Section 5.

1 Introduction to Graph Theory 323

Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory

Purpose of Section: To introduce the basics of one of the most important

areas of topology: graph theory and networks. We illustrate concepts of
graph theory with Euler paths and cycles, the handshaking problem,
minimum spanning tree problems, and the Euler Characteristic.

Introduction
The subject of graph theory and networks is an area on the margin of topology
which is rapidly moving into mainstream mathematics. It has applications in
such diverse areas as electrical engineering, biochemistry (genomics),
communication networks, computer science, and operations research
(scheduling). Few subjects in mathematics can be traced back to such interesting
beginnings as graph theory, back to the famous Seven Bridges of Konigsberg
Problem, solved by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1736.
The town of Konigsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) rests on the banks
of the Pregel River, and as it flows through the town, it divides the town into
four distinct regions connected by seven bridges, illustrated in the accompanying
drawing.

The town flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries and the story goes that the
people of Konigsberg would spend their evenings strolling throughout the city,
crossing the seven bridges that spanned the river. The question was asked
whether it was possible to start at one of the four land areas, cross each bridge
exactly once, and return to the starting point. The mathematician Euler learned
 324 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

of the problem and in a published paper1 demonstrated that in order for a person
to cross each bridge exactly once and return to the starting point, each land mass
must be connected by an even number (2,4,6, ) of bridges. Since this was not
the case for the Konigsberg bridges, such a stroll was not possible.
Before showing how Euler solved this problem, we must introduce the concept
of a graph.

Definition A graph G = (V , E ) is a finite set V of vertices (or nodes) and

a finite set E of edges connecting pairs of vertices. The diagram below
depicts a graph with five vertices and eight edges defined by

V = {a, b, c, d , e }

{ }
E = (a, b ), (a, c ), (a, d ), (b, c ), (b, d ), (b, e ), (c, d ), (c, e )

Glossary of Important Concepts in Graph Theory

Some of the main ingredients of a graph are;
The order of a graph G is the number of vertices in the graph which we
denote by G .
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges connecting the vertex.
A path is a sequence of vertices connected by edges.
A cycle is a path starting and ending at the same vertex.
A graph is connected if it is possible to traverse from any vertex to another
vertex by a path.
A vertex is odd (even) if it has an odd (even) number of edges adjacent to it.

1
Euler published his findings in a paper titled Solutio problematis ad geometriam situs
pertinentis (The solution of a problem relating to the geometry of position) in the Proceedings of
St. Petersburg Academy in 1741.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 325

In the graph illustrated in the definition, we have

the order is G = 5
the degree of vertices a, b, c, d, e is 3,4,4,3,2.
typical paths are acdb and aba .
typical cycles are adbeca and cdac .
the graph is connected
the vertices b, c, e are even, a, d are odd.

Euler Paths and Circuits

Two important concepts of the study of graphs are Euler paths and Euler
circuits.
An Euler path is a path that passes through each edge of the graph
exactly once. (An Euler path starts and ends at different nodes.)
An Euler cycle (or tour) is a cycle that passes through each edge of the
graph exactly once. (An Euler cycle starts and ends at the same vertex.)

Example 2: Euler Paths and Cycles Find, if any, Euler paths and cycles in the
graph in Figure 1.

Typical graph
Figure 1
326 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Solution:
Typical Euler paths and cycles are drawn in Figure 2..

Euler paths and cycles

Figure 2

Return to Konnigsberg
We now state and indicate the proof of Euler's famous 1736 theorem,
effectively solving the Konigsberg Bridge Problem.

Euler's Original Graph Theorem

If all vertices of a graph are even (2,4,,...) then the graph contains a cycle that
crosses every edge exactly once. Such a cycle through a graph is called an
Euler Tour2.
Proof
Euler argued that since every vertex is even, a path arriving at a vertex other
than the starting vertex can always leave that vertex.

