin; Roberts, Jen-

nifer E.; Hunt, Stephanie (2010). Parallactic Motion
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of for Companion Discovery: An M-Dwarf Orbiting Al-
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- cor. The Astrophysical Journal. 709 (2): 733740.
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 arXiv:0912.1597 . Bibcode:2010ApJ...709..733Z.
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/733.
6361:20078357. [13] Mamajek, Eric E.; Kenworthy, Matthew A.; Hinz,
Philip M.; Meyer, Michael R. (2009). Discovery
[2] Eggleton, P. P.; Tokovinin, A. A. (2008).A catalogue of
of a Faint Companion to Alcor Using MMT/AO 5
multiplicity among bright stellar systems. Monthly No-
$\mu$m Imaging. The Astronomical Journal. 0911
(3): 919925. arXiv:0911.5028 [astro-ph.SR].
arXiv:0806.2878 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.389..869E.
Bibcode:2010AJ....139..919M. doi:10.1088/0004-
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13596.x.
6256/139/3/919.
[3] Hummel, C. A.; Mozurkewich, D.; Armstrong, J. T.; Ha-
[14] V.Chandran (1993-01-01). Astronomy Quiz Book. Pus-
jian, Arsen R.; Elias Ii, N. M.; Hutter, D. J. (1998).
tak Mahal, 1993. ISBN 978-81-223-0366-7. ... the seven
Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer Observations of
rishis in the constellation Saptarishi (Ursa Major) ... In
the Double Stars Mizar a and Matar. The Astronomical
Vasishta (Zeta), its tiny companion star is named after
Journal. 116 (5): 2536. Bibcode:1998AJ....116.2536H.
Arundhati, the wife of Vasishta ... today known by their
doi:10.1086/300602.
Arabic names Dubhe (Kratu), Merak (Pulaha), Phekda
[4] Mamajek, Eric E.; Kenworthy, Matthew A.; Hinz, Philip (Pulastya), Megrez (Atri), Benetnash (Marichi) and Mizar
M.; Meyer, Michael R. (2010). Discovery of a (Vasishta) ...
Faint Companion to Alcor Using MMT/AO 5 m Imag-
[15] M.K.V. Narayan (2007-04-01). Flipside of Hindu Sym-
ing. The Astronomical Journal. 139 (3): 919925.
bolism: Sociological and Scientic Linkages in Hinduism.
arXiv:0911.5028 . Bibcode:2010AJ....139..919M. Fultus Corporation, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59682-117-0. ...
doi:10.1088/0004-6256/139/3/919. At this time, the pundit shows the couple the Arundhati star
in the sky to suggest closeness of the married couple. ...
[5] Perryman, M. A. C.; Lindegren, L.; Kovalevsky, J.; Hoeg,
the star Vasishta of the Big Dipper constellation (Saptar-
ishi Mandalam) and it is the star system called Mizar ...
Der Marel, H.; Mignard, F.; Murray, C. A.; Le Poole, [16] The Celestial Bear, A Micmac Legend
R. S.; Schrijver, H.; Turon, C.; Arenou, F.; Froeschl,
M.; Petersen, C. S. (1997). The HIPPARCOS Cat- [17] Moore, Patrick; Watson, John (2012). Observing the
alogue. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 323: L49. Stars and Galaxies. Astronomy with a Budget Tele-
Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P. scope. Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy Series. p.
65. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2161-0_5. ISBN 978-1-
[6] Perryman, Michael (2010). The Making of History's 4614-2160-3.
Greatest Star Map. The Making of History's Greatest
Star Map:. Astronomers
Universe. Heidelberg: Springer- [18] Big Dipper Stars in Summer Sky. Space.com. Re-
Verlag. Bibcode:2010mhgs.book.....P. doi:10.1007/978- trieved 2017-03-03.
3-642-11602-5. ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8.
[7] Wehr, Hans (1994). A Dictionary of Modern Written Ara-

bic (Arabic-English) (4 ed.). Urbana, Illinois: Spoken
69.7 External links
Language Services. p. 17. ISBN 0879500034.
Mizar and Alcor articles at Jim Kaler's Stars website
[8] Bohigian, George M. (2008). An Ancient Eye Test
Using the Stars. Survey of Ophthalmology. 53 (5): First very high resolution imaging of Mizar A (using
5369. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2008.06.009. PMID aperture synthesis)
18929764.
A New View Of Mizar (a comprehensive article
[9] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re- about the system)

1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016. Mizar and Alcor on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS,
[11] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016. Sky Map, Articles and images
[12] Zimmerman, Neil; Oppenheimer, Ben R.; Hinkley,
Sasha; Brenner, Douglas; Parry, Ian R.; Sivaramakrish-
nan, Anand; Hillenbrand, Lynne; Beichman, Charles; Coordinates: 13* h 23* m 55.5* s, +54 55 31
Crepp, Justin R.; Vasisht, Gautam; Roberts, Lewis C.;
Burruss, Rick; King, David L.; Soummer, Rmi; Dekany,
Chapter 70
Beta Cassiopeiae
Beta Cassiopeiae ( Cassiopeiae, abbreviated Beta Cas 70.2 Visibility

or Cas), also named Caph,* [12] is a Delta Scuti vari-
able star in the constellation of Cassiopeia. It is a giant With a mean apparent magnitude (V-band) of +2.27, it
star belonging to the spectral class F2. The white star of is one of the ve stars which make up the 'W' of Cas-
second magnitude (+2.27 mag) has an absolute magni- siopeia, adjacent to the just brighter Schedar (Alpha Cas-
tude of +1.16 mag. siopeiae).* [19] SN 1572, traditionally known as Tycho's
Star, appeared about 5 degrees to the northwest of Caph
in 1572.* [10]
70.1 Nomenclature As a star in the deep northern hemisphere of the sky,
Beta Cassiopeiae is prominent to viewers in the north-
Beta Cassiopeiae is the star's Bayer designation. It also ern hemisphere but not often seen by those in the south-
bore the traditional names Caph (from the Arabic word ern hemisphere. The constellation of Cassiopeia does not
kaf,palm- i.e. reaching from the Pleiades), Chaph rise above the horizon to viewers in Tasmania, and only
and Ka, as well as al-Sanam al-Nakah the Camel's low if one were in Cairns.* [20]
Hump.* [10] In 2016, the International Astronomi-
cal Union organized a Working Group on Star Names
(WGSN)* [13] to catalog and standardize proper names 70.3 System
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved Cassiopeiae is a yellow-white hued giant of stellar class
by the WGSN; which included Caph for this star. F2 III with a surface temperature around 7000 K. More
Originally, the pre-Islamic Arabic term al-Ka al-Khadib than three times the size of and 28 times brighter than
the stained handreferred to the ve stars comprising the Sun, Caph has an absolute magnitude of +1.16. It was
the 'W' of the constellation Cassiopeia, and depicted a once an A-type star with about double the Sun's mass.* [8]
hand stained with henna. The term was abbreviated and It is now in the process of cooling and expanding to be-
somehow came to signify Cassiopeiae alone. The old come a red giant. Its core is likely to have used up its
stained handwas part of an asterism called Thuraya hydrogen and is shrinking and heating, while its outer en-
stretching from the Pleiades, which signied the head velope of hydrogen is expanding and cooling. Stars do
through Taurus and Perseus and into Cassiopeia, while not spend much time in this state and are relatively un-
the other handwas in Cetus.* [15] common. Caph's corona is unusually weak.* [19]
In Chinese, (Wng Ling), meaning Wang Cassiopeiae is a variable star of the Delta Scuti type,
Liang* [16], refers to an asterism consisting of Cas- in fact the second brightest of such stars in the sky af-
siopeiae, Cassiopeiae, Cassiopeiae, Cassiopeiae and ter Altair.* [21] It is a monoperiodic pulsator,* [22] with
Cassiopeiae.* [17] Consequently, Cassiopeiae itself is a brightness that ranges from magnitude +2.25 to +2.31
known as (Wng Ling y, English: the First Star with a period of 2.5 hours.* [19] This type of variable in-
of Wang Liang.)* [18] cludes subgiant or main sequence stars of spectral classes
Together with Alpha Andromedae (Alpheratz) and F5A0, having masses between 1.52.5 solar masses
Gamma Pegasi (Algenib), Beta Cassiopeiae was one of and nearing the end of their core hydrogen fusion life-
three bright stars known as the Three Guidesmark- time.* [22] Their pulsations are related to the same helium
ing the equinoctial colure.* [10] This is an imaginary line instability strip on the HertzsprungRussell diagram as
running due south from Beta Cassiopeiae through Alpha that of classical Cepheids. Delta Scuti stars are located at
Andromedae to the celestial equator, at a point where the the intersection of the strip with the main sequence.* [23]
Sun's path (the ecliptic) crosses it each autumn and spring This star is rotating at about 92% of its critical speed,
equinox.* [19] completing 1.12 rotations every day. This is giving the
277
278 CHAPTER 70. BETA CASSIOPEIAE
star an oblate spheroid shape with an equatorial bulge that [9] Schrder, C.; Reiners, A.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (Jan-
is 24% larger than the polar radius. This shape is causing uary 2009). Ca II HK emission in rapidly ro-
the polar region to have a higher temperature than the tating stars. Evidence for an onset of the solar-
equator: the temperature dierence is about 1,000 K. The type dynamo. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 493
axis of rotation is inclined about 20 to the line of sight (3): 10991107. Bibcode:2009A&A...493.1099S.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810377.
from the Earth.* [8]
Cassiopeiae was once considered to be a spectroscopic [10] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963) [1899]. Star-names and
binary with a faint companion in a 27-day orbit, but it is their meanings. New York, NY: Dover Publications. p.
* 146. ISBN 1-931559-44-9.
now thought to be a single star. [24]
[11] V* bet CasVariable Star of delta Sct type. SIM-
BAD. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg.
70.4 References
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of [13] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- trieved 22 May 2016.
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- [14] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
6361:20078357. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[2] Kukarkin, B. V.; et al. (1971). General Catalogue [15] Kunitzsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). Dictionary of Mod-
of Variable Stars containing information on 20437 vari- ern Star Names. Cambridge, MA: Sky Publishing. p. 26.
able stars discovered and designated till 1968 (3rd ed.). ISBN 1-931559-44-9.
Bibcode:1971GCVS3.C......0K. [16] Wang Liang was a famous charioteer during the Spring
and Autumn period
[3] Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; Mc-
Fadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (2003). Contri- [17] (Chinese) , written by . Published
butions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spec- by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
troscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs: 25-7.
[18] (Chinese) - - ,
Bibcode:2003AJ....126.2048G. doi:10.1086/378365.
23, 2010.
[4] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho- [19] Kaler, James B. (2002). The Hundred Greatest Stars. New
tometry of the bright stars. Communications of York: Copernicus Books. p. 27. ISBN 0-387-95436-8.
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J. [20] Newell, W. J. (1965). The Australian Sky. Jacaranda
Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-7016-0037-3.
[5] Daszyska, J.; Cugier, H. (2003). Far-Ultraviolet
light curves of the Scuti variable: Cassiopeiae [21] Buzasi, D. L.; et al. (2005). Altair: The
. Advances in Space Research. 31 (2): 381386. Brightest Scuti Star. The Astrophysical Jour-
Bibcode:2003AdSpR..31..381D. doi:10.1016/S0273- nal. 619 (2): 107276. arXiv:astro-ph/0405127 .
1177(02)00630-0. Bibcode:2005ApJ...619.1072B. doi:10.1086/426704.
[6] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of the [22] Poretti, E. (2000). The Frequency Content of
General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Batten, Alan Scuti Stars as Determined by Photometry. In Breger,
Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determination of Radial Michel; Montgomery, Michael. Delta Scuti and Re-
Velocities and their Applications, Proceedings from IAU lated Stars, Reference Handbook and Proceedings of
Symposium no. 30. University of Toronto: International the 6th Vienna Workshop in Astrophysics, held in Vi-
Astronomical Union. Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E. enna, Austria, 47 August 1999. ASP Conference
Series. 210. p. 45. arXiv:astro-ph/0002304 .
[7] Jaschek, C.; Gomez, A. E. (1998).The absolute magni- Bibcode:2000ASPC..210...45P.
tude of the early type MK standards from HIPPARCOS
[23] Percy, John R. (2007). Understanding variable stars.
parallaxes. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 330: 619.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 139144, 182187.
Bibcode:1998A&A...330..619J.
ISBN 978-0-521-23253-1.
[8] Che, X.; et al. (May 2011). Colder and Hotter: In- [24] Teays, Terry J.; Schmidt, Edward G.; Pasinetti Fra-
terferometric Imaging of Cassiopeiae and Leonis. cassini, Laura E.; Fracassini, Massimo (1989). The
The Astrophysical Journal. 732 (2): 68. arXiv:1105.0740 chromosphere of Beta Cassiopeiae. Astrophysical
. Bibcode:2011ApJ...732...68C. doi:10.1088/0004- Journal. 343: 916. Bibcode:1989ApJ...343..916T.
637X/732/2/68. doi:10.1086/167761.
70.5 External links

Beta Cassiopeiae on WikiSky: DSS2, SDSS,

Sky Map, Articles and images
Chapter 71
Epsilon Centauri
Epsilon Centauri ( Cen, Centauri) is a star in the (Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
southern constellation of Centaurus. It is one of the B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1:
brightest stars in the constellation with a slightly variable 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
apparent visual magnitude of +2.30. Parallax measure-
ments put it at a distance of around 430 light-years (130 [4] Hohle, M. M.; Neuhuser, R.; Schutz, B. F. (April 2010),
parsecs) from Earth. Masses and luminosities of O- and B-type stars and red
In Chinese, (Nn Mn), meaning Southern Gate, arXiv:1003.2335 , Bibcode:2010AN....331..349H,
refers to an asterism consisting of Centauri and Cen- doi:10.1002/asna.200911355
tauri.* [10] Consequently, Centauri itself is known as
(Nn Mn y, English: the First Star of Southern [5] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry;
Gate.)* [11] Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision of the
Centauri is a massive star with nearly 12 times the mass
of the Sun.* [4] The spectrum matches a stellar classi- of Toronto: International Astronomical Union, 30: 57,
cation of B1 III,* [4] indicating this is an evolved giant Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E
star. It is radiating more than 15,000* [4] times the lumi-
nosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an eective [6] de Geus, E. J.; de Zeeuw, P. T.; Lub, J. (June 1989),
temperature of 24,000 K,* [4] giving it the blue-white hue Physical parameters of stars in the Scorpio-Centaurus
of a B-type star.* [12] This is classied as a Beta Cephei OB association, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 216 (1
type variable star with a primary period of 0.16961 days 2): 4461, Bibcode:1989A&A...216...44D
(4 hours 4 minutes), completing 5.9 cycles per day.* [7]
During each cycle, the brightness of the star varies from [7] Daszyska-Daszkiewicz, J.; Niemczura, E. (April
apparent magnitude +2.29 to +2.31. 2005), Metallicity of mono- and multiperiodic
Cephei stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
This star is a proper motion member of the Lower- 433 (3): 10311035, arXiv:astro-ph/0410442 ,
Centaurus Crux sub-group in the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Bibcode:2005A&A...433.1031D, doi:10.1051/0004-
association, the nearest such association of co-moving 6361:20040397
massive stars to the Sun.* [6] Epsilon Centauri is a rel-
atively young star, with an age of around 16 million [8] Balona, L. A.; Dziembowski, W. A. (October 1999),
years.* [9] Excitation and visibility of high-degree modes in stars
309 (1): 221232, Bibcode:1999MNRAS.309..221B,
doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02821.x
71.1 References
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation 2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos
of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices
Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 , of the Royal Astronomical Society, 410 (1): 190200,
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004- arXiv:1007.4883 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T,
6361:20078357 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
logue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system [10] (Chinese) , written by . Published
. CDS/ADC Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237: 0. by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. 25-7.
[3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR [11] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars in Astronomy) 2006 7 25
280

Chapter 72
Gamma Leonis
Gamma Leonis ( Leonis, abbreviated Gamma Leo, the Sun. With angular separation of just over 4, the two
Leo), also named Algieba,* [7] is a binary star system in stars are at least 170 AU apart (four times the distance be-
the constellation of Leo. In 2009, a planetary companion tween the Sun and Pluto), and have an orbital period of
around the primary was announced. over 500 years.* [6] Because the orbital period is so long,
only a fraction of the full path has been observed since
discovery.
72.1 Nomenclature Both stars are almost certainly true giants, meaning that
they have stopped fusing hydrogen to helium in their cores
Leonis (Latinised to Gamma Leonis) is the star's Bayer and have expanded to great proportions. Although there
designation. has been too little observation of their orbit to calculate
their masses, comparison with evolutionary calculations
It also bore the traditional name Algieba or Al Gieba, suggests that each are about double the mass of the Sun.
which originated from the Arabic Al-Jabhah, Originating from the same interstellar cloud some two bil-
meaning 'the forehead' (despite this meaning, the star lion years ago, the stars have iron contents about a third
actually appears in the mane of Leo). In 2016, the that of the Sun. It is hard to tell how far along they might
International Astronomical Union organized a Working be in their life cycle. They both may be fusing helium in
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [8] to catalog and stan- their cores, or they could be giants in development, with
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin quiet helium cores that are waiting to re up. The chemi-
of July 2016* [9] included a table of the rst two batches cal composition at the surface, which is inuenced by age,
of names approved by the WGSN; which included Al- suggests the former.
gieba for this star.
The star's traditional Latin name was Juba. It is known
as (the Twelfth Star of Xuanyuan) in Chinese 72.3 Planetary system
(Xuanyuan is the name of the Yellow Emperor).
Algieba (gamma), Adhafera (Zeta Leonis), and Al Jab- On November 6, 2009, the discovery of a planetary com-
bah (Eta Leonis) have collectively been called 'the Sickle', panion around primary star Gamma-1 Leonis was an-
which is an asterism formed from the head of Leo.* [10] nounced.* [3] The radial velocity measurements suggest
two additional periodicities of 8.5 and 1340 days. The
former is likely due to stellar pulsation, whereas the lat-
72.2 Stellar system ter could be indicative of the presence of an additional
planetary companion with 2.14 Jupiter masses, moder-
ate eccentricity (e=0.13) and located at 2.6 Astronomical
The bright binary system in Leo with orange-red and yel-
Units away from the giant star. Nevertheless, the nature
low or greenish-yellow components is visible through a
of such a signal is still unclear and further investigations
modest telescope under good atmospheric conditions. To
are needed to conrm or rule out an additional substellar
the naked eye, the Algieba system shines at mid-second
companion.
magnitude, but a telescope easily splits the pair. The
brighter component has an apparent magnitude of +2.28
and is of spectral class K1-IIIbCN-0.5. The giant K star
has a surface temperature of 4,470 K, a luminosity 180 72.4 References
times that of the Sun, and a diameter 23 times that of the
Sun. The companion star has an apparent magnitude of [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
+3.51 and belongs to the spectral class G7IIICN-I. The the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
giant G star has a temperature of 4,980 K, a luminosity of trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
50 times that of the Sun, and a diameter 10 times that of . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
282
6361:20078357.
[2] Mason, Brian D.; Wyco, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William

I.; Douglass, Georey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001).
ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog.
Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. doi:10.1086/323920.
ISSN 0004-6256.
[3] Han, Inwoo; Lee, B. C.; Kim, K. M.; Mkrtichian, D. E.;

Hatzes, A. P.; Valyavin, G. (2010).Detection of a Plane-
tary Companion around the giant star 1 Leonis. As-
tronomy and Astrophysics. 509: A24. arXiv:0911.0968
. Bibcode:2010A&A...509A..24H. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/200912536.
[4] Famaey, B.; et al. (January 2005), Local kinematics

data. Revisiting the concept of superclusters, Astronomy
and Astrophysics, 430: 165186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041272

spectroscopic survey of 671 GK giants. I - Stel-
lar atmosphere parameters and abundances, Astro-
Bibcode:1990ApJS...74.1075M, doi:10.1086/191527
[6] Mason; Hartkopf, William I.; Wyco, Gary L.; Holden-

ried, Ellis R. (2006). Speckle Interferometry at the US
Naval Observatory. XII. The Astronomical Journal.
132 (5): 22192230. Bibcode:2006AJ....132.2219M.
doi:10.1086/508231.


[10] Proctor, Mary (July 1896), Evenings with the Stars,

Popular Astronomy, 4: 565
72.5 External links

Algieba at Jim Kaler's Stars
Astronomical Reference from Author David Darling
Coordinates: 10* h 19* m 58.3* s, +19 50 30

Chapter 73
Alpha Lupi
Alpha Lupi ( Lupi, Lup) is the brightest star in South Gate, in his work Star-Names and their Mean-
the southern constellation of Lupus. According to the ings.* [17] But in Chinese astronomy, is located in
Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, its apparent visual magnitude of Horn mansion and consisted by and Centauri. Yang
2.3* [2] makes it readily visible to the naked eye even from Mun was translated in Pinyin as , meaningthe Yang
highly light-polluted locales. Based upon parallax mea- Gate, refers to the asterism in Neck mansion, contain-
surements made during the Hipparcos mission,* [11] the ing the stars in Centaurus.* [18] Allen also suggested that
star is located at a distance of around 460 light-years (140 the Babylonian name for the star was Kakkab Su-gub
parsecs) from Earth.* [1] It is one of the nearest supernova Gud-Elim(Star Left Hand of the Horned Bull).* [17]
explosion candidates.* [12]
Alpha Lupi is a giant star with a stellar classication
of B1.5 III.* [4] It has about ten times the mass of the 73.2 See also
Sun* [7] but is radiating 25,000* [6] times the Sun's lu-
minosity. The outer atmosphere has an eective tem- Traditional Chinese star names
perature of 21,820 K,* [8] which gives it the blue-white
Centaurus
glow of a B-type star. In 1956 it was identied as a Beta
Cephei variable by Bernard Pagel and colleagues,* [13] Lupus
which means it undergoes periodic changes in luminosity
because of pulsations in the atmosphere. The variability
period is 0.29585 days,* [9] or just over 7 hours, 6 min- 73.3 References
utes. The magnitude varies by about 0.05, or about 5%
of the total luminosity. A 14th magnitude star situated [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
26from Alpha Lupi is listed as a companion in double the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As-
star catalogues,* [14] but may just be an optical double. trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
This star is a proper motion member of the Upper-
6361:20078357.
Centaurus Lupus sub-group in the Scorpius-Centaurus
OB association, the nearest such co-moving association [2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966), UBVRIJKL pho-
of massive stars to the Sun.* [6] This is a gravitationally tometry of the bright stars, Communications of
unbound stellar association with an estimated age of 16 the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99,
20 million years. The association is also the source of Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J
a bubble of hot gas that contains the Sun, known as the [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
Local Bubble.* [5] Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
73.1 Etymology
[4] Hiltner, W. A.; Garrison, R. F.; Schild, R. E.
(July 1969), MK Spectral Types for Bright South-
In Chinese, Kekouan (Q Gun), meaning Imperial ern OB Stars, Astrophysical Journal, 157: 313326,
Guards, refers to an asterism consisting of Lupi, Lupi, Bibcode:1969ApJ...157..313H, doi:10.1086/150069
Lupi, Centauri, Lupi, Lupi, Lupi, Lup, Lupi,
and Lupi .* [15] Consequently, Lupi itself is known as [5] Jilinski, E.; et al. (March 2006), Radial ve-
locity measurements of B stars in the Scorpius-
(Q Gun sh, English: the Tenth Star of Imperial
Centaurus association, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
Guards.).* [16]
448 (3): 10011006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601643 ,
R. H. Allen had opinion that this star was listed it in the Bibcode:2006A&A...448.1001J, doi:10.1051/0004-
Chinese asterism Yang Mun or Men ), meaningthe 6361:20041614
284
[6] de Geus, E. J.; de Zeeuw, P. T.; Lub, J. (June 1989),

Physical parameters of stars in the Scorpio-Centaurus
OB association, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 216 (1
2): 4461, Bibcode:1989A&A...216...44D
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
[8] Sokolov, N. A. (May 1995), The determination of
T_e_ of B, A and F main sequence stars from
the continuum between 3200 A and 3600 A, As-
tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement, 110: 553564,
Bibcode:1995A&AS..110..553S
[9] Daszyska-Daszkiewicz, J.; Niemczura, E. (April
2005), Metallicity of mono- and multiperiodic
Cephei stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
433 (3): 10311035, arXiv:astro-ph/0410442 ,
Bibcode:2005A&A...433.1031D, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20040397
[10] V* alf Lup -- Variable Star of beta Cep type, SIM-
BAD, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg,
[11] Perryman, M. A. C.; et al. (April 1997),The HIPPAR-
COS Catalogue, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 323: L49
L52, Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P
[12] Firestone, R. B. (July 2014), Observation of 23
Supernovae That Exploded <300 pc from Earth during
the past 300 kyr, The Astrophysical Journal, 789 (1):
11, Bibcode:2014ApJ...789...29F, doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/789/1/29, 29.
[13] Pagel, B. E. J. (1956), Results of a search for
bright Cephei variables in the southern sky,
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety, 116: 1024, Bibcode:1956MNRAS.116...10P,
doi:10.1093/mnras/116.1.10
doi:10.1086/323920.
by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[16] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.]
(Reprint ed.). New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc. p.
279. ISBN 0-486-21079-0.
[18] Allen transliterated as Nan Mun in Centaurus.
Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Mean-
ing. p. 153.
Chapter 74
Delta Scorpii
Delta Scorpii ( Scorpii, abbreviated Delta Sco, Sco) 74.2.1 Variability

is a binary star (the presence of a third star in the system
is still being debated* [3]) in the constellation of Scorpius. Delta Scorpii A is a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable star.
The primary component is named Dschubba.* [13] This type of star shows irregular slow brightness varia-
tions of a few hundredths of a magnitude due to material
Because it is near the ecliptic Delta Scorpii is occasionally
surrounding the star.
occulted by the Moon, or (extremely rarely) by planets.
It was once used as a spectroscopic standard for the B0 In June 2000, Delta Scorpii was observed by Sebastian
IV classication, but is now considered too unusual and Otero to be 0.1 magnitudes brighter than normal. Its
variable.* [6] brightness has varied since then and has reached at least
as high as magnitude 1.6, altering the familiar appearance
Delta Scorpii is a proper motion member of the Upper
of Scorpius. Spectra taken after the outburst began have
Scorpius subgroup of the ScorpiusCentaurus OB associ-
shown that the star is throwing o luminous gases from
ation, the nearest such co-moving association of massive
* * its equatorial region. The companion passed close by in
stars to the Sun. [8] [11] The Upper Scorpius subgroup
2011, again resulting in the star peaking at 1.65 between
contains thousands of young stars with mean age 11 mil-
5 and 15 July 2011.* [3]* [15]
lion years at average distance of 470 light years (145 par-
secs).* [11]
74.3 References
74.1 Nomenclature [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of
Scorpii (Latinised to Delta Scorpii) is the system's Bayer . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
designation. The two components are designated Delta 6361:20078357.
Scorpii A and B.
[2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (June 1968).
Delta Scorpii bore the traditional name Dschubba. In
A photometric investigation of the Scorpio-Centaurus
2016, the International Astronomical Union organized association. Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 15: 459.
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [14] to cat- Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G. doi:10.1086/190168.
alogue and standardize proper names for stars. The
WGSN approved the name Dschubba for Delta Scorpii [3] Miroshnichenko, A. S.; Pasechnik, A. V.; Manset, N.;
A on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Carcio, A. C.; Rivinius, Th.; te, S.; Gvaramadze,
Catalog of Star Names.* [13] V. V.; Ribeiro, J.; Fernando, A.; Garrel, T.; Knapen,
J. H.; Buil, C.; Heathcote, B.; Pollmann, E.; Mau-
claire, B.; Thizy, O.; Martin, J.; Zharikov, S. V.;
Okazaki, A. T.; Gandet, T. L.; Eversberg, T.; Rei-
necke, N. (2013). THE 2011 PERIASTRON PAS-
74.2 Properties SAGE OF THE Be BINARY Scorpii. The As-
The primary, Delta Scorpii A, is a B class subgiant sur- . Bibcode:2013ApJ...766..119M. doi:10.1088/0004-
rounded by a disc of material spun o by the rapidly ro- 637X/766/2/119.
tating star. The secondary, Delta Scorpii B, orbits every [4] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
10.5 years in a highly elongated elliptical orbit; it appears Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
to be normal B class main sequence star. There have been (Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
reports that Delta Scorpii A is itself a very close spectro- B/gcvs. Originally published in: 2009yCat....102025S. 1:
scopic binary, but this does not appear to be the case.* [3] 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
286
[5] Balona, L. A.; Dziembowski, W. A. (October 1999). 74.4 External links

Excitation and visibility of high-degree modes in stars
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. *Jim Kaler's Stars, University of Illinois: Dschubba
309 (1): 221232. Bibcode:1999MNRAS.309..221B.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02821.x. Delta Scorpii brighter than ever (Sky and Telescope,
February 4, 2002)
[6] Miroshnichenko, A. S.; Pasechnik, A. V.; Manset, N.;
Carcio, A. C.; Rivinius, Th.; te, S.; Gvaramadze, Delta Scorpii still showing o (Sky and Telescope,
V. V.; Ribeiro, J.; Fernando, A.; Garrel, T.; Knapen, June 25, 2003)
J. H.; Buil, C.; Heathcote, B.; Pollmann, E.; Mau-
claire, B.; Thizy, O.; Martin, J.; Zharikov, S. V.; Delta Scorpii: the birth of a Be star (AAVSO article)
Okazaki, A. T.; Gandet, T. L.; Eversberg, T.; Rei-
necke, N. (2013). THE 2011 PERIASTRON PAS-
SAGE OF THE Be BINARY Scorpii. The As-
. Bibcode:2013ApJ...766..119M. doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/766/2/119.
[7] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). Batten, Alan Henry;

Heard, John Frederick, eds. The Revision of the Gen-
eral Catalogue of Radial Velocities. Determination of Ra-
[8] de Geus, E. J.; de Zeeuw, P. T.; Lub, J. (June 1989).

Physical parameters of stars in the Scorpio-Centaurus
OB association. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 216 (12):
4461. Bibcode:1989A&A...216...44D.
[9] Meilland, A.; et al. (August 2011). The binary Be star

Scorpii at high spectral and spatial resolution. I. Disk
geometry and kinematics before the 2011 periastron.
Astronomy & Astrophysics. 532: A80. arXiv:1106.1746
. Bibcode:2011A&A...532A..80M. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201116798.
[10] Underhill, A. B.; et al. (November 1979). Ef-

and linear radii for 160 O and B stars. Monthly
(3): 601605. Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U.
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601.
[11] Mark J. Pecaut; Eric E. Mamajek & Eric J. Bubar (Febru-

ary 2012). A Revised Age for Upper Scorpius and
the Star Formation History among the F-type Mem-
bers of the Scorpius-Centaurus OB Association. As-
. Bibcode:2012ApJ...746..154P. doi:10.1088/0004-
637X/746/2/154.
[12] Moore, Patrick (2010). Scorpion in the Sky. The

Sky at Night. p. 95. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6409-0_24.
ISBN 978-1-4419-6408-3.

[15] Sigismondi, Costantino (2011), Dierential photometry

of delta Scorpii during 2011 periastron, 1112, p. 2356,
arXiv:1112.2356 , Bibcode:2011arXiv1112.2356S
Chapter 75
Epsilon Scorpii
Epsilon Scorpii ( Sco, Scorpii) is a star in the south- 75.3 References

ern zodiac constellation of Scorpius. Patrick Moore in-
troduced the name Wei but this seems to be a misread- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
ing;* [10] Wi (), meaning the Tail, was originally the of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
name of a Chinese asterism or Xi comprising the stars , Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
1* 2 , 1* 2 , , , , , , and Scorpii.* [11] This star Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
has an apparent visual magnitude of +2.3,* [2] making it 6361:20078357
the fth-brightest member of the constellation. Parallax
measurements made during the Hipparcos mission pro- [2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (June 1968),
vide an estimated distance to this star of around 63.7
association, Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 15: 459,
light-years (19.5 parsecs).* [1]
Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G, doi:10.1086/190168
Epsilon Scorpii has a stellar classication of K1 III,* [3]
which indicates it has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at [3] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contributions to the
Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: spectroscopy of stars
its core and evolved into a giant star. The interferometry-
earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample, The
measured angular diameter of this star, after correcting Astronomical Journal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro-
for limb darkening, is 5.99 0.06 mas,* [12] which, at its
ph/0603770 , Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G,
estimated distance, equates to a physical radius of nearly
doi:10.1086/504637
13 times the radius of the Sun.* [6] Presently it is generat-
ing energy through the nuclear fusion of helium at its core, [4] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fundamental
which, considering the star's composition, places it along Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with direct so-
an evolutionary branch termed the red clump. The star's lutions (35), Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg,
outer atmosphere has an eective temperature of 4,560 Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
K,* [7] giving it the orange hue of a cool K-type star. It
[5] Schroeder, K.-P.; Huensch, M.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M. (July
is classied as a variable star, although it only varies by 1988), X-ray activity and evolutionary status of late-
around 0.010.02 magnitudes.* [13] Epsilon Scorpii is an type giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 335: 591595,
X-ray source with a luminosity of (1.51.6) 1027 erg Bibcode:1998A&A...335..591S
s* 1.* [5]* [14]
tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser,
75.1 Modern legacy (103 19.54 5.99) AU
2 R =
0.0046491 AU/R
Wei appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the state 25.2 R
of Cear.* [15]
spectroscopic survey of 671 GK giants, Astro-
75.2 See also Bibcode:1990ApJS...74.1075M, doi:10.1086/191527
[8] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008), Rotation

and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant
Wi Xi (): The 6th Chinese lunar mansion.
Mycon: ctional alien species in the computer game , Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C, doi:10.1088/0004-
Star Control whose homeworld is Epsilon Scorpii 6256/135/3/892
288
[9] eps Sco -- Variable Star, SIMBAD Astronomical Ob-

ject Database, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
bourg, retrieved 2012-02-23
[10] Moore, P. (1983), The Guinness Book of Astronomy: Facts

(2nd ed.), Middlesex, UK: Guinness Superlatives Limited,
p. 242
[11] Ridpath, Ian, Star Tales.

2005), CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High An-
gular Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astro-
physics, 431: 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039
[13] Adelman, Saul J. (2001),On the Photometric Variability

of Red Clump Giants, Baltic Astronomy, 10: 593597,
Bibcode:2001BaltA..10..593A
[14] Gondoin, P. (December 1999), Evolution of X-ray ac-

tivity and rotation on G-K giants, Astronomy and Astro-
physics, 352: 217227, Bibcode:1999A&A...352..217G

The World website.
Chapter 76
Eta Centauri
Eta Centauri ( Cen, Centauri) is a star in the south- . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-

ern constellation of Centaurus. It has an apparent vi- 6361:20078357.
sual magnitude of +2.35* [2] and is located at a distance
[2] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (June 1968),
of around 306 light-years (94 parsecs).* [1] In traditional
Chinese astronomy, Eta Centauri was known as association, Astrophysical Journal Supplement
* [9] (meaning: the Second (Star) of Koo Low).* [10] Series, 15: 459, Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G,
The stellar classication of this star is B1.5 Vne,* [4] indi- doi:10.1086/190168
cating that it is a B-type main sequence star. The 'n' sux [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
means that the absorption lines are broadened from rapid Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
rotation. It has a projected rotational velocity of 330 km (Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
s* 1* [4] and completes a full rotation in less than a day. B/gcvs. 1: 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
This is a Be star as shown by the 'e' sux,* [11] which
means it has variable emissions in its hydrogen spectral [4] Balona, L. A.; Dziembowski, W. A. (October 1999),
lines. This emission can be modeled by a decretion disk Excitation and visibility of high-degree modes in stars
of gas that has been ejected from the star and now fol-
309 (1): 221232, Bibcode:1999MNRAS.309..221B,
lows a near Keplerian orbit around the central body.* [12]
doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02821.x
Finally it is slightly variable, and classied as a Gamma
Cassiopeiae variable star with multiple periods of vari- [5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
ability.* [3] The International Variable Star Index lists Eta damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
Centauri as both a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable and a with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst.
Lambda Eridani variable.* [13] Heidelb, Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35
(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
Eta Centauri has about 12* [6] times the mass of the Sun,
placing it above the dividing line between stars that evolve [6] Tetzla, N.; Neuhuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (January
into white dwarfs and those that turn into supernovae. It is 2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos
radiating 8,700* [4] times as much luminosity as the Sun stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices
from its outer atmosphere at an eective temperature of
25,700 K.* [4] This heat causes the star to glow with the arXiv:1007.4883 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T,
blue-white hue common to B-type stars.* [14] Eta Cen- doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
tauri is a proper motion member of the Upper-Centaurus [7] de Geus, E. J.; de Zeeuw, P. T.; Lub, J. (June 1989),
Lupus sub-group in the Scorpius-Centaurus OB associa- Physical parameters of stars in the Scorpio-Centaurus
tion, the nearest such co-moving association of massive OB association, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 216 (1
stars to the Sun.* [7] 2): 4461, Bibcode:1989A&A...216...44D
[8] eta Cen -- Be Star, SIMBAD Astronomical Object

Database, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
76.1 See also bourg, retrieved 2012-03-03

Centaurus (Chinese astronomy) by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
76.2 References [10] Allen, R. H. (1963), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
(Reprint ed.), New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc., p.
154, ISBN 0-486-21079-0
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- [11] Janot-Pacheco, E., Leister NV, et al. (1999),
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 Multi-periodicity of the Be star Centauri from
290
spectroscopic and photometric observations,

Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series,
137 (3): 407, Bibcode:1999A&AS..137..407J,
doi:10.1051/aas:1999256
[12] Silaj, J.; Jones, C. E.; Tycner, C.; Sigut, T. A. A.; Smith,
A. D. (March 2010), A Systematic Study of H Pro-
les of Be Stars, Astrophysical Journal Supplement Se-
ries, 187 (1): 228250, Bibcode:2010ApJS..187..228S,
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/187/1/228
[13] Watson, C. L. (2006). The International Variable Star

Index (VSX)". The Society for Astronomical Sciences 25th
Annual Symposium on Telescope Science. Held May 23-25.
25: 47. Bibcode:2006SASS...25...47W.

