Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Contents
1 Main article 1
1.1 Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Operations of aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Aviation accidents and incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Air trac control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.5 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 History 7
2.1 Aviation history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Primitive beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 Lighter than air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Heavier than air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.4 The Pioneer Era (19031914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.5 World War I (19141918) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.6 Between the World Wars (19181939) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.7 World War II (19391945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.8 The postwar era (19451979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.9 The digital age (1980present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Civil aviation 27
3.1 Civil aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Civil aviation authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Military aviation 48
4.1 Aerial warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.2 Aerial reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.3 Air combat manoeuvring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.4 Airborne forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.5 Airstrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.6 Strategic bombing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.7 Anti-aircraft warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.8 Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.9 UAVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6 Piloting 78
6.1 Aviator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1.2 Civilian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.3 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.4 Unmanned aerial vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.5 Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.6 Pilot certications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1.8 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.1.10 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2 Federal Aviation Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2.2 Regulations of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8 Aviation Weather 97
8.1 Thunderstorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1.1 Life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.1.2 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.1.3 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.1.4 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.1.5 Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.1.6 Frequent occurrences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.1.7 Types of lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.1.8 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.9 Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.10 Mythology and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.11 Outside of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.1.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.1.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.1.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2 Crosswind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.2 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Main article
1.1 Aviation
This article is about aircraft. For the cocktail, see
Aviation (cocktail). For the album, see Aviation (album).
1
2 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability jet aircraft and the rst liquid-fueled rockets.
(Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901)
There are many competing claims for the earliest pow- After World War II, especially in North America, there
ered, heavier-than-air ight. The rst recorded powered was a boom in general aviation, both private and commer-
ight was carried out by Clment Ader on October 9, cial, as thousands of pilots were released from military
1890 when he reportedly made the rst manned, pow- service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and
ered, heavier-than-air ight of a signicant distance (50 training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such
m (160 ft)) but insignicant altitude from level ground in as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to
his bat-winged, fully self-propelled xed-wing aircraft, provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market.
the Ader ole.[7][8][9] Seven years later, on 14 October By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, begin-
1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front ning with the de Havilland Comet, though the rst widely
of two ocials from the French War ministry. The report used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was
on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had much more economical than other aircraft at that time.
been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed At the same time, turboprop propulsion began to appear
to have made a successful ight on 14 October 1897, for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve
achieving an uninterrupted ight of around 300 metres small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather
(980 feet) on. Although widely believed at the time, these conditions.
claims were later discredited.[10][11]
Since the 1960s composite material airframes and qui-
The Wright brothers made the rst successful powered, eter, more ecient engines have become available,
controlled and sustained airplane ight on December 17, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for
1903, a feat made possible by their invention of three-axismore than two decades, but the most important lasting
control. Only a decade later, at the start of World War innovations have taken place in instrumentation and con-
I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practi- trol. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Po-
cal for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks
sitioning System, satellite communications, and increas-
against ground positions. ingly small and powerful computers and LED displays,
Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs have dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and,
grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navi-
aloft the rst passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their me- gate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions,
chanics, on May 14, 1908.[12][13] and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic
vision, even at night or in low visibility.
During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made
in the eld of aviation, including the rst transatlantic On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the rst pri-
ight of Alcock and Brown in 1919, Charles Lindbergh's vately funded aircraft to make a spaceight, opening the
solo transatlantic ight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the
Smith's transpacic ight the following year. One of the Earths atmosphere. Meanwhile, ying prototypes of
most successful designs of this period was the Douglas aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol,
DC-3, which became the rst airliner to be protable electricity, and even solar energy, are becoming more
carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era common.
of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World
War II, many towns and cities had built airports, and
there were numerous qualied pilots available. The war 1.1.2 Operations of aircraft
brought many innovations to aviation, including the rst
1.1. AVIATION 3
Civil aviation
Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain in- An aviation incident is dened as an occurrence, other
formation about enemy forces. (e.g. Rumpler than an accident, associated with the operation of
Taube, Mosquito, U-2, OH-58 and MiG-25R). an aircraft that aects or could aect the safety of
operations.[17]
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primar- An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such
ily as reconnaissance xed-wing aircraft, though that it must be written o, or in which the plane is de-
many also carry payloads. Cargo aircraft are in de- stroyed, is called a hull loss accident.[17]
velopment. (e.g. RQ-7B Shadow, MQ-8 Fire Scout,
and MQ-1C Gray Eagle).
1.1.4 Air trac control
Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives, but
also things like leaets. Main article: Air trac control
Air trac control (ATC) involves communication with
aircraft to help maintain separation that is, they ensure
Air safety that aircraft are suciently far enough apart horizontally
or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-
1.1.3 Aviation accidents and incidents ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high
trac areas (such as the United States) they may use radar
Main article: Aviation accidents and incidents to see aircraft positions.
