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Chapter2:SuspensionComponents

2.1Springs
Themostcommonvarietyofspringsarecoilsprings(seepic),theseareusuallyplacedaroundthe
damperhousingtoformaspringdamperunit.Aspringisanelasticdevicethatresistsmovementin
itsdirectionofwork.Theforceitexertsisproportionaltothemovementofoneofitsends.Orto
putthisintoamathematicalequation:Force=movement*springconstant.Ahighvalueforthe
springconstantmakesforastiffspring,andalowvaluemakesforasoftspring.

Forprogressivespringsthespringconstantwillincreaseasthespringgoesdeeperintoitstravel,
andforregressivespringsitwilldecreasewithtravel.Mostcoilspringsareslightlyprogressive,
becauseastheycompress,someofthecoilsstarttouchingeachother,especiallynearthetopand
thebottom,andhencethenumberofactivecoilsdecreases.
Somathwise,springsaren'tverycomplicated,buthandlingwise,theyare.Theproblemisthatthey
workintwodimensions:lefttorightandfronttorear.Forexample:acarwithsoftspringswill
experiencealotofbodyrollinfastturns,butitwillalsodiveveryhardunderheavybreakingand
squatalotwhileaccelerating.Thisisbecausethespringshavetoabsorbthetorquesthatare
generated(seerollcenterandantisquat),andsoftspringsneedtobecompressedoveralarger
distancetobeabletoabsorbacertainforce.(Ifthisdoesn'tmakesense,Isuggestyoutakeanother
goodlookatthegraph)Notethatbothobservationshavethesameeffect:moreloadonthefront
tires.Soyoumightthink:"Whymakeabigdealoutofthis,theeffectisthesame."It'sabigdeal
becausebythetimeyouhavereadallofthechapters,you'llbeabletoadjustacar'slateralbalance
independentfromitslongitudinalbalance,butfornow,justrememberthatspringstiffnessaffects
justaboutanything:bumphandling,rollstiffness,pitchstiffness,.

Ingeneral,youcouldsaythatstifferspringsyieldlessgriponthatendofthecar,andconversely,
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softerspringsyieldmoregrip.Thisisbecausespringsinhibitweighttransfer,bothfronttorearand
lefttoright:forthesamecornering,accelerationorbrakingforceastifferspringwillcompressless,
resultinginlesschassismovementandthusalsolessweighttransfer,andasoftspringwill
compressalot,resultinginalotofweighttransfer.

But,youwon'talwaysbeabletousethespringyouwant:onsmall,highfrequencybumps,stiff
springswillmakethecarbounce,resultinginalossofgrip.Soyouneedsoftersprings,because
theyallowthetirestostayincontactwiththeground.Onsmoothtrackshowever,stiffspringsare
thewaytogo,theywillalsohelpthecar'sjumpingabilityandresponsiveness.

2.2Damping

Dampingisneededtoabsorbtheenergyassociatedwithsuspensiontravel.Thatsuspensiontravel
canbeinducedbybumps,orlateralorlongitudinalacceleration.Withoutdamping,themagnitude
ofthesuspensionmovementwouldneverstopincreasing,leadingtoaveryhumoroussituation.In
termsofenergy,dampingabsorbsmostoftheenergythecarreceivesasitmoves,unlikesprings,
whostoretheenergy,andreleaseitagain.Imagineacarwithnodampingdrivingonabumpyroad.
Thesubsequentimpactsfromthebumpsonthetireswouldmakethesuspensionbouncevery
intensely,whichisnotagoodthing.Dampersabsorballtheexcessenergy,andallowthetiresto
stayincontactwiththegroundasmuchaspossible.Thisalsoindicatesthatthedampingshould
alwaysbematchedtothespringratio:neverrunaverystiffspringwithverysoftdampingoravery
softspringwithverystiffdamping.Smallchangeshowevercangiveinterestingresults.Damping
that'sabitontheheavysidewillmakethecarmorestableitwillslowdownboththevehicle's
pitchandrollmotions,makingitfeellesstwitchy.Notethatdampingonlyaltersthespeedatwhich
therollingandpitchingmotionsoccur,itdoesnotaltertheirextent.Soifyouwantyourvehicleto
rollless,adjusttheantirollbars,orthesprings,butnotthedampers.

Somethingyoucanadjustwiththedampingrateisthespeedatwhichthesuspensionrebounds:ifa
carwithsoftspringsbutharddampersispusheddown,itwillreboundveryslowly,andacarwith
stiffspringsandlightdampingwillreboundveryquickly.Thesamesituationoccurswhenexiting
corners:inthecorner,theweightistransferred,andthechassishasrolledand/ordived,butwhen
thesteeringisstraightenedout,andthecorneringforcedisappears,thechassiscomesbacktoits
originalposition.Thespeedatwhichthishappensiscontrolledbythedampingrate.Sothecarwith
thesoftspringsandharddampingwilltendtowanttocontinueturningwhenthesteeringis
straightened.Itwillalsotendtocontinuerunningstraightwhensteeringisfirstapplieditwillfeel
generallyunresponsive,yetverysmooth.Thecarwithfirmspringsandsoftdampingwillbevery
responsive:itwillfollowthedriver'scommandsveryquicklyandaggressively.

