Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

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Frontal Advance Theory

Saturations below the bubblepoint

Below the bubblepoint, a free gas saturation exists in

the pore spaces.
Frontal Advance Theory
As the reservoir pressure increases to a level above the
bubble point, gas will go back into solution with the oil.

The more depleted the reservoir, the longer the time

to fill-up, and therefore, the longer the time to waterflood
response.

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Frontal Advance Theory Fractional Flow Equation

Piston - like displacement
We have to study the front.
Sor

Water Oil

Swi
Connate water

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

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Fractional Flow Equation Fractional Flow Equation

The fractional flow equation is a model used to
determine the water fraction of the total fluid flow at a Capillary pressure term
particular location and time in a linear reservoir (usually ignored)

waterflood.

It determine the location and time for a fractional flow: Gravity term
distances against the saturation (front) after specific date:

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Fractional Flow Equation Fractional Flow Equation

Dip angle

The actual magnitude of capillary forces and

is small and difficult to accurately determine, if not impossible
to evaluate; therefore, it is usually omitted from the equation.

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

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Fractional Flow Equation Fractional Flow Equation

Horizontal reservoir Fw is function of the saturation.Ko/kw
Viscosities ratio are almost constant
In the fractional flow equation, the ratio of the
relative permeabilities in the equation is the ratio at
a given/specific saturation-that is, at one point in the
Please note that reservoir.
However, in the mobility ratio equation, the water
permeability is that in the water-contacted portion of
the reservoir, and the oil permeability is that in the
oil bank-that is, at two different and separated points
in the reservoir. (End points)
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Fractional Flow of Water is Affected by:

Fractional Flow Equation
If the reservoir is horizontal, the fractional flow equation
is simplified because we can ignore gravity and capillary
pressure.
This equation is evaluated for a point in the reservoir at a
point in time. This explicitly defines a water saturation.
Taking the water saturation and entering the relative
permeability curves provides kro and krw.
Oil and water viscosities for the average reservoir
pressure are obtained from laboratory data or correlations.

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

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Oil-Water Relative Permeability Information From the Fractional Flow Curve

100 fw=1 Average reservoir
Fraction of water 1
kro @ Swi water saturation
flowing at the
at breakthrough

Relative Permeability (%)

flood front
80 Two-Phase Flow
Region Residual Oil
Saturation fWF Tangent point
60

Oil fW
40
Irreducible
Water
Saturation
20
krw @ Sor
Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 Swi 1-Sor Sw at the
Sw
Water Saturation (%) flood front
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Water Flooding A-Z

Fractional Flow Curves Information From the Fractional Flow Curve

Several important pieces of information can be derived from the
fractional flow curve. By drawing a straight line tangent to the
fractional flow curve, starting at fw = 0 and Sw = Swi,
1) At the tangent point, the corresponding Sw is the water
saturation at the flood front.
2) The corresponding fw is the fraction of water flowing
at the flood front.
3) The water saturation value where the tangent line
intersects (fw = 1.0) is the average water saturation in
the reservoir at breakthrough .
Note: This is for a single-layer system.
4) Displacement efficiency (E) at breakthrough is calculated
from:
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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Water Flooding A-Z

Example 2: Fractional Flow Curve

Analyzing Waterflood
Patterns

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Water Flooding A-Z

Example 2 Solution
Mobility
Fractional Flow Curve
1. Sw = 55%

2. fw = 82.5%

3. = 63%

4.
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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Mobility Ratio
Significance of Mobility Ratio
Mobility, as taken from Darcys equation is
the permeability of the rock to that fluid
divided by the viscosity of the fluid.

Water mobility is

Water relative permeability is taken at average water saturation

Oil mobility is
behind the flood front while oil relative permeability is taken at oil
saturation ahead of the front. Mobility ratio calculated this way is
Mobility is a function of saturation. sometimes referred to as end-point mobility ratio.
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Significance of Mobility Ratio Mobility Ratio Effects

Mobility ratio is defined as a ratio of the
mobility of the displacing fluid to the
displaced fluid.

