Miscellaneous Separation Methods and other apparatus uses

Separating Distillation, described is used to separate miscible liquids that dissolve in each other. If
funnel two liquids do NOT mix, they form two separate layers and are known as immiscible
liquids (e.g. oil/water). This is illustrated in the diagram on the left, where the lower grey
liquid will be more dense than the upper layer of the yellow liquid and shows how you can
separate these two liquids using a separating funnel. (particle picture on gas-liquid-solid
page)

1. The mixture is put in the separating funnel with the stopper on and the tap closed and
the layers left to settle out. 2. The stopper is removed, and the tap is opened so that you
can carefully run the lower grey layer off first into a beaker. 3. This leaves behind the
upper yellow layer liquid, so separating the two immiscible liquids.

MAGNET This can be used to separate iron from a mixture with sulphur (see below). It is used in
recycling to recover iron and steel from domestic waster i.e. the 'rubbish' is on a conveyer
belt that passes a powerful magnet which pluck's out magnetic materials.
Their use is included in Salt Preparations and titrations with the Acids, Bases, Salts, pH
Burette and
page. A burette is used to measure volumes accurately and a pipette is used to separate
pipette out an accurate volume of a solution from a bulk container of the solution.
Decanting is the simplest possible way of separating a liquid (pure or a solution) from an
insoluble solid which has a density greater than water (i.e. > 1.0 g/cm3). The solid-liquid
mixture is allowed to stand e.g. in a beaker, until all the solid settles out to the bottom of
the container. Then the liquid is carefully poured off to leave the insoluble solid behind.
Decantation However it is inefficient e.g. a small amount of liquid is always left in the solid residue and
very fine solid particles take some time to settle out and any disturbance of the liquid can
mix them in with the liquid being poured off. Wine may be served in a decanter to leave
the undesirable solids behind - no good for bits of cork though, they float!
In its simplest form these techniques involve using a liquid to dissolve a solid to separate
it from a mixture. The extraction of pure salt from a sand-salt mixture is a simple example
Solvent of the technique.
Extraction
For more complex examples see the advanced level chemistry page. ASA2 solute
distribution between two immiscible liquids, partition coefficient , calculations and uses

. Why do atoms bond together? - 'electron glue'!

Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as single atoms. These are
the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g. 2, 2,8 and 2,8,8 because their outer shells are full.
The first three are shown in the diagrams below and explains why Noble Gases are so reluctant to form compounds
with other elements.
 (atomic number) electron arrangement

All other atoms therefore, bond together to become electronically more stable, that is to become like Noble Gases in
electron arrangement. Bonding produces new substances and usually involves only the 'outer shell' or 'valency'
electrons and atoms can bond in two ways.

The phrase CHEMICAL BOND refers to the strong electrical force of attraction between the atoms or ions in the
structure. The combining power of an atom is sometimes referred to as its valency and its value is linked to the
number of outer electrons of the original uncombined atom (see examples later).

(a) IONIC BONDING - By one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form oppositely charged particles called
ions which attract each other - the ionic bond.

• An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying an overall positive or negative charge

o e.g. Na+, Cl-, [Cu(H2O)]2+, SO42- etc.
• If a particle, as in a neutral atom, has equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons (-) the particle charge is
zero i.e. no overall electric charge.
• The proton/atomic number in an atom does not change BUT the number of associated electrons can!
• If negative electrons are lost the excess charge from the protons produces an overall positive ion.
• If negative electrons are gained there is an excess of negative charge, so a negative ion is formed.
• The charge on the ion is numerically related to the number of electrons transferred i.e. electrons lost or
gained.
• For any atom or group of atoms, for every electron gained you get a one unit increase in negative charge on
the ion, for every electron lost you get a one unit increase in the positive charge on the ion.
• The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons
forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a non-metallic element. The ionic bond then consists of the
attractive force between the positive and negative ions in the structure.
• The ionic bonding forces act in all directions around a particular ion, it is not directional, as in the case of
covalent bonding.

(b) COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the bond is usually formed
between two non-metallic elements in a molecule. The two positive nuclei (due to the positive protons in them) of both
atoms are mutually attracted to the shared negative electrons between them - the covalent bond. They share the
electrons in a way that gives a stable Noble Gas electron arrangement.

• This kind of bond or electronic linkage does act in a particular direction i.e. along the 'line' between the two
nuclei of the atoms bonded together, this is why molecules have a particular shape.

(c) METALLIC BONDING isn't quite like ionic or covalent bonding, the metal atoms form positive ions, but no negative
ion is formed from the same metal atoms, but the positive metal ions/atoms are attracted together by the free moving
negative electrons between them.

NOBLE GASES are very reluctant to share, gain or lose electrons to form a chemical bond. They are already
electronically very stable. For most other elements the types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements
or compounds are described in detail in Parts 2 to 5. In all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are
shown.

2. Ionic Bonding - electron transfer

Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.

Elements consist of neutral atoms or molecules, the electrical neutrality is because the number of positive protons
equals the number of negative electrons.

Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons to have a net electrical charge overall .

The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal. The overall charge on the ion is
positive due to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in chemical reactions).

The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic element. The overall charge
on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess, of negative electrons.