An aviation accident is dened by the Convention on There are generally four dierent types of ATC:
International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence
associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes
center controllers, who control aircraft en route be-
place between the time any person boards the aircraft
tween airports
with the intention of ight until such time as all such per-
sons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or control towers (including tower, ground control,
1.1. AVIATION 5
oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over inter- Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the
national waters between continents, generally with- tropopause can also release chemicals that interact
out radar service. with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly
nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, in-
terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider creasing ozone concentrations.[19][20]
area (typically 5080 km) around busy airports.
Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains
tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression pis-
ATC is especially important for aircraft ying under
ton engines can operate on unleaded mogas, and tur-
instrument ight rules (IFR), where they may be in
bine engines and diesel engines neither of which
weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other
requires lead are appearing on some newer light
aircraft. However, in very high-trac areas, especially
aircraft.
near major airports, aircraft ying under visual ight rules
(VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC.
Another environmental impact of aviation is noise pollu-
In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may tion, mainly caused by aircraft taking o and landing.
provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation
assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their
workload. 1.1.6 See also
ATC do not control all ights. The majority of VFR
ights in North America are not required to talk to ATC Aeronautics
(unless they are passing through a busy terminal area
Environmental impact of aviation
or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as
northern Canada and low altitude in northern Scotland, List of aviation topics
Air trac control services are not available even for IFR
ights at lower altitudes. Timeline of aviation
6 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
[12] Tom D. Crouch (August 29, 2008). 1908: The Year the
Airplane Went Public. Air & Space/Smithsonian. Re-
trieved August 21, 2012.
History
7
8 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
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Tower jumping
Kites spread from China around the world. After its in-
troduction into India, the kite further evolved into the
ghter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down
other kites.
Rotor wings
The use of a rotor for vertical ight has existed since 400
BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, an ancient Chinese
toy.[15][16] The similar moulinet noix (rotor on a nut)
Daedalus working on Icarus' wings. appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD.[17]
Woodcut print of a kite from John Bates 1635 book The Mys-
teryes of Nature and Art.
Some were tted with strings and whistles to make mu- A sky lantern.
sical sounds while ying.[9][10][11] Ancient and medieval
Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure dis- From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot
tances, test the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate air rises and have applied the principle to a type of small
and send messages.[12] hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists
10 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp copper foil spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be
is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for plea- lighter than the displaced air to lift an airship. While the-
sure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, oretically sound, his design was not feasible: the pressure
such lanterns were known in China from the 3rd century of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea
BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge of using vacuum to produce lift is now known as vacuum
Liang (180234 AD, honoric title Kongming), who is airship but remains unfeasible with any current materials.
said to have used them to scare the enemy troops.[18] In 1709 Bartolomeu de Gusmo presented a petition to
There is evidence that the Chinese also solved the prob- King John V of Portugal, begging for support for his in-
lem of aerial navigation using balloons, hundreds of vention of an airship, in which he expressed the greatest
years before the 18th century.[19] condence. The public test of the machine, which was
set for June 24, 1709, did not take place. According to
contemporary reports, however, Gusmo appears to have
The Renaissance made several less ambitious experiments with this ma-
chine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gus-
mo was working on this principle at the public exhibition
he gave before the Court on August 8, 1709, in the hall
of the Casa da ndia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball
to the roof by combustion.
Balloons
From the last years of the 15th century on he wrote On 21 November, the Montgolers launched the
about and sketched many designs for ying machines rst free ight with human passengers. King Louis
and mechanisms, including ornithopters, xed-wing glid- XVI had originally decreed that condemned crim-
ers, rotorcraft and parachutes. His early designs were inals would be the rst pilots, but Jean-Franois
man-powered types including ornithopters and rotorcraft, Piltre de Rozier, along with the Marquis Franois
however he came to realise the impracticality of this and d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honor.
later turned to controlled gliding ight, also sketching They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered
some designs powered by a spring.[22] by a wood re.
alighted Charles decided to ascend alone. This time continued sporadically throughout the 19th century. The
he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 9,800 feet rst powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air ight
(3,000 m), where he saw the sun again, suered ex- is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Gif-
treme pain in his ears, and never ew again. fard ew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam engine
driven craft.
Ballooning became a major rage in Europe in the late Another advance was made in 1884, when the rst
18th century, providing the rst detailed understanding fully controllable free-ight was made in a French Army
of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere. electric-powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard
Non-steerable balloons were employed during the and Arthur Krebs. The 170-foot (52 m) long, 66,000-
3
American Civil War by the Union Army Balloon Corps. cubic-foot (1,900 m ) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in
The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin rst ew as a balloon 23 minutes with the aid of an 8 horsepower electric mo-
passenger with the Union Army of the Potomac in 1863. tor.