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns
Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio has a controlling influence on
the areal sweep efficiency of a waterflood.
The mobility of the water must be sufficiently
low and that of the oil sufficiently high to
provide a reasonably high areal sweep
efficiency and thus economically viable
improved oil recovery.
In general, sweep efficiency and oil recovery
decrease as mobility ratio increases.
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Significance of Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio is a key element in the design of
a waterflood. It is the principal indicator used
to determine sweep efficiency.
Often waterflooding pattern performance is
represented graphically as a function of
mobility ratio.
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Significance of Mobility Ratio
A mobility ratio greater than unity, M > 1 is
called an unfavorable mobility ratio.
Water can flow through the rock better than oil.
The water behind the front moves faster than
the oil ahead of the front. As a result, the water
does not displace the oil as efficiently as it
advances towards the production well.
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Significance of Mobility Ratio
A mobility ratio less than unity, M < 1, is called
a favorable mobility ratio.
Oil flows more easily through the formation
than water. The water moves more slowly than
the oil leading to higher water saturations
behind the front. As a result, the water sweeps
the oil towards the producer more efficiently
resulting in improved oil recovery.
.
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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Fluid Displacement in
Piston-Like Manner
1

1 - Sor
Water Saturation

Water Oil

Swi

Distance 29 31

Fluid Displacement in
Piston-Like

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

dx = ((q * t)/( * A)) *

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Displacement Efficiency

Displacement efficiency is defined as the

fraction of oil which water will displace in that
portion of the reservoir invaded by water.
This is represented in the figure shown above.
There are several methods for determining the
displacement sweep efficiency.

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Waterflood
Performance Efficiencies Laboratory Work
Recovery efficiency
Laboratory work with core samples can be
ER = Ev ED
used to estimate displacement efficiency
= EA EI ED for a reservoir.
ER = Recovery efficiency
Laboratory work and conclusions
ED = Displacement efficiency
Ev = Volumetric efficiency developed from laboratory results often
EA = Areal efficiency represent ultimate displacement efficiency
EI = Vertical efficiency and should be used with caution.

Calculation of recovery efficiency is difficult because each factor

is complex. However, understanding what affects each factor is
important to understanding waterflooding. 38 40

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Performance Efficiencies Linear Flow Models

Displacement efficiency (ED)
The displacement efficiency of a waterflood
is maximized by minimizing the fractional
flow of water as a function of water
saturation (shift the curve to the right hand
side).

is the value of water saturation at the point where

the tangent line to the fractional flow curve has a
value fw = 1.0. (See Frontal Advance Theory,
information from the fractional flow curve.) 41 43

Example
Linear Flow Models Displacement Efficiency Calculation
In a previous chapter, fractional flow and
Given a fractional flow curve, determine
frontal advance concepts were developed.
the displacement efficiency of the system.
This model can be used to determine
Swi is 0.20.
displacement efficiency using the
following equation.

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Example
Displacement Efficiency Calculation Example: Solution
1.0
Displacement Efficiency Calculation

0.8 Step 3
Calculate displacement efficiency.
0.6

fw
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 45 47
Sw

Example: Solution Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA)

Displacement Efficiency Calculation Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA)

Producer
Step 1
Draw a tangent to the curve starting from
the Swc (or Swi) value.
Step 2 EA
Determine the value of the average Water invaded
saturation at breakthrough, Swbt, at the area
intersection of the tangent on fw = 1.0 line.

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Injector 48

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Areal Sweep Efficiency

Areal Sweep Efficiency Production Well

Area Under Observation

Injection Wells

Defined as the fraction of reservoir area Water Flooding:

Mobility Water
WOR = Instantaneous Producing Water-Oil Ratio

which the injected water contacts. Ratio = 1.43 Breakthrough

Oil-Containing

The areal sweep efficiency changes with Area

Areal
Water Sweep
time before and after breakthrough. Invaded
Area
Efficiency
65%
70.5%
82.2%

Mobility Water
Ratio = 0.4 Breakthrough

Oil-Containing
Area
Areal
Water Sweep 87.4% 95.6%
Invaded Efficiency
Area 82.8%

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A smaller mobility ratio improves
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areal sweep efficiency.

