International Journal of Remote Sensing

ISSN: 0143-1161 (Print) 1366-5901 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tres20

Slow movements observed with in situ and

remote-sensing techniques in the central zone of
Chile

I. Fustos, D. Remy, R. Abarca-Del-Rio & A. Muoz

To cite this article: I. Fustos, D. Remy, R. Abarca-Del-Rio & A. Muoz (2017): Slow movements
observed with in situ and remote-sensing techniques in the central zone of Chile, International
Journal of Remote Sensing, DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2017.1317944

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1317944

Published online: 15 May 2017.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1317944

Slow movements observed with in situ and remote-sensing

techniques in the central zone of Chile
a,b,c
I. Fustos , D. Remyd, R. Abarca-Del-Riob and A. Muoze
a
Doctorado en Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad de Concepcin, Concepcin, Chile; bDepartamento de
Geofsica, Universidad de Concepcin, Concepcin, Chile; cDepartamento de Ingeniera en Obras
Civiles, Universidad de la Frontera, Temuco, Chile; dGET/UMR5563 (CNRS-UPS-IRD-CNES), Observatoire
Midi-Pyrnes, Toulouse, France; eTerraData Limitada, Concepcin, Chile

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Slow movement processes correspond to slow to extremely slow Received 1 November 2016
deformation in slopes. Slow movement is often known to be the Accepted 23 March 2017
cause of severe damage to structures and infrastructures. In the
Northern Biobo hillside (NBH), many slow movements were not
previously identied, which led to building damage. To evaluate
their triggering factors, we use two complementary techniques:
interferometry of synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) and electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT). We observed deformation patterns
using SAR data derived from PALSAR-1 during a year that exhib-
ited extreme rainfall (2006). We established that reactivation of
slow movements occurs during extreme rainfall periods, which can
be observed through deformation patterns. ERT inversion results
reveal a formation of silt and clay layers. Our results indicate the
existence of slow movement processes close to densely populated
areas. An interpretation of InSAR and ERT results showed that
during extreme rain events, soil saturation occurs. The silt layer
loads the hillslope and the clay layer acts as a lubricant below the
silt.

1. Introduction
Slow movement processes or soil slope deformation correspond to slow to extremely
slow deformation of valley or hill slopes formed of (usually cohesive) soils (Hungr,
Leroueil, and Picarelli 2014). Slow movement process (SMP) can occur due to gravita-
tional forces and other factors such as rainfall, earthquakes and human activities
(Varnes 1984). Many times, information of slow movement with extremely slow
velocities (<16 mm year1) are not always identied in eld (Blais-Stevens and
Couture 2009). However, slow movement are often known to be the cause of severe
damage to structures and infrastructures (Picarelli and Russo 2004; Mansour,
Morgenstern, and Martin 2011). For these cases, the relationship between slow move-
ment rates and the extent of damage to buildings can be evaluated using multi-
sensor data (Mansour, Morgenstern, and Martin 2011). These results allow a sound

CONTACT I. Fustos ivo.fustos@ufrontera.cl Doctorado en Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad de Concepcin,

Concepcin, Chile
2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

understanding of slow movement processes will allow determining individual build-