76.3 External links

Eta Centauri by Jim Kaler.
Chapter 77
Beta Ursae Majoris
Beta Ursae Majoris ( Ursae Majoris, abbreviated estimate for the age of Beta Ursae Majoris.* [6] Two stars
Beta UMa, UMa), also named Merak,* [10] is a star are known to be located in relatively close proximity: 37
in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Major. Ursae Majoris at 5.2 light-years (1.6 pc) and Gamma Ur-
sae Majoris at 11.0 light-years (3.4 pc); much closer to
The apparent visual magnitude of this star is +2.37,* [2] *
which means it is readily visible to the naked eye. It is each other than these stars are to the Earth. [13]
more familiar to northern hemisphere observers as one of
thepointer starsin the Big Dipper or the Plough (UK),
which is a prominent asterism of seven stars that forms 77.2 Nomenclature
part of the larger constellation. Extending an imaginary
straight line from this star through the nearby Alpha Ursae Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Beta Ursae Majoris) is the
Majoris (Dubhe) extends to Polaris, the north star. star's Bayer designation.
It bore the traditional name Merak derived from the
Arabic al-maraqq 'the loins' (of the bear).* [8] In
77.1 Properties 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a
Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [14] to cata-
Based upon parallax measurements of this star, it is lo-
cated at a distance of 79.7 light-years (24.4 parsecs)
from the Sun. The spectrum shows this to have a stellar
* cluded Merak for this star.
classication of A1 V, [4] making it a fairly typical
main sequence star that is generating energy through The Hindus called the star Pulaha, one of the Seven
the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. The Rishis.* [8]
eective temperature of the outer envelope is about 9,225 In Chinese, (Bi Du), meaning Northern Dipper,
K,* [4] giving it a white-hued glow that is typical for A- refers to an asterism consisting of Beta Ursae Majoris,
type stars.* [11] It is larger than the Sun, with about 2.7 Alpha Ursae Majoris, Gamma Ursae Majoris, Delta Ur-
times the mass and 2.84 times the Solar radius. If they sae Majoris, Epsilon Ursae Majoris, Zeta Ursae Majoris
were viewed from the same distance, Beta Ursae Majoris and Eta Ursae Majoris. Consequently, Beta Ursae Ma-
would appear much brighter than the Sun, as it is radiat- joris itself is known as (Bi Du r, English: the
ing 68 times the Sun's luminosity.* [4]* [12] Second Star of Northern Dipper) and (Tin Xun,
Observation of the star in the infrared reveal an excess English: Star of Celestial Rotating Jade).* [16]
emission that suggests the presence of a circumstellar
debris disk of orbiting dust,* [4] much like those discov-
ered around Fomalhaut and Vega The mean temperature 77.3 In culture
of this disk is 120 K,* [12] indicating that it is centered
at a radius of 47 AU from the host star.* [4] The dust
has an estimated mass of about 0.27% the mass of the USS Merak (1918) and USS Merak (AF-21), both of
Earth.* [12] United States navy ship.
Beta Ursae Majoris is one of ve stars in the Big Dipper In the original Star Trek series episode The Cloud Min-
that form a part of a loose open cluster called the Ursa ders, the planet Merak IIis said to be suering from
Major moving group, sharing the same region of space a botanical plague that can only be treated by the use of
and not just the same patch of sky from Earth's perspec- the mineral zenite.
tive. This group has an estimated age of about (500 The video game Devil Survivor 2 features Merak, along-
100) million years. As the members of this group share a side the other stars of the Big Digger, as the Septentrione,
common origin and motion through space, this yields an strange beings that appear in Japan on each day of the
292
game. Merak features on the 2nd day in Osaka, Japan. [11] The Colour of Stars, Australia Telescope, Outreach and
In the anime Saint Seiya, also known as Knights of the search Organisation, December 21, 2004, archived from
Zodiac, the God Warriors are the main antagonists during the original on 2012-03-10, retrieved 2012-01-16
the Asgard arc, each star of the Big Dipper serves as a
guardian for each God Warrior. Hagen is the name of the [12] Rhee, Joseph H.; et al. (May 2007), Charac-
God Warrior representing the star Beta Merak. terization of Dusty Debris Disks: The IRAS and
Hipparcos Catalogs, The Astrophysical Journal,
660 (2): 15561571, arXiv:astro-ph/0609555 ,
Bibcode:2007ApJ...660.1556R, doi:10.1086/509912
77.4 References
[13] Shaya, Ed J.; Olling, Rob P. (January 2011), Very
[1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007). Validation of Wide Binaries and Other Comoving Stellar Compan-
the new Hipparcos reduction. Astronomy and As- ions: A Bayesian Analysis of the Hipparcos Cata-
trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752 logue, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 192 (1):
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004- 2, arXiv:1007.0425 , Bibcode:2011ApJS..192....2S,
6361:20078357. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/2

the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 4 (99): 99, [15] Bulletin of the IAU Working Group on Star Names, No.
Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
[3] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of [16] (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education
the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat- in Astronomy) 2006 6 15
ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina-
tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed-
ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra- Coordinates: 11* h 01* m 50.5* s, +56 22 57
[4] Wyatt, M. C.; et al. (July 2007), Steady State Evolu-

tion of Debris Disks around A Stars, The Astrophysical
Bibcode:2007ApJ...663..365W, doi:10.1086/518404
[5] Boyajian, Tabetha S.; et al. (February 2012), Stel-

lar Diameters and Temperatures. I. Main-sequence A,
F, and G Stars, The Astrophysical Journal, 746 (1):
101, arXiv:1112.3316 , Bibcode:2012ApJ...746..101B,
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/746/1/101. See Table 10.
[6] Monier, R. (November 2005), Abundances of a

sample of A and F-type dwarf members of the
Ursa Major Group, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
442 (2): 563566, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..563M,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053222

463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20065224

[9] MERAK -- Variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes


Chapter 78
Alpha Phoenicis
Alpha Phoenicis ( Phoenicis, abbreviated Alpha Phe size. It is currently thought to be in the midst of a short
or Phe), also named Ankaa,* [8] is the brightest star in but stable helium burning phase of its stellar evolution, al-
the constellation of Phoenix. though it probably will not be long in astronomical terms
before it sheds its outer layers as a planetary nebula and
ends its life quietly as a white dwarf. Ankaa has a small
stellar companion, about which little is known.
78.1 Nomenclature
Alpha Phoenicis is the star's Bayer designation. It also 78.3 References
bore the traditional name Ankaa sometime after 1800,
from the Arabic al-anq the phoenix" for [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
the name of the constellation.* [9] Medieval Arab as- of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
tronomers formed the constellation of the dhow (where Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
Phoenix is), so another popular name for the star is Nair Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
al Zaurak* [10] from nair az-zawraq the 6361:20078357
bright (star) of the ski. The Latin translation is Cym-
bae, from lcida cumbae.* [10] In 2016, the International
of photometric standards, 1, Publicaciones Universi-
Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star
dad de Chile, Department de Astronomy, pp. 117,
Names (WGSN)* [11] to catalog and standardize proper Bibcode:1966PDAUC...1....1G
2016* [12] included a table of the rst two batches of [3] Gray, R. O.; et al. (July 2006), Contributions to the
names approved by the WGSN; which included Ankaa Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars
Earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample, The
for this star.
Astronomical Journal, 132 (1): 161170, arXiv:astro-
ph/0603770 , Bibcode:2006AJ....132..161G,
doi:10.1086/504637
78.2 Description [4] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966), Batten, Alan Henry;
Heard, John Frederick, eds., The Revision of the General
This is a spectroscopic binary star system with com- Catalogue of Radial Velocities, University of Toronto: In-
ponents that orbit each other every 3848.8 days (10.5 ternational Astronomical Union, retrieved 2009-09-10
years).* [5] The combined stellar classication of the [5] Jancart, S.; et al. (October 2005), Astromet-
system is K0.5 IIIb,* [3] which matches the spectrum ric orbits of SB^9 stars, Astronomy and Astro-
of a lower luminosity giant star. It has an apparent physics, 442 (1): 365380, arXiv:astro-ph/0507695
visual magnitude of 2.4,* [2] so it is somewhat out- , Bibcode:2005A&A...442..365J, doi:10.1051/0004-
shone by its rst magnitude neighbors Achernar ( Eri- 6361:20053003
dani) and Fomalhaut ( Piscis Australis). Based upon
parallax measurements, this system is at a distance of
tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3rd ed.), Birkhuser,
about 85 light-years (26 parsecs) from the Earth.* [1] ISBN 3-540-29692-1. The radius (R* ) is given by:
The interferometry-measured angular diameter of the
primary component, after correcting for limb darkening, (103 26 5.25) AU
2 R =
is 5.25 0.06 mas,* [13] which, at its estimated distance, 0.0046491 AU/R
equates to a physical radius of about 15 times the radius 29.4 R
of the Sun.* [6]
[7] alf Phe -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD, Centre de
Ankaa is similar to many of the visible stars of the night Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-
sky, being an orange giant of relatively average stellar 01-09
294
[9] Kunitsch, Paul; Smart, Tim (2006). A Dictionary of Mod-

ern Star names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and
Their Derivations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sky Pub-
lishing Corp. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-931559-44-7.
[10] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star-names and their

meanings, G. E. Stechert, p. 336



2005), CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High An-
gular Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astro-
physics, 431: 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039
Chapter 79
Kappa Scorpii
Kappa Scorpii ( Sco, Scorpii) is a binary star system 79.2 Modern legacy
in the southern constellation of Scorpius. It has the tradi-
tional name Girtab,* [8] which is the Sumerian word for Girtab appears on the ag of Brazil, symbolising the state
'scorpion' and has survived through the Babylonian star of Paraba.* [11]
catalogues.* [9] The name Girtab is actually (or perhaps
originally) applied to an asterism comprising this star,
Lambda Scorpii, Upsilon Scorpii, and Iota Scorpii.* [8]
With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.4,* [2] this star
79.3 References
system is readily visible to the naked eye. Parallax mea-
surements place it at an estimated distance of roughly 480
light-years (150 parsecs) from the Earth.* [1]
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357
[2] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Funda-
79.1 Properties mental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with
direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelb,
Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 (35): 1,
This is a spectroscopic binary, which is a type of binary Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
star system in which the two stars are so close together
[3] Houk, Nancy (1978), Michigan catalogue of two-
that they have not been individually resolved with a tele-
dimensional spectral types for the HD star, Michi-
scope. The pair orbit each other with a period of about gan Catalogue of Two-dimensional Spectral Types for the
196 days and an eccentricity of nearly 0.5.* [5] The com- HD stars. Volume_3. Declinations 40_0 to 26_0,
bined spectrum of this pair matches a star with a stellar Ann Arbor: Dept. of Astronomy, University of Michi-
classication of B1.5 III.* [3] The 'III' luminosity class in- gan: distributed by University Microlms International,
dicates the presence of a giant star that has exhausted the 3, Bibcode:1982mcts.book.....H
supply of hydrogen at its core and is in a late evolutionary
[4] Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (June 1968),
stage.
The primary component of the pair, Sco A, is a variable association, Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 15: 459,
star of Beta Cephei type. It is undergoing radial pulsa- Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G, doi:10.1086/190168
tions with a dominant frequency of 4.99922 cycles per [5] Uytterhoeven, K.; et al. (June 2001), Line-
day, or 4.8 hours per cycle. There are overlapping sec- prole variations of the double-lined spectroscopic bi-
ondary pulsation frequencies of about 4.85 and 5.69 cy- nary kappa Scorpii, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
cles per day.* [10] This star has about 17 times the mass 371 (3): 10351047, Bibcode:2001A&A...371.1035U,
of the Sun and is nearly 7 times the Sun's radius.* [5] doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010456
The eective temperature of the outer envelope is 23,400
[6] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970), A Catalogue
K,* [5] giving it a blue-white hue. It is rotating rapidly, of Stellar Rotational Velocities, Contributi Osserva-
with an estimated period of only 1.9 days and an axis of torio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago, 239 (1): 1,
rotation that is inclined by about 40 to the line of sight Bibcode:1970CoAsi.239....1B
from the Earth.* [5]
The secondary component, Sco B, is smaller than the 2011), A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos
primary, but still much larger than the Sun. It has about stars within 3 kpc from the Sun, Monthly Notices
12 times the mass of the Sun and nearly six times the of the Royal Astronomical Society, 410 (1): 190200,
Sun's radius.* [5] The eective temperature of 18,800 arXiv:1007.4883 , Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T,
K* [5] is also higher than the Sun's, which is at 5,778 K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x
296
[8] Falkner, David E. (2011), The Mythology of the Night Sky:

An Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Ancient Greek and
Roman Legends, Patrick Moore's Practical Astronomy,
Springer, p. 106, ISBN 1-4614-0136-4
[9] Ridpath, Ian (1989), Star tales, James Clarke & Co., p.
114, ISBN 0-7188-2695-7
[10] Uytterhoeven, K.; et al. (March 2005), Disentan-

gling component spectra of Scorpii, a spectroscopic
binary with a pulsating primary. II. Interpretation of
the line-prole variability, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
432 (3): 955967, Bibcode:2005A&A...432..955U,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041444

The World website.
79.4 External links

Kaler, James B., Kappa Sco, Stars, University
of Illinois, retrieved 2014-02-18
Chapter 80
Gamma Cassiopeiae
Gamma Cassiopeiae ( Cas, Cassiopeiae) is the star at star's high luminosity, the result is the ejection of mat-
the center of the distinctive Wasterism in the north- ter that forms a hot circumstellar disk of gas. The emis-
ern circumpolar constellation of Cassiopeia. Although it sions and brightness variations are apparently caused by
is a fairly bright star with an apparent visual magnitude this decretiondisk.
that varies from 1.6 to 3.0, it has no traditional Arabic orThe spectrum of this massive star matches a stellar classi-
Latin name. The Chinese name Tsih has been increas-
cation of B0.5 IVe. A luminosity class of IV identies it
ingly used since the end of the 20th century. as a subgiant star that has reached a stage of its evolution
Gamma Cassiopeiae is a Be star, a variable star, and a where it is exhausting the supply of hydrogen in its core
binary. Based upon parallax measurements made by the region and transforming into a giant star. The 'e' sux is
Hipparcos satellite, it is located at a distance of roughly used for stars that show emission lines of hydrogen in the
550 light-years from Earth. spectrum, caused in this case by the circumstellar disk.
This places it among a category known as Be stars; in
fact, the rst such star ever to be so designated.* [12] It
80.1 Properties has 17 times the Sun's mass and is radiating as much en-
ergy as 34,000 Suns. At this rate of emission, the star has
reached the end of its life as a B-type main sequence star
after a relatively brief 8 million years. The outer atmo-
sphere has an intense eective temperature of 25,000 K,
which is causing it to glow with a blue-white hue.
80.1.1 X-ray emission
Gamma Cassiopeiae is the prototype of a small group of

stellar sources of X-ray radiation that is about 10 times
stronger than emitted from other B or Be stars. The char-
acter of the X-ray spectrum is Be thermal, possibly emit-
ted from plasmas of temperatures up to least ten million
Amateur image of Cassiopeiae and the associated nebulae IC63 kelvins, and shows very short term and long-term cycles.
and IC59 (Neil Michael Wyatt) Historically, it has been held that these X-rays might be
excited by matter originating from the star, from a hot
Gamma Cassiopeiae is an eruptive variable star, whose wind or a disk around the star, accreting onto the sur-
apparent magnitude changes irregularly between +1.6 face of a degenerate companion, such as a white dwarf
and +3.0. It is the prototype of the class of Gamma Cas- or neutron star. However, there are diculties with ei-
siopeiae variable stars. In the late 1930s it underwent ther of these hypotheses. For example, it is not clear that
what is described as a shell episode and the brightness in- enough matter can be accreted by a white dwarf, at the
creased to above magnitude +2.0, then dropped rapidly to distance of the purported secondary star implied by the
+3.4.* [10] It has since been gradually brightening back to orbital period, sucient to power an X-ray emission of
around +2.2.* [11] At maximum intensity, Cassiopeiae nearly 1033 erg/s or 100 YW. A neutron star could easily
outshines both Cassiopeiae (magnitude +2.25) and power this X-ray ux, but X-ray emission from neutron
Cassiopeiae (magnitude +2.3). stars is known to be non-thermal, and thus in apparent
Gamma Cassiopeiae is a rapidly spinning star with a variance with the spectral properties.
projected rotational velocity of 472 km s* 1, giving it Evidence suggests that the X-rays may be associated with
a pronounced equatorial bulge. When combined with the the Be star itself or caused by some complex interaction
298
between the star and surrounding decretion disk. One line wards.* [24]* [25]
of evidence is that the X-ray production is known to vary
on both short and long time scales with respect to various
UV line and continuum changes associated with a B star 80.4 References
or with circumstellar matter close to the star.* [13]* [14]
Moreover, the X-ray emissions exhibit long-term cycles
that correlate with the light curves in the visible wave- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
lengths.* [15]
Gamma Cassiopeiae exhibits characteristics consistent Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
with a strong disordered magnetic eld. No eld can be 6361:20078357
measured directly from the Zeeman eect because of the
star's rotation-broadened spectral lines. Instead, the pres- [2] Nicolet, B. (1978),Photoelectric photometric Catalogue
ence of this eld is inferred from a robust periodic signal of homogeneous measurements in the UBV System, As-
tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 34: 149,
of 1.21 days that suggests a magnetic eld rooted on the
Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N
rotating star's surface. The star's UV and optical spectral
lines show ripples moving from blue to red over several [3] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
hours, which indicates clouds of matter being held frozen Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
over the star's surface by strong magnetic elds. This evi- (Samus+ 20072013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
dence suggests that a magnetic eld from the star is inter- B/gcvs. 1: 02025. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
acting with the decretion disk, resulting in the X-ray emis-
sion. A disk dynamo has been advanced as a mechanism [4] Nemravov, J.; Harmanec, P.; Koubsk, P.; Mirosh-
to explain this modulation of the X-rays. However, di- nichenko, A.; Yang, S.; lechta, M.; Buil, C.; Korkov,
D.; Votruba, V. (2012). Properties and nature of Be
culties remain with this mechanism, among which is that
stars. 29. Orbital and long-term spectral variations of
there are no disk dynamos known to exist in other stars, Cassiopeiae. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 537: A59.
rendering this behavior more dicult to analyze.* [16]
arXiv:1111.3761 . Bibcode:2012A&A...537A..59N.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117922.
80.2 Companions [5] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953). General Catalogue of Stel-
lar Radial Velocities. Washington: Carnegie Institution of
Washington. Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W.
Gamma Cassiopeiae has two faint optical companions,
listed in double star catalogues as components B and [6] Sigut, T. A. A.; Jones, C. E. (October 2007), The
C.* [17]* [18] Star B is about 2 arc seconds distant and Thermal Structure of the Circumstellar Disk Surround-
magnitude 11, and has a similar space velocity to the ing the Classical Be Star Cassiopeiae, Astrophys-
bright primary. Component C is magnitude 13, nearly ical Journal, 668 (1): 481491, arXiv:0706.4036 ,
an arc second distant.* [19] and a further, fainter, optical Bibcode:2007ApJ...668..481S, doi:10.1086/521209
companion C.* [20]
[7] Zorec, J.; Frmat, Y.; Cidale, L. (2005). On the evolu-
Gamma Cassiopeiae A, the bright primary, is itself a tionary status of Be stars. I. Field Be stars near the Sun
spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of about . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 441: 235. arXiv:astro-
203.5 days and an eccentricity alternately reported as ph/0509119 . Bibcode:2005A&A...441..235Z.
0.26 and near zero.The mass of the companion is doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053051.
believed to be about that of the Sun, but its nature is un-
clear. It has been proposed that it is a degenerate star or [8] Falkner, David E. (2011). The Autumn Constellations
a hot helium star, but it seems unlikely that it is a nor- . The Mythology of the Night Sky. Patrick Moore's Practi-
mal star. Therefore, it is likely to be more evolved than cal Astronomy Series. p. 139. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-
0137-7_8. ISBN 978-1-4614-0136-0.
the primary and to have transferred mass to it during an
earlier stage of evolution.* [4]* [21] [9] CCDM J00567+6043AB -- Double or multiple star
, SIMBAD, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
bourg, retrieved 2009-04-13
80.3 Names [10] Baldwin, Ralph B.; Torp-Smith, Robert (1941). Light
Curves of Gamma Cassiopeiae. Popular Astronomy. 49:
In Chinese, it is namedthe whip(Chinese: ; pinyin: 127. Bibcode:1941PA.....49..127B.
c).* [22] This is anglicised as Tsih.* [23]
[11] Pollmann, E.; Vollmann, W.; Henry, G. W. (2014).
The star was used as an easily identiable navigational Long-term monitoring of Halpha emission strength
reference point during space missions and American and photometric V magnitude of gamma Cas. In-
astronaut Virgil Ivan GusGrissom nicknamed the formation Bulletin on Variable Stars. 6109: 1.
star Navi after his own middle name spelled back- Bibcode:2014IBVS.6109....1P.
300 CHAPTER 80. GAMMA CASSIOPEIAE
[12] Merrill, P. W.; Humason, M. L.; Burwell, C. G. [24] Post-landing Activities, Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Jour-
(1925). Discovery and Observations of Stars of nal, NASA commentary at 105:11:33
Class Be. Astrophysical Journal. 61: 389.
Bibcode:1925ApJ....61..389M. doi:10.1086/142899. [25] Apollo 10 Flown CSM Star Chart Directly from the Per-
sonal Collection of Mission Command Module Pilot John
[13] Smith, M. A.; Robinson, R. D. (1999), A mul- Young, Heritage Auction Galleries, retrieved March 11,
tiwavelength campaign on Cassiopeiae. III. The 2010
case for magnetically controlled circumstellar kine-
matics, Astrophysical Journal, 517 (2): 866882,
Bibcode:1999ApJ...517..866S, doi:10.1086/307216 80.5 External links
[14] Cranmer, S.; Smith, M.; Robinson, R. (2000), A
Multiwavelength Campaign on Cassiopeiae. IV. Philippe Stee's homepage: Hot and Active Stars Re-
The Case for Illuminated Disk-enhanced Wind search
Streams, Astrophysical Journal, 537 (1): 433447,
Bibcode:2000ApJ...537..433C, doi:10.1086/309008 Gamma Cassiopeiae and the Be Stars.
[15] Smith, Myron A.; Cohen, David H.; Gu, Ming Feng; A New Class of X-ray Star?
Robinson, Richard D.; Evans, Nancy Remage; Schran,
Prudence G. (2004), High-Resolution Chandra Spec- Gamma Cas and Friends, Astronomy Picture of the
troscopy of Cassiopeiae (B0.5e)", Astrophysical Jour- Day, 2009 December 24
Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..972S, doi:10.1086/379873
[16] Robinson, R. D.; Smith, M. A.; Henry, G. W.

(2002), X-Ray and Optical Variations in the Clas-
sical Be Star Cassiopeia: The Discovery of a
Possible Magnetic Dynamo, Astrophysical Jour-
Bibcode:2002ApJ...575..435R, doi:10.1086/341141
doi:10.1086/323920.
[18] Aitken, Robert Grant; Doolittle, Eric (1932). New

general catalogue of double stars within 120 of the
North pole. Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Bibcode:1932ADS...C......0A.
[19] VizieR Detailed Page. VizieR. Retrieved 2009-04-13.
[20] Dommanget, J.; Nys, O. (1994). Catalogue des

composantes d'etoiles doubles et multiples (CCDM)
premiere edition - Catalogue of the components of
double and multiple stars (CCDM) rst edition.
Com. de l'Observ. Royal de Belgique. 115: 1.
Bibcode:1994CoORB.115....1D.
[21] Miroschnichenko, A. S.; Bjorkman, K. S.; Krugov,

V. D. (2002), Binary nature and long term na-
ture of Gamma Cassiopeiae, Publications of the As-
tronomical Society of the Pacic, 114 (801): 1226,
Bibcode:2002PASP..114.1226M, doi:10.1086/342766
[22] (Tngshn) (1967). [Dic-

tionary of astronomy and astronautics] (in Chinese).
. OCLC 22797568.
[23] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1963) [1899]. Star-names and

their meanings. New York, NY: Dover Publications. p.
146. ISBN 1-931559-44-9.
Chapter 81
Epsilon Pegasi
Epsilon Pegasi ( Pegasi, abbreviated Epsilon Peg, eective temperature of 4,337 K.* [6] This temperature
Peg), also named Enif (EE-nif),* [12] is the brightest is cooler than the Sun, giving it the orange-hued glow of
star in the northern constellation of Pegasus. With an a K-type star.* [21]
apparent visual magnitude of 2.4,* [3] this is a second- Enif probably only has a few million years left to live,
magnitude star that is readily visible to the naked
although it is unknown whether it will explode in a
eye. The distance to this star can be estimated using supernova or die o as a rare neon-oxygen white dwarf,
parallax measurements from the Hipparcos astrometry
due to its mass straddling the dividing line between stars
satellite,* [13]* [14] yielding a value of around 690 light-
destined to explode or not. Enif has been observed to
years (210 parsecs).* [1]
brighten radically upon a few occasions, giving rise to
the theory that it (and possibly other supergiants) erupt
in massive ares that dwarf those of the Sun.* [22] It is a
81.1 Nomenclature type LC slow irregular variable star that varies from +0.7
to +3.5 in magnitude.* [4] The spectrum shows an over-
Pegasi (Latinised to Epsilon Pegasi) is the star's Bayer abundance of the elements strontium and barium, which
designation. may be the result of the S-process of nucleosynthesis in
the outer atmosphere of the star.* [9] It has a relatively
It bore the traditional name Enif derived from the Arabic high peculiar velocity of 21.6 km s* 1.* [7]
word for 'nose', due to its position as the muzzle of Pe-
gasus. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union or-
ganized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [15]
to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The 81.3 See also
of the rst two batches of names approved by the WGSN; Epsilon Pegasi in ction
which included Enif for this star.
Other traditional names for the star include Fom al Feras,
Latinised to Os Equi.* [17] In Chinese, (Wi S), 81.4 References
meaning Rooftop (asterism), refers to an asterism con-
sisting of Epsilon Pegasi, Alpha Aquarii and Theta Pe- [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
gasi.* [18] Consequently, Epsilon Pegasi itself is known of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
as (Wi S sn, English: the Third Star of Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
Rooftop.)* [19] Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357
[2] Morgan, W. W.; Keenan, P. C. (1973), Spectral Clas-

81.2 Properties sication, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astro-
physics, 11 (1): 29, Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M,
This is an evolved star that has entered the supergiant doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.11.090173.000333
stage, as indicated by the stellar classication of K2
Ib.* [2] It is estimated to be 12* [7] times the Sun's mass. [3] Cousins, A. W. J. (1984), Standardization of Broad-
band Photometry of Equatorial Standards, South
The measured angular diameter of this star, after cor-
African Astronomical Observatory Circulars, 8: 59,
rection for limb darkening, is 8.17 0.09 mas.* [20] At Bibcode:1984SAAOC...8...59C
the estimated distance of this star, this yields an enor-
mous physical size of about 185 times the radius of the [4] eps Peg, General Catalogue of Variable Stars, Centre
Sun.* [8] From this expanded envelope, it is radiating de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2010-
roughly 12,250* [9] times the luminosity of the Sun at an 01-05
301
302 CHAPTER 81. EPSILON PEGASI
[5] Famaey, B.; et al. (January 2005),Local kinematics of K [18] (Chinese) , written by . Published
and M giants from CORAVEL/Hipparcos/Tycho-2 data. by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
Revisiting the concept of superclusters, Astronomy and 25-7.
Astrophysics, 430 (1): 165186, arXiv:astro-ph/0409579
[19] (Chinese) - - ,
, Bibcode:2005A&A...430..165F, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20041272
23, 2010.
[6] Soubiran, C.; et al. (2008), Vertical distribution of
Galactic disk stars. IV. AMR and AVR from clump [20] Richichi, A.; Percheron, I.; Khristoforova, M. (February
giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 480 (1): 91101, 2005),CHARM2: An updated Catalog of High Angular
Resolution Measurements, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
arXiv:0712.1370 , Bibcode:2008A&A...480...91S,
431 (2): 773777, Bibcode:2005A&A...431..773R,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078788
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042039
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x [22] Kaler, James B.,ENIF (Epsilon Pegasi)", Stars, Univer-
sity of Illinois, retrieved 2012-02-08
tronomy and astrophysics library, 1 (3 ed.), Birkhuser,
Coordinates: 21* h 44* m 11.158* s, +09 52 30.04
3
(10 211 8.17) AU
2 R =
0.0046491 AU/R
370.8 R
[9] Smith, Verne V.; Lambert, David L. (June 1987),

Are the red supergiants Epsilon Peg and 12
PUP victims of mild s-processing?", Monthly
(3): 563579, Bibcode:1987MNRAS.226..563S,
doi:10.1093/mnras/226.3.563
[10] Bernacca, P. L.; Perinotto, M. (1970). A cata-
logue of stellar rotational velocities. Contributi Os-
servatorio Astronomico di Padova in Asiago. 239 (1).
[11] V* eps Peg -- Pulsating variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre
01-05
3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[17] Knobel, Edward B. (1895). Al Achsasi Al Mouakket,
on a catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of.
55 (8): 42938. Bibcode:1895MNRAS..55..429K.
doi:10.1093/mnras/55.8.429.
Chapter 82
Eta Canis Majoris
Eta Canis Majoris ( Canis Majoris, abbreviated Eta It is still expanding and may become a red supergiant, or
CMa, CMa), also named Aludra,* [9] is a star in the perhaps has already passed that phase, but in either case
constellation of Canis Major. Since 1943, the spectrum it will become a supernova within the next few million
of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points years.
by which other stars are classied.* [10] Aludra is classied as an Alpha Cygni type variable star
and its brightness varies from magnitude +2.38 to +2.48
over a period of 4.7 days.* [4]* [17]
82.1 Nomenclature
Canis Majoris (Latinised to Eta Canis Majoris) is the 82.3 Namesakes
The traditional name Aludra originates from the Arabic: Both USS Aludra (AF-55) and USS Aludra (AK-72), a
al-adhraa 'the virgin'. This star, along Crater class cargo ship, were United States Navy vessels
with Epsilon Canis Majoris (Adhara), Delta Canis Ma- named after the star.
joris (Wezen) and Omicron2 Canis Majoris (Thanih
al Adzari), were Al Adhr ( ), 'the Vir-
gins'.* [11] In 2016, the International Astronomical 82.4 References
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved trophysics. 474 (2): 653664. arXiv:0708.1752
by the WGSN; which included Aludra for this star.
. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-
In Chinese, (H Sh), meaning Bow and Ar- 6361:20078357.
row,* [14] refers to an asterism consisting of Eta Ca-
nis Majoris, Delta Canis Majoris, HD 63032, HD [2] Alcaino, Gonzalo (June 1969), The Globular Clus-
ters NGC 2808 and NGC 1851, Astrophysical
65456, Omicron Puppis, k Puppis, Epsilon Canis Ma-
Journal, 156: 853, Bibcode:1969ApJ...156..853A,
joris, Kappa Canis Majoris and Pi Puppis. Consequently, doi:10.1086/150019
Eta Canis Majoris itself is known as (H Sh r,
English: the Second Star of Bow and Arrow.)* [15] [3] Prinja, R. K.; Massa, D. L. (October 2010), Signa-
ture of wide-spread clumping in B supergiant winds,
Astronomy and Astrophysics, 521: L55, arXiv:1007.2744
82.2 Properties , Bibcode:2010A&A...521L..55P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201015252
Aludra shines brightly in the skies in spite of a large dis- [4] Kazarovets, E. V.; Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.;
tance from Earth due to being intrinsically many times Frolov, M. S.; Antipin, S. V.; Kireeva, N. N.; Pastukhova,
brighter (absolute magnitude) than the Sun. A blue-white E. N. (1999). The 74th Special Name-list of Variable
supergiant of spectral type B5Ia, Aludra has a luminos- Stars. Information Bulletin on Variable Stars. 4659: 1.
ity 176,000 times and a diameter around 80 times that Bibcode:1999IBVS.4659....1K.
of the Sun.* [16] Hohle and colleagues, using the paral- [5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Funda-
lax, extinction and analysis of spectrum, came up with a mental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars with
mass 19.19 times that and luminosity 105,442 times that direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. Heidelb,
of the Sun.* [7] It has only been around a fraction of the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 (35): 1,
time the Sun has, yet is already in the last stages of its life. Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
303
304 CHAPTER 82. ETA CANIS MAJORIS

(3): 601605, Bibcode:1979MNRAS.189..601U,
doi:10.1093/mnras/189.3.601

doi:10.1002/asna.200911355

Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590


(Reprint ed.), New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc, p.
130, ISBN 0-486-21079-0, retrieved 2010-12-12


[14] (H Sh) is westernized into Koo She. R.H. Allen

had opinion that Koo She refers to the asterism including
Delta Velorum and Omega Velorum. AEEA opinion is,
Delta Velorum is member of (Tin Sh), meaning
Celestial Earth God's Temple asterism and Omega Velo-
rum is not member of any asterisms. (Tin Sh) is
westernized into Tseen She and R.H.Allen used the term
Tseen She for Chinese name of Eta Carinae. See Richard
Hinckley Allen: Star Names Their Lore and Meaning:
Argo Navis and (Chinese) AEEA (Activities of Exhibi-
tion and Education in Astronomy) 2006
7 17 .

[16] Jerzykiewicz, M.; Molenda-Zakowicz, J. (2000). Em-

pirical Luminosities and Radii of Early-Type Stars af-
ter Hipparcos (PDF). Acta Astronomica. 50: 36980.
Bibcode:2000AcA....50..369J.
[17] Watson, Christopher (3 May 2013).Eta Canis Majoris

. AAVSO Website. American Association of Variable Star
Observers. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
Chapter 83
Epsilon Carinae
Epsilon Carinae ( Carinae, abbreviated Epsilon Car, 83.1 Etymology

Car), also named Avior,* [11] is a binary star in the
southern constellation of Carina. At apparent magnitude Carinae (Latinised to Epsilon Carinae) is the star's
+1.86 it is one of the brightest stars in the night sky, but Bayer designation.
is not visible from the northern hemisphere. The False
Cross is an asterism formed of Delta Velorum, Kappa The name Avior is not classical in origin. It was assigned
Velorum, Iota Carinae and Carinae. It is so called be- to the star by HM Nautical Almanac Oce in the late
cause it is sometimes mistaken for the Southern Cross, 1930s during the creation of The Air Almanac, a navi-
causing errors in astronavigation.* [12] gational almanac for the Royal Air Force. Of the fty-
seven navigation stars included in the new almanac, two
had no classical names: Epsilon Carinae and Alpha Pavo-
nis. The RAF insisted that all of the stars must have
names, so new names were invented. Alpha Pavonis was
named Peacock, a translation of Pavo, whilst Ep-
silon Carinae was called Avior.* [15] In 2016, the
Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [16] to catalog and stan-
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin
of July 2016* [17] included a table of the rst two batches
of names approved by the WGSN; which included Avior
for this star.
Illustration of the Avior system In Chinese, (Hi Dn), meaning Sea Rock, refers
to an asterism consisting of Carinae, Iota Carinae, HD
Epsilon Carinae is located roughly 560660 light-years 83183, HD 84810 and Upsilon Carinae .* [18] Conse-
(170200 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] Measurements dur- quently, Carinae itself is known as (Hi Dn
ing the Hipparcos mission give the pair an angular sep- y, English: the First Star of Sea Rock.)* [19]
aration of 0.46 arcseconds with a dierence in mag-
nitude of 2.0.* [5] At their estimated distance, this an-
gle is equivalent to a physical separation of around 4
astronomical units.* [13] This pair may form an eclipsing 83.2 References
binary system* [13] with a period of 785 days (2.15
years), resulting in a magnitude change of 0.12 during [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
each eclipse.* [6]* [14] of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
The primary component has an apparent visual magni- Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
tude of 2.2,* [3] which by itself would still make it the Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
third-brightest star in the constellation. It is an evolved 6361:20078357.
giant star with a stellar classication of K0 III. However,
examination of the ultraviolet ux from this star suggests
it may instead be of spectral type K7.* [5] The fainter sec-
ondary companion has an apparent visual magnitude of Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
4.1,* [3] which, if it were a solitary star, would be bright
enough to be seen with the naked eye. This is a hot, core [3] Fabricius, C.; Makarov, V. V. (April 2000),Two-colour
hydrogen-fusing B-type main sequence star of spectral photometry for 9473 components of close Hipparcos dou-
class B2 Vp.* [5] The secondary may itself have an or- ble and multiple stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 356:
biting stellar companion of spectral class F8.* [9] 141145, Bibcode:2000A&A...356..141F.
305
306 CHAPTER 83. EPSILON CARINAE
[4] Houk, Nancy (1978), Michigan catalogue of two- [18] (Chinese) , written by . Published
dimensional spectral types for the HD stars, University by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
of Michigan Catalogue of two-dimensional spectral types 25-7.
for the HD stars. Volume I. Declinations 90_ to 53_0,
Ann Arbor: Dept. of Astronomy, University of Michigan, [19] (Chinese) - - ,
1, Bibcode:1975mcts.book.....H. Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November
23, 2010.
[5] Parsons, Sidney B.; Ake, Thomas B. (November 1998),
Ultraviolet and Optical Studies of Binaries with Lumi-
nous Cool Primaries and Hot Companions. V. The En-
tire IUE Sample, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement
Series, 119 (1): 83104, Bibcode:1998ApJS..119...83P,
doi:10.1086/313152.
[6] Hoeit, Dorrit; Warren Jr, W. H., The Bright Star Cat-
alogue (5th revised ed.), Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob-
servatory, retrieved 2012-02-12.. See: VizieR V/50


doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x.
[9] Parsons, Sidney B. (May 2004), New and Con-

rmed Triple Systems with Luminous Cool Primaries
and Hot Companions, The Astronomical Journal,
127 (5): 29152930, Bibcode:2004AJ....127.2915P,
doi:10.1086/383546.
[10] eps Car -- Double or multiple star, SIMBAD Astronomi-

cal Object Database, Centre de Donnes astronomiques de
Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-02-12.

[13] Kaler, James B.,AVIOR (Epsilon Carinae)", Stars, Uni-

versity of Illinois, retrieved 2012-02-12.
[14] Hoeit, Dorrit (1996), A Catalogue of Correlations

Between Eclipsing Binaries and Other Categories of
Double Stars, The Journal of the American Asso-
ciation of Variable Star Observers, 24 (2): 105116,
Bibcode:1996JAVSO..24..105H
[15] Saer, D. H., Wilkins, G. A., ed., A Personal History of

H.M. Nautical Almanac Oce (PDF), Sidford, Devon:
Unpublished, p. 4.