Youmaynotalwaysbeabletousethespringanddampingratesyou'dlike,becauseofbumps.
Small,highfrequencybumpsrequiresoftsettingsforbothdampingandsprings.Youcan'tusesuch
softsettingsforbig,harshbumps,becausethecarwouldbottomoutalot,soyou'llneedtosetyour
caralittlestiffer.Onverysmoothtracksyoucanuseverystiffsettingsforbothspringsand
damping.

Butit'snotquiteassimpleasthat:eveninthesimpledampersusedinR/Ccars,thereisadifference
betweenhighspeedandlowspeeddamping.MaybeIshouldpointoutthatthespeedwhichis
beingreferredtoisthespeedoftheshaftinrelationtothehousing,notthespeedofthecar.Inmost
fullscalecars,thedifferenceisimplicatedbymeansofanarrayofspringoperatedvalvesinthe
piston.Inlesssophisticateddamperunits,asusedinR/C,thedifferenceisaneffectoftheinherent
propertiesofthefluidbeingused.

Ifthere'sanythingaracingenthusiastneedstoknowaboutfluiddynamics,it'sthattherearetwo

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basicwaysforafluidtoflowlaminarandturbulent.Aflowissaidtobelaminariftheparticles
moveparalleltoeachother,creatingflowlinesthatneverintersect.Laminarflowoccurswhenthe
velocityislow,thefluidhasahighviscosity,andthesurfaceissmoothandwellrounded.Aflowis
saidtobeturbulentiftheparticlesmoverandomly,creatingeddies.Situationswherethevelocityis
high,thefluidisthinandthesurfaceisroughfavorturbulence.Incaseofturbulence,alotmore
energyisrequired(orwasted,dependshowyoulookatit)becausethereisalotmorefriction
betweentheparticles.Also,foralaminarflowthepressure(resistance,incaseofadamper)is
proportionaltothevelocityofthefluidwhereasincaseofturbulence,it'sproportionaltothe
velocitysquared.Thereisnostrictdistinctionbetweenthetwotypesthere'sabiggrayareain
between.Topredictwhetherornotaflowisturbulent,theReynoldsnumberisused.It'sdefinedas
Re=D*V/.Disthediameter,Visthevelocityofthefluid,andisitsviscosity.IfReis
smallerthan2000,theflowismostlikelytobelaminar,ifit'sinbetween2000and4000it's
somethinginbetween,andifit'sgreaterthan4000,theflowismostlikelyturbulent.

NowconsideratypicalR/Cdamperunit:youhaveoilofa
certainviscositypassingthroughorificesofacertain
diameteratacertainspeed.Someoilflowsaroundthe
outsideofthepiston,thisisalmostalwayslaminar,sincethe
gapbetweenthepistonandthehousingissonarrow,soit
createsalotofdrag.Fortheoilflowingthroughtheholesin
thepistonhowever,it'shardtopredict.Whentheshaftspeed
isverylowitwillbelaminar,andwhenit'shighitwillbe
turbulent.Exactlywhenthetransitionwillhappenishardto
predict,buteasytofeel:becausetheresistanceoftheshockisproportionaltotheshaftspeedwhen
theflowisstilllaminar,andproportionaltotheshaftspeedsquaredtheverynextmoment,whenthe
flowhasturnedturbulent,itfeelslikeakindofhydrauliclockhasoccurredbecausethedifference
inresistanceisusuallyquitesubstantial.Thetransitionissometimesalsodescribedas'pack'itfeels
asiftheshock'packsup'.

Thiseffectcanbothbeusefulandunwanted:itcanpreventyourcarfromslappingthegroundwhen
landingfromajump,butitcanalsomakeyourcarbounceverybadlyoversharprutsorbumps
takenathighspeed.Soit'sprettyimportanttogetthisadjustmentright.

Thewaytoachievethisistoselecttherightpistonandshockoil:boththecombinationofapiston
withsmallholesandalowviscosityoilandthecombinationofapistonwithlargeholesandahigh
viscosityoilwillyieldthesamestaticdampingitwillfeelthesamewhenyoubumpyourcarby
hand.Itwillalsomakethecarhandlethesameinlowspeedtransitions,suchassmoothcornering
andlowfrequencybumps.Buttherealdifferenceisinthehighspeeddamping:thefirst
combinationwillpackupveryrapidlybecauseofthelowviscosityfluidandtheincreasedfluid
velocity.(thesameamountofoilhastopassthroughsmallerholesinthesameamountoftime,so
itsspeedmustbehigher)Thesecondcombinationwillhavearelativelyhighresistanceto
turbulence,becauseoftheverythickfluidwhichflowsatamuchlowerspeed.Hence,turbulence
willoccuratmuchhighershaftspeeds,oritmaynotoccuratall.