Areal Sweep Efficiency

Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA) Factors Affecting Areal Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio
Fraction of the horizontal plane of the Dip Angle
reservoir that is behind the flood front at a
Formation Connectivity
point in time
Fractures
Factors affecting EA
Areal Permeability Distribution
Mobility ratio
Barriers
Well spacing
Flood Pattern
Pattern geometry
Injection Rate
Areal heterogeneities

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Areal Sweep Efficiency

100

Areal Sweep Effifiency, %

Craigs SPE Monograph 3 contains 90
x

Breakthrough
published design charts and correlations
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for areal sweep efficiency of a wide range
of patterns. 70 x

Laboratory experiments have been conducted to 60 x

determine the areal sweep efficiency of various x
x
50
patterns for different mobility ratios. These results 0.1 1.0 10
and correlations are discussed at length by Craig in Mobility Ratio
Chapter 5 of the SPE Monograph Vol. 3.
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Areal Sweep Efficiency After

Areal Sweep Efficiency Breakthrough
Vd: displaceable volume
100
Pattern geometry influences areal Vd

sweep efficiency 90

% Area Swept
Correlations exist for common pattern 80
geometries as a function of mobility
ratio. 70

60

50
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
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Reciprocal of Mobility Ratio

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
INJECTION PRODUCTION
EI =
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Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Vertical (invasion) sweep efficiency is
defined as the cross-sectional area contacted
by injected water divided by the cross-
sectional area enclosed in all layers behind
the furthest waterflood front.
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Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Vertical sweep efficiency is influenced most
significantly by:
Mobility ratio
Vertical variation of horizontal
permeabilities
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Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Water injected into stratified reservoirs will
preferentially invade layers of highest
permeability.
The water front will also flow with a greater
velocity through these layers.
The high permeability layers will break through
sooner than less permeable layers causing a
rapid increase of water cut in the producing
well.
As a result, the economic water cut limit may
be reached before less permeable layers have
responded to the waterflood. 60
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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Mathematical Models of Vertical Vertical Sweep Efficiency

Sweep Efficiency
Factors Affecting Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Permeability variation
Vertical Variation of Horizontal Permeability
Dykstra and Parsons developed an ideal
model that uses a computed coefficient of Capillary Pressure
permeability variation, V. This term is a Mobility Ratio
quantitative indicator of the degree of
Injection Rate
reservoir heterogeneity.
This model: Dykstra Parsons and Stiles
methods.

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Performance predictions
Volumetric Sweep Efficiency Methods
A. Analogy
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the B. Empirical Techniques
product of the pattern areal sweep C. Analytical Approaches
efficiency and the vertical sweep
D. Material Balance Considerations
efficiency.
E. Simulation Studies
(15)

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Analogy Analytical Techniques

In the early stages, prior to sufficient reservoir
and production data, analogy is the main
method.
Methodology: Most of the analytical
An analogous reservoir in the near-by area can methods estimate volume of cumulative
provide a road map provided similarity between oil recovery as a function of cumulative
the two reservoirs is established or assumed.
water injection.
Similarity should be established in reservoir
characterization, oil properties, oil-water relative
permeability relationship, and pre-flood recovery
mechanism.
Scaling will be required; both PV and OOIP basis
are utilized.

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Analytical Techniques
Empirical Techniques
Many empirical techniques have been proposed in
the waterflood literature.
Methods
Stiles (1949)
They are based on the expectation that waterfloods Buckley and Leverett
in reservoirs with similar geological and depositional
settings would tend to behave similarly. Dykstra and Parsons (1950)
Craig, Geffen, and Morse

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Analyzing Waterflood Patterns

Material Balance

MBAL options

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Simulation Technique

The best tool for designing a waterflood project.

The model is based on integration of all the
available static and dynamic data.
The reliability of the resulting predictions is
dependent upon similarity between the reservoir
model and the real reservoir.
The degree of reliability improves if the reservoir
simulation model is validated, through the
process of history matching, prior to its used as a
predictor.

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