SPACE MISSION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Third Edition
THE SPACE TECHNOLOGY LIBRARY
Published jointly by Microcosm Press and Kluwer Academic Publishers
An Introduction to Mission Design for Geostationary Satellites, J. J. Pocha
Space Mission Analysis and Design, 1st edition, James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
*Space Mission Analysis and Design, 2nd edition, Wiley J. Larson and James R. Wertz
*Space Mission Analysis and Design Workbook, Wiley J. Larson and James R. Wertz
Handbook of Geostationary Orbits, E. M. Soop
*Spacecraft Structures and Mechanisms, From Concept to Launch, Thomas P. Sarafin
Spaceflight Life Support and Biospherics, Peter Eckart
*Reducing Space Mission Cost, James R. Wertz and Wiley J. Larson
The Logic of Microspace, Rick Fleeter

*Also in the DoD/NASA Space Technology Series (Managing Editor Wiley J. Larson)

The Space Technology Library Editorial Board

Managing Editor: James R. Wertz, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, CA
Editorial Board: Val A. Chobotov, The Aerospace Corporation (retired)
Michael L. DeLorenzo, United States Air Force Academy
Roland Dor, International Space University, Strasbourg, France
Robert B. Giffen, United States Air Force Academy (retired)
Gwynne Gurevich, Microcosm, Inc.
Wiley J. Larson, United States Air Force Academy
Tom Logsdon, Rockwell International (retired)
Landis Markley, Goddard Space Flight Center
Robert G. Melton, Pennsylvania State University
Keiken Ninomiya, Institute of Space & Astronautical Science, Japan
Jehangir J. Pocha, Matra Marconi Space, Stevenage, England
Frank J. Redd, Utah State University
Malcolm D. Shuster, University of Florida
Gael Squibb, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Martin Sweeting, University of Surrey, England
 Space Mission
Analysis and Design
Third Edition
Edited by

James R. Wertz
Microcosm, Inc.
and

Wiley J. Larson
United States Air Force Academy

Coordination by
Douglas Kirkpatrick, United States Air Force Academy
Donna Klungle, Microcosm, Inc.

This book is published as part of the Space Technology Series, a cooperative activity of the
United States Department of Defense and National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Space Technology Library

Published Jointly by

Microcosm Press
Torrance, California

Kluwer Academic Publishers

Dordrecht / Boston / London
Third Edition
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from

the Library of Congress.

ISBN 1-881883-10-8 (pb) (acid-free paper)

ISBN 0-7923-5901-1 (hb) (acid-free paper)

Cover photo of Earth from Space: View of Africa and the Indian Ocean taken in Dec. 1972, by Apollo 17,
the last of the Apollo missions to explore the Moon. Photo courtesy of NASA.

Cover design by Jeanine Newcomb and Joy Sakaguchi.

Published jointly by
Microcosm Press
2377 Crenshaw Blvd., Suite 350, Torrance, CA 90501 USA
and
Kluwer Academic Publishers,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates

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Printed in the United States of America

 Table of Contents
List of Authors ix
Preface xvii

1. The Space Mission Analysis and Design Process 1

1.1 Introduction and Overview 1
1.2 The Space Mission Life Cycle 7
1.3 Step 1: Definition of Mission Objectives 12
1.4 Step 2: Preliminary Estimate of Mission Needs, Requirements,
and Constraints 15

2. Mission Characterization 19
2.1 Step 3: Identifying Alternative Mission Concepts 21
2.2 Step 4: Identifying Alternative Mission Architectures 32
2.3 Step 5: Identifying System Drivers 37
2.4 Step 6: Characterizing the Mission Architecture 38

3. Mission Evaluation 47
3.1 Step 7: Identification of Critical Requirements 48
3.2 Mission Analysis 49
3.3 Step 8: Mission Utility 59
3.4 Step 9: Mission Concept Selection 69

4. Requirements Definition 73
4.1 Role of Requirements in System Development 74
4.2 Requirements Analysis and Performance Budgeting 80
4.3 Requirements Documentation and Specifications 90
4.4 Summary: The Steps to a Requirements Baseline 93

5. Space Mission Geometry 95

5.1 Introduction to Geometry on the Celestial Sphere 98
5.2 Earth Geometry Viewed from Space 110
5.3 Apparent Motion of Satellites for an Observer on the Earth 117
5.4 Development of Mapping and Pointing Budgets 123