2
Euler proved that if a connected graph has an Euler tour, then all the vertices must be even.
The converse that a connected graph with an Euler tour must have all even vertices was not
proven until 1873.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 327

Figure 3 shows a rough diagram of the Pregel River and four adjoining land
masses along with the graphical representation drawn by Euler. Note that not all
the vertices in the graph are even (in fact none are even), hence there does not
exist an Euler Tour in the graph.

Graphical representation of the bridges of Konigsberg

Figure 3
The existence of Euler paths or cycles depends on the number of odd nodes: 0, 2,
or more than 2.
Theorem: Euler Paths and Cycles and Odd Nodes If a graph has ...
zero odd vertices the graph has an Euler tour.
two odd vertices graph has an Euler path starting at one odd
vertex and ending at the other
more than two odd vertices graph does not have an Euler path

Example 1: Euler Paths and Cycles Determine which graph in Figure 4 has
an Euler cycle, an Euler path, and neither. If it has a path or cycle. find them3.

Finding Euler tours

Figure 4

3
We thank the Math Forum at Drexel University for the use of these examples.
328 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Solution We leave the fun for the reader.

Important Note: Since Euler first realized that the Konigsberg

Bridge problem could be solved using graph theory, others have
acknowledged the power of graph theory. In the 1800s, the German
physicist Gustav Kirchoff realized that electric circuits could be
analyzed by drawing them as graphs with wires as edges and
junction points as vertices. Today graph theory is rapidly becoming
one of the most active areas of mathematical research with
applications in electrical engineering (circuit design), biochemistry
(genomics), communication, computer science (algorithms) and
operations research (scheduling problems).

Historical Note: In a 1670 letter to Christian Huygens, the

mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) wrote as follows: "I
am not content with algebra, in that it yields neither the shortest
proofs nor the most beautiful constructions of geometry.
Consequently, in view of this, I consider that we need yet another
kind of analysis, geometric or linear, which deals directly with
position, as algebra deals with magnitude." What Leibniz thought
was needed was topology.

One such fascinating problem in graph theory is the Handshaking Problem.

Handshaking Problem4 At any social gathering, the number of people who

shake hands an odd number of times is an even number.

Proof: We begin by drawing a graph with a given number of vertices and no

edges as illustrated in Figure 5a). Note that every vertex has degree 0 and so the
number of odd vertices is 0. We then simulate two persons shaking hands and
observe that the number of odd vertices either goes up or down by 2, thus
keeping the number of odd vertices an even number.

4
This theorem was also proven by Euler.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 329

Handshaking problem
Figure 5

One of the fascinating aspects of graph theory is that its applications are almost
endless. Anything that involves objects and relations between them can be
modeled as a graph. The nodes can be cities as vertices and flights as the edges
between them. But how do we model the cost of a flight? That's easy, we use a
weighted graph that assigns the costs of the flights. There are algorithms for
finding the cheapest path in a network.

Weighted Graphs
In many applications, it is useful to assign nonnegative numbers or weights to
the edges of a graph.

Definition: A weighted graph is a graph whose edges are assigned

nonnegative numbers called costs or weights.
One class of problems modeled by weighted graphs, which is becoming more
and more important is the problem of network design. Network design ranges
from the design of telephone and internet land lines to electrical networks, gas
lines, water mains, sewage lines, and on and on. The goal is to design networks
that operate effectively at minimum cost.
Consider the weighted graph in Figure 6 consisting of 8 cities, where the
numbers on the edges represent distances between cities. A problem might be to
330 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

design a high-speed train network that connects the cities but whose total length
is kept to a minimum.

Weighted graph of cities and distances

Figure 6

From the perspective of graph theory, the goal is to find the minimum spanning
tree in the grap, where a tree is a graph that contains no cycles. Secondly, a
spanning tree is a sub-tree of a graph which includes all the vertices of the
graph. And thirdly, a minimum spanning tree is the spanning tree (there may
be many) whose sum of its weights is a minimum.
There is a well-known algorithm. called Kruskal's Algorithm, for finding the
minimum spanning tree in a graph. The idea behind the algorithm is very simple.
Start with only the vertices of the graph, then, one by one, start adding back the
edges, starting with the smallest weights and moving up, provided no cycle is
created. If a cycle is formed, bypass that edge and continue on until all vertices
are included in the tree. The result is the minimum spanning tree in the graph5.
Carrying out Kruskal's Algorithm for the 8 cities in Figure 6, we find its
minimum spanning tree, which we draw in Figure 7. The total length of the
minimum spanning tree is 4330 miles. This will give planners an estimate of the
total cost of the new rail system..