The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with a non-metal from Group 6 or Group
7 (The Halogens). The electron structures are shown in () or []. Only the outer electrons of the original atoms, and
where they end up in the ions, are shown in the dot and cross (ox) diagrams

Ionic bonding is not directional like covalent bonding, in the sense that the force of attraction between the positive ions
and the negative ions act in every direction around the ions.

Example 1: A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium + chlorine ==> sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula
Na+Cl- In terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom forming a single
positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically,
sodium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.

Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) ==> Na+ (2.8) Cl- (2.8.8)

can be summarised electronically to give the stable 'noble gas' structures as [2,8,1] + [2,8,7] ==> [2,8]+ [2,8,8]-

ONE combines with ONE to form

The valencies of Na and Cl are both 1, that is, the numerical charge on the ions. sodium fluoride NaF, potassium
bromide KBr and lithium iodide LiI etc. will all be electronically similar.

Note:

The charge on the sodium ion Na+ is +1 units (shown as just +) because there is one more positive proton than there
are negative electrons in the sodium ion.

The charge on the chloride ion Cl- is -1 units (shown as just -) because there is one more negative electron than there
are positive protons in the chloride ion.
See Example 6. aluminium oxide for more highly charged ion analysis.

Li is 2.1, K is 2.8.8.1, F is 2.7, rest of dot and cross diagram is up to you.

Reminder: How to work out formula of ionic compounds without going through some demanding electronic thinking is
described on the "Elements, Compounds and Mixtures" page and it is followed by a section on naming compounds.

Example 2: A Group 2 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. magnesium + chlorine ==> magnesium chloride MgCl2 or
ionic formula Mg2+(Cl-)2 In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two
chlorine atoms forming a double positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions. The atoms have
become stable ions, because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.

Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl- (2.8.8)

can be summarised electronically as [2,8,2] + 2[2,8,7] ==> [2,8]2+ [2,8,8]-2

ONE combines with TWO to form see *

* NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples square brackets and a number subscript
have been used, as in ordinary chemical formula. The valency of Mg is 2 and chlorine 1, i.e. the numerical charges of
the ions. Beryllium fluoride BeF2, magnesium bromide MgBr2, calcium chloride CaCl2 or barium iodide BaI2 etc. will all
be electronically similar.

Ca is 2.8.8.2, F is 2.7 rest of dot and cross diagrams are up to you.

Example 3: A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. aluminium + fluorine ==> aluminium fluoride AlF3 or ionic
formula Al3+(F-)3 In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three fluorine
atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions. The atoms have become stable
ions, because aluminium and fluorine becomes electronically like neon. Valency of Al is 3 and F is 1, i.e. equal to the
charges on the ions.

Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.7) ==> Al3+ (2.8) 3F- (2.8)

can be summarised electronically as [2,8,3] + 3[2,7] ==> [2,8]3+ [2,8]-3

 ONE combines with THREE to form

Solid aluminium chloride/bromide/iodide have similar formula but are covalent when vapourised into Al2X6 dimer
molecules, but AlCl3 has an ionic lattice in the solid, not sure on solid AlBr3 and AlI3, but these points are best left for
an advanced AS-A2 chemistry discussion, not for GCSE students!

Example 4: A Group 1 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. sodium/potassium + oxygen ==> sodium/potassium oxide
Na2O/K2O or ionic formula (Na+)2O2-/(K+)2O2- In terms of electron arrangement, the two sodium/potassium atoms
donate their outer electron to one oxygen atom. This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double
negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like). Valencies, K
1, oxygen 2. Lithium oxide, Li2O, sodium oxide Na2O, sodium sulphide Na2S and potassium K2S etc. will be similar.

sodium oxide

2Na (2.8.1) + O (2.6) ==> 2Na+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)

can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,1] + [2,6] ==> [2,8]+2 [2,8]2-

TWO combine with ONE to form

or

+ ==>

potassium oxide

2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6) ==> 2K+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)

can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,8,1] + [2,6] ==> [2,8,8]+2 [2,8]2-

 TWO combine with ONE to form

The electronic similarities between the two examples are very obvious.

Li is 2.1, Na is 2.8.1, S is 2.8.6 (for group 1 sulphide compound), rest of dots and crosses diagrams are up to you.

Example 5: A Group 2 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. magnesium/calcium + oxygen ==> magnesium/calcium oxide
MgO/CaO or ionic formula Mg2+O2-/Ca2+O2- In terms of electron arrangement, one magnesium/calcium atom donates
its two outer electrons to one oxygen atom. This results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide
ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like). the valency of both calcium
and oxygen is 2.

magnesium oxide

ONE combines with ONE to form

For magnesium oxide: Mg (2.8.2) + O (2.6) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) O2- (2.8)

the stable 'noble gas' structures can be summarised electronically as [2,8,2] + [2,6] ==> [2,8,8]2+ [2,8]2-

calcium oxide

Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6) ==> Ca2+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)

can be summarised electronically as [2,8,8,2] + [2,6] ==> [2,8,8]2+ [2,8]2-

ONE combines with ONE to form

 Magnesium oxide MgO, magnesium sulphide MgS and calcium sulphide CaS will be similar electronically and give
identical giant ionic lattice structures. Group 2 metals lose the two outer electrons to give the stable 2+ positive ion
(cation) and S and O, both non-metals in Group 6, have 6 outer electrons and gain 2 electrons to form 2- negative ion
(anion).