Chapter 84
Beta Pegasi
Beta Pegasi ( Pegasi, abbreviated Beta Peg, Peg), +2.31 to +2.74 (averaging 2.42).* [3] It is losing mass
also named Scheat,* [11] is a red giant star and the second at a rate at or below 10* 8 times the Sun's mass per
brightest star (after Epsilon Pegasi) in the constellation year, which is creating an expanding shell of gas and dust
of Pegasus. It forms the upper right corner of the with a radius of about 3,500 times the Sun's radius (16
Great Square of Pegasus,* [12] a prominent rectangular Astronomical Units).* [17]
asterism.
84.3 References
84.1 Nomenclature
Pegasi (Latinised to Beta Pegasi) is the star's Bayer des- of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
ignation. Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
It bore the traditional name of Scheat, a name that had 6361:20078357
also been used for Delta Aquarii. The name was de-
rived from the Arabic Al S'id the upper arm, or [2] Johnson, H. L.; et al. (1966). UBVRIJKL pho-
from Sa'd.* [12] In 2016, the International Astronomi- tometry of the bright stars. Communications of
cal Union organized a Working Group on Star Names the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 4 (99): 99.
(WGSN)* [13] to catalog and standardize proper names Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016* [14] in- [3] Query= bet Peg, General Catalogue of Variable Stars,
cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, re-
by the WGSN; which included Scheat for this star (the trieved 2010-01-05
name Skat was later approved for Delta Aquarii* [11]).
[4] V* bet Peg -- Pulsating variable Star, SIMBAD, Centre
Arabian astronomers named it Mankib al Faras, meaning de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2010-
the Horse's shoulder. 01-05
[5] Tabur, V.; et al. (December 2009), Long-term

photometry and periods for 261 nearby pulsating M
84.2 Distance and properties giants, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 400 (4): 19451961, arXiv:0908.3228 ,
Based upon parallax measurements, Beta Pegasi is Bibcode:2009MNRAS.400.1945T, doi:10.1111/j.1365-
located about 196 light-years (60 parsecs) from the 2966.2009.15588.x
Sun.* [1] It is unusual among bright stars in having a rel-
[6] Wilson, Ralph Elmer (1953), General Cata-
atively cool surface temperature compared to stars like
logue of Stellar Radial Velocities, Washington,
the Sun.* [8] This star has a stellar classication of M2.3 Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington,
IIIII,* [4] which indicates the spectrum has characteris- Bibcode:1953GCRV..C......0W
tics partway between a bright giant and a giant star. It
has expanded until it is some 95 times as large, and has [7] Tsuji, Takashi (May 2007). Isotopic abundances
a total luminosity of 1500 times that of the Sun.* [8] The of Carbon and Oxygen in Oxygen-rich giant stars
eective temperature of the star's outer envelope is about . In Kupka, F.; Roxburgh, I.; Chan, K. Convec-
3,700 K,* [9] giving the star the characteristic orange-red tion in Astrophysics, Proceedings of IAU Symposium
#239 held 21-25 August, 2006 in Prague, Czech
hue of an M-type star.* [15] The photosphere is su-
Republic. Proceedings of the International Astro-
ciently cool for molecules of titanium oxide to form.* [16] nomical Union. 2. pp. 307310. arXiv:astro-
Beta Pegasi is a semi-regular variable with a period of ph/0610180 . Bibcode:2007IAUS..239..307T.
43.3 days* [5] and a brightness that varies from magnitude doi:10.1017/S1743921307000622.
307
308 CHAPTER 84. BETA PEGASI
[8] Kaler, James B. (May 22, 2009), SCHEAT (Beta Pe-

gasi)", Stars, University of Illinois, retrieved 2010-01-05
[9] Soubiran, C.; et al. (2008), Vertical distribution of

Galactic disk stars. IV. AMR and AVR from clump
giants, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 480 (1): 91101,
arXiv:0712.1370 , Bibcode:2008A&A...480...91S,
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078788
[10] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008), Ro-

tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761
Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M, doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/1/209
[12] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star Names: Their Lore

and Meaning, New York, NY: Dover Publications Inc., p.
325, ISBN 0-486-21079-0



[16] Gavin, M. (February 1996), Stellar spectroscopy

with CCDs - some preliminary results, Journal of
the British Astronomical Association, 106 (1): 1115,
Bibcode:1996JBAA..106...11G
[17] Mauron, N.; Caux, E. (November 1992), K I/Na I

scattering observations in circumstellar envelopes - Al-
pha(1) Herculis, Omicron Ceti, TX PISCIUM and Beta
Pegasi, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 265 (2): 711
725, Bibcode:1992A&A...265..711M. Solar Radius =
0.0046491 AU.
Coordinates: 23* h 03* m 46.458* s, +28 04 58.04

Chapter 85
Gamma Ursae Majoris
Phadredirects here. For scroll painting style, see Phad It bore the traditional names Phecda or Phad, derived
painting. from the Arabic phrase fakh ad-dubb 'thigh
of the bear'.* [17] In 2016, the International Astronom-
Gamma Ursae Majoris ( Ursae Majoris, abbreviated *
Gamma UMa, UMa), also named Phecda, [11] is a (WGSN) [18] to catalog and standardize proper
*
*
names
star in the constellation of Ursa Major. Since 1943, the for stars. The WGSN's rst bulletin of July 2016 [19] in-
spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable an- cluded a table of the rst two batches of names approved
chor points by which other stars are classied.* [12] Based by the WGSN; which included Phecda for this star.
upon parallax measurements with the Hipparcos astrom- To the Hindus this star was known as Pulastya, one of the
etry satellite,* [13]* [14] it is located at distance of around Seven Rishis.* [9]
83.2 light-years (25.5 parsecs) from the Sun.* [1] In Chinese, (Bi Du), meaning Northern Dipper,
It is more familiar to most observers in the northern refers to an asterism consisting of Gamma Ursae Majoris,
hemisphere as the lower-left star forming the bowl of the Alpha Ursae Majoris, Beta Ursae Majoris, Delta Ursae
Big Dipper, together with Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe, Majoris, Epsilon Ursae Majoris, Zeta Ursae Majoris and
upper-right), Beta Ursae Majoris (Merak, lower-right) Eta Ursae Majoris. Consequently, Gamma Ursae Ma-
and Delta Ursae Majoris (Megrez, upper-left). Along joris itself is known as (Bi Du sn, English:
with four other stars in this well-known asterism, Phecda the Third Star of Northern Dipper) and (Tin J,
forms a loose association of stars known as the Ursa Ma- English: Star of Celestial Shining Pearl).* [20]
jor moving group.* [6] Like the other stars in the group,
it is a main sequence star not unlike the Sun, although
somewhat hotter, brighter and larger. 85.2 See also
Gamma Ursae Majoris is an Ae star, which is surrounded
by an envelope of gas that is adding emission lines to Gamma Ursae Majoris in ction
the spectrum of the star;* [15] hence the 'e' sux in the
stellar classication of A0 Ve.* [3] It has 2.6* [3] times
the mass of the Sun, three times the Sun's radius,* [5] and 85.3 References
an eective temperature of 9,355 K in its outer atmo-
sphere.* [6] This star is rotating rapidly, with a projected [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
rotational velocity of 178 km s* 1.* [7] The estimated of the new Hipparcos reduction, Astronomy and
angular diameter of this star is about 0.92 mas.* [16] It Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752 ,
has an estimated age of 300 million years.* [8] Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357
Phecda is located in relatively close physical proximity
to the prominent Mizar-Alcor star system. The two are [2] Oja, T., UBV photometry of stars whose positions are
separated by an estimated distance of 8.55 ly (2.62 pc); accurately known. III, Astronomy and Astrophysics Sup-
much closer than the two are from the Sun. The star Beta plement Series, 65 (2): 4054
Ursae Majoris is separated from Gamma UMa by 11.0 ly [3] Shaya, Ed J.; Olling, Rob P. (January 2011), Very
(3.4 pc).* [3] Wide Binaries and Other Comoving Stellar Compan-
ions: A Bayesian Analysis of the Hipparcos Cata-
logue, The Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 192 (1):
85.1 Nomenclature 2, arXiv:1007.0425 , Bibcode:2011ApJS..192....2S,
doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/2
Ursae Majoris (Latinised to Gamma Ursae Majoris) is [4] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
the star's Bayer designation. damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
309
310 CHAPTER 85. GAMMA URSAE MAJORIS
with direct solutions, Ver. Astron. Rechen-Inst. [17] Garnkle, Robert A. (1997), Star-Hopping: Your Visa
Heidelb, Astronomisches Rechen-Institut Heidelberg, 35 to Viewing the Universe, Cambridge University Press, p.
(35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W 118, ISBN 0-521-59889-3
[5] Fitzpatrick, E. L.; Massa, D. (March 2005), Deter- [18] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
mining the Physical Properties of the B Stars. II. Cal- trieved 22 May 2016.
ibration of Synthetic Photometry, The Astronomical
Journal, 129 (3): 16421662, arXiv:astro-ph/0412542 , 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Bibcode:2005AJ....129.1642F, doi:10.1086/427855
[6] King, Jeremy R.; et al. (April 2003), Stellar Kine- in Astronomy) 2006 6 15
matic Groups. II. A Reexamination of the Member-
ship, Activity, and Age of the Ursa Major Group
Bibcode:2003AJ....125.1980K, doi:10.1086/368241

463 (2): 671682, arXiv:astro-ph/0610785 ,
Bibcode:2007A&A...463..671R, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20065224
[8] Su, K. Y. L.; et al. (December 2006), Debris

Disk Evolution around A Stars, The Astrophysical
Bibcode:2006ApJ...653..675S, doi:10.1086/508649
[9] Allen, Richard Hinckley (1899), Star-names

and their meanings, New York, G. E. Stechert,
[10] PHECDA -- Emission-line Star, SIMBAD, Centre de

Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2011-
12-29



3-642-11602-5, ISBN 978-3-642-11601-8
[15] Jaschek, C.; Andrillat, Y. (June 1998), AE and A

type shell stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement,
130 (3): 507512, Bibcode:1998A&AS..130..507J,
doi:10.1051/aas:1998101
[16] Nordgren, Tyler E.; et al. (December 1999), Stellar

Angular Diameters of Late-Type Giants and Supergiants
Measured with the Navy Prototype Optical Interferom-
eter, The Astronomical Journal, 118 (6): 30323038,
Bibcode:1999AJ....118.3032N, doi:10.1086/301114
Chapter 86
Alpha Cephei
Alpha Cephei ( Cephei, abbreviated Alpha Cep, 86.3 Properties

Cep), also named Alderamin,* [9] is a second magni-
tude star in the constellation of Cepheus near the northern
Alderamin is a white Class A star, evolving o the main
pole. The star is relatively close to Earth at only 49 light
sequence into a subgiant, probably on its way to becom-
years.
ing a red giant as its hydrogen supply runs low. In 2007,
the star's apparent magnitude was recalibrated at 2.5141
along with an updated parallax of 66.50 0.11 mas yield-
86.1 Nomenclature ing a distance of 15 parsecs or approximately 49 light
years from Earth.* [2]
Cephei (Latinised to Alpha Cephei) is the star's Bayer Given a surface temperature of 7,740 Kelvin, stellar mod-
designation. els yield a total luminosity for the star of about 17 times
It bore the traditional name Alderamin, a contraction the luminosity of the Sun. Alderamin has a radius of 2.3
of the Arabic phrase al-dhiral- times the Sun's*
radius and boasting a mass that is 1.74 that
yamn, meaning the right arm. In 2016, the of the Sun. [7] Like other stars in its class, it is slightly
International Astronomical Union organized a Working variable with a range in brightness of 0.06 magnitude, and
*
Group on Star Names (WGSN) [10] to catalog and stan- is listed as a Delta Scuti variable.
dardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's rst bul- Alderamin has a very high rotation speed of at least 246
letin of July 2016* [11] included a table of the rst two km/s, completing one complete revolution in less than 12
batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in- hours, with such a rapid turnover appearing to inhibit the
cluded Alderamin for this star. dierentiation of chemical elements usually seen in such
stars.* [8] By comparison, the Sun takes almost a month
to turn on its axis. Alpha Cephei is also known to emit
an amount of X radiation similar to the Sun, which along
86.2 Visibility with other indicators suggests the existence of consider-
able magnetic activitysomething unexpected (though
With a declination in excess of 62 degrees north, not at all unusual) for a fast rotator.
Alderamin is mostly visible to observers in the northern
hemisphere, though the star is still visible to latitudes as
far south as 27, albeit just above the horizon. The star
is circumpolar throughout all of Europe, northern Asia,
Canada, and American cities as far south as San Diego. 86.4 Etymology and cultural sig-
Since Alderamin has an apparent magnitude of about 2.5, nicance
the star is easily observable to the naked eye, even in light-
polluted cities.
This star, along with Beta Cephei (Alrk) and Eta Cephei
(Alkidr) were al-Kawkib al-Firq ( ),
* *
86.2.1 Pole star meaningthe Stars of the Flockby Ulug Beg. [12] [13]
In Chinese, (Tin Gu), meaning Celestial Hook,
Alderamin is located near the precessional path traced refers to an asterism consisting of Cephei, 4 Cephei,
across the celestial sphere by the Earth's North pole. That HD 194298, Eta Cephei, Theta Cephei, Xi Cephei, 26
means that it periodically comes within 3 of being a pole Cephei, Iota Cephei and Omicron Cephei.* [14] Con-
star, much as Polaris is at present. This will next oc- sequently, Alpha Cephei itself is known as
cur about the year 7500 AD. The north pole of Mars lies (Tin Gu wu, English: the Fifth Star of the Celestial
halfway between Alderamin and the star Deneb. Hook.).* [15]
311
312 CHAPTER 86. ALPHA CEPHEI
86.4.1 Namesakes [9] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.

USS Alderamin (AK-116) was a United States Navy
Crater class cargo ship named after the star.
86.5 See also [12] Allen, R. H. (1963). Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning
List of nearest bright stars ISBN 0-486-21079-0. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
Lists of stars in the constellation Draco [13] Davis Jr., G. A., The Pronunciations, Derivations, and
Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names,Popular As-
Class A Stars tronomy, Vol. LII, No. 3, Oct. 1944, p. 16.
Dwarf star [14] (Chinese) , written by . Published

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
86.6 References [15] (Chinese) - - ,

23, 2010.
[1] SIMBAD query result: NAME ALDERAMIN -- Vari-
able Star. Centre de Donnes astronomiques de Stras-
bourg. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
86.7 External links
[2] van Leeuwen, F (November 2007).Hipparcos, the New
Reduction. Astronomy and Astrophysics. Centre de Don-
nes astronomiques de Strasbourg. 474 (2): 653664. Kaler, James B.ALDERAMIN (Alpha Cephei)".
Stars. University of Illinois. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
arXiv:0708.1752 . Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V.
doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. Retrieved 2010-12- NASA's: History of Precession
19.
Crystalinks: Precession of the Equinoxes
[3] Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; Mc-
Fadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (2003). Contri-
butions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spec- Coordinates: 21* h 18* m 34.8* s, +62 35 08
troscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs:
Bibcode:2003AJ....126.2048G. doi:10.1086/378365.
[4] Mermilliod, J.-C. (1986).Compilation of Eggen's UBV

data, transformed to UBV (unpublished)". Catalogue of
Eggen's UBV data. Bibcode:1986EgUBV........0M.

[6] Pizzolato, N.; Maggio, A.; Sciortino, S. (Septem-

ber 2000), Evolution of X-ray activity of 1-3
Msun late-type stars in early post-main-sequence
phases, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 361: 614628,
Bibcode:2000A&A...361..614P

(3): 10151019, Bibcode:1990A&AS...85.1015M
[8] Hoeit; et al. (1991). Bright Star Catalogue. VizieR

(5th Revised ed.). Centre de Donnes astronomiques de
Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-12-20.
Chapter 87
Kappa Velorum
Kappa Velorum ( Vel, Velorum) is a binary star across the line of sight.* [10]* [11]
system in the southern constellation of Vela. It has the
traditional name Markab,* [5] from the Arabic ,
markab meaningsomething to ride. It is often spelled 87.3 References
Markeb* [7] to distinguish it from similarly named stars
such as Alpha Pegasi. [1] van Leeuwen, F. (November 2007), Validation
87.1 Properties Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357
From parallax measurements, this system is located at a [2] Denoyelle, J. (March 1977), The spatial distribution
distance of roughly 572 light-years (175 parsecs) from of young stars in Vela (l = 257 to 284 )", Astron-
the Earth. The apparent visual magnitude is 2.48,* [2] omy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 27: 343365,
making it readily visible to the naked eye in the south- Bibcode:1977A&AS...27..343D
ern hemisphere. [3] Evans, D. S. (June 2024, 1966). The Revision of
This is a spectroscopic binary system consisting of a pair the General Catalogue of Radial Velocities. In Bat-
of stars that complete an orbit around each other with ten, Alan Henry; Heard, John Frederick. Determina-
a period of 116.65 days and an orbital eccentricity of tion of Radial Velocities and their Applications, Proceed-
ings from IAU Symposium no. 30. Determination of Ra-
0.19. Because the individual stars have not been re-
solved, further details of the orbit have not yet been de- of Toronto: International Astronomical Union. p. 57.
termined.* [4] The combined stellar classication of the Bibcode:1967IAUS...30...57E.
pair is B2 IV,* [2] which matches the class of a B-type
subgiant star that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core [4] Pourbaix, D.; et al. (September 2004), SB 9: The ninth
and begun to evolve into a giant. It has an estimated size catalogue of spectroscopic binary orbits, Astronomy and
of 6.9 times the Sun's radius.* [8] Astrophysics, 424 (2): 727732, arXiv:astro-ph/0406573
, Bibcode:2004A&A...424..727P, doi:10.1051/0004-
The star is only a couple of degrees from the south ce- 6361:20041213
lestial pole of Mars, so it could therefore be considered
the southern polar star of Mars. Due to precession of [5] Burnham, Robert (1978), Burnham's celestial handbook:
the equinoxes, it will be the closest bright star of note to an observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar sys-
the south celestial pole of Earth in the period surrounding tem, Dover books explaining science, 3 (2nd ed.), Courier
Dover Publications, p. 2037, ISBN 0-486-23673-0, re-
9000 AD. The False Cross is an asterism formed of the
trieved 2012-01-08
Velorum and Velorum and Carinae and Carinae.
It is so called because it is sometimes mistaken for the [6] kap Vel -- Spectroscopic binary, SIMBAD, Centre
Southern Cross, causing errors in astronavigation.* [9] de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved 2012-
01-08
[7] Kunitzsch, P. (February 1986),John of London and his

87.2 Interstellar medium Unknown Arabic Sources, Journal for the History of
Astronomy, 17 (1): 51, Bibcode:1986JHA....17...51K
Analysis of the spectrum of Velorum shows absorption [8] Pasinetti Fracassini, L. E.; et al. (February 2001),
lines due to the interstellar medium between Earth and Catalogue of Apparent Diameters and Absolute
the star. Observation of these features over many years Radii of Stars (CADARS) - Third edition - Com-
has shown that the lines vary in strength, probably caused ments and statistics, Astronomy and Astrophysics,
by a small dense cloud extending 102 103 au moving 367 (2): 5211524, arXiv:astro-ph/0012289 ,
313
314 CHAPTER 87. KAPPA VELORUM
Bibcode:2001A&A...367..521P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20000451

[10] Crawford, I. A. (August 2002), Detection of CaI and

CH absorption at the velocity of the variable interstel-
lar component towards Velorum, Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 334 (2): L33L37,
Bibcode:2002MNRAS.334L..33C, doi:10.1046/j.1365-
8711.2002.05730.x
[11] Smith, K. T.; Fossey, S. J.; Cordiner, M. A.; Sarre,

P. J.; Smith, A. M.; Bell, T. A.; Viti, S. (2012).
Small-scale structure in the interstellar medium: Time-
varying interstellar absorption towards Velorum
ety. 429 (2): 939. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.429..939S.
doi:10.1093/mnras/sts310.
87.4 External links

The path of the Southern Celestial Pole": The Sys-
tem of W. B. Yeats's A Vision Diagram of the
southern precession circle, showing Markeb as the
South Pole Star in 9000 AD.
Kaler, James B., MARKEB (Kappa Velorum)",
Stars, university of Illinois, retrieved 2012-01-08
Chapter 88
Alpha Pegasi
For other uses of Markab, see Markab (disambigua- lation between Rotational Velocities and Spectral Pecu-
tion). liarities among A-Type Stars. Astrophysical Journal
Supplement. 99: 135. Bibcode:1995ApJS...99..135A.
doi:10.1086/192182.
Alpha Pegasi ( Pegasi, abbreviated Alpha Peg,
Peg), also named Markab,* [8] is the third-brightest star [4] Samus, N. N.; Durlevich, O. V.; et al. (2009). VizieR
in the constellation of Pegasus and one of the four stars Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars
in the asterism known as the Great Square of Pegasus. (Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog:
Pegasi (Latinised to Alpha Pegasi) is the star's Bayer Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S.
designation. It bore the traditional name Markab (or
Marchab), which derived from an Arabic word [5] Wielen, R.; et al. (1999), Sixth Catalogue of Fun-
markab the saddle of the horse, or is mistranscrip- damental Stars (FK6). Part I. Basic fundamental stars
tion of Mankib which itself comes from an Arabic phrase
Mankib al-Faras "(the Star of) the Shoul- (35), Bibcode:1999VeARI..35....1W
der (of the Constellation) of the Horse" for Beta Pegasi.
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized [6] Fitzpatrick, E. L.; Massa, D. (March 2005), Deter-
a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)* [9] to cata- mining the Physical Properties of the B Stars. II. Cal-
log and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's ibration of Synthetic Photometry, The Astronomical
rst bulletin of July 2016* [10] included a table of the rst Journal, 129 (3): 16421662, arXiv:astro-ph/0412542 ,
two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which in- Bibcode:2005AJ....129.1642F, doi:10.1086/427855
cluded Markab for this star.
Markab has a stellar classication of A0 IV, indicating (July 2002), Rotational Velocities of B Stars
that it is an A-type subgiant star that has exhausted the , The Astrophysical Journal, 573 (1): 359365,
hydrogen at its core and has evolved beyond the main se- Bibcode:2002ApJ...573..359A, doi:10.1086/340590
quence. It is rotating rapidly, with a projected rotational [8] IAU Catalog of Star Names. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
velocity of 125 km/s giving a lower bound on the az-
imuthal velocity along the star's equator. The eective [9] IAU Working Group on Star Names (WGSN)". Re-
temperature of the photosphere is nearly 10,000 K and trieved 22 May 2016.
the star has expanded to nearly ve times the radius of
the Sun. 1 (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2016.
88.1 References
Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:20078357

[3] Abt, Helmut A.; Morrell, Nidia I. (1995). The Re-
315
Chapter 89
Epsilon Cygni
Epsilon Cygni ( Cyg, Cygni) is a star in the ; pinyin: Tin Jn) refers to an asterism consisting of
constellation Cygnus. This star's Bayer designation is Cygni, Cygni, Cygni, 30 Cygni, Cygni, Cygni,
from Johann Bayer's 1603 Uranometria atlas of bright Cygni, Cygni and Cygni.* [15] Consequently, Cygni
stars. With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.48, it is itself is known as the Ninth Star of Celestial Ford
readily visible to the naked eye at night as one of the (Chinese: ; pinyin: Tin Jn ji.* [16]
brighter members of Cygnus. Based upon parallax mea-
surement, Epsilon Cygni is about 73 light-years from
Earth. It is sometimes known as Gienah, but that name is 89.3 References
more usually applied to Gamma Corvi.
[1] van Leeuwen, Floor (November 2007), Validation
89.1 Description Astrophysics, 474 (2): 653664, arXiv:0708.1752v1
, Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V, doi:10.1051/0004-
Epsilon Cygni is a giant star with a stellar classication of 6361:20078357 Note: see VizieR catalogue I/311.
K0 III.* [10] This indicates that the star has left the main
[2] Oja, T. (August 1986), UBV photometry of stars
sequence and has begun the nal stages in its stellar evo-
whose positions are accurately known. III, Astron-
lution. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served omy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 65 (2): 405409,
as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars Bibcode:1986A&AS...65..405O
are classied.* [11] The eective temperature of the star's
photosphere is 4,710 K, giving Epsilon Cygni an orange [3] Gray, R. O.; Corbally, C. J.; Garrison, R. F.; Mc-
hue that is a characteristic of K-type stars.* [12] This star Fadden, M. T.; Robinson, P. E. (2003). Contri-
has nearly 11 times the solar radius and is about 62 times butions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spec-
the luminosity of the Sun.* [7] troscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 Parsecs:
In 1920 it was suggested that the star is a spectroscopic nal. 126 (4): 2048. arXiv:astro-ph/0308182 .
binary system, but this was later brought into question. Bibcode:2003AJ....126.2048G. doi:10.1086/378365.
It has an optical companion Epsilon Cygni B that is
not physically associated with Epsilon Cygni A, and a [4] Massarotti, Alessandro; et al. (January 2008), Ro-
13th magnitude candidate common proper motion com- tational and Radial Velocities for a Sample of 761
panion Epsilon Cygni C at an angular separation of 78 HIPPARCOS Giants and the Role of Binarity
arcseconds.* [13] If the latter star is gravitationally bound , The Astronomical Journal, 135 (1): 209231,
to Epsilon Cygni A, then they are currently separated by Bibcode:2008AJ....135..209M, doi:10.1088/0004-
6256/135/1/209
1700 AU or more, and have an orbital period of at least
50,000 years.* [6] Radial velocity observations of Epsilon [5] Carney, Bruce W.; et al. (March 2008), Rotation
Cygni suggest a possible companion with an orbital pe- and Macroturbulence in Metal-Poor Field Red Giant
riod of at least 15 years.* [13] and Red Horizontal Branch Stars, The Astronom-
, Bibcode:2008AJ....135..892C, doi:10.1088/0004-
89.2 Traditional astronomy 6256/135/3/892
[6] Kaler, James,GIENAH CYGNI (Epsilon Cygni)", Stars,

The name Gienah comes from Islamic Astronomy, where University of Illinois, retrieved 2011-12-11
jan (Arabic: )means "wing". The name Gienah is
also applied to Gamma Corvi.* [8]* [14]
In Chinese astronomy, the "Celestial Ford" (Chinese: omy and Astrophysics, 526: A100, arXiv:1010.3649
316
, Bibcode:2011A&A...526A.100P, doi:10.1051/0004-
6361/201014442
[8] Rumrill, H. B. (1936). Star Name Pronuncia-

tion. Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacic. 48: 139. Bibcode:1936PASP...48..139R.
doi:10.1086/124681.
[9] LHS 5358b -- High proper-motion Star, SIMBAD, Cen-

tre de Donnes astronomiques de Strasbourg, retrieved
2011-12-10
[10] Cohen, Martin; et al. (April 1999), Spectral Ir-

radiance Calibration in the Infrared. X. A Self-
Consistent Radiometric All-Sky Network of Absolutely
Calibrated Stellar Spectra, The Astronomical Jour-
nal, 117 (4): 18641889, Bibcode:1999AJ....117.1864C,
doi:10.1086/300813


[13] McMillan, R. S.; Smith, P. H.; Moore, T. L.; Perry,

M. L. (December 1992), Variation of the radial ve-
locity of Epsilon Cygni A, Publications of the Astro-
nomical Society of the Pacic, 104 (682): 11731176,
Bibcode:1992PASP..104.1173M, doi:10.1086/133105

their meanings, New York, G.E. Stechert: 197,

by , 2005, ISBN 978-986-7332-
25-7.
[16] (Chinese) - - ,
23, 2010.
89.4 External links

http://www.tcaep.co.uk/astro/constell/20460042.
htm
http://www.skyhound.com/sh/archive/aug1/NGC_
6960.html
http://www.pbase.com/mcrowle/image/81902791
318 CHAPTER 89. EPSILON CYGNI
89.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