Soselectingtherightpistonandoildependslargelyonthetracklayout.Killerjumpsorchassis
wreckingbumpsrequirepistonswithsmallholestopreventthechassisfromslappingtheground
andusuallymakingthecarveryunstable.Ontheotherhand,ifthetrackhaslotsofbumpsoris
veryrutted,anypackingupoftheshockswouldmakethecarbounceandthusveryunstable.Inthat
caseyoushouldtrypistonswithlargeholes.

Notethatjudgingiftheholesinthepistonsaretoosmallortoolargeisn'tasstraightforwardas
you'dlikeittobebecausetheshockabsorbersaren'tindirectcontactwiththeground,thereis
someelasticitytothewholesuspensionsystem.Suspensionarmsaren'tinfinitelyrigidandneither
arerimssoexpectalittleflex,andhencealsoalittlebouncefromthem.Thentherethere'ssome
moreelasticityinthetires,althoughthisisafarless'bouncy'formofelasticity.Theseeffectsare
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moreelasticityinthetires,althoughthisisafarless'bouncy'formofelasticity.Theseeffectsare
mostapparentwhenyourcarlandsoffabigjump,anditbouncesupalittle,withoutthechassis
havingtouchedtheground.Itmeansthepistonsarewaytoosmall,whichmakestheshockslockup
toofast,sotheimpacthastobetakenupbytheelasticityinthesuspensionarmsandtherims.

2.3Rollcenter

Predictinghowacarwillreactwhenforcesareappliedatthetiresisnoteasy.Theforcecanbe
absorbed,split,convertedintoatorque...byallsortsofsuspensioncomponents.Toavoidallofthis
youcantrytofindtherollcenterofyourcarandtrytopredictthereactionofthecarfromthere.A
rollcenterisanimaginarypointinspace,lookatitasthevirtualhingeyourcarhingesaroundwhen
itschassisrollsinacorner.It'sasifthesuspensioncomponentsforcethechassistopivotaround
thispointinspace.

Let'slookatthetheorybehinditfirst.ThetheoremofKennedytellsusthatifthreeobjectsare
hingedtogether,thereareatmostthreepolesofmovement,andtheyarealwayscollinear,i.e.they
arealwaysononeline.Tounderstandwhatapolereallyis,considertheanalogywiththepolesof
theearth:asearthrotates,thepolesstaywheretheyare.Inotherwords,theearthrotatesaroundthe
imaginaryaxisthatconnectsthetwopoles.Nowthisisa3dimensionalanalogy,inthecaseofthe
rollcenterweonlyneedtwodimensionsatfirst.Soapoleofanobject(oragroupofobjects)islike
thecenterpointofacircleitdescribes.

IfwelookatthesuspensionofatypicalR/Ccar,withalowerAarmandanupperlink,weseea
bunchofobjectsthatareallhingedtogether.Theseobjectsincludethechassis,theupperlink,the
Aarm,andthehub.Fornowweconsiderthehub,theaxleandthewheelasoneunit.First,let's
lookatthechassis,theupperlinkandthehub.Theyarehingedtogether,sothetheoremofKennedy
applies.Thepoleoftheupperlinkandthehubistheballjointthatconnectsthem,becausethey
bothhingearoundit.Thepoleoftheupperlinkandthechassisisalsotheballjointthatconnects
them.Soifwenowlookatthechassis,theupperlinkandthehub,wehavealreadyfoundtwoof
thethreepoles,soifthereisathirdone,itshouldbeontheimaginarylinethatconnectstheother
two.Thatlineisdrawninredonthenextdrawing.

Thesameappliestothebottomhalfofthesuspensionsystem,thepoleofthelowerAarmandthe
hubistheouterhingepin,thepoleoftheAarmandthechassisistheinnerhingepin,soifthereis
athirdpoleitshouldbeonthelinethatconnectstheothertwo.Thatlineisalsodrawninred.If
yourcarusesballlinksinsteadofhingepins,theaxisthroughthecentersofthetwoballsmakesup
avirtualhingepin.

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Ifthetworedlinesintersect,thepoleofthehub/wheelandthechassisistheintersectionpointI.

PointIissometimesreferredtoas'virtualpivot',oras'instantaneouscenter'.Thispolecangiveus
informationabouthowthesuspensionmoves.

ThedistancefrompointItothecenterlineofthetireissometimesreferredtoas'swingaxlelength',
it'sasifthehub/wheelisattachedtoanimaginaryswingaxlewhichhingesaroundpointI.Having
thatlongswingaxlewouldbeequivalenttohavingthedoublewishbonetypesuspension,butthe
actualconstructionwouldbeveryimpractical.Neverthelessitservesasagoodsimplification.The
swingaxlelength,togetherwiththeangle,determinetheamountofcamberchangethewheelwill
experienceduringthecompressionofthesuspension.Alongswingaxlelengthwillcauseverylittle
camberchangeasthesuspensioniscompressed,andaveryshortonewillcausealot.