For magnesium sulphide: Mg (2.8.2) + S (2.8.6) ==> Mg2+ (2.8) S2- (2.8.8)

For calcium sulphide: Ca (2.8.8.2) + S (2.8.6) ==> Ca2+ (2.8.8) S2- (2.8.8)

The dot and cross (ox) diagrams will be identical to that for calcium oxide above, except Mg instead of Ca (same
group) and S instead of O (same group of Periodic Table).

Example 6: A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. aluminium + oxygen ==> aluminium oxide Al2O3 or ionic
formula (Al3+)2(O2-)3 In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to three
oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative oxide ions. All the ions have
the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8. Valencies, Al 3 and O 2.

2Al (2.8.3) + 3O (2.6) ==> 2Al3+ (2.8) 3O2- (2.8)

can be summarised electronically as 2[2,8,3] + 3[2,6] ==> [2,8]3+2 [2,8]2-3

TWO combine with THREE to form

Note:

The charge on the aluminium ion Al3+ is +3 units (shown as 3+) because there are three more positive protons than
there are negative electrons in the aluminium ion.

The charge on the oxide ion O2- is -2 units (shown as 2-) because there are two more negative electrons than there
are positive protons in the oxide ion.

on another web page is how to work out an ionic formula given the ionic charges (combining power)

The properties of Ionic Compounds

 • The diagram on the right is typical of
the giant ionic crystal structure of ionic
compounds like sodium chloride and
magnesium oxide.
• The alternate positive and negative
ions in an ionic solid are arranged in
an orderly way in a giant ionic lattice
structure shown on the left.
• The ionic bond is the strong electrical
attraction between the positive and
negative ions next to each other in the
lattice.
• The bonding extends throughout the
crystal in all directions.
• Salts and metal oxides are typical
ionic compounds.
• This strong bonding force makes the
structure hard (if brittle) and have high
melting and boiling points, so they are
not very volatile!
• A relatively large amount of energy is
needed to melt or boil ionic
compounds. Energy changes for the
physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of differently bonded substances are
compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.
• The bigger the charges on the ions the stronger the bonding attraction e.g. magnesium oxide
Mg2+O2- has a higher melting point than sodium chloride Na+Cl-.
• Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.
• They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along planes of ions which shear
away. They are NOT malleable like metals (see below).
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all, so don't make assumptions. Salts can
dissolve in water because the ions can separate and become surrounded by water molecules
which weakly bond to the ions. This reduces the attractive forces between the ions, preventing the
crystal structure to exist. Evaporating the water from a salt solution will eventually allow the ionic
crystal lattice to reform.

• The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move to carry an
electric current. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid will now
conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free.

Covalent Bonding - electron sharing in big or small molecules!

Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond usually formed between
two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element i.e. one type of atom only OR from different
elements chemically combined to form a compound.

The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive nuclei of the two atoms of
the bond, and the negative electrons between them.

One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons between the same two
atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3 pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
Note: In the examples it is assumed you can work out the electron configuration (arrangement in shells or energy
levels) given the atomic number from the Periodic Table.

This kind of bond or electronic linkage does act in a particular direction i.e. along the 'line' between the two nuclei of
the atoms bonded together, this is why molecules have a particular shape. In the case of ionic or metallic bonding, the
electrical attractive forces act in all directions around the particles involved.

The bonding in Small Covalent Molecules

The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of their formation are shown below. The electrons
are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the electrons come from, though all electrons are the same.
The diagrams may only show the outer electron arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron shells. The
electron structures are given in (). Examples of simple covalent molecules are …

Example 1: two hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2

and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo helium structure of 2 outer
electrons around each atom's nucleus. Any covalent bond is formed from the mutual attraction of two positive nuclei
and negative electrons between them. The nuclei would be a tiny dot in the middle of where the H symbols are drawn!
H valency is 1.

Example 2: two chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2

and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo argon structure of
8 outer electrons around each atom. All the other halogens would be similar e.g. F2, Br2 and I2 etc. Valency of halogens
like chlorine is 1 here.

Example 3: one atom of hydrogen (1) combines with one atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the molecule of the
compound hydrogen chloride HCl

and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium and chlorine like
argon. All the other hydrogen halides will be similar e.g. hydrogen fluoride HF, hydrogen bromide HBr and hydrogen
iodide HI.

Note: Hydrogen chloride gas is a true covalent substance consisting of small HCl molecules. If the gas is dissolved in
a hydrocarbon solvent like hexane or methylbenzene it remains as HCl molecules and because there are no ions
present, the solution does not conduct electricity. However, if hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, things are
very different and the HCl molecules split into ions. Hydrochloric acid is formed which consists of a solution of
hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride ions (Cl-). The solution then conducts electricity and passage of a d.c. current causes
electrolysis to take place forming hydrogen and chlorine.

Reminder: How to work out formula of covalent compounds without going through some demanding electronic
thinking is described on the "Elements, Compounds and Mixtures" page and it is followed by a section on naming
compounds.

Example 4: two atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with one atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule of the compound
water H2O

and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically

like helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as with two hydrogen -
oxygen single covalent bonds (AS note: called a V or bent shape, the H-O-H bond angle is 105o). Hydrogen sulphide
will be similar, since sulphur (2.8.6) is in the same Group 6 as oxygen. Valency of oxygen and sulphur is 2 here.