6. Introduction to Astrodynamics 131

6.1 Keplerian Orbits 132
6.2 Orbit Perturbations 141
6.3 Orbit Maneuvering 146
6.4 Launch Windows 153
6.5 Orbit Maintenance 155

v
vi Table of Contents

7. Orbit and Constellation Design 159

7.1 The Orbit Design Process 160
7.2 Earth Coverage 163
7.3 The V Budget 176
7.4 Selecting Orbits for Earth-Referenced Spacecraft 179
7.5 Selecting Transfer, Parking,
and Space-Referenced Orbits 183
7.6 Constellation Design 188

8. The Space Environment and Survivability 203

8.1 The Space Environment 203
8.2 Hardness and Survivability Requirements 221

9. Space Payload Design and Sizing 241

9.1 Payload Design and Sizing Process 245
9.2 Mission Requirements and Subject Trades 249
9.3 Background 255
9.4 Observation Payload Design 266
9.5 Observation Payload Sizing 278
9.6 Examples 291

10. Spacecraft Design and Sizing 301

10.1 Requirements, Constraints,
and the Design Process 304
10.2 Spacecraft Configuration 308
10.3 Design Budgets 314
10.4 Designing the Spacecraft Bus 318
10.5 Integrating the Spacecraft Design 336
10.6 Examples 339

11. Spacecraft Subsystems 353

11.1 Attitude Determination and Control 354
11.2 Telemetry, Tracking, and Command 381
11.3 Command and Data Handling 395
11.4 Power 407
11.5 Thermal 428
11.6 Structures and Mechanisms 459
11.7 Guidance and Navigation 497
12. Space Manufacture and Test 519
12.1 Engineering Data 521
12.2 Manufacture of High-Reliability Hardware 521
12.3 Inspection and Quality Assurance 523
12.4 The Qualification Program 524
12.5 Spacecraft Qualification Test Flow 529
12.6 Launch Site Operations 530
 Table of Contents vii

13. Communications Architecture 533

13.1 Communications Architecture 534
13.2 Data Rates 543
13.3 Link Design 550
13.4 Sizing the Communications Payload 570
13.5 Special Topics 575
14. Mission Operations 587
14.1 Developing a Mission Operations Plan 590
14.2 Overview of Space Mission Operations Functions 600
14.3 Estimating the Size and Cost of Mission Operations 611
14.4 Automating Spacecraft and Ground Operations Functions 616
15. Ground System Design and Sizing 621
15.1 The Ground System Design Process 623
15.2 A Ground Systems Basic Elements 624
15.3 The Typical Ground System 629
15.4 Alternatives to Building a Dedicated System 636
15.5 Key Design Considerations 642

16. Spacecraft Computer Systems 645

16.1 Computer System Specification 649
16.2 Computer Resource Estimation 660
16.3 FireSat Example 673

17. Space Propulsion Systems 685

17.1 Propulsion Subsystem Selection and Sizing 687
17.2 Basics of Rocket Propulsion 688
17.3 Types of Rockets 691
17.4 Component Selection and Sizing 708
17.5 Staging 716

18. Launch Systems 719

18.1 Basic Launch Vehicle Considerations 720
18.2 Launch System Selection Process 723
18.3 Determining the Spacecraft Design
Envelope and Environments 735

19. Space Manufacturing and Reliability 745

19.1 Designing Space Systems for Manufacturability 745
19.2 Reliability for Space Mission Planning 765

20. Cost Modeling 783

20.1 Introduction to Cost Analysis 784
20.2 The Parametric Cost Estimation Process 791
20.3 Cost Estimating Relationships 795
20.4 Other Topics 804
20.5 FireSat Example 811
viii Table of Contents

21. Limits on Mission Design 821

21.1 Law and Policy Considerations 821
21.2 Orbital DebrisA Space Hazard 840
22. Design of Low-Cost Spacecraft 853
22.1 Designing Low-Cost Space Systems 858
22.2 Small Space Systems Capabilities and Applications 863
22.3 Applying Miniature Satellite Technology to FireSat 869
22.4 Scaling from Large to Small Systems 871
22.5 Economics of Low-Cost Space Systems 873
22.6 Annotated Bibliography on Low-Cost Space Systems 881
23. Applying the Space Mission Analysis and Design 883
23.1 Applying SMAD to Later Mission Phases 884
23.2 Lessons Learned from Existing Space Programs 888
23.3 Future Trends 889