In the early 1900s ballooning was a popular sport in However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and ex-
Britain. These privately owned balloons usually used coal tremely frail. Routine, controlled ights would not occur
gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see
hydrogen so the balloons had to be larger, however coal below.)
gas was far more readily available and the local gas works The rst aircraft to make routine controlled ights were
sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for bal- non-rigid airships (sometimes called blimps.) The most
looning events.[23] successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft
was the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont who eectively
Airships combined a balloon with an internal combustion engine.
On October 19, 1901 he ew his airship Number 6
Main articles: Airship and Zeppelin over Paris from the Parc de Saint Cloud around the Eiel
Airships were originally called dirigible balloons and Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win the Deutsch
de la Meurthe prize. Santos-Dumont went on to design
and build several aircraft. Subsequent controversy sur-
rounding his and others competing claims with regard to
aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the devel-
opment of airships.
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to
have some success, the rst successful rigid airships were
also being developed. These would be far more capable
than xed-wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying
capacity for decades. Rigid airship design and advance-
ment was pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von
Zeppelin.
Construction of the rst Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in
a oating assembly hall on Lake Constance in the Bay of
Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the
starting procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with
the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ for Luftschi
Zeppelin) had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by
two 10.6 kW (14.2 hp) Daimler engines and balanced by
moving a weight between its two nacelles.
Its rst ight, on July 2, 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes,
as LZ 1 was forced to land on the lake after the winding
mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon
repair, the technology proved its potential in subsequent
ights, bettering the 6 m/s speed attained by the French
airship La France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince
Santos-Dumonts Number 6 rounding the Eiel Tower in the possible investors. It would be several years before the
process of winning the Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize, October Count was able to raise enough funds for another try.
1901.
Although airships were used in both World War I and II,
are still sometimes called dirigibles today. and continue on a limited basis to this day, their develop-
ment has been largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air
Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon
12 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
craft. ous century he had begun the rst rigorous study of the
physics of ight and would later design the rst modern
heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements,
2.1.3 Heavier than air his most important contributions to aeronautics include:
Main article: Early ying machines Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles
of heavier-than-air ight.
Reaching a scientic understanding of the principles
The 17th and 18th centuries of bird ight.
Italian inventor, Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish Conducting scientic aerodynamic experiments
King Wadysaw IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model demonstrating drag and streamlining, movement of
aircraft with four xed glider wings in 1647.[24] De- the centre of pressure, and the increase in lift from
scribed as four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate curving the wing surface.
'dragon'", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in Dening the modern aeroplane conguration com-
1648 but not Burattini himself.[25] He promised that only prising a xed wing, fuselage and tail assembly.
the most minor injuries would result from landing the
craft.[26] His Dragon Volant is considered the most Demonstrations of manned, gliding ight.
elaborate and sophisticated aeroplane to be built before
the 19th Century.[27] Setting out the principles of power-to-weight ratio
in sustaining ight.
The rst published paper on aviation was Sketch of a
Machine for Flying in the Air by Emanuel Sweden- Cayleys rst innovation was to study the basic science of
borg published in 1716. This ying machine consisted lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in air-
of a light frame covered with strong canvas and pro- craft research and using simple aerodynamic models on
vided with two large oars or wings moving on a hori- the arm, rather than attempting to y a model of a com-
zontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no plete design.
resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power.
Swedenborg knew that the machine would not y, but In 1799 he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane
suggested it as a start and was condent that the prob- as a xed-wing ying machine with separate systems for
lem would be solved. He wrote: It seems easier to talk lift, propulsion, and control.[29][30]
of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it re- In 1804 Cayley constructed a model glider which was the
quires greater force and less weight than exists in a human rst modern heavier-than-air ying machine, having the
body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined
a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advan- wing towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with
tages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come both tailplane and n. A movable weight allowed adjust-
some one might know how better to utilize our sketch and ment of the models centre of gravity.[31]
cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that
which we can only suggest. Yet there are sucient proofs In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contempo-
and examples from nature that such ights can take place raries (see above), he began the publication of a landmark
without danger, although when the rst trials are made three-part treatise titled On Aerial Navigation (1809
you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind 1810).[32] In it he wrote the rst scientic statement of the
an arm or leg. Swedenborg would prove prescient in his problem, The whole problem is conned within these
observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight
one of the critical problems to be overcome. by the application of power to the resistance of air. He
identied the four vector forces that inuence an aircraft:
thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and
The 19th Century control in his designs. He also identied and described
the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diag-
Throughout the 19th century, tower jumping was re- onal bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the
placed by the equally fatal but equally popular balloon understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.
jumping as a way to demonstrate the continued useless- In 1848 he had progressed far enough to construct a glider
ness of man-power and apping wings. Meanwhile, the in the form of a triplane large and safe enough to carry
scientic study of heavier-than-air ight began in earnest. a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not
known.[33][34]
Sir George Cayley and the rst modern aircraft Sir He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size
George Cayley was rst called the father of the aero- manned glider or governable parachute to be launched
plane in 1846.[28] During the last years of the previ- from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 13
The Aeroplane of Victor Tatin, 1879. Learning to glide In the last decade or so of the 19th
century, a number of key gures were rening and den-
Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pnauds fellow ing the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine,
countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879 he ew a model which, aircraft work focused on stability and control in gliding
like Pnauds project, was a monoplane with twin tractor ight. In 1879 Biot constructed a bird-like glider with
propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was the help of Massia and ew in it briey. It is preserved
powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to be the
this was the rst model to take o under its own power. earliest man-carrying ying machine still in existence.