ings susceptibility to damage (Angeli, Pasuto, and Silvano 2000), and would keep
people and structures safer. For this purpose, several in situ and remote techniques
were used according to available data. In situ techniques allow a visual and instru-
mental identication of SMP (Lopez-Saez et al. 2013; Xu et al. 2014). Electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT) (Lebourg et al. 2005.; Bronnimann 2011; Gunn et al.
2014) and monitoring using inclinometers (Angeli, Pasuto, and Silvano 2000;
Calcaterra et al. 2012; Conte, Donato, and Troncone 2014; Herrera et al. 2013) or
GPS (Squarzoni, Delacourt, and Allemand 2005; Calcaterra et al. 2012) allow estima-
tions of local geometry or surface deformation. These methods oer an advantage in
identifying precise SMP extension. Furthermore, in situ implementation in wide areas
increases the complexity of the measurements. Literature surrounding SMP show that
a greater instrumental eort is required, because in situ instrumentation is limited by
economic and technical factors.
This problem can be resolved using remote-sensed information. There are several
examples of SMP studies using remote sensing in the literature, such as lidar (Van Den
Eeckhaut et al. 2007; Teza et al. 2008) or synthetic aperture radar (SAR) (Delacourt et al.
2009; Handwerger, Roering, and Schmidt 2013; Herrera et al. 2013). Within the remote
sensors, SAR data can be used for the identication and observation of high resolution
surface deformation (Delacourt et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2014). SAR data exploration using
the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) technique identies deformation
patterns in large areas, which can create a spatial delimitation of the deformation in
non-studied zones. Thus, InSAR can potentially be implemented in shallow SMP studies
(Lucas et al. 2007; Delacourt et al. 2009; Chul Jung and Alsdorf 2010). Nevertheless, with
this technique it is not possible to dene the depth of the area with the deployed
material, which is why only one deformation pattern can be obtained by SAR
techniques.
Although the area of deployed material cannot be studied via remote techniques, it is
possible to do so via in situ measurements like ERT (Gunn et al. 2014; Gardi 2014). This
technique characterizes each type of soil by its electrical resistivity, which can change
according to its mineralogical composition and weathering degree. By successive mea-
surements, it is possible to create resistivity soil proles using ERT, with the advantage of
dierentiating its compositional variation and soils weathering degree in depth (Kearey,
Brooks, and Hill 2002). With this information, the user can create resistivity proles
associated with the soils Geotechnical classication. This technique has been applied
recently, with the intent of making SMP geometry (Lebourg et al. 2005; Bronnimann
2011; Gunn et al. 2014; Gardi 2014). Nevertheless, the technique does not provide
information about momentary deformation, but only about soils composition (Kearey,
Brooks, and Hill 2002).
SAR techniques have the advantage of identifying deformation patterns, but they do
not provide an understanding of the soil composition. On the other hand, ERT techni-
ques provide knowledge of the relative soil composition at dierent depths without
providing information about clear deformation patterns delimitation. Therefore, we
understand that in situ and remote techniques have strengths and weaknesses that
must be evaluated before implementation. Thus, we used SAR data to distinguish and
evaluate deformed areas and compared them with ERT measurements. Our aim is to
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 3

integrate remote and in situ measurements to determine susceptible areas to protect

them from the damage of SMP during seasons of extreme rainfall.

2. Study area and methodology

2.1. Study area
The investigated area is the Northern Biobo hillside (NBH, ~36 S, 72 W, Figure 1). These
zones are located in the southwest of South America within the central-south area of
Chile. Atmospherically, the area experiences a Mediterranean climate showing rainy
winters and dry/warm summers (Devynck 1970). Frontal system dynamics cause intense
rainy periods during the winter season (Barrett, Garreaud, and Falvey 2009). On the
hillslope, several rain thresholds have been established (Cuevas 2012). These thresholds
change spatially, varying between 7.8 mm over 14 h, up to 50 mm over 48 h. Currently,
surveys over the study zone have established a threshold of 200 mm over 72 h
(Mardones and Vidal 2001; Mardones, Echeverria, and Jara 2004).
This zone contains sectors that are geomorphologically dierentiated, such as the
Coastal Mountain Range (Cordillera de la Costa in Spanish) and a lesser area of coastal
plains. The Coastal Mountain Range shows heights up to 650 (m.a.s.l.) with moderate
hillslopes. High chemical weathering processes take a toll on granitic and metamorphic
rocks from the Paleozoic age in the Coastal Mountain Range. The weathering processes
have degraded the medium in dierent soil types, such as clayey-silt, gravel, clays, and
silts. These soils allow inltration and accumulation of water storage. The sub-supercial
ow is controlled by local topography in the zone (Gonzalez et al. 1999). Similarly,
vegetation distribution has high spatial variability, which aects hydrological properties.