APPENDICES
Appendix A. Mass Distribution for Selected Satellites 894
Appendix B. Astronautical and Astrophysical Data 897
Appendix C. Elliptical Orbit Equations 902
Appendix D. Spherical Geometry Formulas 904
Appendix E. Universal Time and Julian Dates 908
Appendix F. Units and Conversion Factors 914
Index 923

INSIDE FRONT COVER

Fundamental Physical Constants Inside Front Cover
Spaceflight Constants Inside Front Cover
Index to Process Charts Page Facing Inside Front Cover

INSIDE REAR COVER

Earth Satellite Parameters Inside Rear Pages
 List of Authors

Henry Apgar. Vice President, MCR International, Inc., Thousand Oaks, California.
M.B.A., Northeastern University; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Rutgers University.
Chapter 20Cost Modeling.

David A. Bearden. Senior Project Engineer, Corporate Business Division, The Aero-
space Corporation, El Segundo, California. Ph.D., M.S. (Aerospace Engineering),
University of Southern California; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), University of
Utah. Chapter 20Cost Modeling.

Robert Bell. Mission Analyst, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. M.S. (Aero-
space Engineering), University of Southern California; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering),
University of Southern California. Appendix FUnits and Conversion Factors.

Richard T. Berget. Program Director, BF Goodrich Aerospace, Data Systems Divi-

sion, Albuquerque, New Mexico. M.S., B.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of
New Mexico. Section 11.3Command and Data Handling.

J. B. Blake. Director, Space Sciences Department, Space and Environment Tech-

nology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California. Ph.D., M.S.
(Physics), University of Illinois; B.S. (Engineering Physics), University of Illinois.
Section 8.1The Space Environment.

Daryl G. Boden. Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering, U.S. Naval Acad-

emy, Annapolis, Maryland. Ph.D.(Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering),
University of Illinois; M.S. (Astronautical Engineering), Air Force Institute of
Technology; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Colorado. Chapter
6Introduction to Astrodynamics.

William R. Britton. Mechanisms Section Manager, Space Systems, Lockheed Martin

Astronautics, Denver, Colorado. B.S. (Mechanical Engineering), Drexel University.
Section 11.6Structures and Mechanisms.

Robert F. Brodsky. Chief Engineer, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. Adjunct

Professor of Aerospace Engineering, University of Southern California. Sc.D.
(Engineering), New York University; M.Aeron. Engineering, New York University;
M.S. (Mathematics), University of New Mexico; B.M.E., Cornell University.
Chapter 9Space Payload Design and Sizing.

John B. Carraway. Principal Engineer, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,

California. B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Chapter 14Mission Operations.

ix
x List of Authors

Bruce Chesley. Small Satellite Program Manager and Assistant Professor of Astro-
nautics, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Ph.D. (Aerospace
Engineering), University of Colorado, Boulder; M.S. (Aerospace Engineering),
University of Texas at Austin; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Notre
Dame. Chapter 9Space Payload Design and Sizing.

John T. Collins. System Engineer, Microcosm, Inc. B.S. (Aerospace Engineering),

University of Illinois (UIUC); B.S. (Astronomy), University of Illinois (UIUC).
Section 20.5FireSat Example.

Richard S. Davies. Technical Staff, Stanford Telecommunications, Inc., Santa Clara,

California. Engineer, Stanford University; M.S., B.S. (Electrical Engineering),
University of Pennsylvania. Chapter 13Communications Architecture.

Simon D. Dawson. Systems Engineer, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. MSc

(Spacecraft Technology and Satellite Communications), University College London,
University of London; BSc (Hons) (Physics &European Studies), University of Sus-
sex. Appendices; Inside Rear PagesEarth Satellite Parameters.

Fred J. Dietrich. Principal Engineer, Globalstar, L.P., Palo Alto, California. Ph.D.,
Ohio State University; M.S. (Electrical Engineering), Purdue University; B.S.
(Electrical Engineering), Missouri School of Mines. Chapter 13Communications
Architecture.

Peter G. Doukas. Senior Staff Engineer, Martin Marietta Astronautics Group,

Denver, Colorado. B.S. (Aeronautics and Astronautics), Purdue University. Sec-
tion 11.6Structures and Mechanisms.

John S. Eterno. Chief Scientist, Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., Boulder,
Colorado. Ph.D., M.S. (Aeronautics and Astronautics), Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; B.S. (Aerospace Engineering), Case Western Reserve University.
Section 11.1Attitude Determination and Control.