IftheupperlinkandtheAarmareperfectlyparalleltoeachother,thetworedlineswon'tintersect,
or,inotherwords,theintersectionpointIisinfinitelyfarremovedfromthecar.Thisisn'taproblem
though:justdrawthegreenline(inthenextdrawing)paralleltothetworedones.

Thetworedlinesshouldalwaysintersectonthesideofthecenterofthecar,iftheyintersectonthe
outside,camberchangewillbebizarre:itwillgofromnegativetopositivebacktonegative,which
isnotagoodthingfortheconsistencyofthetraction.

Thewheelandthegroundcanalsomoverelativetoeachotherlet'sassumethewheelcanpivot
aroundthepointwhereittouchestheground,whichisusuallyinthemiddleofthetirecarcass.That
pointisthepoleofthetireandtheground.Asitisdrawn,aproblemmightarisewhenthechassis
rolls:thetiresmightalsoroll,andhencethecontactpointbetweentheearthandthetiremightshift,
especiallywithsquarecarcasstiresthatdon'tflexmuch.

NowwecanapplythetheoremofKennedyagain:theground,thewheelandthechassisarehinged
together,wehavealreadyfoundthepoleofthewheelandtheground,andthepoleofthewheeland
thechassis.Ifthepoleofthegroundandthechassisexists,itshouldbesomewhereonthelinethat
connectstheothertwopoles,drawningreeninthenextdrawing.

Thesameprocedurecanbefollowedfortheotherhalfofthesuspension,asinthepicturebelow.

Againagreenlinewillbefoundthepoleofthegroundandthechassisshouldbeon.The
intersectionpointofthetwogreenlinesisthepoleofthegroundandthechassis.(Circledinpurple)

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Thatpoint(purple),thepoleofthechassisandthegroundisalsocalledtherollcenterofthe

chassis.Itgivesusinformationabouthowthechassismovesinrelationtotheground.
Theoretically,thegroundcouldrotatearounditwhilethechassiswouldsitstill,butusuallyit'sthe
otherwayaroundthechassisrotatesarounditwhilethegroundsitsstill.

Therollcenterisalsotheonlypointinspacewhereaforcecouldbeappliedtothechassisthat
wouldn'tmakeitroll.

Therollcenterwillmovewhenthesuspensioniscompressedorlifted,that'swhyit'sactuallyan
instantaneousrollcenter.Itmovesbecausethesuspensioncomponentsdon'tmoveinperfect
circlesrelativetoeachother,mostofthepathsofmotionaremorerandom.Luckilyeverypathcan
bedescribedasaninfiniteseriesofinfinitelysmallcirclesegments.Soitdoesn'treallymatterthe
chassisdoesn'trollinaperfectcircularmotion,justlookatitasrollinginacirclearoundacenter
pointthatmovesaroundallthetime.

Ifyouwanttodeterminethelocationoftherollcenterofyourcar,youcaneither'eyeball'itby
imaginingthelinesandintersectionpoints,oryoucangetareallybigsheetofpaperandmakea
scaledrawingofyourcar'ssuspensionsystem.

Nowthatweknowwheretherollcenter(RC)islocated,let'slookathowitinfluencesthehandling
ofthecar.Imagineacar,drivinginacirclewithaconstantradius,ataconstantspeed.Aninertial
forceispullingthecarawayfromthecenterpoint,butbecausethecarisdynamicallybalanced,
thereshouldbeaforceequalbutopposite,pullingthecartowardsthecenterpoint.Thisforceis
providedbytheadhesionofthetires.

Inprinciple,theinertiaforceworksonallthedifferentmassesofthecar,ineverypoint,butby

determiningthecenterofgravity(CG)it'spossibletoreplacealloftheinertiaforcesbyonebig
forceworkingintheCG.It'sasifthetotalmassofthecarispackedintoonepointinspace,theCG.
IftheCGisdeterminedcorrectly,bothconditionsshouldbeperfectlyequivalent.

Theforcesgeneratedbythetirescanbecombinedtooneforce,workinginthecar'srollcenter.
Viewedfromthebackofthecar,itlookslikethis:

Twoequal,butoppositeforces,notworkinginthesamepointgenerateatorqueequaltothesizeof

thetwoforcesmultipliedbythedistancebetweenthem.Sothebiggerthatdistance,themore
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thetwoforcesmultipliedbythedistancebetweenthem.Sothebiggerthatdistance,themore
efficientlyagivenpairofforcescangenerateatorqueontothechassis.Thatdistanceiscalledthe
rollmoment.NotethatitisalwaystheverticaldistancebetweentheCGandtheRC,sincethe
forcesalwaysworkhorizontally.