In 1884 Alexandre Goupil published his work La Loco- The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions
motion Arienne (Aerial Locomotion), although the ying to aerodynamics. He conducted extensive wind tunnel
machine he later constructed failed to y. research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of
In 1890 the French engineer Clment Ader completed aerodynamic lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His
the rst of three steam-driven ying machines, the ole. ndings underpin all modern aerofoil design.
On October 9, 1890 Ader made an uncontrolled hop Otto Lilienthal became known as the Glider King or
of around 50 m (165 ft); this was the rst manned air- Flying Man of Germany. He duplicated Wenhams
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 15
Langley
and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, half years before the Wright Brothers ight, he claimed
which ew twice on June 18, 1901, and then again with a to have carried out a controlled, powered ight in his
newer and more powerful engine in 1903. Number 21 monoplane at Faireld, Connecticut. The
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he ight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local
then turned to the problem of a suitable engine. He con- newspaper. About 30 years later, several people ques-
tracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed tioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other
when it delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 Whitehead ights.
kW) he expected. Langleys assistant, Charles M. Manly, In March 2013 Janes All the Worlds Aircraft, an author-
then reworked the design into a ve-cylinder water-cooled itative source for contemporary aviation, published an
radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that editorial which accepted Whiteheads ight as the rst
took years to duplicate. Now with both power and a de- manned, powered, controlled ight of a heavier-than-
sign, Langley put the two together with great hopes. air craft.[51] The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of
To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too frag- the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation histori-
ile. Simply scaling up the original small models resulted ans continue to maintain that Whitehead did not y as
[52][53]
in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two suggested.
launches in late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome im-
mediately crashing into the water. The pilot, Manly, was
rescued each time. Also, the aircrafts control system was The Wright brothers
inadequate to allow quick pilot responses, and it had no
method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome's aerial sta- Main article: Wright brothers
bility was marginal.[49]
Using a methodological approach and concentrating on
Langleys attempts to gain further funding failed, and
the controllability of the aircraft, the brothers built and
his eorts ended. Nine days after his second abortive
tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1900 to
launch on December 8, the Wright brothers successfully
ew their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modications1902 before attempting to build a powered design. The
gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had ex-
to the Aerodrome and ew this very dierent aircraft
pected based on the experiments and writings of their
in 1914.[49] Without acknowledging the modications,
19th-century predecessors. Their rst glider, launched in
the Smithsonian Institution asserted that Langleys Aero-
drome was the rst machine capable of ight.[50] 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their
second glider, built the following year, performed even
more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights con-
Whitehead structed their own wind tunnel and created a number of
sophisticated devices to measure lift and drag on the 200
Main article: Gustave Whitehead wing designs they tested.[54] As a result, the Wrights cor-
Gustave Weikopf was a German who emigrated to the rected earlier mistakes in calculations regarding drag and
lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third glider
with a higher aspect ratio and true three-axis control.
They ew it successfully hundreds of times in 1902, and
it performed far better than the previous models. By us-
ing a rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-
tunnel testing of airfoils and ight testing of full-size pro-
totypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft, the
Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aero-
nautical engineering.
The Wrights appear to be the rst to make serious stud-
ied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and con-
trol problems. Both problems proved dicult, but they
never lost interest. They solved the control problem by
inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with
simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder.
The No. 21 monoplane seen from the rear. Whitehead sits be- Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low-
side it with daughter Rose in his lap; others in the photo are not powered internal combustion engine. They also designed
identied. and carved wooden propellers that were more ecient
than any before, enabling them to gain adequate perfor-
U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. mance from their low engine power. Although wing-
From 1897 to 1915 he designed and built early ying warping as a means of lateral control was used only briey
machines and engines. On August 14, 1901, two and a during the early history of aviation, the principle of com-
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 17
The following year saw the widespread recognition of lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in
powered ight as something other than the preserve of Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war
dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July Louis Blriot won sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance depart-
worldwide fame by winning a 1,000 prize oered by ments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on air-
the British Daily Mail newspaper for a ight across the planes, notably the SCR-68, as communication between
English Channel, and in August around half a million pilots and ground commander grew more and more im-
people, including the President of France Armand Fal- portant.