Rick Fleeter. President, AeroAstro, Herndon, Virginia. Ph.D. (Thermodynamics),

Brown University; M.Sc. (Astronautics and Aeronautics), Stanford University; A.B.
(Engineering and Economics), Brown University. Chapter 22Design of Low-Cost
Spacecraft.

D. J. Gorney. Principal Director, Defense Support Program, The Aerospace Cor-

poration, El Segundo, California. Ph.D., M.S. (Atmospheric Sciences), University of
California, Los Angeles; B.S. (Physics), University of Bridgeport, Connecticut.
Section 8.1The Space Environment.

L. Jane Hansen. President, HRP Systems, Torrance, California. M.B.A., Pepperdine

University School of Business and Management; B.S. (Applied Mathematics), Cali-
fornia Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. Chapter 16Spacecraft Com-
puter Systems.
 List of Authors xi

Herbert Hecht. Chairman of the Board, SoHaR, Inc., Beverly Hills, California. Ph.D.
(Engineering), University of California, Los Angeles; M.S. (Electrical Engineering),
Polytechnic University of New York; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), City University,
New York. Section 19.2Reliability for Space Mission Planning.

Robert W. Hosken. Member of the Technical Staff, The Aerospace Corporation, El

Segundo, California. Ph.D. (Physics), University of Illinois; B.S. (Electrical Engi-
neering), Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Chapter 16Spacecraft Computer
Systems.

Douglas Kirkpatrick. Visiting Professor, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado

Springs, Colorado. Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin; M.S., Purdue University;
B.S., U.S. Air Force Academy. Section 11.2Telemetry, Tracking, and Command;
Chapter 18Launch Systems.

Malcolm K. Kong. Manager, Hardness & Survivability Engineering, TRW Systems

& Information Technology Group, Redondo Beach, California. M.S. (Systems Engi-
neering), West Coast University, Los Angeles; B.S. (Electrical Engineering), Purdue
University. Section 8.2Hardness and Survivability Requirements.

H. C. Koons. Distinguished Scientist, Space Sciences Department, Space and Envi-

ronment Technology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California.
Ph.D. (Geophysics), Massachusetts Institute of Technology; B.S. (Physics), Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology. Section 8.1The Space Environment.

Wiley J. Larson. Director, Space Mission Analysis and Design Program, U.S. Air
Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. D.E. (Spacecraft Design), Texas A&M
University; M.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of Michigan; B.S. (Electrical
Engineering), University of Michigan. Editor; Chapter 1The Space Mission Analy-
sis and Design Process; Chapter 14Mission Operations; Chapter 23Applying
Space Mission Analysis and Design Process.

Joseph P. Loftus, Jr. Assistant Director for Plans, L.B. Johnson Space Center,
NASA, Houston, Texas. Sloan Fellow (Business), Stanford University; M.A. (Math
and Psychology), Fordham University; B.A. (Math and Psychology), Catholic Univer-
sity. Chapter 18Launch Systems.

Reinhold Lutz. Director, Technology Strategy, Daimler Chrysler Aerospace, Bergen,

Germany. Dr.-Ing., University of German Forces; Dipl.-Ing., Technical University
Munich. Chapter 9Space Payload Design and Sizing.

Ronald A. Madler. Associate Professor, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,

Prescott, Arizona. Ph.D., M.S., B.S. (Aerospace Engineering Sciences), University of
Colorado, Boulder. Section 21.2Orbital DebrisA Space Hazard.

James R. McCandless. Manager (Retired), Stress Analysis, Space Systems, Lock-

heed Martin Astronautics, Denver, Colorado. B.S. (Architectural Engineering),
University of Texas. Section 11.6Structures and Mechanisms.
xii List of Authors

Joseph K. McDermott. Engineering Manager, Lockheed Martin Astronautics Group,

Denver, Colorado. M.E. (Engineering Management), University of Colorado; B.S.
(Chemistry), Loras College. Section 11.4Power.

Darren S. McKnight. Vice President, Titan Research and Technology, Reston, Vir-
ginia. Ph.D. (Aerospace Engineering), University of Colorado; M.S. (Mechanical
Engineering), University of New Mexico; B.S. (Engineering), U.S. Air Force Acade-
my. Section 21.2Orbital DebrisA Space Hazard.