Thetorquegeneratedbythetwoforceswillmakethechassisroll,aroundtherollcenter.This

rollingmotionwillcontinueuntilthetorquegeneratedbythespringsisequallybig,onlyopposite.
Thedampersdeterminethespeedatwhichthishappens.Notethattherolltorqueisconstant,wellat
leastinthisexamplewheretheturningradiusisconstant,butthetorquesuppliedbythesprings
increasesasthesuspensioniscompressed.(Seechapter'springs')Thedifferencebetweenthetwo
torque's,theresultant,iswhatmakesthechassislean.Thisresultantdecreasesbecausethetorque
suppliedbythespringsincreases.Sothespeedatwhichchassisrolltakesplacealwaysdecreases,
anditreacheszerowhenbothtorque'sareequal.Soforagivenspringstiffnessabigrollmoment
willmakethechassisrollveryfarinthecorners,andasmallrollmomentwillmakethechassislean
overless.

Soatanygiventime,thesizeoftherollmomentisanindicationofthesizeofthetorquethatcauses
thechassistoleanoverwhilecornering.

Nowadifferentproblemarisesthelocationoftherollcenterchangeswhenthesuspensionis
compressedorextended,mostofthetimeitmovesinthesamedirectionasthechassis,soifthe
suspensioniscompressed,theRCdrops.

ThislittleanimationshowshowtheheightoftheRCchangesasthesuspensioniscompressed.The

heightoftheCGalsochangesalittle,becausethepositionofalloftheunsprungmasschanges
relativetothechassischanges.Soit'sreallyhardtotelliftherollmomentactuallyincreasesor
decreases.

Also,whenthecarcorners,andthechassisleansover,theRCusuallymovesawayfromthechassis'
centerline.

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MostR/Ccarsallowforthelengthandpositionoftheupperlinktobechanged,andthuschangethe
rollcharacteristicsofthecar.Thefollowinggeneralizationsapplyinmostcases.Anupperlinkthat
isparalleltothelowerAarmwillmaketheRCsitverylowwhenthecarisatnormalrideheight,
hencetheinitialbodyrollwhenenteringacornerwillbebig.Anupperlinkthatisangleddownwill
maketheRCsituphigher,makingtheinitialrollmomentsmaller,whichmakesthatparticularend
ofthecarfeelveryaggressiveenteringthecorner.Averylongupperlinkwillmakethattheroll
momentstaysmoreorlessthesamesizewhenthechassisleansoverthatendofthechassiswill
rollverydeeplyintothesuspensiontravel.Ifnotalotofcamberisused,thiscanmakethetires
slidebecauseofexcessivepositivecamber.Ashortupperlinkwillmakethattherollmoment
becomesalotsmallerwhenthechassisleansthechassiswon'trollveryfar.

Untilnow,we'veignoredthefactthattherearetwoindependentsuspensionsystemsinacarthere's
oneinthefrontandoneintherear.Theybothhavetheirownrollcenter.Becausethe'chassis'parts
ofbothsystemsareconnectedbyarigidstructure,thechassis,theywillinfluenceeachother.Some
peopletendtoforgetthiswhenthey'remakingadjustmentstotheircarstheystartadjustingoneend
withoutevenconsideringwhattheotherendisdoing.Needlesstosaythiscanleadtoanomaliesin
thecar'shandling.Havingaveryflexiblechassiscanhidethoseanomaliessomewhat,butit'safar
cryfromarealsolution.

Anyway,thefrontpartofthechassisisforcedtohingeonthefrontRC,andtherearpartisforcedto
hingeontherearRC.Ifthechassisisrigid,itwillbeforcedtohingeontheaxisthatconnectsboth
RCs(purple),thataxisiscalledtherollaxis.(red)

ThepositionoftherollaxisrelativetothecarsCGtellsalotaboutthecorneringpowerofthecarit

predictshowthecarwillreactwhentakingaturn.Iftherollaxisisangleddowntowardsthefront,
thefrontwillrolldeeperintoitssuspensiontravelthantherear,givingthecara'nosedown'attitude
inthecorner.Becausetherearrollmomentissmallrelativetothefront,therearwon'trollveryfar
hencethechassiswillstayclosetorideheight.Notethatwithacarwithverylittlenegative
suspensiontravel(droop)thechassiswilldropmoreefficientlywhenthecarleansover.Withthe
noseofthecarlowandthebackuphigh,abiggerpercentageofthecarsweightwillbesupported
bythefronttires,moretirepressuremeansmoregrip,sothecarwillhavealotofgripinthefront,
makingitoversteer.Arollaxisthatisangleddowntowardstherearwillpromoteundersteer.
Rememberthatthepositionoftherollcentersisadynamiccondition,sotherollaxiscanactually
tiltwhenthecargoesthroughbumpsortakesacorner,soit'spossibleforacartoundersteerwhen
enteringthecorner,whenchassisrollislesspronounced,andoversteerinthemiddleofthecorner
becausethefrontRChasdroppeddownalot.Thisexampleillustrateshowrollcenter
characteristicscanbeusedtotuneacartomeetspecifichandlingrequests,fromeitherthedriveror
thetrack.