Figure 1. Study zone with ERT prole locations and meteorological weather station (TIGO station).
4 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

2.2. Methodology
Two complementary techniques were applied to establish susceptibility maps (remote
sensing and in situ techniques). First, SAR measurements derived from satellite mission
sources aid in establishing deformation patterns. Second, in situ data was produced
using an ERT scheme. ERT is a useful technique that allows identifying soil relative
composition, considering their resistivity properties of soil at dierent depths (Kearey,
Brooks, and Hill 2002). The combined use of these two complementary methods will
provide us with an understanding of the hillslope dynamics that make up the study area.

2.2.1. SAR
SAR is an advanced tool used to measure relief. Currently, there are several techniques
that can process the synthetic signals sent by the radar (Caorio, Prati, and Rocca 1989;
Zhong and Liu 2010; Xu, Huang, and Deng 2011; Perna et al. 2014; Rodriguez-Cassola
et al. 2015). InSAR is a useful technology that makes use of the phase information
contained in SAR images. InSAR has been recognized as a potential tool for generating
digital elevation models (DEMs) and the measurement of ground surface deformations.
Likewise, many critical factors aect InSAR data quality and limit their applications. For
example, SAR calibration chain processing methods present various sources of uncer-
tainty, that is, the way in which signals in transit are aected by the impulse response of
all components in the system (Jager, Gabler, and Reigber 2014) or geometric calibration
(Mohr and Madsen 2001).
Thus, we used a standard processor from JAXA through its AUIG portal (Japan Space
Systems 2012b). SAR data are extremely sensitive to the loss of coherence, depending
on the radar band used (Massonnet and Souyris 2011). For example, C or X bands
experience losses in coherence in densely vegetated areas (Delacourt et al. 2009). For
this reason, we used the L-band data derived from Phased Array type L-band Synthetic
Aperture Radar or PALSAR (Table 1). Previously, PALSAR data were successfully used in
deformation studies in areas that contain vegetation similar to our study area (Lucas
et al. 2007; Hall et al. 2011; Schlgel et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2014). PALSAR data provide a
good temporal resolution (46 days), low incidence angle and high spatial coherence
between acquisitions (Japan Space Systems 2012a, 2012b; Chen et al. 2014). To avoid
tropospheric errors, atmospheric delay was analysed by global climate models with the
Python-based Atmospheric Phase Screen (PyAPS) (Jolivet et al. 2011). In cases when
delays in the interferogram due to the water content in the atmosphere were found,
these were corrected. The eects of speckle noise were eliminated by a low-pass or
multi-looking lter (Sandwell et al. 2008).
To study slow movement processes during extreme rainfall events in the study area
of 2006, we developed interferograms using PALSAR data. To avoid ambiguity errors

Table 1. Acquisition identication.

Scene centre date time Orbit Frame O nadir angle () Orbit
25 June 2006 04:14:13.277 2218 6420 41.5 Ascending
10 August 2006 04:14:48.899 2889 6420 41.5 Ascending
25 September 2006 04:15:24.814 3560 6420 41.5 Ascending
10 November 2006 04:15:52.072 4231 6420 41.5 Ascending
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 5

(Chul Jung and Alsdorf 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011) that can be misinterpreted as deforma-
tion process (Canaslan and Ustun 2012). We consider only interferograms with perpen-
dicular baselines lower than 1500 m. Similarly, low coherence values due to temporal
decorrelation were avoided, considering only interferograms of less than a year
(365 days) (Wei and Sandwell 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011). Interferogram noise was
eliminated using a Goldstein lter (Goldstein and Werner 1998). In the case of deforma-
tions over a 23.5 cm (2 phase for PALSAR), fringes were observed. Thus, a phase
unwrapping setting with coherence threshold of 0.3 for slow movement studies
(Schlgel et al. 2015) was used to obtain the deformation measurement (Japan Space
Systems 2012b). Finally, the linear trend in the phase associated with the orbit-drift error
was removed using a pixel as a character. We chose a point located at 73.02 W, 36.93S
that did not show any in situ evaluated deformation. Zones with deformation patterns
were complemented by ERT measurements (Jongmans and Garambois 2007).