Wade Molnau. Manufacturing Manager, Motorola Systems Solutions Group, Space

Services and Systems Division, Scottsdale, Arizona. Ph.D., M.S., B.S. (Industrial
Engineering), Arizona State University. Section 19.1 Designing Space Systems for
Manufacturability.

Paul Nordin. NASA/TDRS Resident Office Manager at Hughes Space and Com-
munications, El Segundo, California, employed by The Boeing Company, Seabrook,
MD. Ph.D., M.A., B.A., (Nuclear Physics), University of California, Berkeley.
Section 8.2Hardness and Survivability Requirements.

Jean Olivieri. Teledesic Bus Production Manager, Motorola Advanced Systems

Division, Chandler, Arizona. M.S., B.S. (Industrial Engineering), Arizona State
University. Section 19.1 Designing Space Systems for Manufacturability.

Aniceto Panetti. Satellite Systems Engineer, Alenia Aerospazio Space Division,

Rome, Italy. Master of Space Systems Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
The Netherlands; Degree in Mechanical Engineering, Universit di Roma la Sapienza,
Italy. Section 11.5Thermal.

Craig H. Pollock. Space Systems Engineer (Onboard Processing Design Integration

and Operations Engineering), TRW Space and Defense Sector, Redondo Beach, Cal-
ifornia. M.A. (Mathematics), California State University, Long Beach; B.S. (Physics
and Mathematics), University of New Mexico. Chapter 16Spacecraft Computer
Systems.

Emery I. Reeves. Shriever Chair Professor of Space Systems Engineering, U.S. Air
Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. M.S. (Electrical Engineering),
Massachusetts Institute of Technology; B.E. (Electrical Engineering), Yale Univer-
sity. Chapter 10Spacecraft Design and Sizing, Chapter 12Spacecraft Manufac-
ture and Test.

Richard P. Reinert. Staff Consultant, Spacecraft and Mission Design Division, Ball
Aerospace Systems, Boulder, Colorado. B.S. (Aeronautical Engineering), Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology. Chapter 2Mission Characterization.

Robert L. Sackheim. Deputy Director, Propulsion Technology and Fluid Mechanics

Center, TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. M.S., B.S. (Chemical Engineering)
Columbia University. Chapter 17Space Propulsion Systems.
 List of Authors xiii

Thomas P. Sarafin. Consultant/President, Instar Engineering and Consulting, Inc.,

Littleton, Colorado. B.S. (Civil Engineering), Ohio State University. Section
11.6Structures and Mechanisms.

Michael Schulz. Senior Scientist, Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center,

Palo Alto, California. Ph.D. (Physics), Massachusetts Institute of Technology; B.S.
(Physics), Michigan State University. Section 8.1The Space Environment.

Chad Spalt. Production Technical Lead, Motorola Satellite Communications Group,

Mobile Satellite Systems Division, Chandler, Arizona. M.S. (Industrial Engineering),
Arizona State University; B.S. (Mechanical Engineering Technology), Southern
Illinois University. Section 19.1 Designing Space Systems for Manufacturability.

Gael F. Squibb. Director for Telecommunications and Mission Operations, Jet

Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California. M.S. (Systems Management), Univer-
sity of Southern California; B.S. (Physics), Harvey Mudd College. Chapter
14Mission Operations

Charles Teixeira. Chief, Systems Definition Branch, L.B. Johnson Space Center,
NASA, Houston, Texas. M.S. (Mechanical Engineering), Louisiana State Univer-
sity; B.S. (Aeronautical Engineering), New York University. Chapter 18Launch
Systems.

Alan C. Tribble. Manager, Applications Development, Information Technology,

Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Ph.D., M.S., (Physics), University of Iowa;
B.S. (Physics), University of Arkansas. Section 8.1The Space Environment.

A. L. Vampola. Consultant, Space Environment Effects, Vista, California. Ph.D.,

M.S. (Physics), St. Louis University; B.S. (Mathematics and Physics), Creighton
University, Nebraska. Section 8.1The Space Environment.

R. L. Walterscheid. Senior Scientist, Space Sciences Department, Space and

Environment Technology Center, The Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, Califor-
nia. Ph.D. (Atmospheric Sciences), University of California, Los Angeles; M.S.
(Meteorology), University of California, Los Angeles; A.B. (Physics), University of
California, Berkeley; B.S. (Meteorology), University of Wisconsin. Section 8.1The
Space Environment.