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Ingeneral,youcouldsaythattheangleoftheupperlinkrelativetotheAarmdetermineswherethe
rollcenteriswiththechassisinitsneutralposition,andthatthelengthoftheupperlinkdetermines
howmuchtheheightoftheRCchangesasthechassisrolls.Along,parallellinkwilllocatetheRC
verylow,anditwillstayverylowasthecarcorners.Hence,thecar(wellatleastthatendofthe
car)willrollalot.Anupperlinkthat'sangleddown,andveryshortwilllocatetheRCveryhigh,
anditwillstayhighasthechassisrolls.Sothechassiswillrollverylittle.Alternatively,ashort,
parallellinkwillmakethecarrollalotatfirst,butasitrolls,thetendencywilldiminish.Soitwill
rollveryfastatfirst,butitwillstopquickly.Andalonglinkthat'sangleddownwillreducethecar's
tendencytorollinitially,butasthechassisrollsitwon'tmakemuchofadifferenceanymore.

Intermsofcarhandling,thismeansthattheendwherethelinkisangleddownthemost(highest
RC)hasthemostgripinitially,whenturningin,orexitingthecorner,andthattheendwiththe
lowestRCwhenthechassisisrolledwillhavethemostgripinthemiddleofthecorner.Soifyou
needalittlemoresteeringinthemiddleofthecorners,lengthenthefrontupperlinkalittle.(Be
suretoadjustcamberafterwards)Ifyou'dlikemoreaggressiveturnin,andmorelowspeed
steering,eithersettherearupperlinkatlessofanangle,orincreasethefrontlink'sanglealittle.

Nowyoumightaskyourself:what'sthebest,ahighRCoralowone?Italldependsontherestof
thecarandthetrack.Onethingisforsure:onabumpytrack,theRCisbetterplacedalittlehigher
itwillpreventthecarfromrollingfromsidetosidealotasittakesthebumps,anditwillalsomake
itpossibletousesofterspringswhichallowthetirestostayincontactwiththebumpysoil.On
smoothtracks,youcanuseaverylowRC,combinedwithstiffsprings,toincreasethecar's
responsivenessandjumpingability.Moreaboutthisinchapter6.

2.4Antisquat

Antisquatdescribestheangleoftherearhingepinsrelativetothehorizontalplane.Itspurposeis
tomakethecarsquatlesswhenaccelerating.(Squattingiswhentherearofthecardropsdown
whenthecaraccelerates)
Moreantisquatwillgivemore'drivingtraction':therewillbemorepressureonthereartiresasyou
accelerate,especiallythefirstfewmeters.Atthesametime,itwillgivemoreonpowersteering,
becausethecarisn'tsquattingmuch.Thedisadvantageisthatthecarhasanincreasedtendencyto
becomeunstableenteringcorners,especiallyintherear.Reducingtheantisquatanglehasthe
oppositeeffect:alotlessonpowersteering,andmorereartractionwhenthecarisn'tacceleratingas
muchanymore.Thecarwillalsobealotmorestableenteringcorners.Italsoaffectsthecar'sability
tohandlebumps:moreantisquatwillcausethecartobouncemorewhenacceleratingthrough
bumps,butitwillincreasethecar'sabilitytoabsorbthebumpswhencoasting.Reducingtheanti
squatdoestheopposite:itimprovesthecar'sabilitytosoakupthebumpsunderpower,butreduces
itwhilecoasting.

2.5Rideheight
Properrideheightisveryimportant,toolowandthevehiclewillbottomoutalot,toohighandthe
riskoftractionrollingwillbeunnecessarilybig.Equalrideheightfrontandrearisagoodstarting
point.Raisingorloweringrideheightononeendofthecarchangesthesteeringcharacteristicsof
thecar,thelowestendwillhaveaslightlybiggerpercentageofthecarsstaticweight.But,more
importantly,therollcenterwillalsobelowered,makingthatparticularendofthecarrolldeeper
whenthecarcorners,makingitsitevenlowerandthushavingmoregrip.
Youshouldalsobeawarethatchangesinrideheightusuallyinfluencetheamountofdowntravel
too,which,asexplainedinthenextsection,canhaveseriousconsequences.
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2.6Suspensiontravel
Theamountofnegativesuspensiontravel(downtravel)acarhascanhaveahugeeffectonits
handlingitinfluencesboththemountofrollandtheamountofpitchthechassiswillexperience.

Inthisanimationweseeacarwithalotofdowntravelasthechassisrollsintoaturn.Thechassisis
freetoroll,andtheheightoftheCGdoesn'tchangeverymuch.

Inthisanimationweseeacarwithalmostnodowntravelasitrollsintoaturn.Thechassisispulled
downasitrolls,effectivelyloweringtheCG.