lires and David Lloyd George, attended one of the rst
aviation meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at
Reims. 2.1.5 World War I (19141918)
Main article: Aviation in World War I
Rotorcraft
Military use
Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were German Taube monoplane, illustration from 1917
used for military purposes. The rst country to use them
for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made re-
connaissance, bombing and artillery correction ights in
Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 Combat schemes
October 1912). The rst mission (a reconnaissance) oc-
curred on 23 October 1911. The rst bombing mission See also: Flying ace, List of World War I ying aces,
was own on 1 November 1911.[74] Then Bulgaria fol- and Aerial victory standards of World War I
lowed this example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoi-
tered the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other,
191213. The rst war to see major use of airplanes in but the lack of any sort of steady point for the gun was a
oensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was problem. The French solved this problem when, in late
World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used 1914, Roland Garros attached a xed machine gun to the
airplanes and airships extensively. front of his plane, but while Adolphe Pegoud would be-
While the concept of using the airplane as an oensive come known as the rst "ace", getting credit for ve vic-
weapon was generally discounted before World War I,[75] tories, before also becoming the rst ace to die in action,
the idea of using it for photography was one that was not it was German Luftstreitkrfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens,
20 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
who, on July 1, 1915, scored the very rst aerial victory paying passengers for rides. Eventually the barnstorm-
by a purpose-built ghter plane, with a synchronized ma- ers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows
chine gun. sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic
Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing in- stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove
dividual combat with their enemies. Several pilots be- engine and airframe developmentthe Schneider Tro-
came famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well phy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker
known is Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S.6B.
Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air-to-air com- With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incen-
tive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most fa-
bat with several dierent planes, the most celebrated of
which was the Fokker Dr.I. On the Allied side, Ren Paul mous of those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She
was also the rst female pilot to achieve records such as
Fonck is credited with the most all-time victories at 75,
even when later wars are considered. crossing of the Atlantic and Pacic Oceans.
The years between World War I and World War II saw Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930
great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes
evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove
fabric to sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of alu- development forwards. For example, on June 14, 1919,
minum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-
Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption piloted a Vickers Vimy non-stop from St. Johns,
by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the 13,000
designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great rigid air- ($65,000)[77] Northclie prize. The rst ight across the
ships came and went. The rst successful rotorcraft ap- South Atlantic and the rst aerial crossing using astro-
peared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish nomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago
engineer Juan de la Cierva and rst own in 1919. In this Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon,
design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a wind- Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with only internal
mill by its passage through the air. A separate powerplant means of navigation, in an aircraft specically tted for
is used to propel the aircraft forwards. himself with an articial horizon for aeronautical use, an
invention that revolutionized air navigation at the time
(Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant incorporat-
ing two spirit levels to provide an articial horizon).[78][79]
Five years later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize
of $25,000 for the rst solo non-stop crossing of the At-
lantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was the
rst to solo the Caribbean Sea and was last seen ying
over Venezuela.
Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the rst to
y across the larger Pacic Ocean in the Southern Cross.
His crew left Oakland, California to make the rst trans-
Pacic ight to Australia in three stages. The rst (from
Oakland to Hawaii) was 2,400 miles, took 27 hours 25
Flagg biplane from 1933. minutes and was uneventful. They then ew to Suva, Fiji
3,100 miles away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes. This was
After World War I, experienced ghter pilots were eager the toughest part of the journey as they ew through a
to show o their skills. Many American pilots became massive lightning storm near the equator. They then ew
barnstormers, ying into small towns across the country on to Brisbane in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June
and showing o their ying abilities, as well as taking 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles total ight. On ar-
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 21
rival, Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 tubing framework, a four blade main rotor, and twin sets
at Eagle Farm Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Ac- of 1.8-meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set
companying him were Australian aviator Charles Ulm as of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered
the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and by two M-2 powerplants, up-rated copies of the Gnome
Captain Harry Lyon (who were the radio operator, nav- Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the
igator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kings- TsAGI 1-EA made several successful low altitude ights.
ford Smith and Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-
about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later contin- EA up to an unocial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 feet)
ued his journey being the rst in 1929 to circumnavigate with what is likely to be the rst successful single-lift rotor
the world, crossing the equator twice. helicopter design ever tested and own.