Stanley I. Weiss. Visiting Professor, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and

University of California Davis; Formerly Corporate VP Engineering and VP Research
and Development, Lockheed Corporation; Ph.D., University of Illinois; M.S., B.S.,
Renesselaer Polytechnic Institute. Chapter 4Requirements Definition.

James R. Wertz. President, Microcosm, Inc., Torrance, California. Ph.D. (Relativity

& Cosmology), University of Texas, Austin; M.S. (Administration of Science
and Technology), George Washington University; S.B. (Physics), Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Editor; Chapter 1The Space Mission Analysis and Design
Process; Chapter 2Mission Characterization; Chapter 3Mission Evaluation;
xiv List of Authors

Chapter 5Space Mission Geometry; Chapter 7Orbit and Constellation Design;

Section 8.1The Space Environment; Section 11.7Guidance and Navigation;
Chapter 23Applying the Space Mission Analysis and Design Process; Appen-
dix EUniversal Time and Julian Dates.

Gary G. Whitworth. Senior Engineer (Retired), Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns

Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland. B.S. (Electrical Engineering), University of
Tennessee. Chapter 15Ground System Design and Sizing.

Michael S. Williams. Vice President, Personal SATCOM Systems, Lockheed Martin

Global Telecommunications, Reston, VA. M.S. (Electrical Engineering), University
of Pennsylvania; M.B.A. (Statistics/Operations Research), Temple University; B.S.
(Physics), St. Joseph's University. Chapter 4Requirements Definition.

William B. Wirin. General Manager, Wirin & Associates. J.D. (University of

Southern California School of Law); B.A. (Political Science), Occidental College.
Section 21.1Law and Policy Considerations.

Robert E. Wong. Manager, Economic Analysis, TRW Systems Engineering and

Development Division, TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. Ph.D. (Economics),
University of Southern California; M.S. (Mathematics), University of Southern
California; M.A. (Economics), University of Southern California; B.S. (Physics),
Iowa State University. Chapter 20Cost Modeling.

Sidney Zafran. Program Manager, TRW, Inc., Redondo Beach, California. B.S.
(Mechanical Engineering), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chapter 17
Space Propulsion Systems.
 List of Authors xv

SMAD I, II, and III Authors

The third edition is the end result of a substantial effort by the authors of all the
SMAD editions. Consequently, we would like to acknowledge and express our thanks
to all of the authors who have contributed to this series:

Henry Apgar Joseph K. McDermott

David A. Bearden Darren S. McKnight
Robert Bell Robert K. McMordie
Richard T. Berget Wade Molnau
J. B. Blake Ralph L. Mueller
James E. Boatwright David Negron, Jr.
Daryl G. Boden Paul Nordin
William R. Britton Thomas P. OBrien
Robert F. Brodsky Jean Olivieri
John B. Carraway Aniceto Panetti
Bruce Chesley Craig H. Pollock
Arthur Chomas Emery I. Reeves
John T. Collins Richard P. Reinert
Richard S. Davies Robert L. Sackheim
Simon D. Dawson Thomas P. Sarafin
Fred J. Dietrich Michael Schulz
Peter G. Doukas Chad Spalt
Neal Ely Gael F. Squibb
John S. Eterno Charles Teixeira
Rick Fleeter Merlin E. Thimlar
John R. Ford, Jr. Alan C. Tribble
Martin E.B. France Tim Turner
Steven Glaseman A. L. Vampola
D. J. Gorney R. L. Walterscheid
L. Jane Hansen Richard Warner
Herbert Hecht Stanley I. Weiss
Robert W. Hosken James R. Wertz
Douglas Kirkpatrick Gary G. Whitworth
Malcolm K. Kong Michael S. Williams
H. C. Koons William B. Wirin
Wiley J. Larson Robert S. Wolf
Joseph P. Loftus, Jr. Robert E. Wong
Reinhold Lutz Sidney Zafran
Ronald A. Madler Robert O. Zermuehlen
Franois Martel Harold F. Zimbelman
James R. McCandless
 Preface