5
Kruskal's minimum spanning tree algorithm is an example of a "greedy algorithm," which is
one where the strategy is to make the optimal choice at each stage. Most algorithms in graph
theory are not greedy algorithms and involve more complicated strategies.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 331

Minimum spanning tree

Figure 7

Euler's Characteristic for Planar Graphs

In graph theory, a planar graph is one that can be drawn in the plane in such a
way that no two edges cross each other. For example, the complete6 graph K 4 of
order four in Figure 8a) is a planar graph. At first glance, the graph may not
appear planar since two edges cross, but keep in mind graphs are defined only by
the connections of their vertices and not on any specific drawing in the plane.
Hence, the graph in Figure 8a) can be redrawn (Figures 8b), 8c)) that show no
intersecting edges.
An important concept of planar graphs is that of the faces of graph, which
simply are regions bounded by the edges of the graph. The graph in Figure 8 has
4 vertices, 6 edges, and 4 faces. The reader may have counted only 3 faces, but
the infinite region outside the graph is counted as a face.

6
A graph is called complete if every node is connected to every other node.
332 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Three equivalent ways of drawing the planar graph K 4

Figure 8

One property common to every connected planar graph is its Euler

Characteristic. No matter how different the graphs may appear, they have
something in common. That's their Euler Characteristic. This leads us to one of
the most important concepts in graph theory, Euler's Characteristic Theorem.

Euler's Characteristic Theorem If G is a connected, planar graph with v

vertices, e edges, and f faces, then
v e + f = 2
Proof: First note that a "triangle graph" ( v = 3, e = 3, f = 2 ) has an Euler
Characteristic of 2.

Starting with an arbitrary connected, planar graph, the idea behind the proof
is to continually triangulate the graph, throwing out "boundary triangles,"
until eventually arriving at a triangle graph, and to show at each step of this
process the Euler Characteristic is unchanged. Hence, if the final graph has
an Euler Characteristic of 2, so does the initial graph.
Although we will not prove the result for an arbitrary connected, planar
graph, the general proof can be understood by working through the proof
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 333

for the planar representation for a cube as drawn in Figure 9a). Starting with
the graph in Figure 9a), we "triangulate" the 5 internal faces by drawing
edges between different vertices. If we tabulate the number of vertices,
edges and faces in the triangulated graph in Figure 9b), we see that the
number of vertices is unchanged, the new graph has 5 additional edges and
5 new faces. Hence, the Euler Characteristic v e + f has not been
changed.

At each step v e + f is unchanged

Figure 9
The next step is to throw off all triangles that have one or two edges on the
boundary, such as 4 triangles in Figure 9b). We leave it to the reader to
verify that the removal of boundary triangles, either the type in Figure 9b)
with one boundary edge or the type in Figure 9c) with two boundary edges,
will not change the Euler Characteristic. Continuing this process of exterior
triangles, we eventually arrive at a single triangle graph whose Euler
Characteristic is 2. Therefore, the original graph also has Euler
Characteristic of 2.
.

_________________________________
334 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Problems
1. In the following drawing showing ten bridges connecting five land masses,
determine if it is possible to start and end at any land mass and traverse each
bridge exactly once.

For Problems 2-7, determine if the given graph has an Euler Tour and if so find
one.

2.

3,
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 335

4.

5.

6.
336 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

7.