2.2.2. ERT
The ERT allows estimating the electrical conductivity distribution in the subsurface
(Kearey, Brooks, and Hill 2002). The methodology establishes an electrical gradient
between two source electrodes and measures the resultant potential distribution at
two other receiving electrodes and repeating this procedure for many dierent elec-
trode combinations (Binley and Kemna 2005). Our study used proles through a con-
guration by a dipoledipole array. We performed two ERT inversions with 20 electrodes
spaced by 4 m equidistant. We injected DC voltage between two electrodes (rst dipole)
into the ground. The soil response between the other two electrodes (second dipole)
was evaluated. The measurements were transformed into a pseudo-resistivity model
(PRM). The PRM model was used as input data for a geoelectric resistivity inversion
model. Inversion was performed using a least-squares inversion model with 100 itera-
tions and smoothing. Results were compared with dierent soil resistivity values to
establish compositional proles (Kearey, Brooks, and Hill 2002). Deformation patterns
derived from InSAR and the proles generated via ERT were compared and associated
with precipitation records of the weather station of Transportable Integrated Geodetic
Observatory (TIGO station) at 73.03 W, 36.84 S. The rainfall gap was lled using
Weather and Research Forecast (WRF) model validated in previous studies (Fustos
et al. 2013).

3. Results
3.1. InSAR analysis
Deformations observed with the InSAR technique showed maximum deformation rates
from 15 cm in the hillslope during intense rainfall periods (JuneAugust). Three macro
zones distributed from north to south were established. These sectors (named , , and ,
respectively) are located near populated areas (Figure 2(ad)). The zone, emplaced in
an intrusive formation (blue rectangle in every gure), showed the deformation asso-
ciated to slow movements (Figure 2(ad)). The deformation zone was found over an
extraction quarry zone (36.870831 S, 73.026384 W). Nevertheless, no signicant
changes on the surface associated with slow movement processes were observed during
6 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

Accumuled monthly Rainfall (mm)

600
Normal year
500 2006
400

300

200

100

0
Jan Mar May Jun Aug Sep Nov
Month

200
Hourly rainfall records (mm)

150

100

50

0
Jan Mar May Jun Aug Sep Nov
Months of 2006

Figure 2. (a) Precipitation Climatology versus the year 2006 measured atTIGO station. (b) Rainfall
data for 2006 year at daily scale. Stars correspond tothe acquisition dates of SAR data.

the study periods of AugustSeptember and SeptemberNovember (Figures 3 and 4,

respectively). This is consistent with in situ evaluations reported by independent authors
(Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez 2006).
On the other hand, the zone (green rectangle) shows a maximal deformation of
7 cm (Figure 2(ad)). This hillslope was emplaced on the intrusive formation, similar to
the zone. Nevertheless, during the period between August and September, the
deformation values were lower than those from the zone. Furthermore, unlike the
zone, the zone had mass removal process records, such as mudow and landslides
(Mardones, Echeverria, and Jara 2005; Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez 2006). No deforma-
tions in the two last periods were observed (Figures 3 and 4). Therefore, the zone only
showed deformation between June and August, which suggests a rapid stabilization
process when compared with the zone.
Finally, we observed a 15 cm deformation maximum in the zone (red rectangle in
Figure 4(ad)). The zone was emplaced over a highly weathered metamorphic rock. High
weathering processes degraded the rock in clayey and silty soils (Pea 1995). During the
period from JuneAugust, a deformation pattern with larger spatial extension occurred.
However, the deformation eld disappeared after, similar to what occurred in the and
zones. Nevertheless, a reactivation during the SeptemberNovember period in the
entire hillside was observed. The deformation values (less than 2 cm) were lower in
comparison to the JuneAugust period.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 7

Figure 3. (a) Deformation (in metres) observed from June (orbit 2218) to August (orbit 2889). (b) The
zone is shown in blue, (c) the zone in green and the (d) zone in red. The star is the reference
point to remove the phase associated with topographic change.