Space Mission Analysis and Design, known as SMAD to its many friends, has
gained widespread use as a text and reference throughout the astronautics community.
The purpose of the third edition of SMAD is to both update the book and make it more
useful and more practical wherever possible. Some topics, such as astrodynamics and
mission geometry, have changed relatively little since publication of the second edi-
tion in 1992. Here we have made minor modifications to make the material clearer and
more precise. On the other hand, topics such as space computers and the design of
observation payloads have been nearly completely rewritten. Because of the growing
interest in LightSats and low-Earth orbit constellations we have added a SmallSat
cost model, expanded the discussion of constellation design, and included a new sec-
tion on multi-satellite manufacturing. The entire volume reflects a greater emphasis on
reducing mission cost and doing more with less people and fewer resources.* Finally,
the FireSat sample mission has been extended further and the appendices and end mat-
ter updated and expanded to provide greater utility as a quick reference. We hope the
new edition is better and more useful to you.
As with the first two editions, the goal of the book to is allow you to begin with a
blank sheet of paper and design a space mission to meet a set of broad, often poorly
defined, objectives at minimum cost and risk. You should be able to define the mission
in sufficient detail to identify principal drivers and make a preliminary assessment of
overall performance, size, cost, and risk. The emphasis is on low-Earth orbit, un-
manned spacecraft. However, we hope the principles are broad enough to be applica-
ble to other missions as well. We intend the book to be a practical guide, rather than a
theoretical treatise. As much as possible, we have provided physical and engineering
data, rules of thumb, empirical formulas, and design algorithms based on past experi-
ence. We assume that the reader has a general knowledge of physics, math, and basic
engineering, but is not necessarily familiar with any aspect of space technology.
The third edition represents an amalgam of contributions over the last decade by
many engineers and managers from throughout the community. It reflects the insight
gained from their practical experience, and suggests how things might be done better
in the future. From time to time the views of authors and editors conflict, as must nec-
essarily occur given the broad diversity of experience. We believe it is important to
reflect this diversity rather than suppress the opinions of individual experts. Similarly,
the level of treatment varies among topics, depending both on the issues each author
feels is critical and our overall assessment of the level of detail in each topic that is
important to the preliminary mission analysis and design process.

* The continuing, unrelenting demand to drive down mission cost has led to the creation a
companion volume to SMAD, Reducing Space Mission Cost [Wertz and Larson, 1996], which
addresses cost reduction in all aspects of mission design and includes 10 case studies of how
the process works in practice.

xvi
 Preface xvii

The book is intended as a textbook for either introductory graduate or advanced

undergraduate courses, or as a reference for those already working in space tech-
nology. It can also provide valuable supplementary material for related courses such
as spacecraft design or space mission operations. We believe the book can be a key
tool for payload designers who need to find out more about space mission design and
for those charged with the responsibility of developing space mission requirements
and specifications. Finally, we hope that it will be of use to many system engineers in
this field who have a detailed knowledge of one area, but need to broaden their back-
ground or verify their understanding in related topics.
The book is meant to be read sequentially, although most of the chapters are self-
contained, with references to other parts of the book as needed. For readers with
specific interests, we recommend the following:
Those concerned primarily with mission analysis and design should read
Chaps. 19 and 1923.
Those concerned with spacecraft and subsystem design should read Chaps. 1,
2, 4, 813, and 1623.
Those concerned primarily with mission operations and the ground interaction
should read Chaps. 1, 2, 4, and 1316.
Those concerned with requirements definition, logistics, and putting a space
system in place should read Chaps. 14, 7, 9, 10, and 1823.
Those interested in constellation design and multi-satellite systems should
read Chaps. 19, 1316, and 1923.
Those interested in reducing mission cost and the design of low-cost missions
should read Chaps. 13, 710, 12, 2023, and the companion volume, Reduc-
ing Space Mission Cost.
SI (metric) units are used throughout the book. Conversions for essentially all
common units are contained in Appendix F. Conversion factors and physical constants
are generally given to their full available accuracy so that they can be inserted into
computer programs and not considered further. As discussed in the introduction to the
appendices, the values given are those adopted by the National Bureau of Standards
based on a least-squares fit to the fundamental physical constants or international
agreement on the definitions of various units. In the case of astronomical constants,
values adopted by the International Astronomical Union are given. The most com-
monly used astronautical formulas and constants are in the appendices. An expanded
table of space mission parameters for Earth orbits is on the inside back endleaf. For
those wishing to expand that table or use it for other central bodies, the formulas used
for creating it are on the preceding pages.
Leadership, funding, and support essential to updating the book were provided by
numerous programs at the Air Force Space and Missile Center, Air Force Space
Command, NASA Headquarters, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, and the
Advanced Projects Research Agency. Obtaining funding to create and maintain
much-needed reference material is exceptionally difficult. We are deeply indebted to
the sponsoring organizations, particularly Air Force Phillips Laboratory, for their
support and their recognition of the importance of projects such as this one.
The third edition of this book is the result of nearly two years of effort by a
dedicated team of government, industry, and academic professionals. The Department
of Astronautics, United States Air Force Academy, provided unwavering support for
xviii Preface