So,ifoneendofthecarhaslessdowntravelthantheother,thatendwillbeforceddownmoreina
turn,whichmakesformoregripatthatend,especiallyinthemiddlepartoftheturn,whereweight
transferismorepronounced.Verylittledowntravelatthefrontwillgivealotofsteering,especially
whenenteringacornerathighspeed,orveryviolently.Verylittledowntravelattherearwillgivea
lot,andconsistenttractionthroughouttheturn.
Butthatisn'tallthereistoit:theamountofsuspensiontravelalsoinfluencesthecar'slongitudinal
balance,i.e.whenbrakingandaccelerating.Anendwithalotofdowntravelwillbeabletorisea
lot,sochassispitchwillbemorepronounced,whichinturnwillprovidemoreweighttransfer.For
example:ifthefrontendhasalotofdowntravel,itwillrisealotduringhardacceleration,
transferringalotofweightontotherearaxle.Sothecarwillhaveverylittleonpowersteering,but
alotofreartraction.Alotofdowntravelatbothends,combinedwithsoftsprings,canleadto
excessiveweighttransfer:onpowerundersteer,andoffpoweroversteer.Thecureissimple:either
reducedowntravel,orusestiffersprings.
Therearealsosomedisadvantagesofhavingverylittlesuspensiontravel:thebumphandlingand
thecar'sjumpingabilitymaysuffer,itwillbottomoutveryeasily.
Limitingsuspensiondroophasanotherinterestingeffect:youcanuseittoreducetractionrolling.
(Whenthecarflipsoverbecauseithastoomuchtraction.)Asyoucanseefromthetwoanimations
above,acarwithlessdroopwillhavealowerCGasitturns,whichisexactlywhatyouneedinan
eternalstruggleagainsttractionrolls.Oftenit'sabettersolutionthanusingstifferspringsandharder
tires,it'sevenbeterthanreducingrideheightoraddingantirollbars.

2.7Antirollbars

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Antirollbarsarelike'sidewayssprings',theyonlyworklaterally.Here'showtheywork:ifoneside
ofthesuspensioniscompressed,oneendofthebarislifted.Theotherendwillalsogoup,pulling
theothersideofthesuspensionupalso,basicallygivingmoreresistancetochassisroll.Howfar
andhowstronglytheothersidewillbepulledupdependsonthestiffnessandthethicknessofthe
barused:athinbarwillflexalot,soitwon'tpulltheothersideupveryfar,lettingthechassisroll
deeplyintoitssuspensiontravel.Notethatthebaronlyworkswhenonesideofthesuspensionis
extendedfurtherthantheother,likewhenthecariscornering.Whenbothsidesareequallyfar
compressed,likewhenthecarisbraking,thebarhasnoeffect.Soantirollbarsonlyaffectthe
lateralbalanceofthecar,notthelongitudinalbalance.
Unfortunately,antirollbarsaren'ttheonlythingsaffectingthecar'srollstiffnesstheyworkin
conjunctionwiththespringsanddampers.Supposeyouaddanantirollbarattherearofyourcar
withoutchanginganyoftheothersettings.Whenthecarentersaturn,thechassisstartstoroll.
Normally,thesuspensionontheoutsideoftheturnwouldcompress,andtheoneontheinside
wouldextend,makingforalotmorepressureontheoutsidetire.Withtheantirollbarhowever,the
suspensionontheinsidewillbecompressed,sothechassiswillrollless,andtherearofthecarwill
sitlowerthannormal.Sotherearhasmoreweightonit,andit'sdistributedmoreevenlyoverthe
twotires.Thismakesforalittlemore,andmoreconsistenttraction.Rememberthatthisisinthe
beginningoftheturn,thesituationisdifferentinthemiddleoftheturn.Normally,withouttheanti
rollbar,thechassiswouldstoprollingwhentherolltorqueisfullyabsorbedbytheoutsidespring.
Butwiththeantirollbar,someofthattorqueisabsorbedbytheantirollbar,andusedtocompress
theinsidesuspension.Sotheoutsidesuspensionwon'tbecompressedasmuchasitnormally
would,makingtherearofthechassissituphigherthannormal,solessweightisontherearofthe
car,andmoreatonthefront.It'sasifsuddenlytherearhasbecomestiffer,makingformore
steeringandalittlelessreartraction.Reartractionismoreconsistenthowever,becausetheweight
isdistributedmoreevenlyoverthereartires,unlessthetrackisreallybumpy,thatisantirollbars
canreallymessupacar'sroughtrackhandling,sothey'rerarelyusedonbumpytracks.Addingan
antirollbaratthefrontofthecarhasasimilar,butoppositeeffect:itdecreasessteering,butmakes
itmuchsmootherandmoreconsistent.Itcanstopthefrontfrom'bitinginto'thesurfacetoomuch,
makingtheturningradiusbigandsmooth.Thiscancomeinhandyonlarge,widetracks.
Mathwise,thetorsionstiffnessofthemiddlepartofthebargoesupwiththefourthpowerofthe
bar'sdiameter,andforthetwosideparts,torsionstiffnessgoesupwiththesquareofthediameter.
Keepthisinmindwhilechangingantirollbars.