89.5.1 Text
List of brightest stars Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars?oldid=777026892 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tar-
quin, Wayne Hardman, Josh Grosse, Patrick, JohnOwens, Nanobug, Ugen64, Hashar, Zoicon5, Joy, Stormie, GPHemsley, Hajor, Robbot,
Rursus, MPF, Gtrmp, Jyril, Curps, Wikibob, Pne, Geni, Zeimusu, Tomruen, Karl-Henner, Sarphram, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
Ponder, Bender235, RJHall, Livajo, Mytg8, Worldtraveller, Femto, Smalljim, DaveGorman, Shereth, Ardric47, Alansohn, Enirac Sum,
Philosophistry, Suruena, Skatebiker, Bluve, Stemonitis, GregorB, Palica, Marudubshinki, Aarghdvaark, Rnt20, Marskell, Miq, Mike
s, Nneonneo, Maxim Razin, FlaBot, Patrick1982, Srleer, Chobot, Bgwhite, Amaurea, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hillman, Hogghogg,
97gooljo, Aeusoes1, Eric Sellars, Wizzard, Ketsuekigata, Wolf1728, Unyoyega, CMD Beaker, Kintetsubualo, Cuddlyopedia, Skizzik,
Hibernian, DHN-bot~enwiki, Tamfang, Scray, Ioscius, Andrew Dalby, J 1982, Bay Flam, Newone, Petr Matas, Myasuda, Dspart, Dumb-
BOT, Robertinventor, Casliber, Fournax, Martin Hogbin, Dawnseeker2000, Mike D, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, Kakarott, VoABot II, Hunter
x9281, Khalid Mahmood, Geboy, Tonicthebrown, Skeptic2, Territory, Sallen2006, NewEnglandYankee, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Katydidit,
TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Elphion, BotKung, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Wikiste, PixelBot,
Sun Creator, Roberto Mura, InternetMeme, Arianewiki1, Tarl N., BodhisattvaBot, Calidius, MystBot, Addbot, Liwolf1, Srbraun, Deni-
cho, , Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Random astronomer,
Gap9551, Lithopsian, RibotBOT, Sophus Bie, Mnmngb, Moxy, Fotaun, Kwiki, DrilBot, RedBot, Ilvon, Kibi78704, Trappist the monk,
Bobby122, TL565, Bhawani Gautam, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Sadalsuud, Faolin42, Dcirovic, AvicBot, StringTheory11,
Ruislick0, Hevron1998, Thine Antique Pen, Mysterybeing, PavelUstinovich, ClueBot NG, OperaJoeGreen, Mghomann, Sprinkler21,
Cyberpower678, Arosby, Deaster94, Verdixt, Colinmartin74, Tobeisto, Shaun, BattyBot, Luckydhaliwal, Levelswung, DoctorKubla, Az-
seicsoK, Raymond1922A, Marisusis, Lugia2453, Hillbillyholiday, JavonteConver, Dberard, Praemonitus, 240788dt, Kind Tennis Fan, Jelle
Gouw, TheWhistleGag, RedPanda25, Sir Cumference, RedMyrtle, AdrienGeophy, Procrastinatorji, Sukie kathuada and Anonymous: 134
Sun Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun?oldid=779745012 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav,
Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Berek, Tarquin, Malcolm Farmer, -- April, Ed Poor, Xaonon, Eob, Danny, XJaM, Chrislintott, Rmher-
men, DavidLevinson, Caltrop, David spector, Heron, Fonzy, Montrealais, Rickyrab, Spi~enwiki, Edward, K.lee, Lir, Patrick, JohnOwens,
Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, Lexor, Liftarn, Jketola, Ixfd64, Cyde, GTBacchus, Delirium, Loisel, Minesweeper, Kosebamse, Dgrant,
Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Snoyes, Kingturtle, Mark Foskey, Amcaja, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Nikai,
Samw, Jedidan747, Jonik, Mxn, Pizza Puzzle, Schneelocke, Hike395, Emperorbma, Crusadeonilliteracy, Charles Matthews, Vanished user
5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Timwi, RickK, Stone, Kbk, Fuzheado, Doradus, Mjklin, Timc, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Dragons ight,
Morwen, VeryVerily, SEWilco, Rnbc, Phoebe, Thue, Raul654, Jusjih, Johnleemk, Jamesday, Anjouli, Dmytro, RadicalBender, Jni, Twang,
Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoer, Vt-aoe, EdwinHJ, Robbot, Hankwang, The Phoenix, Astronautics~enwiki, Schutz, Akajune, Moncrief, Ne-
tizen, Psychonaut, Stephan Schulz, Nurg, Naddy, Modulatum, Arkuat, Postdlf, Flauto Dolce, Lesonyrra, Spike, Rursus, Rhombus, Sunray,
Mervyn, Hadal, Saforrest, Robinh, Borislav, Mushroom, Witbrock, Diberri, Dina, StefanosKozanis~enwiki, Cedars, Stirling Newberry, Par-
asite, Nephelin~enwiki, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Awolf002, Fennec, Jyril, Gene Ward Smith, Isam, Barbara Shack,
ShaunMacPherson, Wiglaf, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Fastssion, Karn, Bradeos Graphon, Xerxes314, Peruvianllama, Everyking, No Guru,
Moyogo, Dratman, Maha ts, Curps, Michael Devore, Markus Kuhn, Bensaccount, Cantus, Rpyle731, DO'Neil, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Saaga,
Siroxo, Solipsist, Iceberg3k, Tweenk, Darrien, Jackol, Bobblewik, WikiFan04, ChicXulub, Utcursch, Pgan002, Andycjp, Alexf, Mike R,
Zeimusu, Yath, Quadell, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, OverlordQ, ClockworkLunch, MistToys, Piotrus, Kusunose, Melikamp, Jossi, Karol
Langner, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Samy Merchi, DragonySixtyseven, Rubik-wuerfel, Latitude0116, Jokestress, RetiredUser2, Kevin
B12, Satori, Icairns, Clarknova, Marcos, Gscshoyru, Nickptar, HunterX, Iantresman, Urhixidur, Joyous!, Fermion, Clemwang, Subsume,
Deglr6328, Trevor MacInnis, Bluemask, Zowie, O'Dea, DanielCD, JTN, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Kenj0418, FT2,
Vsmith, Doogee, URMEL~enwiki, Ponder, Dbachmann, MarkS, SpookyMulder, MJSS, Bender235, Swid, Hapsiainen, Violetriga, Nabla,
Eric Forste, Commonbrick, Brian0918, RJHall, Maclean25, E Pluribus Anthony redux, Ben Webber, Lycurgus, Huntster, Kwamikagami,
QuartierLatin1968, Vinsci, Worldtraveller, Aude, Shanes, Tom, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Spoon!, Femto, Wareh, Madler, Causa
sui, Noren, Bobo192, Dralwik, Circeus, Chan Han Xiang, Func, Malafaya, SpeedyGonsales, Vystrix Nexoth, Man vyi, Darwinek, Raja99,
Opspin, Ardric47, Apostrophe, Obradovic Goran, Sam Korn, Pearle, Juanpabl, Bijee~enwiki, Mareino, Matthewcieplak, Liberty Miller,
Stephen G. Brown, Danski14, AviGilChaitovsky, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Tablizer, Nik42, LtNOWIS, Kjetil, Halsteadk, Eric Kvaalen,
Neonumbers, Keenan Pepper, Babajobu, Andrew Gray, Monado, Riana, AzaToth, Lectonar, Axl, Lightdarkness, PAR, Batmanand, Cdc,
Fkbreitl, Spangineer, Titanium Dragon, Alinor, Bart133, DreamGuy, Snowolf, GeorgeStepanek, Radical Mallard, Angelic Wraith, Velella,
TaintedMustard, Evil Monkey, Tony Sidaway, RJFJR, Gpvos, Amorymeltzer, Jon Cates, RainbowOfLight, Rapscallion, Cmapm, Skate-
biker, DV8 2XL, SteinbDJ, Allen McC.~enwiki, Gene Nygaard, Klparrot, Nick Mks, Sturmde, Kitch, Alex.g, Stephen, Flying sh, Dejvid,
Feezo, Gmaxwell, WilliamKF, Sterio, Rorschach, Jerey O. Gustafson, CygnusPius, OwenX, Woohookitty, CioDu~enwiki, FeanorStar7,
Stefannk, Spamguy, TigerShark, Ataru, LOL, Yansa, PoccilScript, Rocastelo, Jersyko, Daniel Case, Mark K. Jensen, Bkkbrad, Benbest,
Robert K S, Pol098, Commander Keane, Urod, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, MONGO, Eleassar777, Schzmo, Jleon, I64s, Aristotle Pa-
galtzis, Sengkang, KFan II, CharlesC, Wayward, Funhistory, Sam Ellens, ZephyrAnycon, Smartech~enwiki, Wisq, Turnstep, Gerbrant,
Mattd4u2nv, RichardWeiss, Rnt20, Ashmoo, Graham87, Marskell, Magister Mathematicae, Descendall, BD2412, Qwertyus, Chun-hian,
Seb-Gibbs, FreplySpang, Ando228, The Disco King, Seyon, Icey, Ciroa, Canderson7, Ketiltrout, Sj, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi,
Kstraka, Mayumashu, Coemgenus, IanMcGreene, Fieari, Nightscream, Koavf, Zbxgscqf, NatusRoma, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, Strait, Avia,
Amire80, Hiberniantears, Scott Johnson, JHMM13, Rschen7754, Jmcc150, HandyAndy, Kazrak, Thangalin, Ligulem, Sohmc, SeanMack,
Brighterorange, Krash, Dar-Ape, Hermione1980, Zimbabwe~enwiki, Sango123, Antimatt, Ghalas, Javalizard, Sinsearach, Titoxd, Ace-
o-aces, RobertG, Immortal Synn, Latka, Lipis, Crazycomputers, Alhutch, Harmil, Gark, GnniX, Nivix, Elmer Clark, RexNL, Gurch,
Leslie Mateus, Arctic.gnome, DannyZ, OrbitOne, Krun, TeaDrinker, Codex Sinaiticus, Ysw1987, Goudzovski, Alphachimp, Malhonen,
Srleer, Mastorrent, No Swan So Fine, MoRsE, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Lord Patrick, ScottAlanHill, DVdm, JesseGarrett, 334a, Ahpook,
WriterHound, Therefore, Gwernol, Albrozdude, The Rambling Man, Satanael, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Spacepotato, Ve-
dranf, JJB, JWB, Hairy Dude, Jachin, Jimp, Alethiareg, Brandmeister (old), Barron64, RussBot, Arado, John Quincy Adding Machine,
Anonymous editor, Supasheep, Mark Ironie, GLaDOS, Bergsten, Netscott, SpuriousQ, Chaser, Fabricationary, GusF, CanadianCaesar,
BillMasen, Zelmerszoetrop, Subsurd, Stephenb, Mithridates, CambridgeBayWeather, Eleassar, Alex Bakharev, Cryptic, Wimt, Ergzay,
Sjb90, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, The Merciful, Robertvan1, Test-tools~enwiki, Bloodofox, Cquan, Trovatore, Rjensen, Howcheng, Devein,
Dureo, Lexicon, Mshecket, Sir48, Lykaestria, Banes, Peter Delmonte, CecilWard, Padajtsch-kall, Ashantii, Raven4x4x, Moe Epsilon,
Orbframe, David Pierce, Killdevil, PonyToast, Tony1, Ospalh, Occono, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Dbrs, Elizabeyth, Adreamsoul, Lockes-
donkey, Samir, BOT-Superzerocool, Mysid, Gadget850, DeadEyeArrow, Jeh, Elkman, Brisvegas, TUSHANT JHA, Martinwilke1980,
89.5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 319
Dna-webmaster, Nick123, Wknight94, Tkalayci, Tetracube, WAS 4.250, FF2010, Sandstein, PrincessJO, Donbert, Light current, Show
no mercy, Enormousdude, Theodolite, Zzuuzz, TheKoG, Dast, Chesnok, Mopcwiki, Theda, Fang Aili, MikePursifull, Xaxafrad, Reyk,
Beaker342, CharlesHBennett, Exodio, Petri Krohn, Black-Velvet, GraemeL, Aeon1006, TBadger, Le sacre, Alias Flood, CWenger, Leonar-
doRob0t, Kier07, Georey.landis, ArielGold, Tim R, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Ilmari Karonen, Ybbor, Kungfuadam, Jthebeatles,
Gator1, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, Joshronsen, Serendipodous, Groyolo, DVD R W, Knowledgeum, Xtraeme, That Guy, From That
Show!, Luk, Akrabbim, Deuar, Sardanaphalus, Twilight Realm, Jayant412, Crystallina, SmackBot, Dissembly, Unschool, Ashill, Sar-
avask, Hux, Mr A Pinder, Johnpaxton, Jeppesn, CelticJobber, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, Pgk, C.Fred, AndyZ, Bomac, Kilo-Lima, Al-
lixpeeke, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Jedikaiti, Jrockley, Renesis, Eaglizard, Delldot, Cdcon, Hardyplants, Frymaster, Dak is back, Joseph-
prymak, AnOddName, Vilerage, K8TEK, Man with two legs, Info lover, Srnec, Tzsch, WesDecker, Xaosux, Rotemliss, Gilliam, Jdfoote,
Madjaxter, Ohnoitsjamie, DividedByNegativeZero, Hmains, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Desiphral, TRosenbaum, ERcheck, Oldeld~enwiki,
Grokmoo, Saros136, Anachronist, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Keegan, SlimJim, KiloByte, Jprg1966, Sirex98, Master of Puppets,
Soundslikealotofhooplah, Raymond arritt, Oli Filth, TheScurvyEye, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, Hibernian, Fredvan-
ner, StrangerInParadise, Hmich176, Redd Dragon, U-235~enwiki, Oni Ookami Alfador, Kungming2, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, William
Allen Simpson, Darth Panda, Bil1, Reaper X, Lewis007, Scwlong, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Njl, Jinxed, Mourn, Chlewbot,
Shibo77, Astrobhadauria~enwiki, Yidisheryid, TonySt, Tuxley, Rubber soul, Aces lead, Addshore, SundarBot, Jmnbatista, Ctifumdope,
King Vegita, Chrisd0687, Krich, Wen D House, Flyguy649, Iapetus, Shrine of Fire, Daqu, Makemi, Nakon, Savidan, Duckbill, Veg-
aDark, John D. Croft, Blake-, SnappingTurtle, Iblardi, Invincible Ninja, ShaunES, Akriasas, Chibiabos, Clean Copy, Last Avenue, Hen-
ning Makholm, Terrasidius, Daniel.Cardenas, Schgooda, Kukini, Zeneky, Mattwhiteski, Thor Dockweiler, CIS, The Pelican, SashatoBot,
Twigge, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Robomaeyhem, Weeksy, Agradman, JzG, Sophia, Sambot, Dbtfz, Soap, Kuru, Richard L.
Peterson, John, AmiDaniel, N3bulous, Scientizzle, Swlenz, J 1982, Heimstern, FR Soliloquy, Mattw998, Korean alpha for knowledge,
Cpom, Shadowlynk, Blinkismyfave, JorisvS, Minna Sora no Shita, Niczar, Moop stick, Majorclanger, Mr. Lefty, Joshua Scott, Pseu-
doSudo, Deviathan~enwiki, Ckatz, Beefy SAFC, The Man in Question, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Across.The.Synapse, Brent williams,
MarkSutton, Stupid Corn, Duke of Kent, Yvesnimmo, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Vendetta411, Ferhengvan, Waggers, Mets501, Spiel496,
Funnybunny, Special12321, Ryulong, Jarany, Novangelis, H, Jose77, Blindmonkey, Cerealkiller13, Michael Dinolfo, Dean1970, JDAWise-
man, Keith-264, Levineps, Swotboy2000, JMK, Michaelbusch, John Mash, Dekaels~enwiki, Clarityend, Maestlin, Paul venter, Joseph
Solis in Australia, Newone, Pegasus1138, Sam Clark, Cbrown1023, Abdaal, Soapthgr8, Civil Engineer III, Jdb1729, Courcelles, Piccor,
WakiMiko, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Godlikemammal, The Letter J, Yosef 52, Dc3~enwiki, Orangutan, Harold f, The Haunted An-
gel, Nutster, Tifego, Piggysrcute123, Paul Matthews, Stifynsemons, KNM, Thedemonhog, Sakurambo, Friendly Neighbour, Nehushtan,
VoxLuna, Markjoseph125, Tanthalas39, PorthosBot, Shanejohnson, Myrrhlin, Iced Kola, Ossanha, Scirocco6, Chimsta, DSachan, Vyznev
Xnebara, Rwammang, MFlet1, Ruslik0, Lmcelhiney, Schweiwikist, GHe, Benwildeboer, N2e, El aprendelenguas, Eric Le Bigot, Dan
1024, Simply south, Joelholdsworth, WeggeBot, MrFish, Skybon, Flammingo, The Enslaver, Ufviper, TJDay, LunceFordPrefect, Dog-
man15, HalJor, Cydebot, Squizz48, Peripitus, Abeg92, Dillamond, Subravenkat, Poeticbent, Asknine, Reywas92, ArgentTurquoise, Steel,
Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, Mr.Chocobos, Flowerpotman, Corpx, NewProvidence, Andyroo161, Fifo, Michael C Price, Tawkerbot4, Legend78,
Codetiger, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Rsheridan6, Mallanox, Agge.se, Shortdude2889, Kozuch, Adamlaurie, Bob Stein - VisiBone, Editor at
Large, Emmett5, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Nol888, Saintrain, Casliber, Poverty~enwiki, Thijs!bot, JAF1970, Epbr123, Barticus88,
Forbesb, Fsdfsdfsd~enwiki, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Markus Pssel, Daniel, Kablammo, Headbomb, Newton2, Louis Waweru, Shadow-
blackre, Pjvpjv, A3RO, Fenrisulfr, Pciszek, Cverlo, Davidhorman, Rimmo21, Cj67, Son of Somebody, OGRE 2, CielProfond, DaveJ7,
Greg L, Nick Number, BlytheG, Theophile490, Big Bird, Pkpat2011, MichaelMaggs, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, CTZMSC3, Ale-
fZet, Northumbrian, Escarbot, I already forgot, Dantheman531, Baclough, Cyclonenim, Jbrezina, AntiVandalBot, Fiksdal, Majorly, Luna
Santin, EdgarCarpenter, Ricnun, Opelio, Bm gub, Erwin85Bot, CobraWiki, Quintote, Mrshaba, Efyoo, Edokter, Bequinta, SmokeyTheCat,
Helicoptor, Mojohaza1, Chuchunezumi, Shahid hassan99, MECU, Spencer, Asgrrr, Nuttyisms, G Rose, Togarida41, Mike741, Ghmyr-
tle, Kothari.sagar, Gkhan, Kierco0619, Canadian-Bacon, Squidgyegg, Bogger, JAnDbot, Darthjarek, Krishvanth, Deective, Davewho2,
Barek, WordSurd, MER-C, Nthep, Mcorazao, Supertheman, IanOsgood, Stonnman, Hello32020, Db099221, Flaminkight, Legolost, Ikan-
reed, Mwarren us, Roleplayer, Hut 8.5, Noface1, TallulahBelle, Smith Jones, Rothorpe, Denimadept, Maias, LittleOldMe, Acroterion,
Robertburke2003, Pablothegreat85, WolfmanSF, Secret Squrrel, Murgh, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Sushant gupta, Mrld, JNW, Brandt
Luke Zorn, Obluis, Blue william, Mbc362, Father Goose, Akronnick, , WagByName, LanJack, Eno-Etile, Brewhaha@edmc.net,
Brain40, Hypergeek14, Nyttend, Justice for All, WODUP, Kharri1073, Smash1gordon, SparrowsWing, Avicennasis, Wikiwhat?, Midgrid,
GroovySandwich, Couki, Catgut, Thisisdeansusername, Animum, Cyktsui, Jump o duck, ArthurWeasley, Torchiest, Remi81992, Mkdw,
Allstarecho, PYMontpetit, Tins128, SpaceGuide, Siddharthsk2000, Spellmaster, ArmadilloFromHell, Shijualex, Just James, Talon Artaine,
DerHexer, Alastan, Khalid Mahmood, TheRanger, Wayne Miller, Patstuart, Thestick, Eschnett, DinoBot, Kheider, G.A.S, NatureA16,
Gjd001, September 11 suicide bomber, Jerem43, Hdt83, MartinBot, Eternal Pink, Xdef, Arjun01, Kiore, Whoiam55, Anaxial, Tech-
noFaye, Richardhenwood, R'n'B, Mycroft7, CommonsDelinker, Pbroks13, Nono64, Organics (usurped), Patar knight, Smokizzy, Lilac
Soul, Werothegreat, Cyrus Andiron, Slugger, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Kimse, DrKay, Trusilver, Mr Ernie, EscapingLife, Kulshrax, Bo-
gey97, Numbo3, Theinternetsoify, Hans Dunkelberg, Squallish, Maurice Carbonaro, SpartanVIII, MrBell, Ginsengbomb, Eliz81, Markhay-
ward, Jreferee, WarthogDemon, NerdyNSK, MatheoDJ, OceGirl, Fishyghost, Q2op, Cpiral, Gzkn, Acalamari, IdLoveOne, Katalaveno,
Peppergrower, Kyonkyon, Lunokhod, Ignatzmice, Dfoofnik, Vac cutter, Nalumc, RTBoyce, Ryan Postlethwaite, Coppertwig, Chriswiki,
Spinach Dip, Eoin5s, TomasBat, NewEnglandYankee, Rominandreu, Sd31415, Nwbeeson, Fly101, The Snakemaster, Touch Of Light,
83d40m, Pejmany, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Toon05, Student7, Mwmt1, Madhava 1947, MetsFan76, Filam-Man, BrettAllen, Don-
markdixon, KylieTastic, Blueblib, Mantosh1980, Fooghter20x, Kerms, Gwen Gale, LordCo Centre, DorganBot, Equivocal, Treisijs, Jim
Swenson, Mike V, HiEv, Xcindydollx, Torf74, Izno, Gamecockfan1001, Martial75, Dkreisst, Scewing, Dvyjones, Idioma-bot, Lrdwhyt,
Wikieditor06, CyberForte, Black Kite, Lights, Sam Blacketer, Inn0mmable, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Part Deux, Stevesysum, DagnyB, The
Duke of Waltham, Roger M.E. Lightly, Je G., Indubitably, Humps, JohnBlackburne, James Callahan, LokiClock, Cadby Waydell Bainbry-
dge, Rutherfordjigsaw, Haade, Opferman, Katydidit, Landisdesign, QuackGuru, SexyBern, Lidingo, Wugo, Philip Trueman, Tangz22, Gul-
dotarpit, TXiKiBoT, Rambo forever, Brummer Pants, Sagittarian Milky Way, Rakasan, Myles325a, Hqb, Malljaja, Yuma en, Caster23, US-
ferdinand, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, HarryAla, Captain Wikify, Sean D Martin, Rabsak, Qxz, Someguy1221, Dipper3, Math-
olo1, Piperh, Lambdoid, Christinelaura, Mooverb, Harry sava, Lradrama, PichuUmbreon, Eeron80, MasterSci, Awl, Saibod, 06mkittle,
Henrykus, Martin451, Greatparty, Bobblehead2, JhsBot, Choppie3000, Mzmadmike, Fbs. 13, Dalejr.3, Buddhipriya, LeaveSleaves, Mac-
ncc, Arcaani, Sakletare, PDFbot, Pleroma, UnitedStatesian, Cremepu222, Deathsquad53, Quindraco, Jpastelero, Damrung, X3nolith,
MearsMan, Sslibrary, Shane1120, Nishani 1995, Monstrabisne, Rpbreen, Roland Kaufmann, Pious7, Sivani2006, Oliver Manuel, Com-
rade Tux, Boomervan123, Carinemily, Synthebot, DannyCarl, Speria, Horselover1127, Dragostanasie, CarbonRod85, Heroandgloom, Bri-
anga, Showers, Rida666, Macchess, Palaeovia, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Planet-man828, PericlesofAthens, EmxBot, LordofPens, D. Recorder,
Kbrose, Thw1309, Demmy100, SMC89, Maide, SieBot, MK Dempsey, Jwray, Kfc1864, Timb66, Jim77742, Sonicology, PlanetStar, Tid-
dly Tom, Scarian, BotMultichill, Hertz1888, Iamthedeus, Krawi, Abc60, Noh Boddy, Su huynh, Caltas, Kylemew, BloodDoll, Rawrthness,
Apemanjy, Triwbe, Invadereli94, Arda Xi, Keilana, Flag-Waving American Patriot, Acet0ne, Tiptoety, Wizzard2k, Ireas, Arbor to SJ, Un-
deadcow66, Nopetro, Travis Evans, Osutchi, Dhateld, Will Aaron 6, Wombatcat, Berserkerus, Oxymoron83, SpellingGuru, KPH2293,
Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Wikiwikiwee, Poindexter Propellerhead, Wikiwee~enwiki, Bludevilchief, Murlough23, Alessandroandchar-
lie, Raihan.mahmud, Roxivus, Disneydude500, Cbennett0811, BenoniBot~enwiki, AMackenzie, Autumn Wind, OKBot, Nymbusfhs,
Gunde123456789, LonelyMarble, Andrij Kursetsky, Lapping~enwiki, Iikkoollpp, StaticGull, Jeroen888, Reign atreyu, Jacob.jose, Ran-
domblue, Hamiltondaniel, Realm of Shadows, Ttbya, Paulinho28, Bkumartvm, Dimboukas, Mjpulohanan, Getyourlemondaehere, Nergaal,
DRTllbrg, M1n2b3, Escape Orbit, C0nanPayne, Randy Kryn, Ghetsmith, Budhen, Mesosphere, Freewayguy, Velvetron, Explicit, Squash
Racket, ImageRemovalBot, Khirurg, ElectronicsEnthusiast, Adoliveira, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Dood666, De728631, Elassint, Clue-
Bot, Gladysamuel, Trojancowboy, Binksternet, Artichoker, Feyre, Seazoleta, PipepBot, Agunatak, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Fizzixman, Andigk2217, Plastikspork, Hongthay, Dikstr, Nnemo, Ndenison, Arakunem, Cp111, Razimantv, Dvratnam~enwiki, Dmvward,
Boing! said Zebedee, Benito123456789, Timberframe, Hateme666, Emp4eva, Ddunau, Niceguyedc, Jcdw14, XayaneXeX, Gangsters403,
Bartholemuel07, Bill3025, Kaage, SaturnCat, Swarm-287, Solar-Wind, Paulcmnt, DragonBot, Awickert, Excirial, H-Vergilius, Jusdafax,
Noca2plus, Ontopofthewall, Slntprdtr, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Fire 55, Lunchscale, PhySusie, Awikiwikiwik!!!, Ember of Light,
DILNN1, Francisco Albani, Jimmysauce, Doommaster1994, Krazymike, Redthoreau, Bennyvk, Muro Bot, Kmac001, Crbnfan99, Jon-
verve, Sivakamitvm, RubenGarciaHernandez, Alfonsobernabe, Roberto Mura, Cornerstone77, SoxBot III, Apparition11, Ginbot86, Cald-
well malt, Capntek, InternetMeme, PSimeon, Roxy the dog, Blidman, Nathan Johnson, Auslli, Morganbyers, RebirthThom, Ziza123,
Gerhardvalentin, Ost316, Facts707, U av probs, JinJian, MystBot, Mbariel~enwiki, Airplaneman, Pokefan098, Lemchesvej, Skeletor 0,
Kbdankbot, Maldek, Blanche of King's Lynn, Yousou, Substar, Willking1979, AolxHangover, DOI bot, Pokathon3000, AAG607, Doug-
sTech, Ocdnctx, C3r4, Older and ... well older, Albot2008, Njaelkies Lea, CharlesChandler, Modry, Download, Erudit 78, GeoPopID,
TStein, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Cordless33, Jarble, Marukh18, Hejsa, Gameseeker, Everyme, Luckas-
bot, ZX81, Yobot, 2D, Barry2j, Mech Aaron, Cm001, Legobot II, Blacklans, Da ninja handyman, Fizyxnrd, I9o0q1, Crispmuncher, Ab-
hinavdhere, Gobbleswoggler, NERVUN, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Timir Saxa, IW.HG, 8ung3st, South Bay, Squish7,
Dickdock, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Travo615, Archon 2488, Kristen Eriksen, Pigs8u3, RJAM1, Hunterevans, Brilliant trees, Piano non troppo,
Vextration, Brian1961, Vagmaster69, Emluickyblaju, Rejedef, Copytopic1, Ulric1313, CurtisOrr, Eco-climber, Brendanzhang, Materi-
alscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Srinivas, Zahab, Frankenpuppy, Chell and the cake, Marshallsumter, The Firewall,
MauritsBot, Xqbot, Tasudrty, BasilRazi, Capricorn42, Emezei, 4twenty42o, Gilo1969, Loveless, BritishWatcher, Wikepediamaniac, Ty-
rol5, Mlpearc, Gap9551, Lithopsian, Sophivorus, GrouchoBot, Armbrust, Jhbdel, Alumnum, Nlilovic, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT,
Nedim Ardoa, 78.26, The Wiki ghost, Doulos Christos, The sun is cold, Traord09, Ganesh J. Acharya, Rainald62, C8sd, Moxy, Let-
thetruthbetoldforalltobehold, Laelele, Catbob625, MeDrewNotYou, A. di M., Interstellar Man, AJCham, Fotaun, Friedlad, FrescoBot,
Paine Ellsworth, Originalwana, Tobby72, Pepper, Joshead, Sky Attacker, Hosszuka, KokkaShinto, Martins007, Citation bot 1, Mix Tape
Queen, Galmicmi, SL93, Redrose64, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, Elockid, HRoestBot, 10metreh, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, A8UDI, Muti-
nus, Hoo man, Allthingstoallpeople, NKanngaz, Ezhuttukari, Darktower 12345, Meaghan, Jujutacular, IVAN3MAN, Soccerisawesome,
Zbayz, FoxBot, Pdebee, Double sharp, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Puzl bustr, Cocu, Nicholomothy, Callanecc, Vrenator, David2032,
Begoon, Darsie42, Ansumang, GGT, Diannaa, Mvnvinaykumar, Earthandmoon, Tbhotch, Ddvche, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Mean as custard, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Bento00, Ripchip Bot, DRAGON BOOSTER, DEagleBot, Jamesshliu, DASHBot,
Steve03Mills, DiogenesTCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sadalsuud, Primefac, Syncategoremata, Chermundy, Torturella,
CoincidentalBystander, Hive001, ThorX13, Hhhippo, Mz7, AvicBot, Rerumirf, John Cline, Cogiati, Brothernight, A2soup, DeWaine,
AvicAWB, Green Lane, Everard Proudfoot, Ridwan93, H3llBot, GianniG46, Wagner, David J Johnson, Ironnail, JoeSperrazza, Sbmeirow,
PurpleCoolSun, Donkeykongrider, DOwenWilliams, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, Igivefakeinfo, L Kensington, MAN3212, ChrisWen-
zel, Usernamewhocares, WikiRigaou, Donner60, Andy 3015, The Sumo, Tritoncis101, R1r1f2, Bulwersator, Lawstubes, Oneill05 oneill,
Megaguy4, ChuispastonBot, Ihardlythinkso, BigbigbigGIANTY, Pigduckmeatshroom, Aduda, Natalie Hasselriis, Sdjgjhsdrhfgdfjagihdasg,
LikeLakers2, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Pokem0n0mekop, Steviedman, Ulund, GioGziro95, HapHaxion, Lepota, Ritabetta,
Tyler Lavhey, RocketLauncher2, Hazhk, MasterMind225, Duckshoot, Marechal Ney, Tafoyad12, Amyleigh47, JohnnyStJohn, HappyL-
ogolover2011, Jam000qaz, North Atlanticist Usonian, Flendersnod, Helpful Pixie Bot, Helvitica Bold, Bibcode Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon,
Regulov, Jazdisney, Lowercase sigmabot, MKar, AvocatoBot, Bigdon128, Dancindazed, DrNortonWhite, Saredx, BillTheBunny, Di-
pankan001, Prokillz21, Cadiomals, Drift chambers, Pocketthis, ZuluKing, Dongod95, Neptuul, Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-1, Colin-
martin74, Zedshort, Eguinto, Cli12345, 4Jays1034, Szczureq, BattyBot, Rachelpacinda, Pendragon5, Tutelary, Mdann52, Stigmatella
aurantiaca, Cyberbot II, U-95, DoctorKubla, MadGuy7023, Kelvin13, Soni, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Blobbie244, Inayity, Makecat-bot,
Pintoch, Cerabot~enwiki, CuriousMind01, Howpper, BeaumontTaz, MattSucci, Sidelight12, 1,000,000,005k, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Downthe-
hollow, Unknownheror, Awesomechase999, Monsterblarg, EvilQueen16, JustAMuggle, Hillbillyholiday, Reatlas, TrentFlash, Jcpag2012,
Praemonitus, Rolf h nelson, The Herald, CarrickB, Batyu, Exoplanetaryscience, Kind Tennis Fan, Stamptrader, Brmb101, Captain Corn-
wall, Monkbot, Justin15w, Davidbuddy9, Bobtulle, DSCrowned, Miko367, XXboxAddictx, BrentHar, Luciusdevilman, Troll54326, Dax-
le, Dhhdhdheyeuwopamsndbdhdueiwkzm, Poddarmanoj33, Streborsattelav, Poo1053, Felix179793, nternion, Skeletoroforange, I am.
furhan., Tetra quark, , Isambard Kingdom, Sol2y, Inyouchuu shoku, KasparBot, Max Paxman, Sir Cumference, BU Rob13,
Feminist, Yogee23, Kanjuzi, MartinZ, HalloweenNight, PlanetUser, Judist, WiKaN, L4tybj, GreenC bot, Fmadd, Motivao, Red Planet
X (Hercolubus), Bender the Bot, Valuesize, Octoberwoodland, Heididoerr061, Dao1 and Anonymous: 1477
Sirius Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius?oldid=780475883 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Andre Engels, XJaM, Chris-
lintott, Ortolan88, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Mintguy, Tucci528, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Alan Peakall, Nixdorf, Cyde, Looxix~enwiki,
Ahoerstemeier, NicoNet, Glenn, Jordi Burguet Castell, Samw, Jacques Delson, Silversh, Pizza Puzzle, Radiojon, Dpbsmith, Denelson83,
Northgrove, MattSal, Robbot, Sander123, ComicMasta, Naddy, Modulatum, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Rursus, Pandaface, Smb1001, Hadal,
Wereon, Asparagus, David Gerard, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Andy, Jyril, Elf, TOttenville8, Wwoods, Curps, Michael
Devore, Python eggs, Just Another Dan, Sohailstyle, Beland, OverlordQ, Superborsuk, Kusunose, Samy Merchi, Thincat, Satori, Icairns,
Sam Hocevar, B.d.mills, Urhixidur, Ukexpat, Chepry, Thorwald, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Jaedza, Ponder, Bumhool-
ery, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Petersam, Eric Forste, RJHall, Clement Cherlin, El C, DS1953, Bletch, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Phil-
Hibbs, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Circeus, DaveGorman, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Santifc, Hans-Peter Scholz, Ardric47, Jcrocker, Eric
Kvaalen, AzaToth, Oz1cz, Water Bottle, *Paul*, Danaman5, Knowledge Seeker, Amorymeltzer, Skatebiker, Oleg Alexandrov, Ron Ritz-
man, Woohookitty, JarlaxleArtemis, Shreevatsa, BillC, Pol098, JeremyA, KarlJorgensen, Schzmo, Steinbach, Someone42, GregorB, Is-
now, HollyI, Palica, Bebenko, Aarghdvaark, Rnt20, Ashmoo, Graham87, Marskell, Chupon, Ketiltrout, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Iolaire, Koavf,
TitaniumDreads, Quiddity, Mike Peel, Lairor, Scartol, Ttwaring, FlaBot, Da Stressor, RobertG, Doc glasgow, SiriusB, Nihiltres, Itiner-
ant1, Gurch, Mark J, KFP, Comiscuous, Russavia, Ricardo Monteiro, Chobot, Visor, Rikoshi, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Misterwindupbird, Kinneyboy90, Stan2525, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Kauner, Hydrargyrum, Dotancohen, Bovineone,
Lusanaherandraton, Grafen, Proidiot, DelftUser, Irishguy, Nick, FourthAve, Saberwyn, Killdevil, Beanyk, Zwobot, Bucketsofg, Snarius,
Ormanbotanigi, Bota47, Robost, Deeday-UK, Mike Serfas, Johndburger, Deville, Sanghivivek, 2over0, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Ageekgal,
Chaos syndrome, Nikkimaria, Cedar101, Besselfunctions, Xaxafrad, Jecowa, QmunkE, Argo Navis, Leviramsey, TrustTruth, Banus, RG2,
NeilN, Serendipodous, DVD R W, Eigenlambda, Sassisch, Attilios, Lothar97, SmackBot, Mithcoriel, Ashill, JohnSankey, Zerida, Cas-
tAStone, Bomac, Elk Salmon, Alex earlier account, Trystan, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, GwydionM, Icemuon, Valley2city,
Anachronist, Master Jay, Bluebot, Algumacoisaqq~enwiki, B00P, Hibernian, Colonies Chris, Mladilozof, Modest Genius, Vdavisson,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CJODell, Matthias W. Kamp, Smallbones, Chlewbot, Labattblueboy, Clorox, *Ria777*, Phaedriel,
Khoikhoi, Aldaron, Sloverlord, Bowlhover, Clean Copy, Weregerbil, Jbergquist, Kukini, Thor Dockweiler, Frglee, Lambiam, Erimus,
Atkinson 291, John, J 1982, JohnI, JorisvS, GVP Webmaster, LionOfJudah80, Abdjibawi, IronGargoyle, RandomCritic, A. Parrot,
JHunterJ, SQGibbon, Rwboa22, 2T, Interlingua, Ariolander, Hobapotter, Novangelis, 524, Mofoerectus, Bay Flam, BranStark, Irides-
cent, Michaelbusch, GMcGath, Muhand, Az1568, Philosophysteve, Idols of Mud, Myrrhlin, John Riemann Soong, Eric, Fried Gold,
Ruslik0, Darkstar85, Juhachi, Brianhicks, Cydebot, Red Director, Corpx, Penny Dreadful, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, SteveMcCluskey,
Casliber, Joshrulzz, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Fournax, Keraunos, Yukichigai, Nonagonal Spider, Headbomb, Electron9, The Wednesday Is-
land, James086, Pciszek, Stoshmaster, Chris goulet, Ideogram, CielProfond, Uruiamme, Mmortal03, Escarbot, Sbandrews, LachlanA,
AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Liquid-aim-bot, AstroLynx, Goldenband, Chuchunezumi, Spartaz, Etr52, Deective, Barek,
Omeganian, Dricherby, CrankyScorpion, Rothorpe, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Relay11, Murgh, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Swilliamrex,
Jerome Kohl, CTF83!, Catgut, ArthurWeasley, David Eppstein, Dane, C.Logan, Geboy, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Kiore, Com-
monsDelinker, Ash, Emit esti, N4nojohn, J.delanoy, BigrTex, DrKay, Skeptic2, SiliconDioxide, Grazza, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro,
All Is One, Extransit, NerdyNSK, Rdhinakar, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Malone23kid, Potatoswatter, Treisijs, Beezhive, Dkreisst, Justin
Forbes, VolkovBot, John Darrow, JohnBlackburne, Imperator3733, Chris Dybala, Jameslwoodward, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, TXiK-
iBoT, Oshwah, GimmeBot, Cosmic Latte, A4bot, Seraphim, Dendodge, Henrykus, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Jackfork, Ilyushka88,
Hrundi Bakshi, Maxim, Nedrutland, Zain Ebrahim111, Spiral5800, Agyle, Taharqa, James McBride, Strangerer, AgentCDE, Newsaholic,
Ktm125, Nagy, The Random Editor, SieBot, Tresiden, PlanetStar, Tiddly Tom, Laird Scranton, Mungo Kitsch, Cwkmail, RJaguar3, Yintan,
RadicalOne, Zaguraa, MrBassPlayer, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Rennare, Rwmob, LonelyMarble, Mojoworker, JohnnyMrNinja, Ran-
domblue, Orcoteuthis, Dabomb87, Wahrmund, Martarius, ClueBot, UrsusArctosL71, Feyre, LotusElite, Helenabella, Drmies, Mild Bill
Hiccup, DrFO.Jr.Tn~enwiki, Niceguyedc, Peanut4, Piledhigheranddeeper, Solar-Wind, Excirial, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Tcob44, Sun
Creator, Pascalou petit, Parthenos, Thingg, Versus22, Apparition11, Mellostorm, Arianewiki1, Little Mountain 5, Badgernet, Alexius08,
Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Kadellar, Addbot, Sharksplayer23, Evergreen280, DOI bot, WikedKentaur, Dragonstibs, Fieldday-sunday, Prox-
ima Centauri, Kassos, Martijn du Pre, Favonian, SamatBot, LinkFA-Bot, Hump6543, Tassedethe, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Jaxexodus, Tide
rolls, Lightbot, Mdanemann, Hanleycm, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kseon, Artwebz, AnomieBOT, Cantanchorus, Chuckrob1, Rubinbot, Galou-
bet, JackieBot, Icalanise, LlywelynII, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Jennnan, Danno uk, ArdWar, Citation bot, ArthurBot,
Marshallsumter, FreeRangeFrog, Xqbot, Siriusevermore, Drilnoth, Lithopsian, Khruner, Hnnhnn, Tnoamen, Joejames007, GrouchoBot,
AVBOT, Omnipaedista, B.Lameira, Miyagawa, Interstellar Man, Fotaun, Dougofborg, Green Cardamom, Tiramisoo, Noloop, Telescopi,
HJ Mitchell, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Galmicmi, Moominoid, Redrose64, Tom.Reding, RedBot, Ilvon, Curtis23, Spaluch1, Tamsier, De-
cember21st2012Freak, IVAN3MAN, Pezanos, Trappist the monk, Wotnow, Niobrara, Extra999, Pbrower2a, Jerd10, Athene cheval,
Earthandmoon, Tbhotch, WillNess, Tm1729, Wrotesolid, RjwilmsiBot, Polly Ticker, Smartiger, Bhawani Gautam, Timbits82, Calico-
CatLover, EmausBot, John of Reading, Michelpisano, Sadalsuud, Racerx11, Primefac, Chermundy, Ankry, EleferenBot, DJnumber12,
Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Daniel913, Brothernight, Spacexplosion, StringTheory11, Dondervogel 2, Medeis, H3llBot, Shoko2011,
Dhanush66, L1A1 FAL, Brandmeister, MsDiva423, Operative67, Spedd, Donner60, Lampsalot, Manwoody, ChuispastonBot, Czeror,
AMD, Shadegan(goru), Petrb, Grahamhgreen, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Yjfstorehouse, KatakunaX, Matsaball, MelbourneStar,
Lepota, Jack98999, Historikeren, Jain.dhrj, OperaJoeGreen, , Adel ibn salah, Widr, Patrick.bell22, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jbland472,
Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Mohammed-Nazem, Baekken, Mak6nt5r, Evanse99, Bahahehebahahehe, Dolerite, Gomada, Darouet, Mr-
Bill3, Glacialfox, BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, LordElektroWIKI, Khazar2, Dgcb4, Sjmurphy6, Dexbot, Webclient101, Cer-
abot~enwiki, Hillbillyholiday, Reatlas, Rfassbind, Polskiwi, I am One of Many, Praemonitus, Finnusertop, Kogge, Exoplanetaryscience,
UY Scuti, JaconaFrere, ColRad85, Monkbot, Tetra quark, KasparBot, MusikBot, MB, Luis150902, Pinchast, Worldandhistory, GreenC
bot, LAroboGuy, ElysianTail, Bender the Bot, Leliva and Anonymous: 516
Canopus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canopus?oldid=780415206 Contributors: Gnomon42, Andres, RodC, Hajor, Skaman,
Robbot, Rursus, Premeditated Chaos, Pablo-ores, Jyril, Karn, Foot, Curps, Michael Devore, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Tonymaric, Sohailstyle,
Eroica, J3, B.d.mills, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, Night, Geof, Bri, Mani1, Furius, Aranel, RJHall, Vzb83~enwiki, Mytg8, Kwamikagami,
Ardric47, DreamGuy, Mikeo, Skatebiker, Zntrip, WilliamKF, Woohookitty, Je3000, Kelisi, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Changeup,
FlaBot, KASchmidt, Brettbergeron, Ahpook, Ravenswing, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Dotancohen, Johnny Pez, Zwobot, JustAddPeter, Paul
Magnussen, Knotnic, Poulpy, Argo Navis, Serendipodous, Eigenlambda, Attilios, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Mark Tranchant, Un-
yoyega, Praetor alpha, Cuddlyopedia, RonGenini, GwydionM, Bluebot, Bazonka, Chinawhitecotton, Modest Genius, WinstonSmith,
Rrburke, Pnkrockr, Terrasidius, Andrew Dalby, Vgy7ujm, JorisvS, Xofc, NongBot~enwiki, RandomCritic, JMK, Courcelles, Fdssdf, Chris-
Taz923, Markjoseph125, Cydebot, Clh288, Dsine, Dyanega, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Cogito ergo sumo, Deipnosophista,
AstroLynx, Blakestern, Debongu, Deective, DuncanHill, CosineKitty, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Murgh, Buddha2490, Cortezdelobao,
Misibacsi, Geboy, Skeptic2, Zipzipzip, Zerokitsune, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, R.Veenman~enwiki, VolkovBot, Katydidit, TXiKi-
BoT, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Henrykus, Proud Muslim, Thanatos666, PlanetStar, WereSpielChequers, Gerakibot, Kejo13, Moonraker12, OK-
Bot, Suor, Benkenobi18, Martarius, Maxq 2006, ClueBot, Amnotu, Yoshi Canopus, Niceguyedc, Arunsingh16, Gattan, Roberto Mura,
Pseudpode, Yunuswesley, Wikiuser100, Soheilm3, Avoided, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Martindo, Normal View, LaaknorBot, Chamal
N, Marhorr, Luckas-bot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, Zeugmazwang, AnomieBOT, Icalanise, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Nikm,
ArthurBot, TinucherianBot II, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Alexiandro, MeDrewNotYou, Johnnie Rico, SwordNStone, Walshie79, Aquah-
socker, Telescopi, Zero Thrust, Pinethicket, Abductive, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, IJBall, Jauhienij, Trappist the monk, Niobrara, Imzogelmo,
Extra999, Pbrower2a, ZhBot, 555, Athene cheval, Jacobhesster122595, RjwilmsiBot, Bhawani Gautam, EmausBot, Wikitanvir-
Bot, Primefac, Japs 88, Chermundy, Dcirovic, ZroBot, John Cline, StringTheory11, Tolly4bolly, Obiwan042, Alpha-carinae, ChiZeroOne,
Senator2029, ClueBot NG, Yjfstorehouse, Snotbot, Dgieringer, Widr, AFCAFC, Helpful Pixie Bot, Neetaraina, Bibcode Bot, Kirk39,
QuaeriSolet, Canopia, Aliwal2012, Dexbot, Mogism, ToFeignClef, Hillbillyholiday, Praemonitus, Aaron masterson, Kogge, Georgialh,
Otto1943, 7Sidz, Monkbot, SpiceMelange, Tetra quark, RedPanda25, Deneb in Cygnus, Kees08, InternetArchiveBot, Procrastinatorji,
Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 116
Arcturus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcturus?oldid=779291713 Contributors: Paul Drye, Bryan Derksen, Wayne Hardman,
Andre Engels, Shsilver, William Avery, Montrealais, Liftarn, Shoaler, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Timwi, Piolinfax, StAkAr Karnak, Zoicon5,
Bloodshedder, Finlay McWalter, Chuunen Baka, Nufy8, Robbot, Rursus, Smb1001, Angilbas, Ramir, Kbahey, Jyril, Mporter, Gene Ward
Smith, TOttenville8, Herbee, Curps, Rpyle731, Cam, Wmahan, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, FelineAvenger, Pembers, Latitude0116, Julianonions,
Ma'ame Michu, Moverton, Discospinster, Guanabot, Izogi, Dbachmann, Mani1, NeilTarrant, Brian0918, Aranel, RJHall, El C, VishalB,
Kwamikagami, Moilleadir, Jpgordon, Drhex, Colin Douglas Howell, Guiltyspark, Ardric47, Mpulier, Elerium~enwiki, Alansohn, Enirac
Sum, Geo Swan, Ricky81682, Skatebiker, Mosesofmason, CaptainMike, Shreevatsa, Kimera757, Rocastelo, Jpers36, TomTheHand, Ger-
ald.w, Stevey7788, Ashmoo, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Eoghanacht, Wikibofh, Matt Deres, Yamamoto Ichiro, Flowerparty, RexNL,
Chobot, Akosygin, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Tyenkrovy, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Lusanaherandraton,
BOT-Superzerocool, Kortoso, Mr. Know-It-All, ReCover, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify, Argo Navis, Luk, SmackBot, Elonka, Ashill,
C.Fred, Iopq, Richard B, David G Brault, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Rogermw, Speedyprimus, Aldaron, ShaunES, Panserbjorn, Andrew
Dalby, Lambiam, Robotforaday, NormalGoddess, Mcshadypl, J 1982, JamesFox, JorisvS, The Man in Question, RandomCritic, Grom-
reaper, Artman40, Wwagner, Polymerbringer, George100, Fdssdf, Heqs, Markjoseph125, Estrolicador~enwiki, CmdrObot, Robin Scagell,
Joelholdsworth, Abrar47, Cydebot, Mike Christie, Phil in the 818, Amandajm, Nick Ottery, Chrislk02, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Ker-
aunos, Turritus, Astrobiologist, Philippe, Northumbrian, Doremtzwr, Mentisto, Luna Santin, Fayenatic london, G Rose, Kent Witham,
ClassicSC, JAnDbot, Deective, LauraA, Rothorpe, Joshua, Magioladitis, Zdanyluk, Murgh, AlexbroPA, Dhawk1964, BSVulturis, Ff1959,
Nyttend, Froid, Jvhertum, NotACow, Hunter x9281, Jhcard@comcast.net, Kheider, Geboy, J.delanoy, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, All Is
One, RayneSarazaki, Rochelimit, Xizes, DigitallyBorn, Jamesontai, Adam Zivner, Spellcast, Macedonian, TXiKiBoT, Drake Redcrest,
LeaveSleaves, UnitedStatesian, Cremepu222, BotKung, Inductiveload, MCTales, BrianY, Geanixx, Ottobottle, SieBot, Timb66, Scarian,
Gerakibot, Lucasbfrbot, Stillkent, Keilana, Motyka, Benkenobi18, Smokejive, Martarius, ClueBot, Bob1960evens, Pomona17, Wraithful,
VandalCruncher, Sachinagarwal25, Piledhigheranddeeper, Solar-Wind, CarloscomB, Darren23, Roberto Mura, SoxBot III, HumphreyW,
Arianewiki1, Gonzo22, Kbdankbot, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Favonian, SamatBot, 84user, Mbinebri, Lightbot, Krano, Zorrobot,
Pedia, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Newportm, Aldebaran66, KamikazeBot, Apbangali, AnomieBOT, Icalanise, Mahmudmasri, Hunn-
jazal, Rtyq2, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Zmclemos, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, DSisyphBot, Br77rino, Lithopsian, Arsia Mons, Omni-
paedista, RibotBOT, UberMitch, SwordNStone, FrescoBot, Micasta, Tiramisoo, Telescopi, Citation bot 1, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist
the monk, Imzogelmo, Cagwinn, Tyrogthekreeper, The Utahraptor, ArwinJ, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Primefac, Chermundy, AvicBot,
ZroBot, StringTheory11, Wayne Slam, Tim Zukas, Senator2029, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, SamEtches, Mr-
Bill3, Justincheng12345-bot, Dexbot, Hillbillyholiday, Praemonitus, Xuanmingzi, Monkbot, Tetra quark, SifuLong, Yoshi231, Rawmon,
Naomifsg, Loooke, Kenbuck and Anonymous: 212
Alpha Centauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Centauri?oldid=780054529 Contributors: Paul Drye, Eloquence, Mav,

Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Jeronimo, Wayne Hardman, XJaM, Chrislintott, Roadrunner, FvdP, Zimriel, Patrick, JakeVortex, Modster,
Paddu, Alo, Bronger, Alvaro, Salsa Shark, Whkoh, Rossami, Evercat, Ghewgill, Ptoniolo, Jwrosenzweig, Jakenelson, IanM, Mina86,
Finlay McWalter, Denelson83, Northgrove, Phil Boswell, Catskul, Robbot, Moriori, Nurg, Markcollinsx, Babbage, Rursus, Kencomer,
Smb1001, Wikibot, Adam78, Alexwcovington, Dbenbenn, Jyril, Robin Patterson, Everyking, Dratman, Curps, Pascal666, Brockert,
C17GMaster, Pne, Rrw, Chowbok, Gadum, Ben Arnold, Andycjp, The Singing Badger, Beland, OverlordQ, Gunnar Larsson, Felin-
eAvenger, Rdsmith4, Bumm13, Kuralyov, Elroch, Icairns, DenisMoskowitz, Nickptar, B.d.mills, Urhixidur, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Qef,
Gcanyon, Guppynsoup, Mike Rosoft, Geof, Freakofnurture, Grzes, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Dancxjo, Florian
Blaschke, ArnoldReinhold, Murtasa, Dbachmann, Mani1, Grutter, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Aecis, Livajo, El C, Huntster, VishalB,
Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, Tverbeek, Southen, JRM, SamRushing, Hans-Peter Scholz, Ardric47, Mr. Brownstone, Bob rulz, Alan-
sohn, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, DanielVallstrom, Ashley Pomeroy, Goldom, Wtmitchell, BRW, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Cmapm, Ndtee-
garden, Skatebiker, Computerjoe, Gene Nygaard, LukeSurl, Kitch, Oleg Alexandrov, WilliamKF, Rorschach, DavidK93, Mu301, LOL,
Benhocking, Benbest, Alfakim, BartBenjamin, Zzyzx11, Palica, Aarghdvaark, Ashmoo, Graham87, Marskell, Zeroparallax, Yurik, Eteq,
Pmj, Ketiltrout, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Urbane Legend, Bob A, Mike s, Vegaswikian, Ronocdh, DirkvdM, Ghpink, JohnDBuell,
Changeup, FlaBot, Vegardw, RobertG, Ground Zero, SiriusB, RexNL, LeCire~enwiki, David H Braun (1964), Gurubrahma, Chobot,
Mhking, Sasoriza, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Algebraist, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude, Phmer, Midgley, Arado, Gaius Cornelius, Cambridge-
BayWeather, Ergzay, Gcapp1959, Teb728, Wiki alf, Jaxl, Welsh, Dugosz, Tough Little Ship, Haoie, Dahveed323, Eltwarg, Trempealeau
Pi, Tony1, Snarius, Kortoso, Bota47, Wknight94, Deeday-UK, Chaos syndrome, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Reyk,
Fram, DoctorWorm7, Ajuk, Argo Navis, GrinBot~enwiki, Serendipodous, Prvc, Attilios, SolarMcPanel, Crystallina, SmackBot, Reedy,
Unyoyega, Richard B, Kintetsubualo, ComaDivine, Trystan, Yamaguchi , Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Skizzik, GwydionM, Oneismany,
Pfhreak, Mirokado, Ottawakismet, NCurse, Emufarmers, B00P, Hibernian, Basalisk, Bazonka, Tyr Anasazi, Colonies Chris, Eusebeus,
Hgrosser, Scwlong, Modest Genius, Rogermw, Kotra, Tamfang, RandyKaelber, Aldaron, TheLateDentarthurdent, Kingdon, Cloud02, Ran-
domP, Insineratehymn, Hairmetal4ever, J P, ALK, Kukini, Circumspice, Nickfehr, SashatoBot, Lambiam, OhioFred, Dmh~enwiki, Kuru,
John, Ourai, J 1982, Moleskin, VirtualDave, Sdoroudi, JorisvS, Zzzzzzzzzzz, Mr Stephen, Hypnosi, AdultSwim, NeoDeGenero, Art-
man40, Gazjo, Novangelis, Skinsmoke, Peyre, Bay Flam, HisSpaceResearch, Iridescent, JMK, Michaelbusch, Clarityend, Joseph Solis
in Australia, LordRahl, Lenoxus, Courcelles, Tauolunga, George100, Fdssdf, SkyWalker, CmdrObot, Raysonho, Teixant, ShelfSkewed,
Ertdredge, Friendlystar, Myasuda, Cydebot, Blart Versenwald III, Fenrir2000, Bellerophon5685, Flowerpotman, DumbBOT, Minigig, Asi-
aticus, Abtract, Mtpaley, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Fournax, Novaprospekt, Daniel, Headbomb, DmitTrix, Vertium, Bad Astronomer,
Astrobiologist, JustAGal, Ariochiv, Escarbot, GrowlyGenet, Masamage, Fyunck(click), Kbthompson, SandChigger, Helicoptor, Kevin
Nelson, Salgueiro~enwiki, Theropod-X, Elaragirl, Deective, Giler, KuwarOnline, Rothorpe, SteveSims, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Eisen-
mond, Murgh, Bongwarrior, Askari Mark, T@nn, Hidan~enwiki, Gamr, Twsx, Hekerui, BatteryIncluded, Dravick, Gallicrow, Just James,
JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, Kheider, DGG, Parodygm, Ben MacDui, Sm8900, ColorOfSuering, Ambi Valent, CommonsDelinker, Conor H.,
J.delanoy, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, All Is One, Leandar, Acalamari, Aqwis, Brother Ocer, McSly, AntiSpamBot, Mrceleb2007, No-
bleHelium, Nwbeeson, DadaNeem, ThinkBlue, Jens Lallensack, Mkmori, STBotD, Inomyabcs, Vanished user 39948282, Bluecollarchess-
player, Idioma-bot, Xenonice, Deor, RingtailedFox, Armetrek, Je G., Chris Dybala, One GG, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Ocolon, Henrykus,
Ng.j, ^demonBot2, Raymondwinn, Finngall, Burningdwarf, Xelanared, Hughey, SieBot, Timb66, PlanetStar, BotMultichill, ToePeu.bot,
Gerakibot, Aeuoah, Sam random, RadicalOne, KRRK, Bistenes, Lightmouse, RW Marloe, Sledmonkey, Happyguy49, Fratrep, Fuddle,
Randomblue, Gr8opinionater, Martarius, ClueBot, MIDI, Pomona17, Botodo, Polyamorph, Regibox, Ronald12, Solar-Wind, NuclearVac-
uum, DragonBot, AssegaiAli, Sunil060902, EeepEeep, Eeekster, Telekenesis, SpikeToronto, Estirabot, Lartoven, Njardarlogar, M.O.X,
Scog, Guardianrule, Rphb, JasonAQuest, JCHall, KuboF Hromoslav, MelonBot, Roberto Mura, HumphreyW, Slayerteez, YouRang?,
Arianewiki1, Tarl N., Mitch Ames, 68Kustom, NellieBly, Pedro.feio, Kbdankbot, D.M. from Ukraine, Roentgenium111, Imeriki al-
Shimoni, DOI bot, Non-dropframe, Baseball437, NjardarBot, Proxima Centauri, LaaknorBot, Manymerrymenmakingmuchmoneyinthe-
monthofMay, Kisbesbot, Tassedethe, VASANTH S.N., Lightbot, Jedishive, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Aldebaran66, Nefariousopus, Heisen-
bergthechemist, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Hadrian89, Icalanise, TParis, Alexikoua, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, The plague,
Klingon83, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Drilnoth, GenQuest, DSisyphBot, Gap9551, Lithopsian, Arsia Mons, Ataleh, Iceiggle, Ence-
ladusgeysers, White whirlwind, Shadowjams, RicoRichmond, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Walshie79, FrescoBot, Originalwana, RicHard-59,
Telescopi, Trkiehl, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Jessopher, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Serols, Jomanted, Ilvon, Savemaxim, SaturdayNight-
Special, Hessamnia, Trappist the monk, Yellowdesk60, Niobrara, Dinamik-bot, Imzogelmo, Extra999, Pbrower2a, Granttimmerman,
Zephyric, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, ChronicMist, Theuprising101, Cody escouade delta, Dstone66, DASHBot,
Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Jolielegal, WikitanvirBot, Quantanew, Racerx11, Primefac, Western Pines, XinaNicole, Chermundy, Diadophus,
Jmencisom, Dcirovic, Catolishis, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Medeis, Dimpbx, EvenGreenerFish, ChuispastonBot, Ajstov, Isoginchaku,
One.Ouch.Zero, Whoop whoop pull up, Zuky79, Alcazar84, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, MelbourneStar, OperaJoeGreen, Frietjes, Widr,
WikiPuppies, Danim, Bilconixon, Majesty of the Commons, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lolm8, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, WNYY98, BG19bot,
McZusatz, TheGeneralUser, Cncmaster, Cadiomals, Samantis, Cli12345, XBrain130, Smarandi, SoylentPurple, Samwalton9, BattyBot,
Justincheng12345-bot, ValekHalfHeart, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Naapple, Stas1995, Pluto and Beyond, Acoma Magic, TwoTwoHello,
Lugia2453, RMCD bot, UNOwenNYC, Graphium, Alexander Mikhalenko, Tryptophane06, Xiej, Rfassbind, StellarGyr, DandelionAnt,
Troller98980, AlphaZelda, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Capester, Sjrct, Praemonitus, AKYF, Nestrs, Ginsuloft, Exoplanetaryscience, Wolf-
Scientist, Astredita, Stamptrader, Monkbot, MarioProtIV, Hanif Al Husaini, Prisencolin, Davidbuddy9, Amortias, DSCrowned, Flower
f5a9b8, EoRdE6, Darrend1967, Pcauchy, Astromaser, Speedyblupi, CV9933, DN-boards1, Maranello Prime, Pinkomega, Koki0118,
Chatterbugchitter, Faareh, Cryptomaniac2, RedPanda25, Darianpearson, Navanava navanava, EpicPandaGamer25, Fdfexoex, TheRefer-
enceProvider, QuentinQuade, MartinZ, GreenC bot, Gulumeemee, FabulousFerd, Bender the Bot, Whackyasshackysack, Acopyeditor and
Anonymous: 451
Vega Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega?oldid=774673814 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Css, Wayne Hard-
man, Andre Engels, Roadrunner, Montrealais, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Alan Peakall, Blueshade, Liftarn, Zeno Gantner, (, Alo,
CesarB, Egil, Jimfbleak, Caid Raspa, Julesd, Pizza Puzzle, Technopilgrim, Hashar, Piolinfax, Tpbradbury, Saltine, Nv8200pa, Fibonacci,
Twang, Romanm, Rursus, Smb1001, Explo, Thehappysmith, Giftlite, Jyril, KelvSYC, Curps, Michael Devore, Avsa, ElfMage, Bobblewik,
Golbez, Ebear422, ConradPino, Sonjaaa, The Singing Badger, Eregli bob, Samy Merchi, Tomruen, B.d.mills, Eiserlohpp, Edsanville,
Vega~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, Pasquale, Felix Wan, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Ponder, Mani1, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall,
El C, VishalB, Szquirrel, Kwamikagami, Remember, Art LaPella, Peter Greenwell, Bobo192, Babomb, Robotje, Bbartlog, Ardric47,
Gsklee, Jcrocker, Ranveig, ComradeAsh, Nik42, Ynhockey, Mlm42, Hu, SidP, Deathphoenix, Skatebiker, SteinbDJ, Gene Nygaard,
HenryLi, Angr, Woohookitty, PoccilScript, BillC, GregorB, Kesla, Rnt20, Graham87, OGRastamon, JIP, Pmj, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
Eoghanacht, Ansend, Koavf, JCCO, Mike s, Maxim Razin, Marsbound2024, Changeup, FlaBot, RobertG, Doc glasgow, Gark, RexNL,
Codex Sinaiticus, Srleer, Wrightbus, Chobot, Guliolopez, Kjlewis, Wasted Time R, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, RobotE, Jack
Cain, RussBot, Dblandford, Rodasmith, Gaius Cornelius, Lusanaherandraton, Johnny Pez, Grafen, Welsh, Dugosz, Haranoh, RL0919,
Durval, Poppy, Zzuuzz, Imaninjapirate, Chaos syndrome, Anghammarad, Nalren, Hurricane Devon, Argo Navis, That Guy, From That
Show!, Attilios, Neier, SmackBot, Korossyl, WilyD, Kilo-Lima, AtilimGunesBaydin, AnOddName, Yamaguchi , Cuddlyopedia, Pe-
ter Isotalo, Oli Filth, Magicindark, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Modest Genius, Rogermw, Onorem, Bowlhover, Parrot of Doom,
Kukini, Andrew Dalby, GreyTraveller, Grizzwald, J 1982, JorisvS, Zzzzzzzzzzz, JHunterJ, Artman40, KJS77, Newone, PhilUK, Vijeth,
Courcelles, Fdssdf, Megaboz, Vyznev Xnebara, Drinibot, Ruslik0, RobertLovesPi, Myasuda, Cydebot, Arthurian Legend, Nick Ottery,
BMG~enwiki, Doug Weller, Absil, Aldis90, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Sinn, CielProfond, Martin Cash, AntiVandalBot, WinBot,
Luna Santin, Opelio, Liquid-aim-bot, Smartse, Dr. Submillimeter, Blakestern, JAnDbot, Deective, Helge Skjeveland, Rothorpe, Mi-
pago, WolfmanSF, Murgh, Je Dahl, BSVulturis, Drollere, Orionist, David Eppstein, Freddyd945, DerHexer, Gwern, Geboy, Martin-
Bot, Zeete, N4nojohn, Kimse, DrKay, Skeptic2, AstroHurricane001, Hans Dunkelberg, Extransit, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Jkeohane,
Izno, Nick caprile, OtakuNOVAkun, ColdCase, Chris Dybala, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, A4bot, Piperh, Joren, Inductiveload, 1981willy,
Billinghurst, Anton Gutsunaev, FKmailliW, BrianY, Bporopat, Jayedwards5, SieBot, PlanetStar, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Rad-
icalOne, Wikidiape~enwiki, Lightmouse, Svick, Dolphin51, Martarius, ClueBot, Mkuchner, Zachariel, Cygnis insignis, Iandiver, Firth m,
DrFO.Jr.Tn~enwiki, Swebkk, Piledhigheranddeeper, NuclearVacuum, Regardless143, Pcyrus, Jusdafax, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Ran-
jithsutari, NERIC-Security, Arianewiki1, Starstriker7, Avoided, 68Kustom, Bhockey10, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, DOI bot, Ner-
dynerd888, LinkFA-Bot, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Aldebaran66, Shinkansen
Fan, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Marshallsumter, Xqbot, S h i v a (Visnu),
XZeroBot, Lithopsian, Ataleh, Ajhorch14, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Kakashi12309, Bobbyjoesteel, Fotaun, SwordNStone, Tiramisoo, Au-
relia19, TimonyCrickets, Telescopi, HJ Mitchell, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, December21st2012Freak,
Callanecc, Imzogelmo, Tolo5651, Tbhotch, 2020abcd, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, EmausBot, Sinazita, Sadalsuud, Prime-
fac, Chermundy, Tommy2010, ZroBot, A2soup, StringTheory11, H3llBot, SporkBot, Brandmeister, Lyglyg, L Kensington, Ego White
Tray, Kickassyingtigers, Moocow121, Ljohnson2928, Chrisomattic, Wangxuan8331800, The Ilvatar, Shadegan(goru), ClueBot NG,
Yjfstorehouse, OperaJoeGreen, Danim, DCcomicluvr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Al-Zoro, Dodshe, MrBill3, Cyberbot
II, Dexbot, Shanx369, SteenthIWbot, Hillbillyholiday, Praemonitus, FYAstronomy, 240788dt, Plyestrmn, TCMemoire, *thing goes, Jelle
Gouw, Monkbot, Bolt64, Sky2000gr, UforF, A314159265358979, Feminist, Deneb in Cygnus, $$$$$$money women, Fossart, Bob3321,
Markeira Tamia, Loooke, Noah110044, Michael Chard and Anonymous: 249
Rigel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigel?oldid=776340372 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Wayne Hardman, Roadrunner, Freck-
lefoot, Patrick, Looxix~enwiki, William M. Connolley, Marteau, Jeandr du Toit, Saltine, Joy, Chuunen Baka, Nufy8, Sverdrup, Rursus,
Jyril, Curps, Revth, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Pascal666, Antandrus, Robert Brockway, Jasco, Tomruen, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, B.d.mills, Mike
Rosoft, Dbachmann, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, RJHall, Livajo, El C, Kwamikagami, Dreish, Wayfarer, Grutness, Msh210,
Macho, Karlthegreat, Snowolf, Skatebiker, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, WilliamKF, Woohookitty, Sandius, 25or6to4, BillC, Before My
Ken, JeremyA, Kelisi, CWitte, Eras-mus, Prashanthns, Palica, Ashmoo, BD2412, Koavf, Mike s, Changeup, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki,
RexNL, Mark J, Kanthoney, Ronebofh, Chobot, Wjfox2005, Spacepotato, Hawaiian717, RobotE, Ailag~enwiki, Jimp, Kordas, TimNelson,
Dotancohen, Aeusoes1, Christian.elliott, Renata3, Eth4n, Zzuuzz, Mirek256, Lt-wiki-bot, Chesnok, Hurricane Devon, Argo Navis, Allens,
Serendipodous, Tom Morris, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Samdutton, Bomac, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Icemuon, Teleros, Chris the speller, Blue-
bot, SSJ 5, Algumacoisaqq~enwiki, Whispering, Drkashik, Rogermw, V1adis1av, Snowmanradio, Downwards, B jonas, SashatoBot, Er-
imus, J 1982, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Bay Flam, Michaelbusch, Tawkerbot2, Merryjman, Rambam rashi, Myasuda, Phatom87, Slazenger,
Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Ebyabe, Casliber, Captain Pedant, Fournax, Headbomb, HelenKMarks, Liquid-aim-bot, Jj137, Blakestern, JAnD-
bot, Deective, Plantsurfer, IanOsgood, Rothorpe, Murgh, Bongwarrior, T@nn, Hasek is the best, Kheider, Geboy, Kometsuga, J.delanoy,
Skeptic2, Unavoured, Evil Egg, VolkovBot, Chris Dybala, Katydidit, A4bot, Woodsstock, Sankalpdravid, Mybadluck22, BotKung, In-
sanity Incarnate, SieBot, RadicalOne, Hobartimus, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pomona17, Clockwork Laser, Niceguyedc,
DragonBot, PCHS-NJROTC, HumphreyW, Darkicebot, Oskar71, Arianewiki1, Fastily, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, D.M. from Ukraine, Ad-
dbot, Basilicofresco, C3r4, Ronhjones, Download, Dankennerly, AndersBot, SamatBot, Vyom25, Denicho, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Saskiiaa, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Francesco Malafarina~enwiki, ArdWar, Citation bot, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Wper-
due, Lithopsian, RibotBOT, Ernsts, SwordNStone, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Jwscott025, D A R C 12345, Tom.Reding, Serols, Ilvon, Trappist
the monk, Niobrara, Pbrower2a, Pilot850, TjBot, John Baars, EmausBot, Rami radwan, Sadalsuud, Primefac, Chermundy, Tommy2010,
Moravveji, Chasrob, StringTheory11, SporkBot, Capricorn4049, Obiwan042, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, OperaJoeGreen, Widr, Bibcode Bot,
Gomada, Altar, Tycho Magnetic Anomaly-1, TheWhistleGang, Andreeaward, Ayoshust, Dwheels4, Iantaylor33, U-95, Dexbot, Mogism,
Bree's Block, UseTheCommandLine, Hillbillyholiday, Mark viking, Rfassbind, Praemonitus, Jose Mathew C, Haktarfone, JaconaFrere,
WADDUPO, P3456, 9998585P, Kenneth teston, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Larean, Dot435, ToonLucas22, Tetra quark, Sammy Big Legs,
DUrdledeedur, Deneb in Cygnus, Allthefoxes, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 190
Procyon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon?oldid=773814045 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The
Anome, Montrealais, Vik-Thor, Alan Peakall, Menchi, Cyde, AquaRichy, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Jimfbleak, Pizza Puzzle, The Tom, Gren-
delkhan, Wetman, Henrygb, Rursus, Acegikmo1, Wereon, Pablo-ores, Jyril, Fukumoto, Tegla, Curps, Finn-Zoltan, Decagon, Christopher-
lin, Sonjaaa, Cevlakohn, FelineAvenger, Samy Merchi, Satori, Kuralyov, Icairns, Clarknova, Urhixidur, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Jkl, Moverton,
Discospinster, Mani1, Bender235, RJHall, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Hans-Peter Scholz, Ardric47, Bob rulz, Dhartung, JarlaxleArt-
emis, Commander Keane, , Bebenko, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike s, Ucucha, Changeup, FlaBot, Fivemack, Chobot, YurikBot,
Spacepotato, Lusanaherandraton, DelftUser, Kortoso, Reyk, Attilios, BPK2, Yamaguchi , Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Hibernian, Snow-
manradio, Hairmetal4ever, Andrew Dalby, Erimus, JorisvS, Ckatz, RandomCritic, Neddyseagoon, Novangelis, TJ Spyke, Renebeto, Bru-
infan12, Fdssdf, NickW557, Legendary, Cydebot, Ebyabe, Casliber, D4g0thur, Fournax, Headbomb, Grandin, AntiVandalBot, Babylone,
Liquid-aim-bot, Blakestern, JAnDbot, Deective, Rothorpe, .anacondabot, WolfmanSF, Murgh, Gregoric, David Eppstein, Rif Wineld,
Squidonius, Schmloof, N4nojohn, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, Idioma-bot, Speciate, Katydidit, Aesopos, A4bot, Northfox, Glst2, SieBot,
Timb66, PlanetStar, Keilana, RadicalOne, SITCK~enwiki, Oxymoron83, Flydude, OKBot, Svick, Anchor Link Bot, ImageRemovalBot,
ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Niceguyedc, HenryDixon, HumphreyW, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Wyatt915, Addbot, DOI bot,
Download, Proxima Centauri, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Saskiiaa, AnomieBOT, Icalanise,
Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Marshallsumter, Xqbot, Khajidha, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Orion 8, D A R C
12345, Citation bot 1, Yitping, Skeebo3, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Meaghan, Jauhienij, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Dinamik-bot, Imzo-
gelmo, Miracle Pen, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Primefac, Chermundy, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Rocketrod1960,
Petrb, ClueBot NG, Capella87, Violettsureme, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Dolerite, Matt9345, Dexbot, Mo-
gism, Frosty, LNCSRG, Dberard, Praemonitus, Transphasic, Stilgar27, Kogge, Exoplanetaryscience, Monkbot, Fecitekme, RedPanda25,
Phomer, Arsebanditus and Anonymous: 95
Betelgeuse Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse?oldid=780475855 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Rjstott,
Wayne Hardman, Andre Engels, XJaM, Bth, Frecklefoot, JohnOwens, Alan Peakall, DopeshJustin, (, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Jimfbleak,
Mark Foskey, Julesd, Samw, GRAHAMUK, Pizza Puzzle, Arteitle, Timwi, Doradus, Dinopup, Furrykef, Nickshanks, Naddy, Sverdrup,
Rursus, JackofOz, Wereon, Jyril, Spazzm, Doctorcherokee, Herbee, Lefty, Anville, Curps, Michael Devore, Wikibob, Semorrison, Bren-
danRyan, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Dmmaus, Jason Quinn, Cam, Wmahan, ComicParty, ChicXulub, Sonjaaa, LucasVB, Augur, OwenBlacker,
Balcer, Jokestress, Jasco, Tomruen, Eiserlohpp, Geof, Stevenmattern, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Smyth, Dbachmann,
Mani1, Harriv, Bender235, Mykhal, Petersam, Evice, Aranel, RJHall, El C, VishalB, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, PhilHibbs, Tom, Ca-
cophony, Bdoserror, Iridia, Bobo192, Get It, Mark Musante, Hans-Peter Scholz, Obradovic Goran, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Msh210,
JYolkowski, Jhertel, Anthony Appleyard, Eric Kvaalen, Snowolf, Velella, Skatebiker, Kitch, Dismas, Oleg Alexandrov, Bluve, Richard
Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, BillC, JFG, Pol098, MONGO, -Ril-, Kelisi, GregorB, Christopher Thomas, Palica, Dysepsion,
Emerson7, Rnt20, Graham87, Chris Weimer, Melesse, Pmj, Timsj, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Nightscream, Koavf, Comman-
der, Urbane Legend, Strait, Mike s, Thangalin, Bubba73, Boccobrock, Bensin, Rococo roboto, JohnDBuell, Changeup, FlaBot, Sydbar-
rett74, RobertG, Mark J, Kolbasz, SteveBaker, No Swan So Fine, Mhking, Bgwhite, Wjfox2005, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude,
Jimp, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Doctorsundar, AJHalliwell, Vizjim, Mtu, Djdaedalus, Ninly, Moogsi, Livitup, Matau, Hurricane De-
von, Scoutersig, MrMurph101, ArielGold, Ilmari Karonen, Serendipodous, The Yeti, Mhardcastle, Kalsermar, Attilios, Mustard~enwiki,
SmackBot, WCVanHorne, Kenmcfa, Bazza 7, Bomac, Sigoldberg1, RlyehRising, Alex earlier account, Ga, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Alu-
cia, Hmains, Icemuon, Chris the speller, C01dphu510n, Cush, Sandycx, Algumacoisaqq~enwiki, Melburnian, Hibernian, Colonies Chris,
Scwlong, Modest Genius, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tamfang, Chulk90, Pwaldron, Njl, Writtenright, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio,
Seduisant, Georgeccampbell, Amphytrite, Khukri, T-borg, DLHJake, Pwjb, ALK, Parrot of Doom, Ligulembot, Er Komandante, Vina-
iwbot~enwiki, Ceoil, SashatoBot, Turbothy, J 1982, Briantist, Korean alpha for knowledge, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Berenlazarus, Ran-
domCritic, A. Parrot, Korovio, Bilboq, Mr Stephen, 2T, Intranetusa, Seblini, Novangelis, Sasata, Bay Flam, Aaronp808, BananaFiend,
Newone, Brassman00, Twas Now, Courcelles, Cryptic C62, Fdssdf, Markjoseph125, Ruslik0, Jokes Free4Me, Richard Keatinge, Mya-
suda, Cydebot, Treybien, Gogo Dodo, Red Director, A Softer Answer, Christian75, Nishidani, Tewapack, Casliber, JamesAM, Thijs!bot,
Fournax, Top Secret, Beobach972, Headbomb, Moulder, Electron9, Pmrobert49, Trengarasu, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, As-
troLynx, Edokter, Chill doubt, Blakestern, BeefRendang, JAnDbot, Deective, MER-C, Bob the Dino, Ericoides, IanOsgood, Rothorpe,
Acroterion, WolfmanSF, Murgh, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Hekerui, Hamiltonstone, David Eppstein, DerHexer, Xtifr, Kheider,
Drm310, MartinBot, Kometsuga, CommonsDelinker, Dgwohu, Kwix, N4nojohn, DrKay, Skeptic2, Bogey97, Rdhinakar, Derlay, Acala-
mari, Mattximus, Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee, Anthonydpadgett, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Steelangel, Jamesontai, Gwen
Gale, Xnuala, VolkovBot, The Duke of Waltham, Indubitably, Chris Dybala, Katydidit, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, GimmeBot,
Kww, A4bot, Malljaja, Goldfritter, Monkey Bounce, Henrykus, Rjm at sleepers, BotKung, Reactive1, SwordSmurf, James McBride, Ponyo,
SieBot, PlanetStar, Tiddly Tom, Paradoctor, Skylark42, Caltas, RadicalOne, Kotabatubara, Aravindk editing, Mimihitam, Lightmouse,
Spark Moon, Hatmatbbat10, Timeastor, Denisarona, Mr. Gustafson, Myrvin, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads, Bobopia, Steve, Egdcltd,
Martarius, Razrsharp67, ClueBot, WurmWoode, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pomona17, Drmies, Tamerfa, Blanchardb, Piled-
higheranddeeper, Solar-Wind, Auntof6, Excirial, 2007 account, Sun Creator, MacedonianBoy, Sublime5891, Another Believer, Pascalou
petit, Ddperk80, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Tarl N., Feyrauth, Jprw, 68Kustom, Elegost5555, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Roentgenium111, DOI
bot, Miskaton, Toyokuni3, Boner15, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Psshforgetthat, NjardarBot, ChenzwBot, LinkFA-Bot, Tassede-
the, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Daren1997, Crispmuncher, Mmxx, Williamericwol,
Theornamentalist, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Captain Quirk, Jim1138, Icalanise, M!uqomzXb, Littlepils, DannyPell, Ma-
terialscientist, Hunnjazal, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, FreeRangeFrog, Xqbot, Sionus,
JimVC3, Wperdue, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Jezhotwells, Winterwater, Der Falke, IAdem, S. Korotkiy, Fotaun, Phin68, Al Wiseman,
FrescoBot, DavidDidwin, Telescopi, , Jamesooders, Citation bot 1, Redrose64, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Rush-
bugled13, Serols, Ilvon, Mikespedia, Proxtown, Utility Monster, SkyMachine, Tycs, Getheren, Gerda Arendt, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist
the monk, Lotje, PorkHeart, Gulbenk, Extra999, Canuck100, TheRussianNihilist, Kitfoxxe, Diannaa, Earthandmoon, Tbhotch, Tm1729,
Sideways713, Wrotesolid, Onel5969, Stephan Mangold, TjBot, WavePart, EmausBot, Mzilikazi1939, Nuujinn, Sadalsuud, Racerx11,
Faolin42, GoingBatty, Torturella, Jmencisom, Outriggr, Luiscalcada, Dcirovic, K6ka, HiW-Bot, GZ-Bot, SporkBot, Cymru.lass, Soli123,
Brandmeister, Brownie Charles, Idonthavetimeforthiscrap, Donner60, Arizzel, Idonthavetimeforthiscarp, Odysseus1479, Bestmunindia,
Dotcode, Chris857, Czeror, Yclept:Berr, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Anagogist, OperaJoeGreen, AnswerManDan, Friet-
jes, Xforward, Megalobingosaurus, Ling.Nut2, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Toddcourt1,
Tboulay, Wiki13, AvocatoBot, Dodshe, Mark Arsten, Mlopez71, Zedshort, Eveitch, Aisteco, Sjapacap, Fowlerism, RudolfRed, BattyBot,
StarryGrandma, U-95, Luckydhaliwal, ChrisGualtieri, Dipenb2, Khazar2, BigPie16, JYBot, Soni, Dexbot, Mr Morden76, Natuur12, Fo-
CuSandLeArN, Br'er Rabbit, Mogism, Lugia2453, Credulity, Wateresque, Bluepen888, Hillbillyholiday, DerekWinters, Ihaveamac-alt,
Epicgenius, Grebe11, PeenusVagyna, Peniisucker, Jokester323, Jcpag2012, Dberard, Tentinator, EvergreenFir, Kharkiv07, Josh12305,
IStoleThePies, Ethically Yours, Lovkal, Monkbot, Patient Zero, Loyalmoonie, SkyFlubbler, Calcula2, Darkwizardgaming, Tetra quark,
Alexandritechrysoberyl, Exoplanet Expert, Allaboutthatbase368, Adriaan Joubert, Tacomuncher420, GSS-1987, DatGuy, InternetArchive-
Bot, Latex-yow, Gulumeemee, Dorch, Space Innite, Red Planet X (Hercolubus), Gotorn 999999, Chrono15, A.Thaliana and Anonymous:
442
Achernar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernar?oldid=769359383 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Alan Peakall, Evanherk, Alo,
Ellywa, William M. Connolley, Caid Raspa, Poor Yorick, Andres, Topbanana, GPHemsley, Finlay McWalter, Robbot, Tualha, Rursus,
DocWatson42, Jyril, Curps, Sam Hocevar, Gimmick Account, Erolos, Mani1, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, El C, Kwamikagami, Spug, Nk,
Hans-Peter Scholz, Enirac Sum, Jason Davies, Skatebiker, Drbreznjev, Adrian.benko, Nuno Tavares, MattGiuca, Kelisi, Rjwilmsi, An-
gusmclellan, Koavf, Mike s, Changeup, FlaBot, Imikem, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude, Dotancohen, Gadget850, Bota47, Zzuuzz,
Moogsi, Reyk, Attilios, KnightRider~enwiki, Mithcoriel, Richard B, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, Modest Genius, Andrew Dalby,
Lambiam, Korean alpha for knowledge, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Blue Bandit, Nasser z, Erik Kennedy, Cydebot, Q43, Casliber, Click23,
Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Fournax, Astrobiologist, Auke Slotegraaf, AstroLynx, Stella Mira, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Murgh, Alleborgo, Misi-
bacsi, Kometsuga, Skeptic2, Rochelimit, Carlosforonda, VolkovBot, Satani, TXiKiBoT, FKmailliW, SieBot, PlanetStar, ChandlerMapBot,
Rogidomain, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Normal View, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n,
Yobot, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Lithopsian, Walshie79, Telescopi, Tom.Reding, TheAustinMan,
Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, Pbrower2a, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, EmausBot, Sadalsuud, ZroBot, SporkBot, Obiwan042, Colorado Confed-
erate, ClueBot NG, Widr, Megalobingosaurus, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Dolerite, Dberard, Praemonitus, NYBrook098, Chytm, Monkbot,
Schrop, Loooke and Anonymous: 44
Beta Centauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Centauri?oldid=774705336 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, William Avery, Al-
o, Angela, Poor Yorick, Tkinias, Joy, Nurg, Rursus, SpellBott, Jyril, Monedula, Bradeos Graphon, Curps, PDH, Adamsan, Icairns,
B.d.mills, Geof, RJHall, Huntster, Grutness, Eric Kvaalen, Palica, Ashmoo, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, CraigWyllie, Wrightbus,
Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Dotancohen, Attilios, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Dellelce, Cuddlyopedia, Blue-
bot, Magicindark, Hibernian, J. Spencer, Giancarlo Rossi, JorisvS, Friendlystar, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Stella
Mira, Rothorpe, WolfmanSF, Murgh, T@nn, Avicennasis, Misibacsi, Geboy, Dr. Morbius, Agricolae, STBotD, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot,
Benkenobi18, BOTarate, DumZiBoT, Arianewiki1, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, TheSuave, Yobot, Amirobot, Eric-
Wester, Icalanise, Sz-iwbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Fotaun, Telescopi, HRoestBot,
Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, EmausBot, Jolielegal, WikitanvirBot, Rami radwan, Dcirovic, StringThe-
ory11, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, Braincricket, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Narayan89, Dolerite, NathanielJettOlson, Dexbot, Viibird,
Monkbot, , Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 36
Capella (star) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capella?oldid=779775109 Contributors: William M. Connolley, Nahum, StAkAr
Karnak, GPHemsley, Robbot, Rursus, Smb1001, UtherSRG, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Jyril, Curps, SWAdair, ConradPino, Antan-
drus, FelineAvenger, Tomruen, Jkl, Mani1, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Chairboy, Peter Greenwell, L.Willms,
Ardric47, Raymond, RPH, Skatebiker, Rnt20, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Astronaut, MZMcBride, Changeup, FlaBot, Anurag Garg,
Chobot, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, RobotE, RussBot, Lusanaherandraton, Anotherwikipedian,
Lt-wiki-bot, Chaos syndrome, LeonardoRob0t, Curpsbot-unicodify, Argo Navis, SmackBot, Davidkevin, Cuddlyopedia, Hmains, Bluebot,
B00P, Colonies Chris, Snowmanradio, Justin Staord, Andrew Dalby, J 1982, Robertg9, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Mr Stephen, ShelfSkewed,
Myasuda, Cydebot, Nick Ottery, Fonce Diablo, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, Rothorpe, Murgh,
Plantigrade, Khalid Mahmood, Misibacsi, MartinBot, Skeptic2, Reedy Bot, Belovedfreak, Deor, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, RingtailedFox,
A4bot, Rei-bot, Henrykus, BotKung, SieBot, PlanetStar, GaryColemanFan, Ealdgyth, Taggard, OKBot, Altzinn, WikiBotas, Martarius,
Dubsarmah, Abhinav, Wikijens, DragonBot, Dank, DumZiBoT, PseudoOne, Hunter Kahn, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Favonian, Light-
bot, , Aviados, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Francesco Malafarina~enwiki, Ecodeluz, Hunnjazal, Citation
bot, Marshallsumter, The Firewall, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Franco3450, SwordNStone, Walshie79, Telescopi, Citation bot 1, Jone-
sey95, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Fartherred, Jauhienij, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Primefac, Chermundy,
ZroBot, StringTheory11, Ethaniel, Alcazar84, ClueBot NG, Yjfstorehouse, Violettsureme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Trunks ishida,
Jimknows, BetelgeuSeginus, Dexbot, Paulalovescats, Dberard, Praemonitus, Kogge, BenEsq, Monkbot, Hanif Al Husaini, 3StarsAbove,
FACBot, MinorStoop, Koki0118, Kimani powell, BU Rob13, CAPTAIN RAJU, InternetArchiveBot, JimF66, GreenC bot, Bender the
Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 69
Altair Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altair?oldid=777109823 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zisa, Maury Markowitz, Olivier,
DopeshJustin, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Caid Raspa, Pizza Puzzle, Technopilgrim, Timwi, Wikiborg, Wernher, Joseaperez,
Topbanana, Joy, Finlay McWalter, Pumpie, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Pibwl, Merovingian, Rursus, DHN, Kevin Sa, Jyril, Curps, Gil-
gamesh~enwiki, Chowbok, Geni, SarekOfVulcan, Samy Merchi, CanSpice, Mike Rosoft, Felix Wan, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Mani1, Paul August, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Brainy J, Gsklee, Alansohn, Snowolf, Alai,
Adrian.benko, Rocastelo, GraemeLeggett, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Ebdeguzman, Nightscream, Koavf, Leeyc0, Changeup, FlaBot, Hotten-
tot, Swtpc6800, Miy900, Chobot, Bgwhite, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, KKM, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Con-
scious, Hydrargyrum, NawlinWiki, Virek, 24ip, RL0919, Ospalh, Kortoso, Ilmaisin, Ketsuekigata, Moogsi, Argo Navis, Neier, Thorml,
SmackBot, Jagged 85, Edgar181, Cuddlyopedia, Betacommand, GwydionM, Chris the speller, AndrewRT, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies
Chris, Ian Burnet~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, John Hyams, Tamuz, Whpq, Tlusa, Eynar, Wybot, Andrew Dalby, Cyberevil,
Hanksname, Sajman12, J 1982, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Hu12, Newone, Nerfboy, George100, Megaboz, Runningonbrains, ShelfSkewed,
Friendlystar, Slazenger, Cydebot, Grahamec, Chasingsol, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Astrobiologist, Dawnseeker2000,
CTZMSC3, Blakestern, Myanw, JAnDbot, IanOsgood, PFSLakes, Rothorpe, Xact, Murgh, Soulbot, David Eppstein, Just James, Misi-
bacsi, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, N4nojohn, Kimse, Skeptic2, Numbo3, Rchevalier, Rominandreu, TreasuryTag, TXiKiBoT, Osh-
wah, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, MCTales, Logan, SieBot, StAnselm, PlanetStar, LeadSongDog, RadicalOne, Flyer22 Re-
born, Taemyr, Lightmouse, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Pakaraki, Iandiver, Zhirong geng, Polyamorph, Solar-Wind, Robert Skyhawk,
Excirial, SchreiberBike, CarloscomB, Oskar71, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, DOI bot, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Chzz, Blaylockjam10,
Bob K31416, Lightbot, Mollylolly88, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Saskiiaa, Shinkansen Fan, KamikazeBot, Skllan, Gvanbelle,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Nissimnanach, Lithopsian, Omnipaedista, Sophus Bie, Fotaun, Fres-
coBot, AlexanderKaras, Telescopi, Mfwitten, Darkwast, Wilberfalse, RedBot, MastiBot, Ilvon, Foobarnix, , Dinamik-
bot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Primefac, Chermundy, ZroBot, Josve05a, A2soup, StringTheory11, Medeis, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG,
Yjfstorehouse, 2overCosC, Bibcode Bot, Cold Season, MrBill3, Cli12345, Alistairewj, Dexbot, Makecat-bot, Mglobel, Hillbillyholiday,
Mesaa3d, Praemonitus, ToonLinker, Zenibus, Kogge, Exoplanetaryscience, Nezwulf, Monkbot, Kanawishi, AlphaBetaGamma01, Deneb
in Cygnus, Alexodowd, Loooke, Home Lander and Anonymous: 143
Aldebaran Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldebaran?oldid=770995252 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Olivier,
Ram-Man, Alan Peakall, DopeshJustin, Ixfd64, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Bogdangiusca, RodC, Saltine, Eugene
van der Pijll, Finlay McWalter, Phil Boswell, Stephan Schulz, Flauto Dolce, Rursus, Wereon, Angilbas, Jyril, Curps, Henry Flower, Gil-
gamesh~enwiki, Bobblewik, Neilc, Manuel Anastcio, Mackeriv, Sonjaaa, ShakataGaNai, YoungFreud, Trevor MacInnis, Grstain, Ma'ame
Michu, Rich Farmbrough, Izogi, Mani1, Corvun, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Brian0918, Aranel, RJHall, VishalB, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357,
Colonel Cow, Ardric47, Jumbuck, Enirac Sum, Anthony Appleyard, Geo Swan, Snowolf, Jonathan888, Skatebiker, Pwqn, Adrian.benko,
Woohookitty, Rocastelo, Risyphon1024, Jleon, GregorB, SDC, Palica, Cuchullain, BD2412, EdDavies, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Urbane Leg-
end, Mike Peel, Oliverkeenan, Changeup, FlaBot, Gnostic804, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, RexNL, Yggdrasilsroot, Jesse0986, Chobot,
Digitalme, Gwernol, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Shimirel, Stan2525, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Anonymous editor, Gaius Cornelius, Lusanaheran-
draton, Liastnir, Badagnani, Howcheng, Zwobot, Mysid, Strolls, Djdaedalus, Rdmoore6, N-Bot, Chaos syndrome, Reyk, Aeon1006,
Hurricane Devon, Thomas Blomberg, Databind(), Audioweevil, Attilios, Neier, SmackBot, Davidkevin, Cuddlyopedia, Father McKen-
zie, SchftyThree, Colonies Chris, D-Rock, Scwlong, Tamfang, Kyre Elsion, Andrew Dalby, Attys, J 1982, VirtualDave, JorisvS, Ran-
domCritic, Skymist, Stevemarlett, Maksim L., JMK, Alessandro57, Joseph Solis in Australia, Courcelles, Arco Acqua, Markjoseph125,
Blasterman 95, Myrrhlin, Drinibot, 345Kai, Cydebot, Kosunen, Chrislk02, rate, Grant76, Eddylyons, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Opabinia re-
galis, Fournax, Keraunos, Headbomb, Cysma, Astrobiologist, Alphius, Makeety Makondo, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Blakestern, Ghmyrtle,
JAnDbot, Deective, Cmburns, Rothorpe, Xact, Magioladitis, Murgh, Sarahj2107, Quanyails, Aziz1005, Lugburhz, Shijualex, Misibacsi,
Kheider, Kometsuga, Uriel8, Kostisl, Jargon777, Skeptic2, Rominandreu, Potatoswatter, Juliancolton, Geekdiva, Dorftrottel, Meankanin,
VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, Kyle the bot, TXiKiBoT, Java7837, Muro de Aguas, Rei-bot, Someguy1221, Piperh, Dendodge, Mardhil,
BotKung, Alcmaeonid, PlanetStar, VVVBot, RadicalOne, Hiddenfromview, Mimihitam, Robertcurrey, Felixaldonso, Martarius, Clue-
Bot, Nsk92, Botodo, Mild Bill Hiccup, Cpq29gpl, NuclearVacuum, DragonBot, Aldeberan, Hcrumplermd, Elmosgirl, Arjayay, Sjjvdberg,
Shem1805, MelonBot, Avoided, Kbdankbot, Gregory dj, DOI bot, AkhtaBot, Ron B. Thomson, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, OlEnglish,
Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Glkennedy, Aldebaran66, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Fatal!ty, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Ci-
tation bot, Sadvis, Xqbot, Trughioy, Nasnema, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Ataleh, Fotaun, Grinofwales, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Citation bot
1, Javert, SUL, Xaghan, Gladkathie, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Tomgc, Imzogelmo, Extra999, Jshholland, DancinDanthe-
Man, Tyrogthekreeper, ArwinJ, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Primefac, Chermundy, ZroBot, SporkBot, Tolly4bolly, L1A1 FAL,
Brandmeister, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Frietjes, DownUnder36, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Wiki13, Kendall-K1, Chasepuglisi15,
Ninney, TheWhistleGang, BattyBot, JYBot, Mogism, Forgerz, , MDBAAndrew, Credulity, Gmporr, Hillbillyholiday, Prae-
monitus, Stamptrader, Jelle Gouw, Monkbot, MarioProtIV, TheCoeeAddict, VexorAbVikipdia, DN-boards1, RedPanda25, Deneb in
Cygnus, GreenC bot, Pentatonic20, Space Innite, Bender the Bot, Topcipher, Loooke and Anonymous: 158
Spica Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spica?oldid=774778569 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Koyaanis Qatsi,
XJaM, Zoe, Montrealais, Alo, Ellywa, Poor Yorick, Timwi, Piolinfax, Finlay McWalter, Sverdrup, Rursus, Modeha, Angilbas, DocWat-
son42, Jyril, Elf, Barbara Shack, Curps, Eequor, Matthead, Python eggs, Samy Merchi, Icairns, Jkl, Rich Farmbrough, Jamadagni, Dbach-
mann, Mani1, Bender235, RJHall, CanisRufus, VishalB, Kwamikagami, John Vandenberg, HasharBot~enwiki, Alansohn, Anthony Ap-
pleyard, Skatebiker, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Dryman, Adrian.benko, Stemonitis, FeanorStar7, GregorB, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Mau-
rog, Vuong Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Carrionluggage, Spacepotato, Huw Powell, Yosef1987, CambridgeBayWeather, Lusanaherandraton, Jaxl,
SigPig, Bota47, Lt-wiki-bot, Reyk, Kalsermar, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Vald, Strabismus, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, DHN-
bot~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Andrew Dalby, Johanna-Hypatia, JorisvS, Novangelis, Wwagner, Newone, Tawkerbot2, Cm-
drObot, Juhachi, Cydebot, David A. Victor, Amandajm, Casliber, JamesAM, Wikid77, Fournax, Headbomb, Marek69, JAnDbot, Deec-
tive, Rothorpe, Xact, Murgh, VoABot II, Oz tangles, Misibacsi, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Kimse, Skeptic2, Amiaheroyet,
Grshiplett, Rosenknospe, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Doug, Typ932, ScottSloe, SieBot, El Wray, Amaru II, Gerakibot, Yintan, RadicalOne,
SalientNZ, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, Pomona17, Drmies, Jacurek, ChandlerMapBot, Sun Creator, Spitre, 68Kustom, Daodillman,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Grayfell, Fyrael, Metsavend, Legobot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Mewpudding101, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Cita-
tion bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Nylodnewg, Mnmngb, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Adlerbot, Tom.Reding,
Maw4000, Cerebralix, MastiBot, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Curryfranke, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Sadal-
suud, GoingBatty, AsceticRose, Josve05a, StringTheory11, Ruislick0, Hevron1998, Tim Zukas, Alcazar84, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Dantjiefr, Wbm1058, Bibcode Bot, , Emayv, Arcel237, Makecat-bot, Lugia2453, The Quirky Kitty, Dberard, Praemonitus,
Astredita, Monkbot, Gaelan, Caitlyn18, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 99
Antares Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antares?oldid=780423462 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Wayne
Hardman, XJaM, William Avery, Gabbe, Alo, Andrewa, Bogdangiusca, AugPi, Llull, Andres, Hectorthebat, RodC, Timwi, Tpbrad-
bury, Tempshill, Shizhao, Finlay McWalter, Robbot, Rursus, Rsduhamel, Jyril, TOttenville8, Tom harrison, Holofect, Curps, Broux, Lake-
fall~enwiki, Telso, Latitude0116, Rgrg, Kevin Rector, Jkl, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Mani1, Corvun, Bender235, Brian0918, Aranel,
RJHall, El C, Kwamikagami, Tom, Azure Haights, TheProject, Jcrocker, Jumbuck, Grutness, Batmanand, DreamGuy, SidP, Skatebiker,
Adrian.benko, WilliamKF, Rocastelo, MauriceJFox3, Search4Lancer, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Thangalin, Eubot, Nihiltres, Fosnez,
KFP, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Shimirel, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Mark Ironie, InvaderJim42, Nikkimaria, Georey.landis, Kalser-
mar, A bit iy, SmackBot, Rojomoke, Richard B, IstvanWolf, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Kaiwen1, Marc Kupper, Bluebot, Magicindark,
Hibernian, Bazonka, ClaudiaM, Rogermw, Writtenright, Bigturtle, Eynar, Kukini, Jason S. Klepp, Erimus, J 1982, JorisvS, RandomCritic,
Dicklyon, Novangelis, Bay Flam, Iridescent, Alessandro57, CzarB, Tawkerbot2, Fdssdf, Tomhood84, Sakurambo, Markjoseph125, Cm-
drObot, Robin Scagell, , Joelholdsworth, Friendlystar, Ispy1981, Myasuda, Cydebot, Tdvance, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Kiwi137, Four-
nax, Bytemiser, RickinBaltimore, Astrobiologist, NigelR, CarbonX, Blakestern, Peter Harriman, JAnDbot, Ravaun, Rothorpe, Murgh,
T@nn, JamesBWatson, Swpb, Porkman385, Kheider, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Kometsuga, CommonsDelinker, TomS TDotO,
, NewEnglandYankee, Jamesontai, Gwen Gale, DorganBot, Pastordavid, Dorftrottel, Vedran8080, VolkovBot, Teledil-
donix314, GDonato, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Agrinny, Sankalpdravid, AlysTarr, Piperh, Thanatos666, SieBot, JamesA, Bento-
goa, RadicalOne, Mimihitam, Smilesfozwood, Lightmouse, Orcoteuthis, Efe, ImageRemovalBot, Martarius, Mira Oubliette, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Scartboy, Pomona17, Solar-Wind, Burst tool, Alexbot, Versus22, SoxBot III, Anon126, Arianewiki1, XLinkBot,
Tarl N., SilvonenBot, 68Kustom, Alexius08, Kbdankbot, Fyrael, Blethering Scot, CanadianLinuxUser, Akvarknimblus, 84user, Lightbot,
Zorrobot, Everyme, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Aldebaran66, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, JackieBot, Icalanise, Kwierschem, Kingpin13,
Timwether, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Embram, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Random astronomer, Capricorn42, Br77rino, Lithopsian,
FrescoBot, Aquahsocker, Telescopi, Smiechu131rs15, Citation bot 1, Tom.Reding, RedBot, Ilvon, TobeBot, Imzogelmo, Pbrower2a,
Aoidh, ArwinJ, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, TGCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, Sadalsuud, Stephencdickson, AvicBot, ZroBot, Dolovis,
Markus.Michalczyk, StringTheory11, H3llBot, SporkBot, Rcsprinter123, Donner60, Obiwan042, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Yjfstorehouse,
Braincricket, Sephirohq, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, MusikAnimal, , Smeat75, Lieutenant of Melkor,
Cyberbot II, 2011wp, Nowscreamlouder, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Astronomer98, Registered Only, AntaresAntares, Eagleash, Fc07,
Darshit Paramantharhamshankaran, Jcpag2012, Evano1van, Praemonitus, DavidLeighEllis, Scira, Evensteven, Eagle3399, Cr.marthi, IS-
toleThePies, Abgar eabe ghu, Monkbot, Stevo2536, SkyFlubbler, Aayushi7, LookAtTheseMelons, Tetra quark, CV9933, Deneb in Cygnus,
Craft6789, GreenC bot, Yoshi231, Space Innite, Loooke, Ynoss and Anonymous: 217
Pollux (star) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollux_(star)?oldid=778374894 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Jengod, Nickshanks,
Joy, Robbot, Puckly, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Icairns, DMG413, Jkl, Mani1, Bender235, Cyclopia, RJHall, VishalB, Giraedata, Grutness,
Pinar, Malo, Khardan, Shert~enwiki, Woohookitty, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Lzz, King of Hearts, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Jimp,
Gaius Cornelius, Martinwilke1980, Chaos syndrome, Knotnic, Serendipodous, That Guy, From That Show!, Veinor, SmackBot, Uny-
oyega, Cuddlyopedia, AndrewRT, Colonies Chris, Trekphiler, Realberserker, Aldaron, Wybot, Andrew Dalby, J 1982, JorisvS, Random-
Critic, BranStark, Bruinfan12, SeanMD80, Filelakeshoe, Fdssdf, CmdrObot, Jokes Free4Me, WeggeBot, Abrar47, Cydebot, Reywas92,
Red Director, Chasingsol, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Fournax, Headbomb, Escarbot, Liquid-aim-bot, AstroLynx, Blakestern, JAnD-
bot, Txomin, Rothorpe, Murgh, T@nn, Hamiltonstone, Xtifr, Misibacsi, Kometsuga, Leyo, Shellwood, Kimse, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkel-
berg, 12dstring, Richontaban, TomS TDotO, Rochelimit, NewEnglandYankee, VolkovBot, A4bot, BlazeOfGlory15, SieBot, PlanetStar,
RadicalOne, PipepBot, Sabbe, EoGuy, Wikijens, NuclearVacuum, Jotterbot, H.I.Remington, Starstriker7, 68Kustom, ZooFari, Osarius,
Kbdankbot, Wyatt915, Addbot, DOI bot, Lightbot, , Easy n, Yobot, Aldebaran66, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Vanthorn,
Quebec99, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Mnmngb, FrescoBot, Telescopi, BoundaryRider, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Vicenarian,
Tom.Reding, Jayhawke, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Tm1729, Tyrogthekreeper, Mean as custard, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Chermundy, Wikipelli,
ZroBot, StringTheory11, J Momaa, Tyrranus24, Merpius, ClueBot NG, Baseball Watcher, Frietjes, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Dolerite,
David.moreno72, Jarhed21, Fourfour256, Hillbillyholiday, Praemonitus, Kogge, P55544, Monkbot, Disneyfangirl131234678910, Mi-
gos1223, AndyO18624, Loooke and Anonymous: 67
Fomalhaut Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomalhaut?oldid=779748824 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zimriel, DopeshJustin,
Sannse, Alo, Caid Raspa, Bogdangiusca, AugPi, CAkira, Saltine, Jose Ramos, Wetman, Rursus, Robinh, JerryFriedman, Zaui, Angilbas,
Jyril, Curps, Samy Merchi, Gauss, B.d.mills, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Ponder, Corvun, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Huntster,
Kwamikagami, Jonathunder, Enirac Sum, Snowolf, Gene Nygaard, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, MattGiuca, JFG, Scorgi, Isnow, SDC,
Pictureuploader, Palica, Graham87, Chupon, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Mike s, Ghalas, FlaBot, Mptp94, Bgwhite,
Ahpook, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Shimirel, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Perew, AVM, Zim, Dotancohen, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki,
CLAES, BazookaJoe, Paul Magnussen, Mirek256, Chaos syndrome, Reyk, SmackBot, SvenLittkowski, Unyoyega, WilyD, Richard B,
Andy Bugay, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, Hibernian, Bazonka, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, Aldaron, Bigturtle, Bowlhover,
Ligulembot, Andrew Dalby, Potosino, GoogleMe~enwiki, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Artman40, Smallpond, Friendlystar, Cydebot, Kanags,
Casliber, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Fournax, Martin Cash, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Liquid-aim-bot, AstroLynx, Deective, Kaobear, MER-
C, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Nakhoda84, WolfmanSF, Murgh, Soulbot, Kheider, Geboy, Naphra, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Richonta-
ban, TomS TDotO, Ian.thomson, Potatoswatter, Izno, Tttecumseh, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, James McBride, SieBot, PlanetStar, Ner-
gaal, Martarius, Piledhigheranddeeper, FrancescoA~enwiki, Anon lynx, MelonBot, SkyLined, Surtsicna, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Ad-
dbot, AkhtaBot, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, KamikazeBot, Tonyrex,
AnomieBOT, Tyler1996, IRP, Icalanise, Eggspencer, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, WachtAmRheinwein, Zar119, Jimmarsmars, Lithop-
sian, Agenda22, Nagualdesign, Walshie79, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Sae1962, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Blackandwhitetocolor,
Ilvon, IJBall, Tim1357, Vita&Violet, Imzogelmo, Tyrogthekreeper, TjBot, Quantanew, Primefac, Chermundy, Jmencisom, Dcirovic,
Solomonfromnland, ZroBot, StringTheory11, SporkBot, Tyrranus24, ClueBot NG, Lepota, Ben morphett, Miros 0571, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Dolerite, AvocatoBot, CitationCleanerBot, ShellfaceTheStrange, Dexbot, Stas1995, AstroFibbin, Andyhowlett,
Bramacke, Edwardo145699, Transphasic, Baconfry, Kogge, Monkbot, MinorStoop, Koki0118, Deneb in Cygnus, InternetArchiveBot,
BrandonJackTar, Loooke, Noah Kastin and Anonymous: 91
Deneb Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deneb?oldid=769280972 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Josh Grosse, Nealmcb, Patrick,
DopeshJustin, Delirium, Arpingstone, Alo, Ellywa, William M. Connolley, Joy, Pakaran, Robbot, Rursus, JesseW, Lzur, Xyzzyva,
Jyril, Gene Ward Smith, Zuxy, Jacob1207, Curps, Varlaam, Khalid hassani, Joseph Dwayne, Tomruen, Arcturus, Felix Wan, Jkl, Ben-
der235, Kjoonlee, Aranel, RJHall, Mytg8, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Jonathan Drain, HiddenInPlainSight, DaveGorman, Ardric47,
Gsklee, SlimVirgin, Spangineer, Snowolf, RPH, Jwinius, Gene Nygaard, Adrian.benko, Jdorje, BillC, Magister Mathematicae, Ketiltrout,
Mike s, FlaBot, Lady Aleena, KFP, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, Johnny Pez, Maxentius, Dbrs, VederJuda,
Wknight94, Rsutton, Alias Flood, Mjroots, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Cuddlyopedia, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Can't sleep, clown will eat
me, Aldaron, Andrew Dalby, Kuru, J 1982, JorisvS, Fig wright, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Serpentinite, Illythr, Hu12, Bay Flam, Rene-
beto, Newone, Fdssdf, Pugs Malone, Icek~enwiki, Cydebot, Misterlmgeek, Casliber, Fournax, Dogaroon, Headbomb, Redd77, Escarbot,
Liquid-aim-bot, Husond, Rothorpe, Xact, Muadibbles, Murgh, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Kimse, Skeptic2, Rominandreu, Jamesontai,
VolkovBot, Chris Dybala, TXiKiBoT, Piperh, Ocanthus, FKmailliW, SieBot, Gerakibot, Ham Pastrami, Pegasolta eclair, Vbond, OKBot,
ClueBot, Wikiste, Thgoiter, InternetMeme, Tarl N., Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LemmeyBOT, Tide rolls, Luckas Blade, Zor-
robot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Wrelwser43, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Zhaonach, Inferno,
Lord of Penguins, Ubcule, Lithopsian, Telescopi, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, Pbrower2a, Difu Wu, RjwilmsiBot, Fcy, Kir-
intal, EmausBot, Sadalsuud, GoingBatty, ZroBot, F, ElationAviation, Ruislick0, Hevron1998, Javabyte, AManWithNoPlan, Tony Patt,
TyA, Obiwan042, Ego White Tray, Peter Karlsen, Shadegan(goru), ClueBot NG, Gilderien, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite,
Trevayne08, ShellfaceTheStrange, Danmoberly, Chadridge, Mutley1989, Khurlbutt, Exoplanetaryscience, VictordeHollander, Monkbot,
OmoiEgaite, AlphaBetaGamma01, Tetra quark, SJ NM78, Deneb in Cygnus, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Hester88, Space Innite,
Red Planet X (Hercolubus), Aaron.iji4, Loooke and Anonymous: 105
Beta Crucis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Crucis?oldid=780414933 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Alo, Ellywa, Stan Shebs,
Angela, Poor Yorick, Robbot, Rursus, GreatWhiteNortherner, SpellBott, Jyril, Curps, Aranel, RJHall, Palica, Aasmith, Chobot, Space-
potato, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, SmackBot, Tom Lougheed, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, B00P, OrphanBot, Ligulembot,
Andrew Dalby, Roregan, Cydebot, Lovemachine~enwiki, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, Rich257, Leyo,
Extransit, Richontaban, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, PlanetStar, Yintan, Danimations, BenoniBot~enwiki, ClueBot,
Solar-Wind, Alexbot, CarloscomB, Thingg, MelonBot, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, , Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT,
Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Redrose64, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Rename-
dUser01302013, ClueBot NG, Dgieringer, 7sagan, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, MikeI1979, Dberard, Kogge, Monkbot,
InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 25
Regulus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulus?oldid=780399744 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Kst, Alan Peakall, Liftarn, Al-
o, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Bogdangiusca, Poor Yorick, CAkira, Beck, RodC, Robbot, Gandalf61, Sverdrup, Rursus, Angilbas,
SpellBott, Jyril, P.T. Aufrette, Curps, Bobblewik, R. end, LiDaobing, Maartentje, Samy Merchi, Tomruen, Icairns, Mani1, Corvun,
Kjoonlee, Brian0918, RJHall, El C, VishalB, Kwamikagami, Peter Greenwell, Timl, Giraedata, Jcrocker, Mr Adequate, Wtmitchell,
RPH, Knowledge Seeker, Cburnett, April Arcus, Adrian.benko, Bacteria, Shreevatsa, 25or6to4, Rnt20, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike
s, FlaBot, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Spacepotato, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Lusanaherandraton, Knyght27, Prime Entelechy, Mr-
Bark, Bota47, Texmandie, Selmo, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Felicity4711, Unyoyega, Bomac, Cuddlyopedia, Persian Poet
Gal, MalafayaBot, Florian Adler, AsadAsif, Tsca.bot, Snowmanradio, Wybot, Andrew Dalby, Heywd, VirtualDave, JorisvS, IronGar-
goyle, RandomCritic, Waggers, Novangelis, BranStark, Joseph Solis in Australia, Wilford Nusser, Nalco, Fvasconcellos, Friendlystar,
Icek~enwiki, Badseed, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Tewapack, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Bobblehead, Cysma, AntiVandalBot, Liquid-aim-
bot, Dr. Submillimeter, Blakestern, Etr52, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, Xact, Murgh, T@nn, Swilliamrex, Enaidmawr, Misibacsi, Kheider,
Jim.henderson, Kostisl, VirtualDelight, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, Cosmogeoman, Idioma-bot, Ka, Wingedsubmariner, Ace Telephone,
Sylent, Thanatos666, TC-1966, Vsst, Steorra, RadicalOne, Mimihitam, Felixaldonso, ClueBot, Onegdaj~enwiki, Excirial, Arjayay, Scog,
Car710, MelonBot, Starstriker7, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, TaBOT-
zerem, Julia W, Saskiiaa, AnomieBOT, SkarmCA, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Random astronomer,
Lithopsian, DaveyboySA, Abce2, Constructive editor, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Full-date unlinking bot, C messier, Double sharp, Trappist
the monk, Imzogelmo, Vrenator, Ayyur, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Breezeboy, EmausBot, Sadalsuud, RA0808, Wikipelli, StringTheory11,
Randydspence, John KB, Tim Zukas, CharlieEchoTango, Alcazar84, ClueBot NG, Violettsureme, Michoball, Megalobingosaurus, Bibcode
Bot, Jimknows, Klilidiplomus, Aisteco, Krakkos, Hillbillyholiday, Dberard, Praemonitus, FYAstronomy, Bullman123, Oltraining, Jcomis,
Monkbot, Yted, A Great Catholic Person, Marchy088, Tetra quark, Joleen Fang, Loooke and Anonymous: 101
Alpha Crucis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Crucis?oldid=780415094 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Heron, Ellywa,
Ams80, AugPi, RodC, Finlay McWalter, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Grutness,
Gene Nygaard, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Astronaut, Changeup, FlaBot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, RobotE, CambridgeBayWeather, BOT-
Superzerocool, Mopcwiki, Alain r, Prvc, SmackBot, Vald, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Goldnger820, Jcb10, OrphanBot, Dantadd, Tawker-
bot2, Cydebot, Murasichten, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Astrobiologist, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, JAnDbot, Stella Mira,
Sinisterial, Ispellsgud, Rothorpe, Acroterion, Rich257, Misibacsi, Kometsuga, Skeptic2, Idioma-bot, Qxz, Cherhillsnow, Hyperux, Plan-
etStar, Guitarphillip, Tatie2189, Moonraker12, Pomona17, Solar-Wind, CarloscomB, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, 84user, Light-
bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Fotaun, Walshie79, I dream of horses,
Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Floodout, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Vennicus, Hevron1998, ClueBot NG,
Floatjon, Dgieringer, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, MikeI1979, Dberard, Praemonitus, Kogge, Monkbot, Narky Blert, Tetra quark, Loooke and
Anonymous: 35
Epsilon Canis Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Canis_Majoris?oldid=780415069 Contributors: AugPi, Stormie,
Wetman, Rursus, Kbahey, Jyril, Curps, Tomruen, B.d.mills, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Feezo, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Le-
eyc0, Changeup, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, KnightRider~enwiki, Ashill, Cuddlyope-
dia, Bluebot, Magicindark, Colonies Chris, Mgiganteus1, Michel M Verstraete, SETIGuy, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Head-
bomb, JAnDbot, Stella Mira, Rothorpe, Idioma-bot, RingtailedFox, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Martarius, J.H.McDonnell, ChandlerMapBot,
XLinkBot, Tarl N., Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, , Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Francesco
Malafarina~enwiki, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Khruner, RibotBOT, Fotaun, Tycuddy, Ilvon, Trappist the
monk, Niobrara, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Rami radwan, Dcirovic, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Hevron1998, Alessa1235, Jkdd77, ClueBot
NG, Violettsureme, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Dodshe, Cyberbot II, Clepard1990, Hillbillyholiday, Dberard,
Praemonitus, Exoplanetaryscience, Monkbot, Tetra quark, TheWhistleGag, GreenC bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 23
Lambda Scorpii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_Scorpii?oldid=757296846 Contributors: J'raxis, AugPi, Fvw, Rursus,
Centrx, Jyril, Curps, D6, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Astronaut, FlaBot, Chobot,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Phorpus, Rigadoun, JorisvS, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Alientrav-
eller, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, T@nn, Oz tangles, Misibacsi, STBotD, VolkovBot, SieBot, MystBot, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Easy n,
Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Lithopsian, FrescoBot, PigFlu Oink, Tom.Reding,
Lithium cyanide, Ilvon, Jujutacular, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Rami radwan, Sadalsuud, StringTheory11, Dondervogel 2, MAL-
LUS, Targaryen, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, Toxin45, SFK2, Dberard, Praemonitus, Kogge, Therealpirateblue, Monkbot, Bender the Bot,
Loooke and Anonymous: 18
Gamma Crucis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Crucis?oldid=780415039 Contributors: Ellywa, AugPi, Stormie, Rursus,
Jyril, Curps, B.d.mills, NeilTarrant, RJHall, A2Kar, Puersh101, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Shawn81, Gaius
Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Hurricane Devon, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Ligulembot, Cydebot, Alaibot,
Thijs!bot, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, Kheider, Anaxial, TXiKiBoT, PlanetStar, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, ChandlerMapBot, NuclearVacuum, El
bot de la dieta, Oskar71, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LatitudeBot, Easy n, Yobot, Rubinbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot,
Obersachsebot, Lithopsian, Asfarer, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Yaush, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG,
Dgieringer, Bibcode Bot, Dberard, Praemonitus, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anony-
mous: 14
Bellatrix Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellatrix?oldid=766232625 Contributors: JohnOwens, Ellywa, Paul Stansifer, Warof-
dreams, Slawojarek, Jni, Sverdrup, Rursus, Wereon, Awolf002, Jyril, Jacob1207, Curps, Zeimusu, Sonjaaa, Icairns, Lacrimosus, Geof,
Aranel, RJHall, El C, Kwamikagami, Apyule, Azure Haights, A2Kar, TaintedMustard, Feezo, WilliamKF, Palica, BD2412, Rjwilmsi,
Zakolantern, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Caesarscott, Mark J, Chobot, Spacepotato, Jimp, Scs, Dlyons493, Abhimat.gautam, Kin-
tetsubualo, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, JorisvS, JoeBot, CmdrObot, Gunny01, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber,
Thijs!bot, Keraunos, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Deective, Rothorpe, VoABot II, T@nn, R'n'B, Uncle Dick, Mr Wiggly, VolkovBot, Rei-
bot, Kehrbykid, SieBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Luciengav, Jan1nad, Leliel79, CarloscomB, Versus22, Jovianeye, Avoided, Kbdankbot, Addbot,
84user, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Bratant, Saskiiaa, AnomieBOT, ArdWar, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot,
RibotBOT, Mnmngb, Tiramisoo, D'ohBot, DrilBot, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Hmyt, Imzogelmo, Defender
of torch, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sadalsuud, Princess Lirin, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Medeis, Ros-
alina2427, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Ilc1995, NellieBlyMobile, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Ushakaron, Th4n3r, KCook3824, The-
JJJunk, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 58
Beta Tauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Tauri?oldid=756488461 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Olivier, Alan Peakall,
Looxix~enwiki, Flauto Dolce, Rursus, Angilbas, Jyril, Curps, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, CaptainMike, Palica,
Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Cuddlyopedia, Blue-
bot, Wazronk, RuudVisser, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, VirtualDave, Noah Salzman, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, The Captain Returns, JAnDbot,
Rothorpe, .anacondabot, Thunderhead~enwiki, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Elphion, AlleborgoBot, SieBot,
Martarius, DumZiBoT, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Amirobot, Nallimbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, MauritsBot,
Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Lithopsian, Darkest tree, Tom.Reding, MastiBot, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Sadalsuud,
Dcirovic, BrokenAnchorBot, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, Dberard, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot,
Beta Carinae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Carinae?oldid=773534496 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Rursus, Jyril, Curps,
Kusunose, Icairns, Night, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, JYolkowski, Palica, Mandarax, Ketiltrout, FlaBot, Chobot, Spacepotato,
Gaius Cornelius, SEWilcoBot, Poulpy, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Ligulembot, Cydebot, Casliber, Rothorpe, Leyo, STBotD,
Deadspirit90, PipepBot, MelonBot, Arianewiki1, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, SpBot, , Luckas-bot, Easy n, Hunnjazal, Citation
bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, D'ohBot, Ilvon, Dinamik-bot, Imzogelmo, Extra999, RjwilmsiBot, H3llBot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, , YFdyh-
bot, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 14
Epsilon Orionis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnilam?oldid=760699753 Contributors: Ellywa, Jeandr du Toit, Finlay McWal-
ter, Sverdrup, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Wmahan, B.d.mills, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami,
Bobo192, Viriditas, Rapscallion, Skatebiker, Gene Nygaard, Rocastelo, Palica, FlaBot, Mark J, Kanthoney, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato,
Attilios, SmackBot, Abhimat.gautam, Cuddlyopedia, Magicindark, Colonies Chris, BW95, OOODDD, Metebelis, JorisvS, Random-
Critic, Anthony Bradbury, Cydebot, DumbBOT, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Astrobiologist, Escarbot, WinBot, TAnthony,
Rothorpe, .anacondabot, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, Jameslwoodward, Geanixx, SieBot, Wikiste, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Ginu.at, Luckas-
bot, Easy n, Amirobot, Saskiiaa, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Mnmngb, Daeme, Tom.Reding,
Trappist the monk, ZhBot, Rm, Sadalsuud, MALLUS, Obiwan042, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, Midnight Green, Ubiquinoid, Chris-
Gualtieri, Benohamid, Exoplanetaryscience, Stamptrader, Monkbot, Stacie Croquet, MARED, Bear-rings, Loooke and Anonymous: 33
Zeta Orionis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnitak?oldid=776334518 Contributors: Ellywa, Jeandr du Toit, Finlay McWal-
ter, Sverdrup, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Agari, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Ndteegarden,
WilliamKF, Rocastelo, CWitte, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Dotancohen, Gaius Cornelius, K.C.
Tang, Ms2ger, Alecmconroy, Nikkimaria, Xetheare, That Guy, From That Show!, Attilios, Cuddlyopedia, Happywae, Magicindark,
BW95, Elendil's Heir, Metebelis, DMacks, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Eratticus, Friendlystar, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Four-
nax, Headbomb, Astrobiologist, Jayron32, TRIKER1, Mr buick, Barek, CosineKitty, Plantsurfer, TAnthony, Rothorpe, Magioladitis,
Bongwarrior, T@nn, Misibacsi, Flaming Ferrari, Victuallers, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Geanixx, Resurgent insurgent, Glst2, GorillaWarfare,
MikeVitale, DragonBot, Doc9871, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem,
Saskiiaa, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Asfarer, FrescoBot, 2010, Telescopi, Citation bot
1, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Niobrara, Extra999, ZhBot, EmausBot, Sadalsuud, ZroBot, StringTheory11,
Capricorn4049, ChuispastonBot, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Addihockey10 (automated), Bibcode Bot, Dexbot, Forgerz, DougWilkinson,
Arpin22, Stacie Croquet, Tetra quark, Joshclark82, Sdgedfegw, Loooke and Anonymous: 31
Alpha Gruis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Gruis?oldid=773535242 Contributors: Ellywa, AugPi, Stormie, Rursus, Jyril,
Curps, Joe Kress, Bobblewik, Mani1, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Palica, BD2412, Koavf, MarnetteD, Chobot, YurikBot, Space-
potato, Katieh5584, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Andrew Dalby, Bay Flam, Alice Mudgarden, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Headbomb,
Rothorpe, Leyo, Skeptic2, TXiKiBoT, Woilorio, FKmailliW, PlanetStar, Stewy5714, Excirial, Alexbot, El bot de la dieta, Arianewiki1,
SilvonenBot, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, LatitudeBot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot,
Lithopsian, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Iamchenzetian, ZroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot,
BG19bot, Kogge, Monkbot, Mohamedisnice, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 10
Epsilon Ursae Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Ursae_Majoris?oldid=774136302 Contributors: Paul Drye, Bryan
Derksen, Tim Starling, Looxix~enwiki, Jose Ramos, Rursus, Jyril, Bradeos Graphon, Curps, Bobblewik, Telso, Gunnar Larsson, Brian0918,
Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Sligocki, JarlaxleArtemis, Rocastelo, Palica, Ketiltrout, Mike s, Brighterorange, Changeup, FlaBot, Mark
J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Kalsermar, FocalPoint, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller, Bluebot, B00P, Vina-iwbot~enwiki,
Andrew Dalby, Vasiliy Faronov, JorisvS, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Stwalkerster, Keithh, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, Magioladitis,
Warut, Afalk42, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, BotMultichill, Phe-bot, Robbo5002, Jackfat, 68Kustom, Everydayidiot, Daodillman,
Kbdankbot, Tanhabot, Tassedethe, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Armbrust, Skyerise, Ilvon,
Lotje, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Primefac, Chermundy, Dolovis, Bahudhara, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, , Praemonitus, Kogge,
Monkbot, Deneb in Cygnus, Loooke and Anonymous: 18
Gamma Velorum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Velorum?oldid=762066842 Contributors: Ixfd64, Ellywa, AugPi, Nick-
shanks, Altenmann, Merovingian, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Mschlindwein, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Andrew Gray, Un-
cle G, Palica, BD2412, Terryn3, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Chobot, Caseman, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, Kalsermar, Bluebot,
Magicindark, Modest Genius, Andrew Dalby, JorisvS, Cydebot, Casliber, Fournax, Petecarney, IanOsgood, Rothorpe, T@nn, Karl432,
R'n'B, Skeptic2, VolkovBot, Oshwah, Elphion, TJRC, Mx. Granger, BOTarate, El bot de la dieta, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Easy
n, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Francesco Malafarina~enwiki, Citation bot, Lithopsian, 2010, D'ohBot, Tom.Reding, TjBot, EmausBot,
Orphan Wiki, Sinazita, WikitanvirBot, Chermundy, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, , Dexbot, Exoplanetaryscience,
Monkbot, Zortwort, X2A3Q, Loooke and Anonymous: 19
Epsilon Sagittarii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Sagittarii?oldid=780173616 Contributors: Ellywa, Rursus, Tobycat,
Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Utcursch, DragonySixtyseven, Icairns, Trevor MacInnis, RJHall, Kwamikagami, DaveGorman, Grutness, Eric
Kvaalen, Glaurung, Ghirlandajo, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kmorrow, Kalsermar, Cuddlyopedia,
Gilliam, Bluebot, Magicindark, Modest Genius, Tamfang, Andrew Dalby, Smith609, Stanlekub, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rothorpe,
Xtifr, R'n'B, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, El bot de la dieta, Thingg, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, AndersBot, Easy n, Yobot, Hunnjazal, Cita-
tion bot, Lithopsian, Thehelpfulbot, Citation bot 4, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Rami
radwan, Sadalsuud, ZroBot, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, , Cyberbot II, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot,
GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 12
Alpha Persei Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Persei?oldid=762640219 Contributors: Kosebamse, Stormie, Robbot, Rur-
sus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Manuel Anastcio, Jodamiller, Tomruen, Bender235, Brian0918, RJHall, Worldtraveller, Peter Greenwell,
Grutness, Palica, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Vald, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark,
Scwlong, Modest Genius, Andrew Dalby, Dojnd, JayHenry, Comrade42, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, LibLord, Rothorpe, T@nn, R'n'B,
VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Lightmouse, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, Oskar71, Arianewiki1, Kbdankbot, Addbot, SpBot, Sebagr, Zorrobot,
Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Alexbusque,
Mnmngb, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Sideways713, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, StringTheory11, Bulbul99, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2,
Bibcode Bot, BattyBot, Kogge, Monkbot, Tetra quark, Loooke and Anonymous: 20
Delta Canis Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Canis_Majoris?oldid=780415116 Contributors: Heron, AugPi, Rursus,

Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Zeimusu, Tomruen, RJHall, Mytg8, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Eras-mus, Palica, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
FlaBot, Ronebofh, Chobot, Borgx, Spacepotato, RobotE, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Tsca.bot, Cydebot, Casliber,
Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Zhouyinpiao, Rothorpe, STBotD, VolkovBot, Hasanbay~enwiki, ImageRemovalBot, Thingg, Kbdankbot, Addbot,
Ginu.at, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Rubinbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, 2010, Citation bot 4, Ilvon,
Trappist the monk, Niobrara, Mramz88, Iamchenzetian, ZroBot, Josve05a, H3llBot, MALLUS, Obiwan042, Sephirohq, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Bibcode Bot, Praemonitus, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 13
Eta Ursae Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Ursae_Majoris?oldid=767326184 Contributors: Stormie, Rursus, Jyril,
Curps, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Peter Greenwell, A2Kar, Gene Nygaard, Rocastelo, Uncle G, Palica, Miq, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
Changeup, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom, Mark J, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Bota47, Rdmoore6, Mebden, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Cud-
dlyopedia, Bluebot, B00P, JorisvS, Stwalkerster, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, Xact, Leyo, VolkovBot, BMatt5302,
TXiKiBoT, Elphion, SieBot, VVVBot, Ken123BOT, Ashashyou, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Zorrobot, Luckyz, Easy n, Yobot,
Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Bmbende, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, WikitanvirBot, Primefac,
Chermundy, StringTheory11, Kittenono, MALLUS, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, , Kirk39, Tomate Atmico, Jason from nyc, Samwal-
ton9, , Kogge, Monkbot, Deneb in Cygnus, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 20
Theta Scorpii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_Scorpii?oldid=780414748 Contributors: Stormie, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Ben-
der235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Gene Nygaard, Uncle G, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Chobot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Kalser-
mar, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, Metebelis, Kokorik, Cydebot, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, R'n'B, STBotD, VolkovBot,
TXiKiBoT, Elphion, SieBot, Zatar, SilvonenBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Easy n, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian,
GrouchoBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, StringTheory11, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode
Bot, , Praemonitus, Kogge, Jelle Gouw, Monkbot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 9
Alpha Ursae Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Ursae_Majoris?oldid=762841715 Contributors: Ellywa, Marteau,
Merovingian, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Aranel, RJHall, Zscout370, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, Peter Greenwell, Ardric47,
A2Kar, JYolkowski, Buaidh, Suruena, Allen McC.~enwiki, Woohookitty, Thruston, Palica, Ketiltrout, Koavf, Changeup, Margos-
bot~enwiki, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Nicke L, NoGhost, SmackBot, W!B:, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, B00P, WikiFlier,
Trekphiler, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Stwalkerster, Newone, Alice Mudgarden, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Liquid-aim-bot, JAnD-
bot, Rothorpe, Murgh, Ugajin, VolkovBot, Satani, JhsBot, Weirpwoer, BOTarate, Unmerklich, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Aboctok,
, Easy n, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, DrilBot, Ilvon, JeepdaySock, Primefac,
Chermundy, ZroBot, SporkBot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, , Jason from nyc, YFdyh-bot, DavidLeighEllis, Monkbot, RGeraldPorter,
Kinetic37, CV9933, Deneb in Cygnus, Loooke and Anonymous: 23
Gamma Geminorum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Geminorum?oldid=773179102 Contributors: Ellywa, Stormie, Rur-
sus, Kbahey, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Manuel Anastcio, Mani1, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Uncle G, Palica, Rjwilmsi,
Changeup, FlaBot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, RussBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb,
Escarbot, Erik Baas, ElComandanteChe, Rothorpe, T@nn, KConWiki, Xtifr, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Inductiveload, Ideal gas equation, Kb-
dankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Ptbotgourou, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, D'ohBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon,
Imzogelmo, StringTheory11, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Loooke and
Anonymous: 12
Alpha Pavonis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Pavonis?oldid=775592488 Contributors: Zoicon5, Stormie, Rursus, Bkell,
Jyril, Curps, Icairns, RJHall, Helix84, Grutness, Gene Nygaard, Japanese Searobin, Uncle G, Otherails, GnniX, Chobot, Bgwhite,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kalsermar, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Modest Genius, Andrew Dalby, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb,
Rothorpe, Leyo, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, DavidHarperAtObliquity, PlanetStar, Yintan, Lawrence Cohen, Alexbot, Oskar71, Kbdankbot,
Addbot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, CHRV, I dream of horses, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, EmausBot, Orphan
Wiki, Iamchenzetian, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, HMSLavender, Loooke and Anonymous: 10
Alpha Trianguli Australis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Trianguli_Australis?oldid=780414950 Contributors: William
Avery, Jyril, RJHall, Adrian.benko, Ketiltrout, FlaBot, Spacepotato, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Magicindark, An-
drew Dalby, Kokorik, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Casliber, Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe, TXiKiBoT, El bot de la dieta, Arianewiki1, Kbdankbot,
Addbot, Albamhandae, Easy n, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Thehelpfulbot, Tom.Reding, MaxDel, Ilvon, Imzogelmo,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, YFdyh-bot, Monkbot, Sir Cumference, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 2
Castor (star) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_(star)?oldid=767468419 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Oliver Pereira, Ellywa,
Joy, Jni, Chuunen Baka, Merovingian, Rursus, Wereon, Jyril, Oberiko, Curps, Peter Ellis, Mineminemine, Taka, Mike Rosoft, Discospin-
ster, Mani1, Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, NetBot, Japanese Searobin, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike s, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato,
Gaius Cornelius, Zwobot, SmackBot, C.Fred, Vald, Buck O'Nollege, Cuddlyopedia, AndrewRT, Matt 314, Colonies Chris, Modest Ge-
nius, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Doubletruncation, Tobywhcheng, Khukri, Ligulembot, J 1982, JorisvS, Courcelles, Bruinfan12, Tauol-
unga, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Reywas92, K c 06, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, AntiVandalBot, AstroLynx, Rothorpe, Xtifr, Grandia01,
Kimse, Richontaban, CardinalDan, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Wingedsubmariner, SieBot, PlanetStar, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Wikijens, DragonBot, Aitias, MelonBot, Avoided, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Pekoebrew, Addbot, Lightbot, ,
Luckas-bot, Easy n, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Rubinbot, Kingpin13, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, TechBot, AbigailAbernathy, Lithop-
sian, Mnmngb, D'ohBot, Tom.Reding, RedBot, Ilvon, SpunkyLepton, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Primefac, Chermundy, K6ka,
StringTheory11, Alcazar84, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, Eyesnore, Kogge, Monkbot, Koki0118, Ira Leviton, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC
bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 56
Polaris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris?oldid=778492543 Contributors: Paul Drye, Kpjas, Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels,
Shsilver, Montrealais, Lir, Michael Hardy, Modster, Wwwwolf, Ixfd64, Gnomon42, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Netsnipe,
Mxn, Vargenau, Dcoetzee, Wikiborg, Tpbradbury, Saltine, Val42, Fvw, Wetman, R3m0t, Sanders muc, Romanm, Lowellian, Rursus,
Sunray, Modeha, Robinh, Tea2min, Snobot, Giftlite, Djinn112, Andy, Jyril, Fropu, Xerxes314, Jacob1207, Curps, Jason Quinn, Solip-
sist, Jaan513, YapaTi~enwiki, Wmahan, Chowbok, Mackeriv, Utcursch, Blozey, Antandrus, Kaldari, Tomruen, Icairns, B.d.mills, Jan-
neok~enwiki, JavaTenor, Geof, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Dbachmann, Kjoonlee, RJHall, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, PhilHibbs,
Stesmo, Hurricane111, Smalljim, Dreish, JW1805, Ardric47, Nsaa, Alansohn, Mlm42, Snowolf, RPH, Pauli133, HenryLi, Kenyon, Ma-
hanga, Feezo, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Firsfron, OwenX, JeremyA, Gxojo, Thruston, Colin Watson, ArrowmanCoder,
Bebenko, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Jclemens, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Vary, Mike s, Maxim Razin, FlaBot, Chobot, Sbrools,
Bgwhite, Spacepotato, Taurrandir, Kordas, RussBot, Epolk, Dotancohen, Bovineone, Thane, Lusanaherandraton, Lepidoptera, Apokryl-
taros, Bota47, Phenz, Scott Adler, Hurricane Devon, Argo Navis, SmackBot, Bggoldie~enwiki, C.Fred, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Wikipedi-
atrix, Greenshed, Alieseraj, DavidStern, Ghiraddje, Nibuod, Bowlhover, Metebelis, Madan lmg, Razorhead, Beyazid, The undertow, Es-
rever, Adam Nohejl, Kuru, Kokorik, J 1982, JorisvS, RandomCritic, Xiaphias, Bay Flam, BranStark, JMK, Ksri99, Dpeters11, Valoem,
BBuchbinder, Fdssdf, Markjoseph125, Memetics, John Riemann Soong, Drinibot, Cydebot, Reywas92, Downinca, Sullivan9211, Doug
Weller, Casliber, Wikid77, Keraunos, TK421, Headbomb, Escarbot, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, AstroLynx, Scepia, Salgueiro~enwiki,
ElisDTrailz, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, WolfmanSF, Murgh, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MiguelMunoz, Luminar, T@nn, AtticusX, Bdfhawk,
Klausok, Taamu, Hamiltonstone, DerHexer, Dirigible Plum, Geboy, BunsenH, Leaderofearth, MartinBot, Kometsuga, N734LQ, Galootius,
LittleOldMe old, Shellwood, Nev1, Skeptic2, Shimaspawn, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Katalaveno, Belovedfreak, Knulclunk, Afalk42, Idioma-
bot, ColdCase, Uyvsdi, Indubitably, Shinju, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, GroveGuy, A4bot, Kristaps, Lerdthenerd, FKmail-
liW, Rootmoose, Bob Blaylock, Ttony21, PlanetStar, Mazdakabedi, RadicalOne, Volound, Oxymoron83, Adam37, StaticGull, Blackle-
mon67, Artifex85, M2Ys4U, JL-Bot, Martarius, ClueBot, Surfeited, Lion-hearted II, Pomona17, Adrianwn, JPWindsor1, Fug y typn,
DragonBot, AssegaiAli, Estirabot, Lartoven, Scog, Thingg, Horselover Frost, SoxBot III, Jenna123454321, BarretB, XLinkBot, Doc9871,
SilvonenBot, Badgernet, Posidon3, Kbdankbot, Maldek, Addbot, Brumski, KuldeepBishnoi, DOI bot, Naidevinci, 84user, Ehrenkater, Em-
drgreg, Lightbot, Qemist, Matj Grabovsk, Yobot, Rrokkedd, Nallimbot, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Sameway~enwiki,
Jim1138, Icalanise, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Jyngyr, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, BruceMiller, Tran-
sity, Cureden, DoomMaster, Lithopsian, Ita140188, SassoBot, Traord09, B.Lameira, White whirlwind, Fotaun, Jbehera, FrescoBot,
Etxrrstar, StaticVision, Recognizance, Telescopi, Citation bot 2, Citation bot 1, DrilBot, Chambers3154, Tom.Reding, Ls600h, Ilvon,
Jauhienij, VAP+VYK, FoxBot, Callanecc, Fox Wilson, Extra999, Diannaa, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Sadalsuud, Racerx11,
Primefac, Yt95, Niper19405w,jqw, KonArtis123.242, Chermundy, Blin00, PBS-AWB, StringTheory11, Kaizad.doctor, Hevron1998,
Frigotoni, Tolly4bolly, TyA, Tomsdearg92, Samoojas, Rubberstamp, Ego White Tray, Peter Karlsen, DASHBotAV, Blacktorah, Mikhail
Ryazanov, Fjrgynn, ClueBot NG, Binc, El Roih, Editr, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, DBigXray, BG19bot, Do-
lerite, CityOfSilver, Ninney, TheWhistleGang, Ggreybeard, Gamesgamesgames, Mountain Dew5, Pratyya Ghosh, Mediran, PaulCepheid,
Qexigator, Dexbot, Mogism, TwoTwoHello, AswiniKP, C5st4wr6ch, Faizan, Boboey123, Harlem Baker Hughes, JamesMoose, Dioskylar,
Wikihelper72, Monkbot, Blee17776, Nakkita, Snopro 500, Prinsgezinde, Randy2046412, KasparBot, Mlgbrian718, Cmeeren, TutoCX,
Jiqun080320 china, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 302
Beta Canis Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Canis_Majoris?oldid=769512250 Contributors: AugPi, Fvw, Rursus,
Jyril, Curps, Niteowlneils, Bobblewik, Tomruen, Mani1, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Hi ruwen, Blaxthos, Palica, Ketiltrout, Mike
s, Margosbot~enwiki, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kmorrow, Smkolins, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Bay Flam,
No1lakersfan, Cydebot, Irchans, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rothorpe, .anacondabot, Starpaul20, Leyo, J.delanoy, VolkovBot,
Serpente-a-sonagli, BOTarate, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Amirobot, JackieBot, LlywelynII, Hunnjazal, Ci-
tation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Louperibot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, RjwilmsiBot, Obiwan042, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Krenair,
Praemonitus, Kogge, Monkbot, Joeparsec, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 21
Alphard Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphard?oldid=780415013 Contributors: Ixfd64, Ellywa, AugPi, Stormie, Robbot, Alten-
mann, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Cam, Gadum, JoJan, RJHall, A2Kar, Uncle G, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Vuong Ngan Ha, ScottAlanHill,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Pi Delport, Wiki alf, Dtrebbien, Ospalh, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Bigturtle, Andrew Dalby, Aleator,
JorisvS, Dr.K., Lptport1, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Bluerfn, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, T@nn, GGenov, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, El-
phion, Ponyo, Sitush, ClueBot, Pomona17, Alexbot, Mercaptate, Certes, Ladsgroup, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Zorrobot, Easy n,
Ptbotgourou, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Skeebo3, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot,
Rami radwan, GoingBatty, Chermundy, MALLUS, Obiwan042, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, M97uzivatel, Bibcode Bot, , Numberma-
niac, Epicgenius, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 21
Alpha Arietis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamal?oldid=772324786 Contributors: Paul Drye, Bryan Derksen, Wapcaplet, Pizza
Puzzle, Rursus, Cyrius, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, Icairns, Moverton, Dbachmann, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Flxmghvgvk, Ardric47,
Jumbuck, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Shane Smith, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, Nicke L, ArielGold,
Crystallina, Cuddlyopedia, Andrew Dalby, Zzzzzzzzzzz, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, GrendelKhan.TSU, AntiVandalBot, WinBot,
JAnDbot, Rothorpe, .anacondabot, J.delanoy, Deor, Rei-bot, Don4of4, Anton Gutsunaev, Flyer22 Reborn, ClueBot, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Canis Lupus, CarloscomB, Versus22, Erodium, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Lithopsian, Thehelpfulbot, LuckyDk14, Walshie79, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding,
Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Uanfala, Primefac, Chermundy, A2soup, AvicAWB, Surya Prakash.S.A., ClueBot
NG, MerlIwBot, Bibcode Bot, , Dolerite, Diosec, Tandrum, Makecat-bot, Monkbot, TheWhistleGag, Bender the Bot, Loooke and
Anonymous: 34
Delta Velorum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Velorum?oldid=756489628 Contributors: AugPi, Nnh, Auric, Zeimusu,
Jnestorius, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Jonah.ru, DaveGorman, Giraedata, Blaxthos, Ketiltrout, Koavf, FlaBot, Spacepotato, Zwobot, Reyk,
Kalsermar, Betacommand, Bluebot, Tsca.bot, Egsan Bacon, OrhanCharles, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb,
Escarbot, Rothorpe, T@nn, VolkovBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Arianewiki1, SkyLined, Kbdankbot, Addbot, ScAvenger, Luckas-bot, Easy n,
Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Kalisitahi, I dream of horses, Ilvon, Antonsusi, Iamchenzetian,
Chermundy, Yjfstorehouse, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Kirk39, Monkbot, K-iczn, Loooke and Anonymous: 6
Beta Ceti Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Ceti?oldid=779703934 Contributors: Ellywa, Altenmann, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bob-
blewik, Antandrus, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Shereth, A2Kar, Risyphon1024, Uncle G, Palica, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Ground Zero, Chobot,
Borgx, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Andrew Dalby, Kokorik, Stanlekub, Cydebot, Alaibot,
Liquid-aim-bot, Zgrillo2004, Rothorpe, Cyclone77, Rei-bot, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, PlanetStar, BOTarate, MystBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot,
Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Jakehenlan, MastiBot, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Rami radwan, Sadalsuud, ZroBot, Mjbmrbot, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Bibcode Bot, YFdyh-bot, Transphasic, Kogge, Monkbot, Majeedolerudkhoso, AlphaBetaGamma01, InternetArchiveBot, Loooke and
Anonymous: 11
Kappa Orionis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saiph?oldid=759030062 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Heron, Michael Hardy,
Ams80, Schneelocke, Sverdrup, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Icairns, B.d.mills, Dbachmann, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness,
WilliamKF, Karam.Anthony.K, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Bhadani, FlaBot, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Abhi-
mat.gautam, Jacek Kendysz, Commander Keane bot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Alexwagner, Metebelis, Kleuske, JorisvS, Zzzzzzzzzzz, Cy-
debot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rothorpe, T@nn, Hekerui, Pczerner, Leyo, Flb03jk~enwiki, Seattle Skier, SieBot, Kb-
dankbot, Addbot, Ginu.at, Download, LaaknorBot, Zorrobot, Easy n, Amirobot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Langclie, Hunnjazal, Citation
bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, TjBot, Rami radwan, Iamchenzetian, Dcirovic, ZroBot, Medeis,
ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, SeeroBoarder, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 21
Sigma Sagittarii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_Sagittarii?oldid=780174043 Contributors: Stormie, Fito, Altenmann, Rur-

