1.

1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Often in practical applications the value of one
quantity depends on the value of another. A persons
salary may depend on the number of hours worked;
the total production at a factory may depend on the
number of machines used; the distance traveled by
an object may depend on the time elapsed since it
left a specific point; the volume of space occupied by
a gas having a constant pressure depends on the
temperature of the gas; the resistance of an
electrical cable of fixed length depends on its
diameter; and so forth. A relationship between such
quantities is often given by means of a function. In
calculus, the quantities in the relationship are real
numbers.
A function can be thought of as a correspondence
from a set X of real numbers to a set Y of real
numbers y, where the number y is unique for a
specific value of x.
ILLUSTRATION 1 With interval notation, the domain
of the function defined by the equation
y = x2
is (- , +) and the range is [0, +).
ILLUSTRATION 2 Let f be the function defined by the
equation
y=
Because the numbers are confined to real numbers, y
is a function of x only for x 2 because for any x
satisfying this inequality, a unique value of y is
determined. However, if x < 2, a square root of a
negative number is obtained, and hence no real
number y exists. Therefore we must restrict x so that
x 2. Thus the domain of f is the interval *2, +), and
the range is *0, +).
ILLUSTRATION 3 Let g be the function defined by the
equation
y=
We observe that y is a function of x only for x 3 or x
-3 (or simply |x| 3); for any x satisfying either of
these inequalities, a unique value of y is determined.
No real value of y is determined if x is in the open
interval (-3, 3), because for these values of x a square
root of a negative number is obtained. Hence the
domain of g is (-, -3] *3, +), and the range is *0,
+).
We can consider a function as a set of ordered pairs.
For instance, the function defined by the equation y
2
= x consists of all ordered pairs (x, y) satisfying the
equation. The ordered pairs in this function given by
Table 1 are (1, 1), (3/2, 9/4), (4, 16), (0, 0), (-1, 1), (-
3/2, 9/4), and (-4, 16). Of course, there is an
unlimited number of ordered pairs in the function.
Some others are (2, 4), (-2, 4), (5, 25), (-5, 25), (3, 3),
and so on.
ILLUSTRATION 4 The function f of Illustration 2 is the
set of ordered pairs (x, y) for which y = x2 2. With
symbols we write
f = {(x, y) | y = }
Some of the ordered pairs in f are (2, 0), (9/4, ), (3,
1), (4, 2), (5, 3), (6, 2), (11, 3).
ILLUSTRATION 5 The function g of Illustration 3 is the
set of ordered pairs (x, y) for which y = x2 9; that
is,
g = {(x, y) | y = }
Some of the ordered pairs in g are (3, 0), (4, 7), (5,
4), (-3, 0), (-13, 2).
We now state formally that a function is a set of
ordered pairs. Defining a function this way, rather
than as a rule or correspondence, makes it meaning
precise.
1.1.1 Definition of a Function
A function is a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x, y)
in which no two distinct ordered pairs have the same
first number. The set of all admissible values of x is
called the domain of the function, and the set of all
resulting values of y is called the range of the
function.
In this definition, the restriction that no two distinct
ordered pairs can have the same first number
ensures that y is unique for a specific value of x. The
symbols x and y denote variables. Because the value
of y is dependent on the choice of x, x denotes the
independent variable and y denotes the dependent
variable.
The f is the function having domain variable x and
range variable y, the symbol f(x) (read f of x)
denotes the particular value of y that corresponds to
the value of x. The notation f(x), called a function
value, is due to the Swiss mathematician and
physicist Leonhard Euler (1707 1783).
2
ILLUSTRATION 6 In Illustration 2, f = {(x, y) | y = x
2}, Thus
f(x) =
We compute f(x) for some specific values of x.
f(3) = f(5) =
=1 = 3
f(6) = f(9) =
=2 = 7
When defining 2 function, the domain must be given
either implicitly or explicitly. For instance, if f is
defined by
f(x) = 3x2 - 5x + 2
the function has a value if x is any real number; the
domain is, therefore, the set of all real numbers.
However, if f is defined by
f(x) = 3x2 - 5x + 2 1 x 10
then the domain of f consists of all real numbers
between and including 1 and 10.
Similarly, if g is defined by the equation
g(x) =
it is implied that x -4, because the quotient is
undefined for x = -4; hence, the domain of g is the set
all real numbers except -4,
If h is defined by the equation
h(x) = 4 - x2
the domain of h is the closed interval [-2, 2] because
4 - x2 is not a real number for x > 2 or x < -2. The
range of h is [0, 2].
EXAMPLE 1 Given the f is the function defined by
f(x) = x2 + 3x 4
find: (a) f(0); (b) f(2); (c) f(h); (d) f(2h); (e) f(2x); (f) f(x
+ h); (g) f(x) + f(h).
SOLUTION
(a) f(x) = 02 + 3(0) 4
= -4
(b) f(2) = 22 + 3(2) 4
 =6
(c) f(x) = h2 + 3h 4
(d) f(2h) = (2h) 2 + 3(2h) 4
= 4h2 + 6h 4
2
(e) f(2x) = (2x) + 3(2x) 4
= 4x2 + 6x 4
(f) f(x + h) = (x + h)2 + 3(x + h) 4
= x2 + 2hx + h2 + 3x + 3h 4