Example 5: three atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with one atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule of the
compound ammonia NH3

three of and one combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are

electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as
with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds (AS note: called a trigonal pyramid shape, the H-N-H bond angle
is 107o). PH3 will be similar since phosphorus (2.8.5) is in the same Group 5 as nitrogen. Valency of nitrogen or
phosphorus is 3 here.
Example 6: four atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with one atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule of the compound
methane CH4

four of and one of combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are

electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as
with four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds (AS note: called a tetrahedral shape, the H-C-H bond angle is
109o). SiH4 will be similar because silicon (2.8.4) is in the same group as carbon.

All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three examples 7-9, where there is a
double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas outer electron arrangements around each
atom. Carbon and silicon have a valency of 4.

More complex examples can be worked out e.g. involving C, H and O. In each case link in the atoms so that there are
2 around a H (electronically like He), or 8 around the C or O (electronically like Ne).

Example 7: Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen O2.

The molecule has one O=O double covalent bond . Oxygen valency 2.

Example 8: One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to

form the compound carbon dioxide CO2. The molecule can be shown as with two carbon = oxygen
double covalent bonds (AS note: called a linear shape, the O=C=O bond angle is 180o). Valencies of C and O are 4
and 2 respectively.
Example 9: Two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four atoms of hydrogen (1) to

form ethene C2H4. The molecule can be shown as with one carbon = carbon double bond and
four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds (called a planar shape, its completely flat!, the H-C=C and H-C-H bond
angles are 120o). The valency of carbon is still 4.

Examples 10-13: The scribbles below illustrate some more complex examples. Can you deduce them for yourself?
Ex. 10 nitrogen N2; Ex. 11 ethane C2H6; Ex. 12 chloromethane CH3Cl and Ex. 13 methanol CH3OH. Electronic origin of
the diagrams showing the outer electrons of N, C, Cl and O: N at. no. 7 (2.5), H at. no. (1), C at. no. 6 (2.4), Cl at. no.
17 (2.8.7) and O at. no. 8 (2.6) plus a variety of crosses and blobs! The valencies or combining power in theses
examples are N 3, H 1, C 4, Cl 1 and O 2. From these you can work out others e.g. Ex. 12 can be used to derive the
ox diagram for tetrachloromethane CCl4.

Typical properties of simple covalent substances - small molecules!

• The electrical forces of attraction, that is the chemical bond, between atoms in a molecule are usually very
strong, so, most covalent molecules do not change chemically on moderate heating.
o e.g. although a covalent molecule like iodine, I2, is readily vapourised on heating, it does NOT break
up into iodine atoms I. The I-I covalent bond is strong enough to withstand the heating and the purple
vapour still consists of the same I2 molecules as the dark coloured solid is made up of.
• So why the ease of vaporisation on heating?
o The electrical attractive forces between individual molecules are weak, so the bulk material is not very
strong physically and there are also consequences for the melting and boiling points.
• These weak electrical attractions are known as intermolecular forces and are readily weakened further on
heating. The effect of absorbing heat energy results in increased the thermal vibration of the molecules which
weakens the intermolecular forces. In liquids the increase in the average particle kinetic energy makes it
easier for molecules to overcome the intermolecular forces and change into a gas or vapour. Consequently,
 small covalent molecules tend to be volatile liquids with low boiling points, so easily vapourised, or low
melting point solids.
o On heating the inter-molecular forces are easily overcome with the increased kinetic energy of the
particles giving the material a low melting or boiling point and a relatively small amount of energy is
needed to effect these state changes.
o Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of differently
bonded substances are compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.
o This contrasts with the high melting points of giant covalent structures with their strong 3D network.
o Note: The weak electrical attractive forces between molecules, the so called intermolecular forces
should be clearly distinguished between the strong covalent bonding between atoms in molecules
(small or giant), and these are sometimes referred to as intramolecular forces (i.e. internal to the
molecule).
• Covalent structures are usually poor conductors of electricity because there are no free electrons or ions in
any state to carry electric charge.
• Most small molecules will dissolve in some solvent to form a solution.
o This again contrasts with giant covalent structures where the strong bond network stops solvent
molecules interacting with the particles making up the material.
• The properties of these simple small molecules should be compared and contrasted with those molecules of a
giant covalent nature (next section).
o Apart from points on the strong bonds between the atoms in the molecule and the lack of electrical
conduction, all the other properties are significantly different!
•

4. Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties

(macromolecules - giant covalent networks and polymers)

Because covalent bonds act in a particular direction i.e. along the 'line' between the two nuclei of the atoms bonded
together in an individual bond, strong structures can be formed, especially if the covalent bonds are arranged in a
strong three dimensional giant covalent lattice.