Figure 4. (a) Deformation (in metres) observed between September (orbit 3560) and November
(orbit 4231). (b) The zone is shown in blue, (c) the zone in green and the (d) zone in red. The
star is the reference point to remove the phase associated with topographic change.

Through eld work, we have found that a tree trunk inclination is correlated with
deformation areas. InSAR results could establish a deformation process in the hillsides
that is associated with the slow movement that occurred in the JuneAugust period
(Figure 2(ad)). These results are consistent with the tree trunk inclination.
8 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

Figure 5. (a) Deformation (in metres) observed from August (orbit 2889) and September (orbit
3560). (b) The zone is shown in blue, (c) the zone in green and the (d) zone in red. The star is
the reference point to remove the phase associated with topographic change.

Meteorological in situ data shows that 2006 was an atypical year with a 179% surplus,
but only in June (Figure 1). Although surface runo prevails over inltration, increased
inltration takes place that cannot be challenged. These results are interesting because
inltration increases on the slope.

3.2. ERT results

Two proles of resistivity were performed using a dipoledipole array conguration.
These proles show a resistivity distribution which increases in depth. During the
sampling process, no bad measurement errors were identied. Prole 1 showed resis-
tivity isocurve from 50 m at 2 m depth (Figure 5), surrounded by a medium with
resistivity values between 100 and 1000 m. Moreover, resistivity isocurves between
1000 and 3000 m were identied between an 8 and 10 m depth.
Prole 2 showed the resistivity values from 50 m at the base of the hill (Figure 6)
that corresponds to sediment deposit caused by deposition due to hill erosion. Due to
the absence of pores that increased the electric resistivity of the soil, these results are
consistent with the observed resistivity values. Moreover, prole 2 had resistivity values
ranging between 100 and 1000 m at 7 m depth. Additionally, the contour curves
between 1000 and 3000 m were observed at 89 m depth.

4. Analysis and discussion

According to the meteorological information regarding the study area, the greatest
annual rainfall takes place during the winter season (Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 9

Electrical resistivity (log( m))

50 50
3.5
135 50
100 50
100 100
50 3.0
130 10 10
040
0 0 0 100
1040 400
30 000 2.5
00 1000 10

10
3000 1
30040000 0

0
125
Elevation (m)

00

100 400 0
2.0
10
00

30
120

0
1.5
14000
30 00
115 00 1.0

0.5
110

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Profile length (m)

Figure 6. ERT in prole 1.

2006; Haylock et al. 2006); during the same period when deformation peaks are
observed (Figures 24). Deformation patterns in three areas were identied with
PALSAR data acquired for 2006. Uncertainties of deformation patterns wereevaluated
due to small spatial extent SI (10,50050,500 m2, Figure 8). Interferometric signal was
observed between June and August period (Figure 2(ad)) but during the August
September period (Figure 3(ac)). As the calculated perpendicular baseline was similar,
we discarded an eventually interferometric signal due to DEM errors. Post-processed
results allowed the keeping phase values of deformation on the hillslope. Therefore, the
deformation patterns can be associated with slow movements re-activated by rainfall.
Through our achieved results, we propose that intense rainfall periods activate slow
movement. Deformation patterns were found during the winter season (Figures 24).
Nevertheless, remote-sensing studies have not shown the existence of consistent fault
geometry (if it ever takes place), and thus these hypotheses are inconclusive. Therefore,
the internal slope geometry becomes useful information.
An ERT technique was applied in order to understand the internal slope geometry
and their compositional variation. Two ERT proles showed a silt layer that begins at
60 cm conrmed with a visual inspection. Prole 1 shows resistivity proles with values
less than 50 m, which was related to the saturated silt presence and is consistent with
the literature (Arias et al. 2012). Moreover, lower resistivity values can be correlated to
saturated silty bodies (little-perched aquifers, Figure 5). Previous ERT results found
resistivity shape of perched aquifers correlating resistivity values in other studies
(Drahor et al. 2006; Gunn et al. 2014; Gardi 2014). Water storage as perched aquifers
can generate additional loads over the slope, generating a slow movement (Gardi 2014)
10 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