= x2 + (2h +3)x + (h2 + 3h 4)

(g) f(x) + f(h) = (x2 + 3x - 4) + (h2 + 3h 4)
= x2 + 3x + (h2 + 3h 8)
Compare the computations in parts (f) and (g) of
Example 1. In part (f) the computation is for f(x + h),
which is the function value at the sum of x and h. In
part (g), where f(x) and f(h).
In Chapter 2 we need to compute quotients of the
form
( ) ( )
h0
This quotient arises as the slope of the line through
the points (x, f(x)) and (x + h, f(x + h)) on the graph of
the function defined by y = f(x). See Figure 3. If, in the
computation, the difference of two radicals appears
in the numerator, we rationalize the numerator, as in
part (b) of the following example.

EXAMPLE 2 Find
( ) ( )

Where h 0, if (a) f(x) = 4x2 - 5x + 7; (b) f(x) = x.

SOLUTION
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(a)

=
 = 8x 5 + 4h
( ) ( )
(b)
( )( )
=
( )
( )
=
( )

=
( )

=

In the second step of part (b) of this solution the
numerator and denominator are multiplied by the
conjugate of the numerator in order to rationalize
the numerator, and this gives a common factor of h
in the numerator and denominator.
The concept of a function as a set of ordered pairs
lead to the following definition of the graph of the
function.
1.1.2 Definition of the Graph of a
Function
If f is a function, then the graph of f is the set of all
points (x, y) in the plane R2 for which (x, y) is an
ordered pair in f.
From this definition, the graph of a function f is the
same as the graph of the equation y = f(x).
The graph of the function of Illustration 1 is the
parabola sketched in Figure 4. The graph of function f
of Illustrations 2 and 4 and sketched in Figure 5 is the
top half of parabola. The graph of function g of
Illustrations 3 and 5 is sketched in Figure 6; this graph
is the top half of a hyperbola.

Recall that for a function a unique value of the

dependent variable exists for each value of the
independent variable in the domain of the function.
In geometric terms, this means:
A vertical line intersects the graph of a function in at
most one point.
Observe that in Figures 4, 5 and 6, a vertical line
intersects each graph in at most one point.
ILLUSTRATION 7 Consider the set {(x, y) | x2 + y2 =
25}, whose graph is the circle, of radius 5 with center
at the origin, sketched in Figure 7. This set of ordered
pairs is not a function because for any x in the
interval (-5, 5) two ordered pairs have x as the first
number. For example, both (3, 4) and (3, -4) are
ordered pairs in the given set. Furthermore, observe
that a vertical line having the equation x = a, where -
5 < a < 5, intersects the circle in two points.

EXAMPLE 3 Determine the domain of the function g

defined by
g(x) = ( )
Support the answer by plotting the graph on a
graphics calculator.
SOLUTION Because ( ) is not a real number
when x(x 2) < 0, the domain of g consists of the
values of x for which x(x -2) 0. This inequality will be
satisfied when one of the following two cases holds:
x 0 and x 2 0; or x 0 and x 2 0.
Case 1: x 0 and x 2 0. That is,
x0 and x2
Both inequalities hold if x 2, which is the interval *2,
+).
Case 2: x 0 and x 2 0, That is,
x0 and x2
Both inequalities hold if x 0, which is the interval (-
, 0].
The solutions for the two cases are combined to
obtain the domain of g. It is (-, 0] [2, +).
The graph of g is plotted in Figure 8. The graph comes
down from the left x= 0, goes up to the right from x =
2 and contains no points when x is in the open
interval (0, 2). The graph, therefore, supports our
answer.
You have seen that the domain of a function can
usually be determined by the functions definition.
Often the range can be determined by the graph of
the function as in the next example involving a
piecewise-defined function, one that if defined by
using more than one expression.
EXAMPLE 4 Let f be the function defined by
f(x) = {x 1 if x < 3.
{5 if x = 3.
{2x + 1 if 3 < x.
Determine the domain and range of f, and sketch its
graph.
SOLUTION The domain of f is (-, +). Figure 9
shows the graph of f; it consists of the portion of the
line y = x 1 for which x < 3, the point (3, 5), and the
portion of the line y = 2x + 1 for which 3 < x. The
function values are either numbers less than 2, the
number 5, or numbers greater than 7. Therefore the
range of f is the number 5 and those numbers in (-,
2] [7, +).
Piecewise-defined functions will be
useful to us in our study of limits,
continuity, and the derivative as
examples and counterexamples of
function having certain properties.
For instance, the graph of the
function in Example 4 has a break at
the point where x = 3 which, as you will learn in
Section 1.8, indicates that the function is
discontinuous for the value of x. In the following
example, we have a piecewise-defined function
whose graph has no break at the value of x at which
the defining expressions change, in this case at x = 1.
EXAMPLE 5 Let g be the function defined by
g(x) = {3x 2 if x < 1
{x2 if 1 x
Determine the domain and range of g, and sketch its
graph.
SOLUTION The domain of g is (-, +). The graph
contains the portion of the line y = 3x 2 for which x
< 1 and the portion of the parabola y = x2 for which 1
x. The graph is sketched in Figure 10. The range is (-
, +).