The structure of the three allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite and fullerenes), silicon
and silicon dioxide (silica)
DIAGRAMS
• It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent structure or lattice. DIAMOND
The atoms are usually non-metals.
• This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond network or lattice.
• This gives them significantly different properties from the small simple covalent
molecules mentioned above.
• This is illustrated by carbon in the form of diamond (an allotrope of carbon). Carbon
has four outer electrons that form four single bonds, so each carbon bonds to four
others by electron pairing/sharing. Pure silicon, another element in Group 4, has a
similar structure.
o NOTE: Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same
physical state. They occur due to different bonding arrangements and so
diamond, graphite (below) and fullerenes (below) are the three solid
allotropes of the element carbon.
 Oxygen (dioxygen), O2, and ozone (trioxygen), O3, are the two
small gaseous allotrope molecules of the element oxygen.
 Sulphur has three solid allotropes, two different crystalline forms
based on small S8 molecules called rhombic and monoclinic
sulphur and a 3rd form of long chain ( -S-S-S- etc.) molecules
called plastic sulphur.
• TYPICAL PROPERTIES of GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES
• This type of giant covalent structure is thermally very stable and has a very high
melting and boiling points because of the strong covalent bond network (3D or 2D
in the case of graphite below).
• A relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil giant covalent
structures. Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling
for a range of differently bonded substances are compared in a section of the
Energetics Notes.
• They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the electrons are not
usually free to move as they can in metallic structures. SILICA
• Also because of the strength of the bonding in all directions in the structure, they
are often very hard, strong and will not dissolve in solvents like water. The bonding silicon dioxide
network is too strong to allow the atoms to become surrounded by solvent
molecules
• Silicon dioxide (silica, SiO2) has a similar 3D structure and properties to carbon
(diamond) shown below.
• The hardness of diamond enables it to be used as the 'leading edge' on cutting
tools.
• Energy changes for the physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range
of differently bonded substances is given in a section of the Energetics Notes.
• Many naturally occurring minerals are based on -O-X-O- linked 3D structures
where X is often silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al), three of the most abundant
elements in the earth's crust.
o Silicon dioxide is found as quartz in granite (igneous rock) and is the main
component in sandstone - which is a sedimentary rock formed the
compressed erosion products of igneous rocks.

o Many some minerals that are hard wearing, rare and attractive when
polished, hold great value as gemstones.
• Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The carbon atoms form joined GRAPHITE
hexagonal rings forming layers 1 atom thick.
• There are three strong covalent bonds per carbon (3 C-C bonds in a planar
arrangement from 3 of its 4 outer electrons), BUT, the fourth outer electron is
'delocalised' or shared between the carbon atoms to form the equivalent of a 4th
bond per carbon atom (this situation requires advanced level concepts to fully
explain, and this bonding situation also occurs in fullerenes described below, and in
aromatic compounds you deal with at advanced level).
• The layers are only held together by weak intermolecular forces shown by the
dotted lines NOT by strong covalent bonds.
• Like diamond and silica (above) the large molecules of the layer ensure graphite
has typically very high melting point because of the strong 2D bonding network
(note: NOT 3D network)..
• Graphite will not dissolve in solvents because of the strong bonding
• BUT there are two crucial differences compared to diamond ...
o Electrons, from the 'shared bond', can move freely through each layer, so
graphite is a conductor like a metal (diamond is an electrical insulator and
a poor heat conductor). Graphite is used in electrical contacts e.g.
electrodes in electrolysis.
o The weak forces enable the layers to slip over each other so where as
diamond is hard material graphite is a 'soft' crystal, it feels slippery.
Graphite is used as a lubricant.

• These two different characteristics described above are put to a common use with
 the electrical contacts in electric motors and dynamos. These contacts (called
brushes) are made of graphite sprung onto the spinning brass contacts of the
armature. The graphite brushes provide good electrical contact and are self-
lubricating as the carbon layers slide over each other.

Activation Energy and Reaction Profiles

3a. The significance of activation energy

• When gases or liquids are heated the particles gain kinetic energy and move faster increasing the chance of
collision between reactant molecules and therefore the increased chance of a fruitful collision (i.e. one
resulting in product formation).
• However! this is NOT the main reason for the increased reaction speed on increasing the temperature of
reactant molecules because most molecular collisions do not result in chemical change.
• Before any change takes place on collision, the colliding molecules must have a minimum kinetic energy
called the activation energy.
• Do not confuse activation energy with the overall energy change also shown in the diagrams below, that is the
overall energy absorbed-taken in by the system (endothermic) or given out to the surroundings (exothermic).
• It does not matter whether the reaction is an exothermic or an endothermic energy change (see the pair of
reaction profile diagrams below).
• Higher temperature molecules in gases and liquids have a greater average kinetic energy and so a greater
proportion of them will then have the required activation energy to react on collision.
• The increased chance of higher energy collisions greatly increases the speed of the reaction because it
greatly increases the chance of a fruitful collision forming the reaction products by bonds being broken in the
reactants and new bonds formed in the reaction products.
• The activation energy 'hump' can be related to the process of bond breaking and making (see section 5.).
o Up the hump is endothermic, representing breaking bonds (energy absorbed, needed to pull atoms
apart),
o down the other side of the hump is exothermic, representing bond formation (energy released, as
atoms become electronically more stable).