2.8Shockmountinglocations

MostR/Cvehicleshaveseveralpossiblemountingpointsfortheshockabsorbers,bothattheupper
mount(area1)andattheAarm.(area3)Bymountingtheshocksinadifferentposition,spring

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actioncanbealtered.Thequestionis:howwillthisaffectthehandling,orthe'feel'ofthecar?To
understandthis,firstyouneedtoknowaboutwheelrates.

Awheelrateisanequivalentspringrateatthewheelit'sthespringrateofaspringthatwouldgive
thesamestiffnessasthecurrentone,ifitwastobeattachedrightatthecenterlineofthewheel.
Afterall,that'swherethetractionforcesact:atthewheel.

Awheelrateisdefinedasmotionratio*springrate,andmotionratioisthedistancebetweenthe

lowershockmountingpositionandtheinnerhingepindividedbythedistancebetweentheinner
hingepinandthetire'scenterline.

Or:wheelrate=springrate*(D1/D2)

Motionratioissomethimesreferredtoas'installationratio'.

Theformulatellusthatthecloserthebottomsoftheshocksaremountedtothemiddleofthe
chassis,thesofterthewheelratewillbe.

Notethatifyouchangethelowershockmountinglocation,youchangeboththeshockangleand
themotionratio,butit'susuallythechangeinmotionratiothathasthebiggesteffect.Theamount
ofsuspensiontravelalsochanges,whichcanalsoaffectthecar'shandling.

Theangleoftheshocks,a,hasamoresubtleeffectthanthelowermountingposition:itchangesthe
waythemotionratiosubtlychangesasthesuspensioniscompressed.

Theshockangleisn'tconstanteither:itgetsbiggerasthesuspensioniscompressed.Thiseffectis
morepronouncedastheshocksaremorelaiddown,sothemoreinclinedtheshocksare,themore
progressivethewheelratewillbe.Sothinkofthetopmountingpositionsasameansoffinetuning
springanddamperrates,andchangingtheprogressiveness.

Keepinmindthisisn'tperfectlycorrect:ifthecenterlineofthetiredoesn'tintersectwiththeouter
hingepin,aconsiderablepartoftheforcesactingonthetirearetransmittedtothechassisalongthe
upperlink.Nevertheless,it'saverygoodapproximation.

Sincetheshocks'anglechangestheirprogressiveness,italsoinfluencestheshaftspeed:iftheshock
islaiddown(progressive),shaftspeedwillincreaseastheshockiscompressed,ifitiscloseto
vertical(linear),shaftspeedwon'tvaryalotwithsuspensiontravel.Obviously,thisaffectshigh
speeddampingtooitaffectswhenthetransitionfromlowspeedtohighspeeddampingoccurs.It
willoccurearlierwhentheshockisclosertovertical,becausewhenitisinclined,ittakessometime
(andsomepositivesuspensiontravel)fortheshaftto'speedup',andreachthesameshaftspeed.So
incliningtheshocksmorehasmoreorlessthesameeffectasusingapistonwithslightlybigger
holes,andmountingitmoreuprighthasthesameeffectasusingapistonwithslightlysmaller
holes.

Ifindthatchangingthelowermountinglocationoftheshockscomesinhandysometimeswhenyou
wanttochangetheamountofnegativesuspensiontravel,butyoudon'tfeellikealteringthelength
oftheshock,orwhenyouneedthespringstobejustalittlestifferorsofter.Changingthetop
mountinglocationisaverysubtleadjustment,Iliketochangeitafteralloftheother,more
importantadjustmentshavebeenmade,andthecarishandlingmoreorlessthewayIwantitto.It's
especiallyhelpfultoalterthe'feel'ofthesteeringenteringcorners.NowIdon'tknowifthisapplies
whenthesprings'actionisveryprogressive,butthemoretheshocksarestoodup(lessinclined),

themoredirecttheiractionwillbeenteringthecorner.Forinstance:ifthefrontshocksarecloseto
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themoredirecttheiractionwillbeenteringthecorner.Forinstance:ifthefrontshocksarecloseto
vertical,andtherearsaresomewhatlaiddown,thecarwillhavealotofturninsteeringitwillbe
veryresponsive.Iftherearsareclosetovertical,andthefrontsaremorelaiddown,thecarwon't
havealotofturnin,butitwillhavemoresteeringinthemiddleoftheturnitwill'square'.Insome
cases,therearmightactuallybegintoslide.Itworksmuchinthesamewayashavingstiffsprings
orheavydamping:ifyouhavestiffsprings,orheavydampingupfront,theinitialreactionwhen
youenteraturnwillbeverystrong.Inthemiddlepartofthecornerthecarwillprobably
understeer,butit'stheinitialreactionthatgivesthecara'responsive'character.Evenrollcenter
worksthisway:averyhighrollcenterinthefrontwillmakethecarturninveryaggressively,but
understeerinthemiddleofthecorner.It'sniceifyoulikeanaggressivecaryoucan'throw'intothe
corners,butIdoubtit'sthefastestwayroundthetrack.Conversely,iftherearrollcenterissetvery
high,thecarwillturninverygently,andpossiblyoversteerafterthat.

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