EXAMPLE 6 The function h is defined by

( )
Determine the domain and rage of h, and sketch its
graph.
SOLUTION Because h(x) is defined for all x except 3,
the domain of h is the set of all real numbers except
3. When x = 3, both the numerator and denominator
are zero, and 0/0 is undefined.
Factoring the numerator into (x 3)(x + 3) we obtain
 ( )( )
( )
or h(x) = x + 3, provided that x 3. In order words,
the function h can be defined by
( ) if x 3
The graph of h consists of all points on the line y = x +
3 except the point (3, 6), and it appears in Figure 11.
The range of h is the set of all real numbers except 6.

In Example 6, the graph has a hole, or deleted

point, at x = 3 where h(3) is not defined. In the next
example, the graph also has a hole at x = 3, but the
function value at 3 is defined.
EXAMPLE 7 Let H be function defined by
H(x) = {x + 3 if x 3
{2 if x = 3
Determine the domain and range of H and sketch its
graph.
SOLUTION Because H is defined for all x, its domain is
(-, +). The graph of H is sketched in Figure 12. The
range is the set of all real numbers except 6.

EXAMPLE 8 The function f is defined by

f(x) = {x2 if x 2
{7 if x = 3
Determine the domain and range of f and sketch its
graph.
SOLUTION Because f is defined for all x, the domain
is (-, +). The graph, appearing in Figure 13,
consist of the point (2, 7) and all points on the
parabola y = x2 except (2, 4). The range is [0, +).
The function in the next example is called the
absolute value function.
EXAMPLE 9 Determine the domain and range of the
function f for which
f(x) = |x| and sketch its graph.
SOLUTION From the definition of |x|.
f(x) = {x if x 0
{x if x < 0
The domain is (-, +). The graph of f consists of
two half lines through the origin and above the x
axis; one has slope 1 and the other has slope -1. See
Figure 14. The range is *0, +).
The absolute value function is built-in on graphics
calculators and is usually denoted by ABS. Another
function built-on on graphics calculators is the
greatest integer function whose function values are
denoted by [[x]] defined by
[[x]] = n if n x < n + 1, where n is an
integer
That is, [[x]] is the greatest integer less than or equal
to x. In particular, [[1]] = 1, [[1, 3]] = 1, [[0.5]] = 0, [[-
4, 2]] = -5, and [[-8]] = -8.
The graph of the greatest integer function is sketched
in Figure 15. Its domain is the set of all real numbers
and its range consists of all the integers. On many
graphics calculators the greatest integer function is
denoted by INT.
EXAMPLE 10 Sketch the graph of the function G
defined by
G(x) = [[x]] x
And determine its domain and range. Supports the
answer by plotting the graph on a graphics
calculator.
SOLUTION Because G is defined for all values of x, its
domain is (-, +). From the definition of **x++, we
have the following:
If -2 x < -1, [[x]] = -2; therefore G(x) = -2 x
If -1 x < -0, [[x]] = -1; therefore G(x) = 12 x
If 0 x < 1, [[x]] = -0; therefore G(x) = -x
If 1 x < 2, [[x]] = 1; therefore G(x) = 1 - x
If 2 x < 3, [[x]] = 2; therefore G(x) = 2 x
And so on. More generally, if n is any integer, then
If n x < n + 1, [[x]] = n; therefore G(x) = n x
With these function values we sketch the graph of G
appearing in Figure 16. From the graph we observe
that the range is (-1, 0]. We plot the graph of G(x) =
INT(x) x and obtain Figure 17, which supports our
answer.