The rst lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were Only ve years after the German Dornier Do-X had
made by airship in July 1919 by His Majestys Airship own, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s
R34 and crew when they ew from East Lothian, Scot- era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as
land to Long Island, New York and then back to Pulham, the largest aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods
England. By 1929, airship technology had advanced to of metal aircraft construction.
the point that the rst round-the-world ight was com- In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Ger-
pleted by the Graf Zeppelin in September and in Octo- many and in Britain both countries would go on to de-
ber, the same aircraft inaugurated the rst commercial velop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
transatlantic service. However, the age of the rigid airship
ended following the destruction by re of the zeppelin
LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, 2.1.7 World War II (19391945)
New Jersey on May 6, 1937, killing 35 of the 97 peo-
ple aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from Main article: Aviation in World War II
the Wingfoot Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the See also: Air warfare of World War II, List of aircraft of
R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and the Macon (1935) World War II, List of helicopters used in World War II,
had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the dis- and World War II aircraft production
asters of the U.S. Navys rigids showing the importance
of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following
the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship World War II saw a great increase in the pace of de-
making international ights, the Graf Zeppelin was retired velopment and production, not only of aircraft but also
(June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zep- the associated ight-based weapon delivery systems. Air
pelin II, made a number of ights, primarily over Ger- combat tactics and doctrines took advantage. Large-
many, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded when Ger- scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched, ghter
many began World War II. Both remaining German zep- escorts introduced and the more exible aircraft and
pelins were scrapped in 1940 to supply metal for the Ger- weapons allowed precise attacks on small targets with
man Luftwae; the last American rigid airship, the Los dive bombers, ghter-bombers, and ground-attack air-
Angeles, which had not own since 1932, was dismantled craft. New technologies like radar also allowed more co-
in late 1939. ordinated and controlled deployment of air defense.
Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104. The Boeing 707 and DC-
World War II. The rst cruise missile (V-1), the rst bal- 8 which established new levels of comfort, safety and pas-
listic missile (V-2), the rst (and to date only) operational senger expectations, ushered in the age of mass commer-
rocket-powered combat aircraft Me 163 with attained cial air travel, dubbed the Jet Age.
velocities of up to 1,130 km/h (700 mph) in test ights
In October 1947 Chuck Yeager took the rocket-powered
and the rst vertical take-o manned point-defense inter-
Bell X-1 through the sound barrier. Although anecdotal
ceptor, the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were also developed evidence exists that some ghter pilots may have done so
by Germany. However, jet and rocket aircraft had only while dive bombing ground targets during the war, this
limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel short-
was the rst controlled, level ight to exceed the speed
ages, the lack of experienced pilots and the declining war
of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and
industry of Germany.
1952 with the rst jet crossing of the Atlantic and the
Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid de- rst nonstop ight to Australia.
velopment in the Second World War, with the introduc- The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briey increased
tion of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 the strategic importance of military aircraft in the Cold
synchropter in 1941 in Germany and the Sikorsky R-4 in War between East and West. Even a moderate eet of
1942 in the USA. long-range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the en-
emy, so great eorts were made to develop countermea-
2.1.8 The postwar era (19451979) sures. At rst, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were
produced in considerable numbers. By 1955 most de-
velopment eorts shifted to guided surface-to-air mis-
siles. However, the approach diametrically changed when
a new type of nuclear-carrying platform appeared that
could not be stopped in any feasible way: intercontinental
ballistic missiles. The possibility of these was demon-
strated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet
Union. This action started the Space Race between the
nations.
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned ight,
as Yuri Gagarin orbited once around the planet within
108 minutes, and then used the descent module of Vostok
I to safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from
Mach 25 using friction and converting the kinetic energy
of the velocity into heat. The United States responded by
D.H. Comet, the worlds rst jet airliner. As in this picture, it also launching Alan Shepard into space on a suborbital ight in
saw RAF service a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of the Alouette
I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a
Main article: Postwar aviation
satellite into space. The space race between the United
States and the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to the
After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, landing of men on the moon in 1969.
using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and
In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft
cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy
at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h) or Mach 6.1. Aside from
and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and
vehicles designed to y in outer space, this record was
Lancaster that could be converted into commercial air-
renewed by X-43 in the 21st century.
craft. The DC-3 also made for easier and longer commer-
cial ights. The rst commercial jet airliner to y was the The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just Har-
British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state rier or the Jump Jet, is a British designed military
airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled jet aircraft capable of Vertical/Short Takeo and Land-
service. While a technical achievement, the plane suf- ing (V/STOL) via thrust vectoring. It rst ew in 1969,
fered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set
windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747
was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressuriza- and the Arospatiale-BAC Concorde supersonic passen-
tion of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure ger airliner had its maiden ight. The Boeing 747 was
of the planes fuselage. By the time the problems were the largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to y, and
overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to still carries millions of passengers each year, though it has
the skies. been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of
carrying up to 853 passengers. In 1975 Aeroot started
USSRs Aeroot became the rst airline in the world to
regular service on the Tu-144the rst supersonic pas-
operate sustained regular jet services on September 15,
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 23
[2] Hallion (2003) [29] Aviation History. Retrieved 26 July 2009. In 1799 he
set forth for the rst time in history the concept of the
[3] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2016-03- modern aeroplane. Cayley had identied the drag vector
04. Retrieved 2013-07-18. (parallel to the ow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to
the ow).