Catalysts and Activation Energy

• Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by helping break chemical bonds in reactant molecules.
• This effectively means the activation energy is reduced (see diagram 'humps' below).
• Therefore at the same temperature, more reactant molecules have enough kinetic energy to react compared
to the uncatalysed situation and so the reaction speeds up with the greater chance of a 'fruitful' collision.
 o Note that a catalyst does NOT change the energy of the molecules, it reduces the threshold kinetic
energy needed for a molecules to react.
• Although a true catalyst does take part in the reaction, it does not get used up and can be reused with more
reactants, it may change chemically on a temporary basis but would be reformed as the reaction products
also form.
• However a solid catalyst might change physically permanently by becoming more finely divided, especially if
the reaction is exothermic.
• Also note from the diagram that although the activation energy is reduced, the overall exothermic or
endothermic energy change is the same for both the catalysed or uncatalysed reaction. The catalyst might
help break the bonds BUT it cannot change the actual bond energies.

5. Calculation of heat transfer using bond energies (bond enthalpies)

• PLEASE NOTE that section 5. is for higher GCSE students and an introduction for advanced level students of
how to do bond enthalpy (bond dissociation energy) calculations.
• Atoms in molecules are held together by chemical bonds which are the electrical attractive forces between the
atoms.
• The bond energy is the energy involved in making or breaking bonds and is usually quoted in kJ per mole of
the particular bond involved.
• To break a chemical bond requires the molecule to take in energy to pull atoms apart, which is an
endothermic change. The atoms of the bond vibrate more until they spring apart.
• To make a chemical bond, the atoms must give out energy to become combined and electronically more
stable in the molecule, this is an exothermic change.
• The energy to make or break a chemical bond is called the bond energy and is quoted in kJ/mol of bonds.
o Each bond has a typical value e.g. to break 1 mole of C-H bonds is on average about 413kJ,
 o the C=O takes an average 743 kJ/mol in organic compounds and 803 kJ/mol in carbon dioxide, and
note the stronger double bond, so more energy is needed,
o and not surprisingly, a typical double bond needs more energy to break than a typical single bond.
• During a chemical reaction, energy must be supplied to break chemical bonds in the molecules, this the
endothermic 'upward' slope on the reaction profile on diagrams above.
• When the new molecules are formed, new bonds must be made in the process, this is the exothermic
'downward' slope on the reaction profile on diagrams above.
• If we know all the bond energies (enthalpies) f the molecules involved in a reaction, we can theoretically
calculate what the net energy change is for that reaction and determine whether the reaction is exothermic or
endothermic.
o These arguments can then be used to explain why reactions can be exothermic or endothermic.
• We do this by calculating the energy taken in to break the bonds in the reactant molecules. We then calculate
the energy given out when the new bonds are formed. The difference between these two gives us the net
energy change.
o In a reaction energy must be supplied to break bonds (energy absorbed, taken in, endothermic).
o Energy is released when new bonds are formed (energy given out, releases, exothermic).
o If more energy is needed to break the original existing bonds of the reactant molecules, than is given
out when the new bonds are formed in the product molecules, the reaction is endothermic i.e. less
energy is released to the surroundings than is taken in to break the reactant molecule bonds.
o If less energy is needed to break the original existing bonds of the reactant molecules, than is given
out when the new bonds are formed in the product molecules, the reaction is exothermic i.e. more
energy released to surroundings than is taken in to break bonds of reactants.
o So the overall energy change for a reaction (ΔH) is the overall energy net change from the bond
making and bond forming processes. These ideas are illustrated in the calculations below.
• Example 5.1 Hydrogen + Chlorine ==> Hydrogen Chloride
o The symbol equation is: H2(g) + Cl2(g) ==> 2HCl(g)
o but think of it as: H-H + Cl-Cl ==> H-Cl + H-Cl
o (where - represents the chemical bonds to be broken or formed)
o the bond energies in kJ/mol are: H-H 436; Cl-Cl 242; H-Cl 431
o Energy needed to break bonds = 436 + 242 = 678 kJ taken in
o Energy released on bond formation = 431 + 431 = 862 kJ given out
o The net difference between them = 862-678 = 184 kJ given out (92 kJ per mole of HCl formed)
o More energy is given out than taken in, so the reaction is exothermic.
• Example 5.2 Hydrogen Bromide ==> Hydrogen + Bromine
o The symbol equation is: 2HBr(g) ==> H2(g) + Br2(g)
o but think of it as: H-Br + H-Br ==> H-H + Br-Br
o (where - represents the chemical bonds to be broken or formed)
o the bond energies in kJ/mol are: H-Br 366; H-H 436; Br-Br 193
o Energy needed to break bonds = 366 + 366 = 732 kJ taken in
o Energy released on bond formation = 436 + 193 = 629 kJ given out
o The net difference between them = 732-629 = 103 kJ taken in (51.5kJ per mole of HBr decomposed)
o More energy is taken in than given out, so the reaction is endothermic
• Example 5.3 hydrogen + oxygen ==> water
o 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(g)
o or 2 H-H + O=O ==> 2 H-O-H (where - or = represent the covalent bonds)
o bond energies in kJ/mol: H-H is 436, O=O is 496 and O-H is 463
o bonds broken and energy absorbed (taken in):
o (2 x H-H) + (1 x O=O) = (2 x 436) + (1 x 496) = 1368 kJ
o bonds made and energy released (given out):
o (4 x O-H) = (4 x 463) = 1852 kJ
 o overall energy change is:
o 1852 - 1368 = 484 kJ given out (242 kJ per mole hydrogen burned or water formed)
o since more energy is given out than taken in, the reaction is exothermic.
o NOTE: Hydrogen gas can be used as fuel and a long-term possible alternative to fossil fuels (see
methane combustion below in example 5..
 It burns with a pale blue flame in air reacting with oxygen to be oxidised to form water.
 hydrogen + oxygen ==> water
 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l)
 It is a non-polluting clean fuel since the only combustion product is water and so its use would
not lead to all environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels.
 It would be ideal if it could be manufactured cheaply by electrolysis of water e.g. using solar
cells, otherwise electrolysis is very expensive due to high cost of electricity.
 Hydrogen can be used to power fuel cells.
• Example 5.4 nitrogen + hydrogen ==> ammonia
o N2(g) + 3H2(g) ==> 2NH3(g)