8. Euler Paths If they exist, find the Euler paths in the following graphs.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 337

Hamiltonian Tour
Another type of path or tour through a graph is the Hamiltonian Tour, which
is a path that starts at a given vertex, traverses each vertex (not edge) exactly
once, then returns to the starting vertex. A graph that contains a Hamiltonian
Tour is called a Hamiltonian Graph. Unfortunately, unlike Euler Tours, there
is no known simple test for determining if a graph has a Hamiltonian Tour. For
Problems, 9-12 find, if there is one, a Hamiltonian Tour in the given graph.

9.

10.
338 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

11.

12.

13. Graphs of Order 3 Suppose the vertices of a graph are indistinguishable.

a) Draw all graphs with three vertices.

b) Draw all graphs with four vertices and three edges.

14. All Graphs of Order Four Assuming the vertices of the graph are not
distinguishable, draw all possible graphs with four vertices.. Hint: There are 11
of them.

15. Hamiltons Famous Puzzle In 1859, Irish mathematician William Rowan

Hamilton (1805-1865) marketed a puzzle shaped as a regular dodecahedron, a
solid with 12 sides, each side having the shape of a regular pentagon, as
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 339

illustrated in the following figure. A name of a city was assigned to each corner
of the dodecahedron. The object of the puzzle was to start at any city, find a
route along the edges of the dodecahedron that visits each city, and end back at
the starting city. Such a path is a Hamiltonian Tour. The planar representation of
a dodecahedron is shown in the following figure. Can you find a Hamiltonian
Tour of this puzzle?

16. Tours of Platonic Solids Graphs in the following figure are planar
representations of the five Platonic solids; the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron,
dodecahedron, and icosahedron. Tell if each has Euler and Hamiltonian Tours.
If so, find one.
 340 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

17. Knights Tour A knights tour on a chessboard is a path on the board that
visits each square exactly once then returns to the starting square. The smallest
chessboards for which a tour is possible are the 5 6 board and the 3 10 board.
A tour is not possible for 3 3 and 4 4 boards
.

a) Give an argument why a knights tour is not possible for a 4 4 board. Hint:
Any tour must pass through the upper left square 1 and the lower right square 16.

b) Draw a graph of 16 nodes representing a 4 4 board, where each node is

connected by an edge if there is a knights move between the nodes.

c) Show that a Hamiltonian Tour, which is a cycle that passes through each node
(not edge) exactly once and returns to the starting node, is not possible for the
graph you drew in part b).

18. More Knights Tour Place a chess knight (or a coin) on any one of the
squares of the board drawn below and find a tour that lands on each square
exactly once and returns to the starting square. Such a tour would be a
Hamiltonian Tour if one interprets the squares of the board as the nodes of a
graph.
Section 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory 341

20. Regular Graphs A regular graph is one where all vertices have the same
degree. A k -regular graph is a regular graph where each vertex has degree k .
The figure below shows k -regular graphs with 6 vertices for k = 0 through 4
Note that only the 3-regular graph is connected.

Draw the following regular graphs7.

a) 5-regular graph with 12 vertices.

b) 4-regular graph with 6 vertices.
c) 3-regular graph with 8 vertices. These are called cubic graphs and there are
five of them. How many can you draw?
21. Chromatic Number of a Graph The chromatic number of a graph is the
smallest number of colors needed to color a graph so that no two adjacent
vertices have the same color. Find the chromatic numbers of the following
graphs.

22. Moser Spindle Consider a graph G where the vertices are points in the
plane, where two vertices are connected if they are a distance of 1 from each
other. An unsolved problem is to find the chromatic number (G ) of this graph,
called the chromatic number of the plane. In other words, find the smallest
number of colors that will color the graph that ensure adjacent vertices are
different colors. It is known that the chromatic number satisfies 4 7 . In

7
And dont check the internet before you give this problem a good try.
342 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

other words, 4 colors are necessary and 7 vertices will do the job. The following
graph, called the Moser Spindle, shows that at least 4 colors are needed.8.
Convince yourself that 4 colors are required to color the Moser Spindle.

Moser Spindle

8
Although the Moser Spindle only has 7 vertices, the graph can be slid around the plane to
demonstrate that the chromatic number of the plane is at least 4.