[4] Vreizh, Skol (2008). Dictionnaire dhistoire de Bretagne
(in French). Morlaix. p. 77. ISBN 978-2-915623-45-1. [30] Sir George Cayley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Bri-
tannica. Retrieved 26 July 2009. English pioneer of aerial
[5] White 1961, pp. 100101. navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of
[6] First Flights. Saudi Aramco World. 15 (1): 89. the rst successful glider to carry a human being aloft.
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plane as a xed-wing ying machine with separate systems
[7] Wragg 1974, p. 57. for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 1799.
[9] Amazing Musical Kites. Cambodia Philately. [32] Cayley, George. On Aerial Navigation Part 1 Archived
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[10] Kite Flying for Fun and Science (pdf). The New York May 11, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., Part 3 Archived
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[11] Sarak, Sim; Yarin, Cheang (2002). Khmer Kites. Min-
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[12] Needham 1965a, p. 127.
[33] Wragg 1974, p. 60.
[13] Hallion (2003) page 9.
[34] Angelucci & Matricardi 1977, p. 14.
[14] Pelham, D.; The Penguin book of kites, Penguin (1976)
[35] Pritchard, J. Laurence. Summary of First Cayley Memo-
[15] Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter rial Lecture at the Brough Branch of the Royal Aeronau-
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of how to construct the lightest possible wheel for aerial
[16] Donahue, Topher (2009). Bugaboo Dreams: A Story navigation cars, an entirely new mode of manufacturing
of Skiers, Helicopters and Mountains. Rocky Mountain this most useful part of locomotive machines occurred to
Books Ltd. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-897522-11-0. me: vide, to do away with wooden spokes altogether, and
refer the whole rmness of the wheel to the strength of
[17] Wragg 1974, p. 10. the rim only, by the intervention of tight cording.
[18] Deng & Wang 2005, p. 113. [36] Jarrett 2002, p. 53.
[19] Ege 1973, p. 6. [37] Stokes 2002, pp. 163166, 167168.
[20] Wragg 1974, p. 11. [38] Magoun, F. Alexander; Hodgins, Eric (1931). A History
[21] Fairlie & Cayley 1965, p. 163. of Aircraft. Whittlesey House. p. 308.
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[24] Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in
China. IV (part 2). p. 591. ISBN 978-0-521-05803-2. [41] Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000) [1960]. Aviation: An Histor-
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[25] Harrison, James Pinckney (2000). Mastering the Sky. Da World War. Science Museum. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-
Capo Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-885119-68-1. 900747-52-3.
[26] Qtd. in O'Conner, Patricia T. (1985-11-17). In Short: [42] Frank H. Wenham, inventor of the wind tunnel, 1871, was
Nonction; Man Was Meant to Fly, But Not at First. The a fan, driven by a steam engine, propelled air down a 12
New York Times. Retrieved 2009-05-24. ft (3.7 m) tube to the model.[43]
2.1. AVIATION HISTORY 25
[43] Wind Tunnels (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original [62] Nouveaux essais de l'Aroplane Vuia, L'Arophile v.14
(PDF) on 2008-03-09. 1906, pp. 105106, April 1906
[44] Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. p. [63] L'Aroplane moteur de M. Vuia, L'Arophile v.14
56. ISBN 1900747529. 1906, pp. 195196, September 1906
[45] Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. p. [64] Jacob Ellehammer Archived March 3, 2016, at the
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March 7, 2013.
[46] Jarrett 2002, p. 87.
[65] Jines. Ernest. Santos Dumont in France 19061916:
[47] Flyingmachines.org Archived April 7, 2016, at the The Very Earliest Early Birds. Archived March 16, 2016,
Wayback Machine.. Retrieved March 31, 2014. at the Wayback Machine. earlyaviators.com, December
25, 2006. Retrieved: August 17, 2009.
[48] Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2000). Aviation. London: NMSI. pp.
768. ISBN 1 900747 52 9. [66] Cronologia de Santos Dumont (in Portuguese).
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[49] Anderson, John David (2004). Inventing Flight: The santos-dumont.net.Retrieved: October 12, 2010.
Wright Brothers & Their Predecessors. JHU Press. p. 145.
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[50] Hallion (2003) pages 294295.
[68] Gibbs-Smith, C. H. Aviation: An Historical Survey. Lon-
[51] Paul Jackson; Executive Overview: Janes All the Worlds don: NMSI. p. 154. ISBN 1 900747 52 9.
Aircraft: Development & Production 'Justice delayed is
justice denied' Archived March 13, 2013, at the Wayback [69] Jozef Wilczynski, Technology in Comecon: Acceleration
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and the Market, p. 243
[52] Budd Davisson; Who Was First? The Wrights or White-
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[71] Gheorghiu, Constantin C. (1960). Aurel Vlaicu, un pre-
[53] Statement Regarding The Gustave Whitehead Claims of cursor al aviaiei romneti. Bucharest: Editura Tehnic.