o or N N + 3 H-H ==> 2
o bond energies in kJ/mol: N N is 944, H-H is 436 and N-H is 388
o bonds broken and energy absorbed (taken in):
 (1 x N N) + (3 x H-H) = (1 x 944) + (3 x 436) = 2252 kJ
o bonds made and energy released (given out):
 2 x (3 x N-H) = 2 x 3 x 388 = 2328 kJ
o overall energy change is:
 2328 - 2252 = 76 kJ given out (38 kJ per mole of ammonia formed)
o since more energy is given out than taken in, the reaction is exothermic.
• Example 5.5 methane + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water
o CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ==> CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

o or

o or using displayed formulae

o bond energies in kJ/mol:
 C-H single bond is 412, O=O double bond is 496, C=O double bond is 803 (in carbon
dioxide), H-O single bond is 463
o bonds broken and heat energy absorbed from surroundings, endothermic change
 (4 x C-H) + 2 x (1 x O=O) = (4 x 412) + 2 x (1 x 496) = 1648 + 992 = 2640 kJ taken in
o bonds formed and heat energy released and given out to surroundings, exothermic change
 (2 x C=O) + 2 x (2 x O-H) = (2 x 803) + 2 x (2 x 463) = 1606 + 1852 = 3458 given out
o overall energy change is:
 3338 - 2640 = 698 kJ/mol given out per mole methane burned,
 since more energy is given out than taken in, the reaction is exothermic.
o This shows that heats of combustion can be theoretically calculated.
o NOTE: This is the typical very exothermic combustion chemistry of burning fossil fuels but has many
associated environmental problems. (see Oil Note and Extra Organic Chemistry)
• Example 5.6 analysing the bonds in more complex molecules

o ethyl ethanoate
 2 x C-C single covalent bonds
 8 x C-H single covalent bonds
 2 x C-O single covalent bonds
 1 x C=O double covalent bond

o ethanol
 1 x C-C single covalent bond
 5 x C-H single covalent bonds
 1 x C-O single covalent bond
 1 x O-H single covalent bond
o If you wanted to work out the theoretical enthalpy/heat of combustion of propane, you could base
your calculation on the displayed formula equation

o
o Endothermic bond breaking: 8 C-H bonds broken, 2 C-C bonds broken, 5 O=O bonds broken.
o Exothermic bond formation: 6 x C=O bonds made, 8 x O-H bonds made.

BONDING IN METALS

•A giant metallic lattice. The crystal lattice of metals

consists of ions NOT atoms surrounded by a 'sea
of electrons' forming another type of giant lattice.
• The outer electrons (-) from the original metal
atoms are free to move around between the
positive metal ions formed (+).
• These free or 'delocalised' electrons are the
'electronic glue' holding the particles together.
• There is a strong electrical force of attraction
between these mobile electrons (-) and the 'immobile' positive metal ions (+) and this is the
metallic bond.

• Metallic bonding is not directional like covalent bonding, it is like ionic bonding in the sense that
the force of attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile electrons acts in every
direction about the fixed (immobile) metal ions.

Explaining the physical properties of metals

• This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting and boiling points.
 o Usually a relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil metals. Energy changes for the
physical changes of state of melting and boiling for a range of differently bonded substances are
compared in a section of the Energetics Notes.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the charge of an electric current
when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a piece of metal.
• Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving electrons. Non-metallic solids
conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms, knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating
atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy
electrons move around freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.
• Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished by corrosive oxidation in
air and water.
• Unlike ionic solids, metals are very malleable, they can be readily bent, pressed or hammered into shape. The
layers of atoms can slide over each other without fracturing the structure (see below). The reason for this is
the mobility of the electrons. When planes of metal atoms are 'bent' or slide the electrons can run in between
the atoms and maintain a strong bonding situation. This can't happen in ionic solids.
• For more on the properties and uses of metals see Transition Metals and Extra Industrial Chemistry pages
and the note and diagram below.

Note on Alloy Structure

1. Shows the regular arrangement of the atoms in a metal crystal and the white spaces show where the
free electrons are (yellow circles actually positive metal ions).
2. Shows what happens when the metal is stressed by a strong force. The layers of atoms can slide
over each other and the bonding is maintained as the mobile electrons keep in contact with atoms,
so the metal remains intact BUT a different shape.
3. Shows an alloy mixture. It is NOT a compound but a physical mixing of a metal plus at least one
other material (shown by red circle, it can be another metal e.g. Ni, a non-metal e.g. C or a
compound of carbon or manganese, and it can be bigger or smaller than iron atoms). Many alloys
are produced to give a stronger metal. The presence of the other atoms (smaller or bigger) disrupts
the symmetry of the layers and reduces the 'slip ability' of one layer next to another. The result is a
stronger harder less malleable metal.