sus, Jyril, Brecchie, Curps, Bobblewik, RJHall, Grutness, Anthony Appleyard, Gene Nygaard, Uncle G, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, That Guy, From That Show!, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Bluebot,
Chaldean, Kokorik, Novangelis, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, Xtifr, R'n'B, Leyo, Alexbot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, CHRV, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Sadalsuud, Bollyje, StringThe-
ory11, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Hamish59, Kogge, Monkbot and Anonymous: 10
Theta Centauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_Centauri?oldid=773535294 Contributors: Ellywa, Htaccess, Altenmann,
Rursus, Jyril, Curps, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Uncle G, Hyperzonk, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Borgx, Spacepotato,
SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Kokorik, JorisvS, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Zgrillo2004, Rothorpe, Leyo, VolkovBot,
PipepBot, Alexbot, Terminator484, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Amirobot, Kamila 064, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Fotaun,
Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Primefac, Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, Mjbmrbot, Alex Nico,
Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 6
Alpha Andromedae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Andromedae?oldid=749153428 Contributors: The Anome,
Stormwriter, Ellywa, Topbanana, Finlay McWalter, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Icairns, Karl-Henner, Moverton, Mani1, Martpol,
Bender235, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Ardric47, HasharBot~enwiki, Enirac Sum, Anthony Appleyard, Alex '05, Gene Nygaard,
Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, FlaBot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Vald, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller, AndrewRT, Colonies Chris,
Tsca.bot, Andrew Dalby, John, JorisvS, Bilboq, Beetstra, Newone, Cydebot, Moonbug, Alaibot, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Headbomb,
Astrobiologist, WinBot, Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe, Geboy, TreasuryTag, TXiKiBoT, Elphion, Inductiveload, VVVBot, Lucasbfrbot,
Mild Bill Hiccup, J.H.McDonnell, Ashashyou, CarloscomB, Salamander724, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot,
AnomieBOT, Francesco Malafarina~enwiki, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, WebCiteBOT, Fotaun, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Skeebo3,
Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Full-date unlinking bot, Julian Weizmann, Surloc, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Wik-
itanvirBot, Rami radwan, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Mysterybeing, EdoBot, Bibcode Bot, Grands Pleux~enwiki, Exoplanetaryscience,
Monkbot, BU Rob13, InternetArchiveBot, KGirlTrucker81, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, AnyOldBiscuit and Anonymous: 23
Beta Andromedae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Andromedae?oldid=776010555 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Chrislintott,
Sanders muc, Merovingian, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Icairns, Moverton, Rich Farmbrough, Nabla, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Ardric47, Grutness,
Skatebiker, Bobrayner, Palica, Smrgeog, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Welsh, SmackBot,
Vald, Eskimbot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, AndrewRT, OrphanBot, Bay Flam, Friendlystar, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Liquid-
aim-bot, JAnDbot, Rothorpe, CommonsDelinker, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Coronellian~enwiki, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Polly, CarloscomB,
SilvonenBot, Harlock81, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, , Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, ArthurBot, Lil-
Helpa, WebCiteBOT, Telescopi, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Dcirovic, ClueBot NG, Bibcode Bot, Makecat-bot,
Monkbot, AlphaBetaGamma01, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, AnyOldBiscuit, SpaceDude777, Loooke and Anony-
mous: 12
Beta Ursae Minoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Ursae_Minoris?oldid=779911099 Contributors: Paul Drye, Heron,
AugPi, Chuunen Baka, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, PFHLai, Icairns, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Small-
jim, A2Kar, Gene Nygaard, Newyorknews~enwiki, Palica, WBardwin, Ketiltrout, FlaBot, Gurch, BjKa, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato,
Mikalra, Bota47, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Hmains, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Robertg9, Hu12, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber,
Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, T@nn, Kheider, Katharineamy, VolkovBot, ColdCase, Rei-bot, Synthebot, Creib, SieBot, En-
telekk, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Yinweichen, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Asfarer, Telescopi,
D A R C 12345, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Boonshofter, Dcirovic, ClueBot NG, Elromulous, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bib-
code Bot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Praemonitus, Monkbot, DiscobarMolokai, Tetra quark, RandomPerson867, Jakejakejakejake1234jake,
InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 24
Alpha Ophiuchi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Ophiuchi?oldid=762840978 Contributors: Stormie, Rursus, Jyril, Curps,
RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Grutness, Palica, Astronaut, Spacepotato, Jimp, SmackBot, Strabismus, Cuddlyopedia, Pfhreak, Bluebot,
Fredvanner, Andrew Dalby, Kokorik, JorisvS, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, T@nn, Leyo, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Elie
plus, Salamander724, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Amirobot, Nallimbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Sabudis,
Tom.Reding, RedBot, Ilvon, TeigeRyan, Michael9422, Imzogelmo, JeepdaySock, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Rami radwan, Iamchenzetian,
Chermundy, ZroBot, Obiwan042, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Khaled M tell, Monkbot, GeneralizationsAreBad,
, CAPTAIN RAJU, Mattman831, Iwillhelp831, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 14
Algol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algol?oldid=775759337 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Malcolm Farmer, Andre
Engels, Christian List, Youandme, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, DopeshJustin, Liftarn, Alo, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Caid Raspa, Glenn,
Djnjwd, Selket, Omegatron, Topbanana, Warofdreams, Wetman, Finlay McWalter, PuzzletChung, Robbot, RedWolf, Rursus, Wikibot,
Jyril, Curps, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Finn-Zoltan, Bobblewik, Phe, Bumm13, Satori, B.d.mills, Grunt, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Ben-
der235, Aranel, RJHall, Sfahey, Kwamikagami, Haxwell, Hans-Peter Scholz, Anthony Appleyard, Celzrro, Snowolf, Crablogger, RJFJR,
Mnd, Swamp Ig, Rocastelo, Oliphaunt, Gimboid13, Graham87, FreplySpang, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike s, Olessi, Maxim Razin, Changeup,
Joonasl, Radec, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Chris Capoccia, SpuriousQ, Lusanaherandraton, Furtim, Alan Millar, Ray Chason,
Argo Navis, Attilios, SmackBot, Reedy, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller, Bluebot, OrangeDog, Hibernian, Cybercobra, Kyuss-Apollo,
OhioFred, Petr Kopa, Titus III, John, OcarinaOfTime, JorisvS, Nehrams2020, Dead3y3, Octane, Cydebot, Kozuch, Casliber, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Daniel, Headbomb, Dtgriscom, Itsmejudith, Astrobiologist, Truten, Escarbot, AstroLynx, LordEdzo, VictorAnyakin, Rothorpe,
Magioladitis, VoABot II, Algen, Ling.Nut, Kheider, Kimse, Skeptic2, Hans Dunkelberg, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Antony-22, Deor,
VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Jxtreme 13, Lamro, Dmcq, SieBot, Fake me residing sucks, RadicalOne, 23fun-
nel23, Robertcurrey, Hello71, Lightmouse, Zachariel, John.D.Ward, Botodo, Maymay, DragonBot, Sun Creator, 68Kustom, Parejkoj,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Download, ChenzwBot, 84user, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Killy mcgee, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Zephyr-
falcon, Amirobot, KamikazeBot, Umbertoumm, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, TechBot, Lithopsian,
GrouchoBot, Armbrust, Santiago-ve, MakeSense64, Witchlady, FrescoBot, Telescopi, Jonathansuh, Sabudis, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trap-
pist the monk, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, Primefac, ZroBot, Schnickibrown, StringTheory11, H3llBot, Ocaasi, Tony Patt,
Brandmeister, ChiZeroOne, ClueBot NG, Braincricket, Mtsvec, Bibcode Bot, DBigXray, BG19bot, Yukterez, MusikAnimal, Liam987,
Stigmatella aurantiaca, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Makecat-bot, The Nuke, ALe801, Razibot, Hillbillyholiday, C5st4wr6ch, Kavkas, Kogge,
Exoplanetaryscience, RickLive, Monkbot, The Original Fil, Eman235, Tetra quark, DivermanAU, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Loooke,
Devincruz and Anonymous: 100
Beta Gruis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Gruis?oldid=779912566 Contributors: AugPi, Nnh, Curps, Bender235, RJHall,
BD2412, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, RussBot, Ifnord, Bluebot, Kokorik, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Casliber, Rothorpe, R'n'B,
Chris Dybala, FKmailliW, SieBot, PlanetStar, The Thing That Should Not Be, Alexbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, John Belushi,
Luckas-bot, , TaBOT-zerem, Amirobot, Aldebaran66, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, WebCiteBOT, FrescoBot, Im-
zogelmo, Iamchenzetian, JA Galn Baho, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, YFdyh-bot, Praemonitus, Kogge, Monkbot, Loooke
and Anonymous: 8
Denebola Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denebola?oldid=756490114 Contributors: Ellywa, Stormie, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Ben-
der235, Aranel, RJHall, VishalB, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, Keavich, 25or6to4, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike s, FlaBot,
Spacepotato, RussBot, DanMS, Bota47, Poulpy, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Hongooi, RiseRover, Kokorik, JorisvS, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Arb,
Casliber, Parsa, Headbomb, Martin Cash, Rothorpe, R'n'B, STBotD, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, FKmailliW, AstroMark, Sid-Vicious, Chan-
dlerMapBot, 68Kustom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Tills, Lightbot, , Zorrobot, , Luckas-bot, Easy n, Shootbamboo,
Joule36e5, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, D'ohBot, Citation bot 1, RedBot, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Ryan.opel, RjwilmsiBot,
EmausBot, Sadalsuud, Primefac, Chermundy, RenamedUser01302013, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Xu-
anyuan~enwiki, Hillbillyholiday, Praemonitus, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 23
Zeta Puppis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeta_Puppis?oldid=770470163 Contributors: Wayne Hardman, Alo, Pakaran, North-
grove, Rursus, Hadal, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, D3, Urhixidur, GreenReaper, Arthur Holland, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Peter
Greenwell, NetBot, Grutness, JYolkowski, Eric Kvaalen, Skatebiker, Gene Nygaard, Palica, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot,
Spacepotato, Shawn81, Madcoverboy, Daystrom, SmackBot, CMD Beaker, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Fuhghettaboutit, Silvem, Kokorik,
JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Jack O'Neill, BranStark, Newone, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Synergy, Skittleys, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Kryptid, Horologium,
Deective, Chagai, Rothorpe, EoD, Dmehring, Skeptic2, Shakingsalt, Rei-bot, Elphion, Lou.weird, Milkbreath, James McBride, Bporopat,
Wsriv, Maide, Sonicology, ClueBot, J.H.McDonnell, Tarl N., Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, SpBot, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot,
OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jacobs, Actionarms, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Marshallsumter, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Grou-
choBot, Dan6hell66, Mknote, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Serols, Ilvon, Kargandarr, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, Wikitanvir-
Bot, Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, StringTheory11, AManWithNoPlan, Donner60, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Mgribov, Phoenica, Bibcode
Bot, Dexbot, Dberard, Kogge, Permafrost46, Monkbot, Tetra quark, RedPanda25, Sdgedfegw, Loooke and Anonymous: 70
Lambda Velorum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_Velorum?oldid=779802690 Contributors: AugPi, Rursus, Kbahey,
Jyril, Curps, RJHall, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Gene Nygaard, Daniel Lawrence, Ketiltrout, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, TexasAndroid,
Spacepotato, Poulpy, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rothorpe, Kometsuga, El-
phion, Roberto Mura, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, EmausBot,
Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, ColRad85, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot and Anonymous: 4
Gamma Draconis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Draconis?oldid=770790199 Contributors: Nnh, Rursus, Jyril, Curps,
Bobblewik, Carrp, Kjoonlee, RJHall, A2Kar, RPH, Skatebiker, Allen McC.~enwiki, Somedude, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Mike s, Ni-
hiltres, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Lusanaherandraton, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Kleuske, RandomCritic, Makyen,
Markjoseph125, Cydebot, Superfo, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Eltanin, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Cortezdelobao, Shellwood, Otter-
shrew, SieBot, Church, ClueBot, Arianewiki1, Tarl N., SkyLined, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Ron B. Thomson, Normal View,
LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Ataleh, Jonesey95,
Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Imzogelmo, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Sadalsuud, SkinMechanix, Alpha Quadrant (alt),
Obiwan042, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Frze, YFdyh-bot, General534, Pandabear0929, InternetArchiveBot,
GreenC bot, Ntakaletsi and Anonymous: 17
Alpha Coronae Borealis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Coronae_Borealis?oldid=770023053 Contributors: Bryan Derk-
sen, Jni, Rursus, Wereon, Curps, Bobblewik, Bender235, Carrp, Eric Forste, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Ardric47, Woohookitty, EvilOver-
lordX, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Mike s, RobertG, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, JBG, Reyk, StarSword, Cuddlyopedia,
Colonies Chris, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Fournax, WinBot, Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe, T@nn, Dspoeder, Com-
monsDelinker, Leyo, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, PlanetStar, Gerakibot, Alexbot, BOTarate, Roberto Mura, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Nallimbot, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Clammybells, D'ohBot, Skeebo3,
Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Bibcode Bot, Rubber Bunny, Praemonitus, Kogge,
Monkbot, Yiyiyiyu, Loooke and Anonymous: 9
Gamma Cygni Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Cygni?oldid=766330541 Contributors: Wetman, Altenmann, Rursus,
Graeme Bartlett, Kbahey, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Telso, RJHall, Kwamikagami, NetBot, Grutness, Hyperzonk, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Chobot,
DVdm, Spacepotato, RussBot, 2fort5r, Poulpy, Cuddlyopedia, Gilliam, Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, EVula, 129., Kokorik, Cydebot,
Thijs!bot, WinBot, Rothorpe, David Eppstein, STBotD, Henrykus, Coronellian~enwiki, PixelBot, Polly, CarloscomB, Kbdankbot, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, SpBot, , Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Tom.Reding, RedBot, Ilvon,
Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, MICErule, Brendon.carr, StringTheory11, Obiwan042, MerlIwBot, Bibcode Bot, Praemonitus,
Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 16
Alpha Cassiopeiae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Cassiopeiae?oldid=766422502 Contributors: Rursus, Kbahey, Jyril,
Curps, Geof, Bender235, Carrp, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Grutness, Kglavin, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki,
Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Epolk, Talldave, Mirek256, Alain r, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller,
Happywae, Colonies Chris, Modest Genius, Fdssdf, Friendlystar, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, JamesAM, WinBot, Rothorpe, JamesB-
Watson, NewEnglandYankee, VolkovBot, SieBot, Beeblebrox, Vacio, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Freikorp,
AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Timmyshin, Lithopsian, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot,
Rami radwan, Sadalsuud, Dewritech, Iamchenzetian, Donner60, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Mandosalama, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Riddleh,
Monkbot, GreenC bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 16
Iota Carinae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Carinae?oldid=775077244 Contributors: Rursus, Jyril, Curps, B.d.mills, Rich
Farmbrough, Carrp, Jnestorius, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Shereth, A2Kar, Japanese Searobin, Palica, Ketiltrout, Mike s, Chobot, Space-
potato, BOT-Superzerocool, Poulpy, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Kokorik, Cydebot, Alaibot, Al Lemos, Rothorpe, T@nn, Lein-
Sora, El bot de la dieta, Roberto Mura, Kbdankbot, Albambot, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, , Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot,
Walshie79, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Niobrara, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Iamchenzetian, MALLUS, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Elaqueate,
Adeptzare3, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Gamma Andromedae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Andromedae?oldid=776014455 Contributors: William Avery, Lou
Sander, Ryuch, Wetman, Nnh, Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Cam, Phe, JoJan, Urhixidur, Dbachmann, RJHall, Kwamikagami,
Ardric47, A2Kar, Alai, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Changeup, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, The Literate Engineer,
SmackBot, Vald, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, AndrewRT, Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, Kokorik, RandomCritic, Rock4arolla, Bay Flam, N2e,
Friendlystar, Cydebot, Moonbug, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, T@nn, MoiraMoira, Rochelimit, Jeepday, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Coro-
nellian~enwiki, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Antzervos, ImageRemovalBot, Polly, CarloscomB, Oskar71, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Tide rolls, Et-
trig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Gothic2, Hunnjazal, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Fotaun, LucienBOT, Telescopi, Ilvon, Antonsusi,
Jonolewis, Imzogelmo, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Rami radwan, Iamchenzetian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Almaak, Makecat-bot, Rrossmith,
Kogge, Monkbot, AlphaBetaGamma01, Bender the Bot, AnyOldBiscuit, Loooke and Anonymous: 22
Mizar and Alcor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizar_and_Alcor?oldid=779074625 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen,
Zundark, Andre Engels, XJaM, Patrick, Gnomon42, Alo, Rlandmann, AugPi, Wikiborg, Robbot, Jredmond, Rursus, Rsduhamel, David
Gerard, Jyril, Dissident, Monedula, Bkonrad, Curps, Wikibob, Jason Quinn, Finn-Zoltan, Icairns, Clawed, Silence, Prez~enwiki, Dbach-
mann, Nabla, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Foobaz, Santifc, Arthena, Knowledge Seeker, Japanese Searobin, Palica, Rnt20, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
Koavf, CoStar, FlaBot, Jemilner, Mark J, YurikBot, Spacepotato, RussBot, Mhartl, Nikkimaria, Spliy, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller,
B00P, Hibernian, DHN-bot~enwiki, RuudVisser, Writtenright, DMacks, Johanna-Hypatia, VirtualDave, JorisvS, RandomCritic, A. Par-
rot, Bay Flam, Markjoseph125, Mcswell, ShelfSkewed, Friendlystar, Icek~enwiki, Cydebot, Captain Pedant, Headbomb, Davidhorman,
Northumbrian, Gatemansgc, Rothorpe, Parsecboy, Scowie, Sodabottle, Kheider, Gwern, CommonsDelinker, Hans Dunkelberg, Maurice
Carbonaro, All Is One, Zipzipzip, Shawngano, Mazarin07, SieBot, Grundle2600, Goustien, Jugones55, ClueBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Hegumen, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Normal View, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Electronic Music, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Any-
podetos, AnomieBOT, Francesco Malafarina~enwiki, Jim1138, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, El guanaquito, Xqbot, Br77rino, Lithop-
sian, GrouchoBot, Illioplius, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Lolmaus, Binrdow, Telescopi, Sae1962, I dream of horses, Ilvon, TobeBot, Trappist
the monk, Peter01970, WikitanvirBot, Primefac, Chermundy, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Jenks24, ClueBot NG, Trynally, Section103,
Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Bibcode Bot, Vagobot, Dolerite, HTML2011, ChrisGualtieri, Srijan3007, Hillbillyholiday, Dghdhdhd,
Fayrema, Deemzii, Exoplanetaryscience, Sma.souha, Monkbot, Tetra quark, Metochy, Deneb in Cygnus, Bender the Bot, Loooke, FRAS
and Anonymous: 70
Beta Cassiopeiae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Cassiopeiae?oldid=779704177 Contributors: Ubiquity, Ellywa, Rursus,
Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Willhsmit, Geof, Freakofnurture, Bender235, Nabla, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Ardric47, A2Kar, Japanese
Searobin, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Ptseng, Mike s, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Spacepotato, Talldave, Bota47,
Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Cloj, Colonies Chris, Ruslik0, Cydebot, Bill's Antique Roadshow, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe,
T@nn, Kheider, Rei-bot, Mardhil, Inductiveload, ChandlerMapBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Easy n, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Dirl-
Bot, Timmyshin, Lithopsian, Citation bot 1, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, DixonDBot, Imzogelmo, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot,
Sadalsuud, Primefac, Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Braincricket, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, YFdyh-
bot, Monkbot, Tetra quark, Loooke and Anonymous: 11
Epsilon Centauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Centauri?oldid=756564705 Contributors: Rursus, Curps, Jason Quinn,
Rich Farmbrough, RJHall, Ketiltrout, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, Borgx, Spacepotato, SmackBot, Bluebot, Tsca.bot, Kokorik, Bay Flam, Cy-
debot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, Teetaweepo, Solar-Wind, Alexbot, El bot de la dieta, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot,
KamikazeBot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, RibotBOT, Erik9bot, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, MastiBot, Ilvon, TobeBot, Imzogelmo,
RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Rami radwan, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, BattyBot, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Loooke and Anonymous:
6
Gamma Leonis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Leonis?oldid=757331422 Contributors: Cherkash, Rursus, Graeme
Bartlett, Jyril, Curps, Tomruen, Carrp, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Sietse Snel, A2Kar, Acaides, Japanese Searobin, Scorgi, Palica, BD2412,
Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Changeup, Ewlyahoocom, YurikBot, Spacepotato, DanMS, Cuddlyopedia, Chris the speller, Bluebot, OrphanBot, Ey-
nar, Kokorik, DavidCooke, Novangelis, Markjoseph125, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Nick Number, Rothorpe, Pczerner,
VolkovBot, Elphion, SieBot, PlanetStar, Chphe, Alexbot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, , Easy n, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Icalanise, Hunnjazal,
Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Citation bot 1, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, MastiBot, Imzogelmo, Tyrogthekreeper, EmausBot, Jolielegal,
Sadalsuud, Dcirovic, KLBot2, Bibcode Bot, Tandrum, Monkbot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 10
Alpha Lupi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Lupi?oldid=768666063 Contributors: AugPi, Curps, Bobblewik, RJHall,
Kwamikagami, Blaxthos, Jannex, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Bovineone, Poulpy, Bluebot, Tsca.bot, Bay
Flam, Cydebot, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, TAnthony, Rothorpe, T@nn, Skeptic2, Richontaban, LordAnubisBOT, AlleborgoBot, Solar-
Wind, Alexbot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Citation
bot 1, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, BattyBot,
Praemonitus, Transphasic, Kogge, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 4
Delta Scorpii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Scorpii?oldid=776382526 Contributors: Rursus, Curps, Bobblewik, RJHall, El
C, Kwamikagami, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Chobot, Spacepotato, Kalsermar, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Gothmog.es, Kokorik,
JorisvS, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rothorpe, Kometsuga, VolkovBot, Euryalus, J.H.McDonnell, Solar-Wind, PixelBot,
Kbdankbot, Albambot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, DirlBot,
Lithopsian, Tom.Reding, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Wikislemur, Sadalsuud, Iamchenzetian, ZroBot, MALLUS, Obiwan042, Bibcode
Bot, BattyBot, AntaresAntares, Kogge, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 14
Epsilon Scorpii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Scorpii?oldid=780414853 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Rursus, Curps,
Eep, RJHall, Palica, Ketiltrout, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Elonka, Bluebot, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot,
Wikid77, East718, Rothorpe, Leyo, VolkovBot, BOTarate, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Hunnjazal, Lonet, Lithopsian, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding,
Ilvon, Imzogelmo, WikitanvirBot, Primefac, Iamchenzetian, Chermundy, ZroBot, StringTheory11, Mjbmrbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode
Bot, Praemonitus, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 6
Eta Centauri Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Centauri?oldid=763896005 Contributors: Curps, Bobblewik, Rich Farmbrough,
RJHall, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Koavf, Mike s, FlaBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Bluebot, BW95, Kokorik, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Headbomb,
Rothorpe, T@nn, PipepBot, Solar-Wind, Alexbot, Kbdankbot, Albambot, Addbot, DOI bot, LaaknorBot, Amirobot, Nallimbot, Hunnjazal,
Citation bot, Lithopsian, Ataleh, Citation bot 1, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, Iamchenzetian, TuHan-Bot, Rezabot, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, BattyBot, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, Loooke and Anonymous: 2
Beta Ursae Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Ursae_Majoris?oldid=757438642 Contributors: Ellywa, Rursus, Jyril,
Bradeos Graphon, Curps, Bobblewik, Sam Hocevar, Rich Farmbrough, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Worldtraveller, Shereth, HasharBot~enwiki,
Gene Nygaard, 25or6to4, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Margosbot~enwiki, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot,
CambridgeBayWeather, Mirek256, Kalsermar, Elonka, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, GoodDay, Stwalkerster, Fdssdf, Friendlystar, Cydebot,
Thijs!bot, Liquid-aim-bot, Rothorpe, Dcmacnut, Kbdankbot, Hobbema, Addbot, Ehrenkater, Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Ci-
tation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, , RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Primefac, Chermundy,
BrokenAnchorBot, TyA, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, Monkbot, Deneb in Cygnus, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anony-
mous: 12
Alpha Phoenicis Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Phoenicis?oldid=769506866 Contributors: Ellywa, Rursus, Jyril, Curps,
RJHall, BlargDragon, Kwamikagami, Shereth, A2Kar, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Gene Nygaard, Japanese Searobin, Twthmoses,
Palica, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Mike s, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kordas, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Kokorik, Cydebot, Wikipedi-
arules2221, Alaibot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, T@nn, VolkovBot, Coronellian~enwiki, ClueBot, PipepBot, WikHead, Kbdankbot,
Addbot, Download, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Xqbot, LucienBOT, D'ohBot, Tom.Reding, Trappist the monk, Capuozzo Pietro,
Imzogelmo, Rami radwan, Iamchenzetian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Monkbot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 14
Kappa Scorpii Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Scorpii?oldid=780414832 Contributors: Rursus, Curps, Bender235, RJHall,
JustPhil, Kwamikagami, A2Kar, Oneliner, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, FlaBot, Chobot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, Bluebot, Koko-
rik, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, T@nn, VolkovBot, PixelBot, Roberto Mura, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot,
Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Quebec99, RibotBOT, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, John of Reading, Iamchenzetian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode
Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 2
Gamma Cassiopeiae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Cassiopeiae?oldid=780459184 Contributors: Rursus, Curps, Bob-
blewik, DragonySixtyseven, Jkl, Bender235, Petersam, Nabla, RJHall, Gene Nygaard, Mu301, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, FlaBot,
Chobot, Sasoriza, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, Talldave, Vald, Bluebot, Iridescent, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Richhoncho, Casliber, Thijs!bot,
Headbomb, Rothorpe, R'n'B, Skeptic2, Anton Gutsunaev, Msmithwiki, TJRC, Dee kaee, Dravecky, Alexbot, El bot de la dieta, 68Kus-
tom, Kbdankbot, Addbot, 84user, Lightbot, Everyme, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Lithopsian,
RicHard-59, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Sadalsuud, Iamchenzetian, ZroBot,
StringTheory11, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, WP Randomno, Praemonitus, Stub Mandrel, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 19
Epsilon Pegasi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Pegasi?oldid=775259976 Contributors: Ellywa, Rei, Nnh, Rursus, Jyril,
Curps, Bobblewik, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Carrp, Kjoonlee, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Shereth, Ardric47, A2Kar, Gene Nygaard,
Somedude, Palica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mike s, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, DanMS, Grey Area, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Andy M.
Wang, Bluebot, Kokorik, RandomCritic, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, Kometsuga, Leyo, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Plan-
etStar, PipepBot, Alexbot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Aldebaran66, AnomieBOT, Icalanise, Hunnjazal, Citation bot,
DirlBot, Br77rino, Lithopsian, GrouchoBot, Deanolympics, Erik9bot, Tom.Reding, Wilberfalse, Ilvon, Trappist the monk, Imzogelmo,
RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Rami radwan, Iamchenzetian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Praemonitus, Kogge, Monkbot,
InternetArchiveBot, Jp2681, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 8
Eta Canis Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Canis_Majoris?oldid=757467393 Contributors: BF, Bryan Derksen, Zun-
dark, Sannse, AugPi, Rursus, Kbahey, Jyril, Curps, Tomruen, Moverton, Aranel, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Shereth, A2Kar, Coolgamer, Pal-
ica, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Spacepotato, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Snowman-
radio, JorisvS, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe, Rochelimit, Uhai, Wiae, Phe-bot, Harlock81, Daodillman, Kbdankbot,
Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Rami radwan, Iamchen-
zetian, Dcirovic, MALLUS, Mentibot, Sephirohq, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Exoplanetaryscience, Monkbot, Tetra quark,
Epsilon Carinae Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Carinae?oldid=756535702 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Nnh, Robbot,
Rursus, Jyril, Curps, Night, Bender235, Jnestorius, RJHall, Idont Havaname, Palica, Ketiltrout, Koavf, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Space-
potato, Kmorrow, Parlabane, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Tamfang, Haus, Cydebot, Fournax, Rothorpe, VolkovBot, DavidHarperAtObliquity,
Quest for Truth, Lantay77, Kbdankbot, Addbot, SpBot, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Easy n, Jim1138, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian,
BenzolBot, HRoestBot, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Tyrogthekreeper, RjwilmsiBot, Iamchenzetian, GoingBatty, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, Kogge,
Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 13
Beta Pegasi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Pegasi?oldid=756488386 Contributors: Altenmann, Rursus, DocWatson42, Jyril,
Curps, Bender235, RJHall, Shereth, Grutness, Gene Nygaard, Uncle G, Palica, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Pjetter, TravisW, FlaBot, Chobot,
YurikBot, Spacepotato, Kalsermar, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Kokorik, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Headbomb, Rothorpe, Leyo, TXiKi-
BoT, SieBot, PlanetStar, SITCK~enwiki, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Aldebaran66,
Nallimbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Tom.Reding, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of
Reading, Rami radwan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, Shelf cloud, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and
Anonymous: 10
Gamma Ursae Majoris Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Ursae_Majoris?oldid=778754324 Contributors: Ellywa, Nnh,
Rursus, Jyril, Bradeos Graphon, Curps, CryptoDerk, Mykhal, Aqua008, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Shereth, HasharBot~enwiki, Grut-
ness, Gene Nygaard, Palica, Ketiltrout, Koavf, Mark J, Chobot, YurikBot, Spacepotato, CambridgeBayWeather, Grey Area, Mirek256,
SmackBot, Vald, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, Sirex98, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, RandomCritic, Stwalkerster, Bay Flam, Fdssdf, Cydebot, Alaibot,
Thijs!bot, Ekabhishek, Rothorpe, Leyo, VolkovBot, Greswik, SieBot, Gerakibot, BOTarate, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckyz,
Easy n, Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Sae1962, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, , Trappist the
monk, RjwilmsiBot, Primefac, Chermundy, BrokenAnchorBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Dolerite, Monkbot, Deneb in Cygnus, Qzd,
Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 14
Alpha Cephei Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Cephei?oldid=773535370 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Ahoerstemeier, Nnh,
Robbot, Rursus, Graeme Bartlett, Jyril, Curps, Bobblewik, Tsemii, Geof, Spiy sperry, Murtasa, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Smalljim, Bro-
kenSegue, Shereth, A2Kar, Skatebiker, Gene Nygaard, GregorB, Palica, Ketiltrout, Changeup, FlaBot, Chobot, Borgx, Spacepotato,
Katieh5584, SmackBot, Cuddlyopedia, Hmains, Bluebot, Kokorik, JorisvS, Vanisaac, Cydebot, Alaibot, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Rothorpe,
Albmont, Doesper, Idioma-bot, DancingMan, Daodillman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Normal View, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Freikorp,
Nallimbot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Lithopsian, Erik9bot, Telescopi, Tom.Reding, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, Skirrid, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot,
WikitanvirBot, Rami radwan, Sadalsuud, Primefac, Chermundy, StringTheory11, MALLUS, Helpful Pixie Bot, Spaceman21alpha, Bib-
code Bot, Khurlbutt, Transphasic, Monkbot, Asyulus, Loooke and Anonymous: 17
Kappa Velorum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Velorum?oldid=772335049 Contributors: Paul Drye, Robbot, Python eggs,
Tomruen, Jnestorius, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Ardric47, Ketiltrout, Chobot, Spacepotato, Shawn81, Poulpy, Bluebot, Modest Genius, Koko-
rik, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Al Lemos, Headbomb, Rothorpe, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, El bot de la dieta, Kbdankbot, Ad-
dbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Xqbot, Lithopsian, Tom.Reding, Lotje, GoingBatty, Chermundy, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Bibcode Bot, Kogge, Monkbot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous: 5
Alpha Pegasi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Pegasi?oldid=762841434 Contributors: Ellywa, Nikola Smolenski, Rursus,