the project. Michael DeLorenzo, Chairman of the Department of Astronautics,

provided the leadership and continuing support critical to projects of this type. Both
Doug Kirkpatrick and Perry Luckett performed a detailed grammatical review in a
valiant effort to prevent the rest of us from demonstrating why we became engineers
rather than writers. Several graphics artists at the Academy, particularly Mary
Tostanoski and Debra Porter, spent many hours developing and updating artwork.
Joan Aug and Bert Reinertson cheerfully handled the huge administrative burden at
the Academy. Numerous faculty members, staff, and students graciously sacrificed
their time to provide assistance, review, and comments. Daryl Boden assisted with the
editing and reviewing even after changing assignments to the Naval Academy. Doug
Kirkpatrick managed the task for the Air Force with great skill and patience and
reviewed nearly all of the material for both technical and linguistic correctness!
OAO Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colorado, provided the contract support for
the project. Anita Shute at the Air Force Academy spent many hours revising drafts,
creating artwork, and working all aspects of the project. Eugene deGeus of Kluwer
Academic Publishers supplied substantial assistance with all aspects of the publishing
activity. This was his final project at Kluwer before taking a science administration
position with the Dutch government. We will miss his wisdom and guidance and wish
him the best of future success.
At Microcosm, the entire analysis and publications staff worked virtually all
aspects of the book (art, grammar, equation checking, technical reviews, and camera-
ready copy) and suffered patiently through the book project as it continually
absorbed great amounts of limited resources. Much of the new graphics was done by
undergraduate students Karen Burnham, Paul Murata, Alan Chen, and Julie Wertz
under the very capable guidance of Kevin Polk and Simon Dawson. Jennifer Burnham
and Judith Neiger did much of the proofing. Robert Bell did most of the demanding
task of updating units and conversion factors. John Collins created the new FireSat
cost model. Wendi Huntzicker and Joy Sakaguchi created the new camera-ready copy
for most of the book. Joy and Chris deFelippo did much of the new art. Finally, Donna
Klungle did a truly remarkable job managing, administering, editing, reviewing, and
preparing revisions, drafts, and the final camera-ready copy. Donna accomplished this
with skill and good humor, while dealing with the conflicting demands of multiple au-
thors and editors.
Arthur Cox of Lawrence Livermore National Labs and the editors of Astrophysical
Quantities [1999] graciously permitted the use of drafts of their forthcoming volume
so that we could obtain the most current values for physical quantities. We highly
recommend that readers consult Astrophysical Quantities for solar system and astro-
nomical parameters which are not contained here.
Every effort has been made to eliminate mathematical and factual errors. Many
errors from prior editions have been found largely through readers comments and
constructive criticism. Please continue to send any errors, omissions, corrections, or
comments to either editor at the addresses below. We sincerely hope that the book will
be of use to you in our common goal of reducing the cost and complexity of space
utilization.
Finally, one of the most exciting aspects of space mission analysis and design is that
after 40 years of space exploration we have only begun to scratch the surface of the
variety of important missions that can and should be done. In spite of problems, set-
backs, and higher costs than any of us would like, people young and old remain excited
about space. The exploration of space will take dramatic new turns in the future, from
 Preface xix

communications constellations and microgravity work now beginning to become a

reality to solar power satellites, space tourism, space industrialization, and settlements
on the Moon and planets which are still to be designed. We hope that this volume
provides a portion of the roadmap and incentive to those who will undertake these
tasks. We wish you the best of success in this endeavor.

June, 1999

James R. Wertz Wiley J. Larson

Microcosm, Inc. Department of Astronautics
2377 Crenshaw Blvd., Suite 350 United States Air Force Academy
Torrance, CA 90501 Colorado Springs, CO 80840
FAX: (310) 320-0555 FAX: (719) 333-3723
jwertz@smad.com larson@rmi.net

Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson, 1996, Reducing Space Mission Cost, Torrance, CA:
Microcosm Press and Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Cox, A.N. ed. 1999. Astrophysical Quantities, New York: Springer-Verlag.