in zone (Figure 4(ad)). For example, prole 1 has the exact shape that we interpreted
as perched aquifers. This is consistent with the existence of sub-supercial water
reserves in the zone (Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez 2006). Fractured rock structures
were observed at dierent relative depth due their resistivity values of 3000 m. Rock
associated with basement terrain showed greater values. Nevertheless, the low resistivity
was found due to weak weathering that aected the geological formation in depth.
We observed that prole 2 showed an isocurve with resistivity of 100 m that
becomes deeper, which was consistent with a sliding plane model caused by a rota-
tional mass removal process. This is because the shear zone has a higher medium
porosity; thus, the resistivity increases locally. From a hydrological perspective, prole
2 has a lower storage capacity compared to prole 1. Moreover, prole 2 does not have
perched aquifers, as prole 1 does. Finally, a low storage capacity implies that in similar
rainfall conditions, prole 2 experiences density increases, causing a load of tension
along the incline.
Complementary results show evidence that deformation takes place when water
inltrates a few decimetres into the slope during the winter season. An inner mass
increase aects the slope due to the heavy rains (Antnez and Felmer 2009), generating
an additional load on the slopes (Yalcin 2007). The silt layer, like perched aquifers, retains
the water, unlike a clay layer (Figure 4(ad)) (Ali et al. 2014; Ng et al. 2015). Similarly, the
pores pressure experiences an increase due to soil saturation, which leads to a decrease
in the eective stress (Flemings et al. 2008; Nian et al. 2013; Perrone, Lapenna, and
Piscitelli 2014). The ERT results reveal that a clay layer exists beneath the silt layer.
Previous explorations support the clay hydrophilic predominance in the soil composition
(Sobarzo, Villalobos, and King 2011). The clay layer can act as a lubricant, decreasing the
value of the internal friction angle during rainfall periods (Al-Shayea 2001; Ali et al.
2014).
Therefore, spatial variability in resistivity values of the proles can be interpreted
as layers or bodies of dierent composition (Figure 5). Currently, studies of slow
movement are focused only in landslides and mudslides in the zone (Mardones and
Vidal 2001; Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez 2006; Mardones Flores and Rojas Hernndez
2012). These studies were developed due to direct eld evidence. Nevertheless, for
our study zone, our work supports a sound understanding of slope processes using
an integration of two methodologies. Our interpretation suggests that deformation
patterns are related to slow movement supported by eld evidence. Therefore, we
see a new type of mass removal process for the area. Future research is needed that
uses the hydrologic approach in order to understand the moisture eect on the
slope. In cases of hydrological studies in ungauged small-scale basins, hydrological
modelling can quantify the spatiotemporal evolution of water with low levels of
uncertainty (Willmott, Robeson, and Feddema 1994; Mascaro, Vivoni, and Mndez-
Barroso 2015; Zapata-Rios et al. 2015). Thus, our results could be integrated into
administrative policies to mitigate the hazards endangering this zone.