Jyril, Curps, J3, Tomruen, Icairns, Mani1, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Foobaz, Shereth, Grutness, Palica, BD2412, Lasunncty,
Mike s, Nihiltres, Chobot, Borgx, Spacepotato, DanMS, Kalsermar, Cuddlyopedia, Bluebot, AndrewRT, Bay Flam, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, S
Marshall, Al Lemos, Headbomb, Rothorpe, Kostisl, PlanetStar, Alexbot, SilvonenBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Glane23, Luckas-bot, Sz-iwbot,
Hunnjazal, DirlBot, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Lithopsian, Mnmngb, , Ilvon, Imzogelmo, EmausBot, Starcheerspeaksnewslostwars, KL-
Bot2, Bibcode Bot, Monkbot, Loooke and Anonymous: 11
Epsilon Cygni Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon_Cygni?oldid=773535087 Contributors: Robbot, Rursus, Jyril, Curps,
Icairns, RJHall, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Shereth, A2Kar, Ketiltrout, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Poulpy, SmackBot, Bluebot, OrphanBot,
JorisvS, Cydebot, Gaetanogambilonghi~enwiki, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Fournax, Headbomb, Rothorpe, Skeptic2, TXiKiBoT, FKmailliW,
SieBot, CarloscomB, Kbdankbot, Albambot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, DSisyphBot,
Lithopsian, RedBot, Ilvon, Imzogelmo, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Rami radwan, Primefac, ZroBot, Mjbmrbot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot,
ShellfaceTheStrange, Dexbot, Jelle Gouw, Monkbot, Hydronium Hydroxide, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot, Loooke and Anonymous:
7
89.5.2 Images
File:171879main_LimbFlareJan12_lg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/171879main_
LimbFlareJan12_lg.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/solar-b/solar_017.html Original
artist: Hinode JAXA/NASA
File:172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/
172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/solar-b/
solar_022.html Original artist: NASA / JAXA
File:1e9m_comparison.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/1e9m_comparison.png License: GPLv2
Contributors: Planetary texture maps (with the exception of Earth) and Earth's cloud map from Celestia, used under the GPL, version
2. Earth's surface is a monthly Blue Marble Next Generation image from NASA, and thus public domain. Original artist: User:Paul
Stansifer, and others (see source)
File:236084main_MilkyWay-full-annotated.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/
236084main_MilkyWay-full-annotated.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/
1925-ssc2008-10b-A-Roadmap-to-the-Milky-Way-Annotated- Original artist: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt
File:ALMA_observes_a_ring_around_the_bright_star_Fomalhaut.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
b/b9/ALMA_observes_a_ring_around_the_bright_star_Fomalhaut.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: ALMA observes a ring around
the bright star Fomalhaut Original artist: LMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO). Visible light image: the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope ; Ac-
knowledgement: A.C. Boley (University of Florida, Sagan Fellow), M.J. Payne, E.B. Ford, M. Shabran (University of Florida), S. Corder
(North American ALMA Science Center, National Radio Astronomy Observatory), and W. Dent (ALMA, Chile), P. Kalas, J. Graham,
E. Chiang, E. Kite (University of California, Berkeley), M. Clampin (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center), M. Fitzgerald (Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory), and K. Stapelfeldt and J. Krist (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
File:Achernar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Achernar.svg License: GFDL Con-
tributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Achernar.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Achernar.jpg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Achernar.jpg/100px-Achernar.jpg' width='100' height='100' src-
set='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Achernar.jpg/150px-Achernar.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Achernar.jpg/200px-Achernar.jpg 2x' data-le-width='600' data-le-height='600' /></a> Original
artist: Fred the Oyster
File:Acrux.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Acrux.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No

machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author pro-
vided. Alain r assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Acrux_kstars.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Acrux_kstars.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Alain r assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Actual_Sunrise.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Actual_Sunrise.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jessie Eastland
File:Agrippa1531_Alchameth.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Agrippa1531_Alchameth.png Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Henrykus
File:Agrippa1531_Hircus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Agrippa1531_Hircus.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Agrippa1531_Hircus.png Original artist: Lusanaherandraton
File:Agrippa1531_Spica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Agrippa1531_Spica.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Henrykus
File:Agrippa1531_Vulturcadens.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Agrippa1531_Vulturcadens.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Lusanaherandraton at English Wikipedia
File:Agrippa1531_corLeonis.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Agrippa1531_corLeonis.png Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia project Original artist: en:User:Lusanaherandraton; uploaded to Commons by
Brainmachine (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Brainmachine' title='User talk:Brainmachine'>talk</a>)
File:Alamach_tel140mm.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Alamach_tel140mm.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Roberto Mura
File:Aldebaran-Sun_comparison-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Aldebaran-Sun_
comparison-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized and scale corrected from an original PNG (by Risyphon1024) on
WP en. Original artist: Mysid
File:Algol_AB_movie_imaged_with_the_CHARA_interferometer_-_labeled.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/1/11/Algol_AB_movie_imaged_with_the_CHARA_interferometer_-_labeled.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Derivative work of File:Algol AB movie imaged with the CHARA interferometer.gif with additional labels indicating phase Original
artist: Dr. Fabien Baron, Dept. of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1090, labels indicating phase added by
User:Stigmatella aurantiaca
File:Algol_Bahninterpolation.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Algol_Bahninterpolation.gif License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yukterez (Simon Tyran, Vienna)
File:Algol_triple_star_system_imaged_with_the_CHARA_interferometer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/86/Algol_triple_star_system_imaged_with_the_CHARA_interferometer.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
http://www.oculum.de/newsletter/astro/100/60/2/2-01_algol.jpg Original artist: Dr Fabien Baron, Dept. of Astronomy, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1090
File:Alnitak_sun_comparison.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Alnitak_sun_comparison.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Alnitak sun comparision.png Original artist: Alnitak sun comparision.png: CWitte
File:Alpha,_Beta_and_Proxima_Centauri_(1).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Alpha%2C_Beta_
and_Proxima_Centauri_%281%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: See above for details Original artist: Skatebiker
File:AlphaAnd_SIZE.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/AlphaAnd_SIZE.png License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AnyOldBiscuit
File:Alpha_Centauri_relative_sizes.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Alpha_Centauri_relative_
sizes.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: SVG rendering of the program used to generate the bitmap image Image:Alpha_Centauri_
relative_sizes.png Original artist:
Original MetaPost program by David Benbennick* Program rendered as SVG by Qef
File:Alpheratz.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Alpheratz.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Altair.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Altair.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://
photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA04204 Original artist: NASA/JPL/Caltech/Steve Golden
File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0
Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist:
Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock)
File:Anatomy_of_a_Sunset-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Anatomy_of_a_Sunset-2.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jessie Eastland
File:Andromeda_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Andromeda_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors:
GIF image Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Andromeda_constellation_map_(1).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Andromeda_
constellation_map_%281%29.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Mike
Peel using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Bronger at English Wikipedia
File:Antares_near_the_Sun_every_year_around_2_December.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fa/Antares_
near_the_Sun_every_year_around_2_December.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: Original publication: Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory (SOHO)
Immediate source: http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov Original artist: SOHO NASA

File:Aquila_charta.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Aquila_charta.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Roberto Mura
File:Arcturus_(optical).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Arcturus_%28optical%29.png License:
Public domain Contributors: http://mast.stsci.edu/portal/Mashup/Clients/Mast/Portal.html?searchQuery=Arcturus Original artist: Space
Telescope Science Institute / NASA
File:Aries_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Aries_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
IAU site Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Auriga_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Auriga_constellation_map.svg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Auriga_constellation_map.png Original artist: Auriga_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Avior.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Avior.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: (Original
text: Own work by uploader
) 16 November 2009 (original upload date) Original artist: Tyrogthekreeper (talk)
File:Bceti_xray.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Bceti_xray.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Chandra X-ray Observatory Original artist: NASA/CXC
File:Best_image_of_Alpha_Centauri_A_and_B.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Best_image_of_
Alpha_Centauri_A_and_B.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1635a/ Original artist:
ESA/Hubble & NASA
File:BetaAnd_SIZE.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/BetaAnd_SIZE.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: AnyOldBiscuit
File:Betelgeuse_Plume_eso0927d.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Betelgeuse_Plume_eso0927d.
jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0927d/ Original artist: ESO/L. Calada
File:Betelgeuse_pulsating_UV_(HST).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Betelgeuse_pulsating_UV_

%28HST%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/archive/alobelimg.html Original artist: Andrea
Dupree, Ronald Gilliland, CfA, STScI, NASA, ESA
File:Betelgeuse_radio_wavelengths.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Betelgeuse_radio_
wavelengths.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://images.nrao.edu/63 Original artist: Image courtesy of NRAO/AUI and
J. Lim, C. Carilli, S.M. White, A.J. Beasley, and R.G. Marson
File:Betelgeuse_supernova.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Betelgeuse_supernova.png License:
GPL Contributors: Celestia Original artist: HeNRyKus
File:BigdipISS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/BigdipISS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/station/crew-6/html/iss006e40545.html Original artist: NASA
File:Botes_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Bo%C3%B6tes_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Canis_Major_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Canis_Major_constellation_
map.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Canis_major_constellation_map.png Original artist: Canis_major_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger.
File:Canopus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Canopus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/station/crew-6/hires/iss006e28068.jpg Original artist: NASA
File:Canopus_seen_from_Tokyo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Canopus_seen_from_Tokyo.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nikm
File:Capella-Sun_comparison.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Capella-Sun_comparison.png Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Omnidoom 999
File:Carina_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Carina_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
[1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Carina_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Carina_constellation_map.svg Li-
Carina_constellation_map.png Original artist: Carina_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Cassiopeia_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Cassiopeia_constellation_
Cassiopeia_constellation_map.png Original artist: Cassiopeia_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Cassiopeia_in_Milky_Way.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Cassiopeia_in_Milky_Way.png
License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/eduoff/cas/cas2002/cas-projects/denmark_m31_1/ Original artist:
ESO
File:Cassiopeia_starfield.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Cassiopeia_starfield.jpg License: CC BY
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sadalsuud
File:Castor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Castor.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http:
//www.geocities.com/Odd_Trondal/mcolors.htm Original artist: Odd Trondal
File:Celestia.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Celestia.png License: GPL Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Celestia_Sirius.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Celestia_Sirius.jpg License: GPL Contributors:
Celestia Original artist: Chris Laurel
File:Centaurus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Centaurus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
tributors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Centaurus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Centaurus_constellation_map.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Centaurus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Centaurus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Cepheus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Cepheus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contrib-
utors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Cercle_rouge_100%.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Cercle_rouge_100%25.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cetus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Cetus_constellation_map.svg Li-
Cetus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Cetus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Comparison_of_planets_and_stars_(sheet_by_sheet)_(Apr_2015_update).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Comparison_of_planets_and_stars_%28sheet_by_sheet%29_%28Apr_2015_update%29.png License: CC
BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jcpag2012
File:Corona_Borealis_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Corona_Borealis_
constellation_map.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Corona_borealis_constellation_map.png Original artist: Corona_borealis_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Crab_Nebula.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: HubbleSite: gallery, release. Original artist: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University)
File:Crux_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Crux_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: [1]
Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Crux_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Crux_constellation_map.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Crux_constellation_map.png Original artist: Crux_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Cygnus_constellation_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Cygnus_constellation_map.png
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cygnus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Cygnus_constellation_map.svg Li-
Cygnus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Cygnus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Dipper.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Dipper.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Shawngano at en.wikipedia
File:Doppelsonne_Halo_Echzell_Hessen_12-08-2012.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/
Doppelsonne_Halo_Echzell_Hessen_12-08-2012.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neptuul
File:Draco_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Draco_constellation_map.svg Li-
Draco_constellation_map.png Original artist: Draco_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Dubhe_A_&_B.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Dubhe_A_%26_B.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Robert Gerald Porter
File:Dunhuang_Star_Atlas_-_Orion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Dunhuang_Star_Atlas_-_
Orion.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://idp.bl.uk/4DCGI/education/astronomy/atlas.html Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:ESO-Betelgeuse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/ESO-Betelgeuse.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
tributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0927b/ Original artist: ESO/P. Kervella
File:ESO_Paranal_Platform.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/ESO_Paranal_Platform.jpg License:
CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/esopia00079sites/ Original artist: ESO/H.H.Heyer
File:EffectiveTemperature_300dpi_e.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/EffectiveTemperature_
300dpi_e.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Drawn by myself. The solar spectrum is the WRC spectrum provided by M. Iqbal: An
Introduction to Solar Radiation, Academic Press 1983, Table C1. The black body spectral irradiance has been computed from a black-body
spectrum for T equal 5777 K and assuming a solid angle of 6.8e-5 steradian for the source (the solar disk). Original artist: Sch
File:Eso-paranal-16.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Eso-paranal-16.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Con-
tributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso-paranal-16/ Original artist: ESO/G.Hdepohl (atacamaphoto.com)
File:Evolution_of_a_Sun-like_star.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Evolution_of_a_Sun-like_star.
svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Szczureq
File:Finding_spica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Finding_spica.png License: GPL Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Five_Pointed_Star_Lined.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Five_Pointed_Star_Lined.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: sarang
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fomalhaut_B_entire-Hubble_Telescope.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Fomalhaut_B_
entire-Hubble_Telescope.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rochester.edu Original artist: NASA/Hubble
File:GammaAnd_SIZE.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/GammaAnd_SIZE.png License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AnyOldBiscuit
File:Gamma_Andromedae_Components.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Gamma_Andromedae_
Components.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by myself Original artist: Antonsusi (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/User_talk:Antonsusi' title='User talk:Antonsusi'>talk</a>)
File:Gamma_Cassiopeiae_and_its_associated_nebulosity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/
Gamma_Cassiopeiae_and_its_associated_nebulosity.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neil Michael Wyatt
File:Gemini_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Gemini_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-
tors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Gemini_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Gemini_constellation_map.svg Li-
Gemini_constellation_map.png Original artist: Gemini_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Giant_prominence_on_the_sun_erupted.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Giant_prominence_
on_the_sun_erupted.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/rbsp/news/third-belt.html Original
artist: NASA/SDO/AIA/Goddard Space Flight Center
File:Grus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Grus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: [1]

File:Grus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Grus_constellation_map.svg License:
Grus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Grus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:He1523a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/He1523a.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http:
//www.solstation.com/x-objects/he1523.htm Original artist: ESO, European Southern Observatory
File:Heic0821f.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Heic0821f.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0821f/ Original artist: Davide De Martin
File:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] from http://lepmfi.gsfc.nasa.gov/mfi/hcs/hcs_shape.html . Original artist: Werner Heil (seeother
versionbelow).
File:Hertzsprung-Russel_StarData.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Hertzsprung-Russel_
StarData.png License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0728c/ Original artist: ESO
File:Hubble_heic0206j.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Hubble_heic0206j.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0206j/ (watermark was cropped) Original artist: Hubble European Space
Agency
Credit: Akira Fujii
File:Hydra_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Hydra_constellation_map.svg Li-
Hydra_constellation_map.png Original artist: Hydra_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Infrared_Rho_Ophiuchi_Complex.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Infrared_Rho_Ophiuchi_
Complex.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Infrared Rho Ophiuchi Complex Original artist: Judy Schmidt from Fresh Meadows, NY,
USA
File:Isis-Sothis-Demeter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Isis-Sothis-Demeter.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Colin
File:Leo_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Leo_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: [1]
File:Leo_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Leo_constellation_map.svg License:
Leo_constellation_map.png Original artist: Leo_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger.
File:Light_curve_of_Betelgeuse.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Light_curve_of_Betelgeuse.png
License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: AAVSO Light Curve Generator (LCG): http://www.aavso.org/data/lcg/ Original artist: AAVSO
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Lupus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Lupus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
File:Map_of_the_full_sun.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Map_of_the_full_sun.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: STEREO Reaches New Milestone At Its Sixth Anniversary Original artist: NASA/STEREO/SDO/GSFC
File:Massive_Smash-Up_at_Vega.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Massive_Smash-Up_at_Vega.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/image/26 Original artist: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle (SSC)
File:Mercatur_Cassiopeia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Mercatur_Cassiopeia.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: The Mercator Globes at Harvard Map Collection [1] Original artist: Gerard Mercator (1512-1594)
File:Monte_Albn_archeological_site,_Oaxaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Monte_Alb%
C3%A1n_archeological_site%2C_Oaxaca.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Moon_occults_Aldebaran.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Moon_occults_Aldebaran.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Christina Irakleous
File:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:NASA'{}s_Hubble_Reveals_Rogue_Planetary_Orbit_For_Fomalhaut_B.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/eb/NASA%27s_Hubble_Reveals_Rogue_Planetary_Orbit_For_Fomalhaut_B.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.nasa.gov/images/content/717874main_p1301aw-orig_full.jpg Original artist: NASA and ESA
File:Near-stars-past-future-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Near-stars-past-future-en.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Near-stars-past-future-de.svg Original artist: FrancescoA
File:Nebula_around_Betelgeuse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Nebula_around_Betelgeuse.jpg
License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1121a/ Original artist: ESO/P. Kervella
File:New_shot_of_Proxima_Centauri,_our_nearest_neighbour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/
New_shot_of_Proxima_Centauri%2C_our_nearest_neighbour.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/
images/potw1343a/ Original artist: ESA/Hubble & NASA
File:Ngc1990.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Ngc1990.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Ngc2024_2mass.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Ngc2024_2mass.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) project. Original artist: Mdf
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Ophiuchus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Ophiuchus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
File:Orbit_Alpha_Centauri_AB_arcsec.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Orbit_Alpha_Centauri_
AB_arcsec.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiriusB
File:Orbit_Sirius_B_arcsec.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Orbit_Sirius_B_arcsec.png License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiriusB
File:Orion'{}s_Big_Head_Revealed_in_Infrared.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Orion%27s_
Big_Head_Revealed_in_Infrared.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/WISE/multimedia/
gallery/pia14040.html Original artist: NASA
File:Orion_Head_to_Toe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Orion_Head_to_Toe.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://deepskycolors.com/astro/JPEG/RBA_Orion_HeadToToes.jpg Original artist: Rogelio Bernal Andreo
File:Orion_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Orion_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
File:Orion_OB1_&_25_Ori_Group.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Orion_OB1_%26_25_Ori_
Group.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Orion 3008 huge-OB1.png Original artist: Orion 3008 huge-OB1.png: Mouser, Roberto Mura
File:Orion_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Orion_constellation_map.svg Li-
Orion_constellation_map.png Original artist: Orion_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Our_Nearest_Star_System_Observed_Live.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Our_Nearest_
Star_System_Observed_Live.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1604a/ Original artist: Y.
Beletsky (LCO)/ESO
File:PIA18003-NASA-WISE-StarsNearSun-20140425-2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/
PIA18003-NASA-WISE-StarsNearSun-20140425-2.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/
PIA18003 (image link) Original artist: NASA/Penn State University
File:Pavo_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Pavo_constellation_map.svg License:
Pavo_constellation_map.png Original artist: Pavo_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Pegasus_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Pegasus_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-
tors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Pegasus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Pegasus_constellation_map.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Pegasus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Pegasus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Perseus_Hevelius.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Perseus_Hevelius.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Atlas Coelestis. Johannes Hevelius drew the constellation in Uranographia, his celestial catalogue in 1690.* Source:
http://pp3.sourceforge.net/wiki/tau.jpg Original artist: Johannes Hevelius - Scanned by: Torsten Bronger 2003 April 4
File:Perseus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Perseus_constellation_map.svg Li-
Perseus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Perseus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Phoenix_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Phoenix_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-
tors: IAU Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Planet-alphacen1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Planet-alphacen1.png License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The plague
File:Polaris_alpha_ursae_minoris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Polaris_alpha_ursae_minoris.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2006/02/image/a (Image: STScI-
2006-02) Original artist: NASA/HST
File:Polaris_system.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Polaris_system.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2006/02/image/f Original artist: NASA/ESA/HST, G. Bacon
(STScI)
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Position_Alpha_Cen.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Position_Alpha_Cen.png License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Position_Alpha_Cmi.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Position_Alpha_Cmi.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Position_Alpha_Eri.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Position_Alpha_Eri.png License: Public

File:Position_Alpha_Ori.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Position_Alpha_Ori.png License: Public
File:Precession_N.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Precession_N.gif License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Con-
tributors: self, 4 bit GIF Original artist: Tauolunga
File:Procyonorbitillustration.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Procyonorbitillustration.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Red_circle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Red_circle.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: bayo
File:Redgiants.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Redgiants.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Sakurambo at English Wikipedia
File:Regulus_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Regulus_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Drew Farwell
File:Relative_positions_of_Sun,_Alpha_Centauri_AB_and_Proxima_Centauri.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Relative_positions_of_Sun%2C_Alpha_Centauri_AB_and_Proxima_Centauri.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chermundy
File:STS-134_EVA4_view_to_the_Russian_Orbital_Segment.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/
STS-134_EVA4_view_to_the_Russian_Orbital_Segment.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image uploaded as ISS028-E-005671.
Original artist: NASA
File:Sadr_Region_rgb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Sadr_Region_rgb.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/31986095@N05/5183823288/ Original artist: Erik Larsen
File:Sagittarius_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Sagittarius_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
File:Sagittarius_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Sagittarius_constellation_
Sagittarius_constellation_map.png Original artist: Sagittarius_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Scorpius_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Scorpius_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contrib-
utors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Scorpius_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Scorpius_constellation_map.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Scorpius_constellation_map.png Original artist: Scorpius_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Sidney_Hall_-_Urania'{}s_Mirror_-_Ursa_Major.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Sidney_
Hall_-_Urania%27s_Mirror_-_Ursa_Major.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States
Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g10076.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Sidney Hall
File:Sir_John_Herschel_with_Cap,_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
0/0d/Sir_John_Herschel_with_Cap%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Colin
Ford's Julia Margaret Cameron: 19th Century Photographer of Genius, ISBN 1855145065. Original artist: Julia Margaret Cameron
File:Sirius_-_Agrippa.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Sirius_-_Agrippa.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Lusanaherandraton at en.wikipedia
File:Sirius_A_&_B_X-ray.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Sirius_A_%26_B_X-ray.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: CHANDRA X-ray Observatory CXC Operated for NASA by SAO, url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/
2000/0065/index.html Original artist: NASA/SAO/CXC
File:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_
photo.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0516a/ Original artist: NASA, ESA, H. Bond
(STScI), and M. Barstow (University of Leicester)
File:Sirius_A_and_B_artwork.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwork.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0516b/ Original artist: NASA, ESA and G. Bacon (STScI)
File:Size_Vega.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Size_Vega.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: self-made using Paint-Shop Pro. Original artist: RJHall
File:Sky-from-alpha-centauri.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6d/Sky-from-alpha-centauri.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Skylab_Solar_flare.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Skylab_Solar_flare.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.archive.org/details/S74-23458; see also JSC Digital Image Collection page Original artist: NASA
File:Solar-cycle-data.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Solar-cycle-data.png License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work www.lucnix.be Original artist: Luc Viatour
File:Solar_evolution_(English).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Solar_evolution_%28English%29.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on gure 1, Ribas, Ignasi (February 2010). Solar and Stellar Variability:
Impact on Earth and Planets, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, IAU Symposium. Error: journal= not stated 264:
318. DOI:10.1017/S1743921309992298. Original artist: RJHall
File:Solar_system.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Solar_system.jpg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03153 Original artist: NASA/JPL
File:Solvognen_DO-6865_2000.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Solvognen_DO-6865_2000.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://samlinger.natmus.dk/DO/6865 Original artist: Nationalmuseet, John Lee
File:Star_Trail_above_Beccles_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1855505.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/
Star_Trail_above_Beccles_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1855505.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk; transferred
by User:Rubberstamp using geograph_org2commons. Original artist: Ashley Dace
File:Stellarparallax_parsec1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Stellarparallax_parsec1.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: This image is an altered version of :Image:Stellarparallax2.svg, which is an SVG version of :Image:
Stellarparallax2.png. Stellarparallax2.svg was released into the public domain by its creator, Booyabazooka. Original artist: Srain at English
Wikipedia
File:Summer_triangle.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Summer_triangle.png License: GPL Contrib-
utors: Jim Thomas
Original artist: Jim Thomas
File:Sun-bonatti.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Sun-bonatti.png License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Guido Bonatti, De Astronomia Libri X (Basel, Nicolaus Pruknerus, 1550) Original artist: Nicolaus Pruknerus, Guido Bonatti
File:Sun_-_August_1,_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Sun_-_August_1%2C_2010.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: NASA Image of the Day Original artist: NASA/SDO/AIA
File:Sun_from_Pollux_(star).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Sun_from_Pollux_%28star%29.jpg
License: GPL Contributors: This image was created with Celestia Original artist: AndyO18624
File:Sun_in_February.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Sun_in_February.jpg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HalloweenNight
File:Sun_poster.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Sun_poster.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Sun_red_giant.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Sun_red_giant.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Vectorized in Inkscape by Mysid on a JPEG by Mrsanitazier (en:Image:Sun Red Giant2.jpg). Original artist: Oona Risnen
(User:Mysid), User:Mrsanitazier.
File:Sun_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Sun_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Melian
File:Sun_white.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Sun_white.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: So-
ciety for Popular Astronomy, Solar section, http://www.popastro.com/solar/solarobserving/chapter.php?id_pag=30 Original artist: Geo
Elston
File:Sunspot_area_variation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sunspot_area_variation.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Royal Observatory, Greenwich, data prepared on: http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/greenwch Original artist:
Con-struct
File:Sunspot_butterfly_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Sunspot_butterfly_diagram.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Royal Observatory, Greenwich, data prepared on: http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/greenwch Orig-
inal artist: Con-struct
File:Sunspots_and_Solar_Flares.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Sunspots_and_Solar_Flares.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_2201.html Original artist: NASA
File:Taurus_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Taurus_constellation_map.svg Li-
Taurus_constellation_map.png Original artist: Taurus_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:The_Very_Large_Telescope_and_the_star_system_Alpha_Centauri.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d2/The_Very_Large_Telescope_and_the_star_system_Alpha_Centauri.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1702a/ Original artist: Y. Beletsky (LCO)/ESO
File:The_bright_star_Alpha_Centauri_and_its_surroundings.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/
The_bright_star_Alpha_Centauri_and_its_surroundings.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: http://www.eso.org/public/images/
eso1241e/ Original artist: ESO/DSS 2
File:Trackcapella.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Trackcapella.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Lithopsian
File:Treasures3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Treasures3.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
http://www.treasuresofthesouthernsky.org/ Original artist: Robert Gendler
File:Triangulum_Australe_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Triangulum_Australe_IAU.svg Li-
cense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Hajor
File:Ursa_Major_-_Ursa_Minor_-_Polaris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Ursa_Major_-_Ursa_
Minor_-_Polaris.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: based on file:Ursa Major and Ursa Minor Constellations.jpg Original artist:
Bon
File:Ursa_Major_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Ursa_Major_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: http://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/#uma Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott &
Rick Fienberg)
File:Ursa_Major_constellation_detail_map.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Ursa_Major_

constellation_detail_map.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia, but modied it. Original artist:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:B00P & me (SAE1962 10:04, 2 April 2008 (UTC))
File:Ursa_Major_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ursa_Major_constellation_
Ursa_major_constellation_map.png Original artist: Ursa_major_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Ursa_Minor_IAU.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Ursa_Minor_IAU.svg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: [1] Original artist: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg)
File:Vega_(star).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Vega_%28star%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fossart
File:Vega_2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Vega_2.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Drew Farwell
File:Vega_Spitzer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Vega_Spitzer.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Jet Propulsion Laboratory Original artist: Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
File:Vega_in_lyra.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Vega_in_lyra.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Kvap
File:Vela_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Vela_constellation_map.svg License:
Vela_constellation_map.png Original artist: Vela_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Virgo_constellation_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Virgo_constellation_map.svg Li-
Virgo_constellation_map.png Original artist: Virgo_constellation_map.png: Torsten Bronger
File:Wide-field_view_of_the_Summer_Triangle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Wide-field_
view_of_the_Summer_Triangle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0720c/ Original
artist: NASA, ESA
Credit: A. Fujii
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
File:Zeta_Puppis.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Zeta_Puppis.png License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Kryptid (talk)
File:_-___,__-__-RP56882.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e4/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B5_-%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%
86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%
B8_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%2C_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B5_-_%D0%A0%D0%
BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_-RP56882.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Photo http://russianplanes.net/images/to57000/056882.jpg Original artist: English: Igor Dvurekov
89.5.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

The Brightest Stars

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

The Brightest Stars

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

The Brightest Stars

1 List of brightest stars 1

2.8.1 Orbit in Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.4 Etymology and cultural signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.7.2 Alpha Centauri Bb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

8.4.1 Space photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

10.6.4 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

12 Beta Centauri 112

13 Capella (star) 114

14.2.1 Oblateness and surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

18 Pollux (star) 141

18.3 Planetary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

21 Beta Crucis 154

22.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

23 Alpha Crucis 160

24 Epsilon Canis Majoris 163

25 Lambda Scorpii 165

26 Gamma Crucis 167

28 Beta Tauri 172

28.3 Double star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

29 Beta Carinae 174

30 Epsilon Orionis 176

31 Zeta Orionis 179

32 Alpha Gruis 182

33 Epsilon Ursae Majoris 184

34 Gamma Velorum 186

34.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

35 Epsilon Sagittarii 189

36 Alpha Persei 192

37 Delta Canis Majoris 194

38 Eta Ursae Majoris 197

39 Theta Scorpii 199

40 Alpha Ursae Majoris 201

41 Gamma Geminorum 203

41.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

42 Alpha Pavonis 205

43 Alpha Trianguli Australis 207

44 Castor (star) 209

46 Beta Canis Majoris 218

48 Alpha Arietis 222

49 Delta Velorum 225

50 Beta Ceti 227

51 Kappa Orionis 229

52 Sigma Sagittarii 231

53 Theta Centauri 233

54 Alpha Andromedae 235

54.2.1 Chemical peculiarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

55 Beta Andromedae 239

56 Beta Ursae Minoris 242

57 Alpha Ophiuchi 244

59 Beta Gruis 250

60.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

61 Zeta Puppis 254

62 Lambda Velorum 257

63 Gamma Draconis 259

64 Alpha Coronae Borealis 261

65 Gamma Cygni 263

66 Alpha Cassiopeiae 265

66.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

67 Iota Carinae 269

68 Gamma Andromedae 271

69 Mizar and Alcor 274

70 Beta Cassiopeiae 277

71 Epsilon Centauri 280