4. The main point about using alloys is that you can make up, and try out, all sorts of different
compositions until you find the one that best suits the required purpose.

The three fundamental particles of which atoms are composed

 What can we say about 'A Portrait of an Atom'? - an image of what you can't see!

• The diagram below 'portrait of an atom' above, gives some idea on the structure of an atom (sometimes
called the Bohr Atomic Model), it also includes some important definitions and notation used to describe
atomic structure
o The three fundamental particles you need to know are
o proton: mass = 1, charge = +1, the charged particle in the nucleus
o neutron: mass = 1, charge = 0, uncharged particle in the nucleus
o electron: mass = 1/1850 ~1/2000, charge = -1, NOT in nucleus, in an energy level around the
nucleus.
o Incidently, must of the volume of an atom is where the electrons are, the nucleus of protons plus
neutrons is on about a ten thousandth of the diameter of an atom.
• Protons and neutrons are the 'nucleons' or 'sub-atomic' particles present in the minute positive nucleus and
the negative electrons are held by the positive protons in 'orbits' called energy levels or shells.
• Some important evidence for this 'picture' is obtained from alpha particle scattering experiments (see
Appendix 1).
• The atomic/proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus and is also known as the proton
number of the particular element.
• It is the proton/atomic number (Z) that determines the number of electrons an element has, its specific
electron structure and therefore the specific identity of a particular element in terms of its physical and
chemical properties.
• It cannot be overemphasised that it is the electronic structure that determines the chemical character of an
element, hence the proton/atomic number determines everything about a particular element
• The mass number (A) is also known as the nucleon number, that is the number of particles in the nucleus of a
particular atom-isotope (notes on isotopes - definition and examples).
o Therefore the mass/nucleon number = sum of the protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
• The neutron number (N) = mass number - proton/atomic number
• In a neutral atom the number of protons (+) equals the number of electrons (-), that is the number of positive
charges is equal to the number of negative charges.
o If not, and the atom has an overall surplus electrical charge, and is then called an ion e.g.
 the positive sodium ion Na+ (11 protons, 10 electrons, excess positive protons),
 or the negative chloride ion Cl- (17 protons, 18 electrons, excess negative electrons,
 for more details and examples see ionic bonding notes.
• Other alternative atomic structure diagrams than the one below are described and shown in Appendix 2.
• In the example below for lithium-7, the nuclide notation states that
o before the chemical symbol of the element Li
o the top left number = nucleon/mass number = 7
o and the bottom left number = proton/atomic number = 3
• The electrons are arranged in specific energy levels according to a set of rules (dealt with in section 3).
• This description of an atom consisting of the relatively minute nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by
electrons in particular shells or energy levels is sometimes referred to as the Bohr Model of the atom, after the
great Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885-1962), one of the brilliant founders of modern atomic theory.
• Other examples of interpreting the nuclide notation and definition reminders:
o Top left number is the nucleon number or mass number (A = sum of protons + neutrons = nucleons)
o Bottom left number is the atomic number or proton number (Z = protons in nucleus)
o Electrons = protons if the atom is electrically neutral i.e. NOT an ion.
o The neutron number N = A - Z i.e. mass/nucleon number - atomic/proton number

 Iron atom (iron-56), 26 protons, 30 neutrons (56 - 26), 26 electrons

 Cobalt atom (cobalt-59), 27 protons, 32 neutrons (59 - 27), 27 electrons

 Californium atom (californium-98), 98 protons, 148 neutrons (246 - 98), 98 electrons

2. ISOTOPES

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and therefore different masses
(different nucleon/mass numbers). This gives each isotope of a particular element a different mass or nucleon
number, but, being the same element they have the same atomic or proton number and are identical
chemically.
• The phrase 'heavier' or 'lighter' isotope means 'bigger' or 'smaller' mass number.
• There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a greater density or
boiling point, the lighter the isotope the faster it diffuses.
• However, because they have the same number of protons (proton/atomic number) isotopes of a particular
element have the same electronic structure and identical chemistry.
• Examples of isotopes are illustrated and described below.
• Caution Note: Do NOT assume the word isotope means the atom it is radioactive, this depends on the
stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms (radioactive) might be referred to as radioisotopes.
• Many isotopes are extremely stable in the nuclear sense and NOT radioactive i.e. most of the atoms that
make up you and the world around you!

• , and are the three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1, 2 and 3, with 0, 1 and
2 neutrons respectively. All have 1 proton, since all are hydrogen! Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a
trace of hydrogen-2 (sometimes called deuterium) naturally but hydrogen-3 (sometime called tritium) is very
unstable and is used in atomic bombs - nuclear fusion weapons.
o They are sometimes denoted more simply as 1H, 2H and 3H since the chemical symbol H means
hydrogen and therefore must have only one proton.

• and or 3He and 4He, are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1
and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear
fusion process. Helium-4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha decay of an unstable
nucleus.
 o An alpha particle is a helium nucleus and if it picks up two electrons it becomes a stable atoms of the
gas helium.

• and or 23Na and 24Na, are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and
24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in common
salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a
radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
• The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all the isotopes present compared to 1/12th of
the mass of carbon-12 atom (12C = 12.00000 i.e. the standard)