5. Conclusions
Two complementary methodologies were integrated to study slow movement in the
south-central Chilean zone (South America). First, InSAR chain processing was used to
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 11

Electrical resistivity (log( m))

90
3.5

85
3.0

0
0
10

400
00

10
30
100 40 0
80 2.5

00
10
0
300

0
Elevation (m)

40
00
00

10
75 1 2.0
400 00
0 30
100

400
0
10

0 1.5
70
300
00
10

400
100

1.0
00

65
30
00
400
10

0.5
0
50

10

60

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Profile length (m)

Figure 7. ERT in prole 2.

study surface deformation patterns derived from PALSAR data. Second, ERT was used to
dene the relative spatial variation of soil composition.
Deformation pattern delimitation was developed using the Interferometric technique
SAR (InSAR). Those patterns are associated with slow processes that were triggered by
the atypical period of heavy rainfall during 2006. Deformation processes were intensied
between June and September, which were associated with months of intense rainfall
(Figures 2(ad) and 7(a,b)). These deformations are not consistent with fast movements
observed in independent studies (Alarcn 1995; Mardones and Vidal 2001, Mardones
and Vargas 2005; Naranjo, Arenas, and Ramrez 2006).
Remotely sensed data was complemented by ERT allowing the identication of
internal slope composition. Results showed that these zones contain structures com-
posed of silt and clay. Compositional results suggest that clay acts as a lubricant, driving
possible slow movement dynamics. The zone with low weathered soil depth (prole 2)
has low water capacity. Local compositional variation generates an increase in the
density, triggering an overload in the silt zone during heavy rain conditions. Moreover,
the clay zone presents a decrease in the internal friction angle when there is an increase
in the water content during the periods of heavy rain (Al-Shayea 2001; Ali et al. 2014).
Two ERT proles show a silt layer that starts at 60 cm, which was conrmed with a visual
inspection. Mardones and Vidal (2001) reported a hydrophilic clay layer that should act
as an impermeable medium during heavy rainfalls (Yalcin 2007; Ng et al. 2015). Both
proles show the same resistivity structure (Figure 6). These hypotheses are supported
12 I. FUSTOS ET AL.

Figure 8. Bent stem due to progressive soil deformation.

by deformations reported by InSAR. Nevertheless, more research is necessary to under-

stand this movement activation and how these results are related to the weathering and
the humidity storage in the slopes silt and clay.
The integration of these methodologies provided us with the knowledge that slow
movements are in fact triggered by rainfall. Our interpretation suggests that the
deformation patterns are related to slow movement, which was supported by eld
evidence. Finally, we introduced a new kind of hazard in the zone. Our results allow
us to conclude that mass removal processes should be integrated into administrative
policies. Still, more research is required before we can fully understand the triggers of
these slow movements, such as the weathering degree and cumulative moisture
storage in the silt and clays found on the slope. A better understanding of the
dynamics of hillslopes will allow authorities to develop better mitigation plans and
risk management.

Acknowledgements
The anonymous reviewers and editor are appreciated for their helpful remarks, insights and
suggestions, which improved the quality of this study. This work was partially done during the
stay of the rst author in the Legos laboratory (Observatoire Midi-Pyrenees, Toulouse-France). The
authors acknowledge the signicant contribution of J-C Sourys and J-F Cretaux both from CNES.
Ivo Fustos holds a CONICYT (Chilean research Grant) fellowship (Doctoral scholarship 21.120.451)
and CORFO (project 13671-EM.CIE). The data used in this work were acquired as part of the
activities of NASAs Science Mission Directorate, and are archived and distributed by the Goddard
Earth Sciences (GES) Data and Information Services Center (DISC). This work was carried out on the
computer nodes of the department of geophysics (DGEO) and Centro de Investigacin en
Ingeniera Matemtica (CI2MA), Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences at University of
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 13

Concepcin, Chile. Professional English edition by Mr Ian Scott Kinney was funded by Vicerrectora
de Investigacin, Universidad de Concepcin.

Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
Ivo Fustos holds a CONICYT (Chilean research Grant) fellowship (Doctoral scholarship 21.120.451)
and CORFO (project 13671-EM.CIE). Professional English edition by Mr Ian Scott Kinney was funded
by Vicerrectora de Investigacin, Universidad de Concepcin.

ORCID
I. Fustos http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3542-5477

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