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[72] Hartmann, Grard. Clment-Bayard, sans peur et sans
[54] Dodson, MG (2005), An Historical and Applied Aero- reproche (French). Archived November 1, 2016, at the
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Program and Application to Successful Manned Flight, 14, 2010.
US Naval Academy Technical Report, USNA-334, re- [73] Gibbs-Smith, C. H. Aviation: An Historical Survey. Lon-
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[55] Smithsonian Institution, The Wright Brothers & The In- [74] Ferdinando Pedriali. Aerei italiani in Libia (1911
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[56] " 100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality. [75] with the exception of Clment Ader, who had visionary
Archived January 13, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. FAI views about this: L'aaire de l'aviation militaire (Mil-
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l'aviation militaire en France (The rst step of military
[57] Telegram from Orville Wright in Kitty Hawk, North Car-
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olina, to His Father Announcing Four Successful Flights,
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[59] Abzug, Malcolm J. and E. Eugene Larrabee.Airplane
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[61] Reprinted in Scientic American, April 2007, page 8. [80] FAI membership summary, retrieved 2006-08-24
26 CHAPTER 2. HISTORY
[81] FAI web site Archived August 11, 2011, at the Wayback Squier, George Owen (1908), The Present Status of
Machine. Military Aeronautics, Annual Report of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 117144,
[82] Executive Summary, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commis- retrieved 2009-08-07 Includes photos and specics
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of many c. 1908 dirigibles and airplanes.
[83] 8th leg from Nagoya to Hawaii, Solar Impulse RTW
Van Vleck, Jenifer (2013). Empire of the Air: Avi-
ation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge,
Bibliography MA: Harvard University Press.
Civil aviation
3.1 Civil aviation Private aviation includes pilots ying for their own
purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) with-
out receiving any kind of remuneration.
27
28 CHAPTER 3. CIVIL AVIATION
service. While a technical achievement, the plane suf- 3.1.4 See also
fered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the
windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue Air travel
was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressuriza- Military aviation
tion of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure
of the planes fuselage. By the time the problems were Private aviation
overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to CUNY Aviation Institute
the skies.
International Civil Aviation Organization
FedEx Express
McDonnell Douglas MD-11
Ryanair Boeing
737-800 shortly after take-o
3.2.1 History
The rst airlines
The Handley Page W.8b was used by Handley Page Transport, was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which
an early British airline established in 1919. started operating in February 1919. In its rst year, the
D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled ights on routes with
Beginnings The earliest xed wing airline in Europe a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the
was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles)
Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a eet of former military long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scan-
Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modied to carry dinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important Ger-
two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief ights man airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began op-
between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the erations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft man-
company ew a proving ight across the English Channel, ufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company
despite a lack of support from the British government. in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria,
Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway,
Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the ight took 2 Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.
hours and 30 minutes at 21 per passenger.
On 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pio-
neer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome
to Le Bourget, the rst regular international service in the
world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliabil-
ity, despite problems with bad weather and began to at-
tract European competition. In November 1919, it won
the rst British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force
Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to oper-
ate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne.
In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.[2]
Other British competitors were quick to follow - Handley
Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the
companys converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with
a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris pas-
senger service.
The rst French airline was Socit des lignes Latcore,
later known as Aropostale, which started its rst service
in late 1918 to Spain. The Socit Gnrale des Trans-
ports Ariens was created in late 1919, by the Farman
brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane ew sched-
uled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near
Croydon, England. Another early French airline was
the Compagnie des Messageries Ariennes, established
in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, oering a mail and A 1919 advertisement for the Dutch airline KLM
freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and
Lesquin Airport, Lille.[3] The Dutch airline KLM made its rst ight in 1920,
The rst German airline to use heavier than air aircraft and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the
3.2. AIRLINE 31
New York City and San Francisco.[17] To supplement this tries were ush from lease contracts to the military, and
service, they oered twelve contracts for spur routes to foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air trans-
independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these port, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager
routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan to invest in the newly emerging agships of air travel
Am, Delta Air Lines, Brani Airways, American Air- such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constella-
lines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), tion, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were
Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern based on American bombers such as the B-29, which
Air Lines. had spearheaded research into new technologies such as
pressurization. Most oered increased eciency from
Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most air-
lines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In both added speed and greater payload.
1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707,
Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the
all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the rst success- rst agships of the Jet Age in the West, while the East-
ful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the ern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the
Trimotor made passenger service potentially protable. eets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak SA,
Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the Soviet Aeroot and East-German Interug. The Vickers
American transportation network. Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated tur-
At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create boprop transport.
an air network that would link America to the world, and The next big boost for the airlines would come in
he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas
World Airways, with a eet of ying boats that linked DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody
Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am (jumbo jet) service, which is still the standard in in-
and Northwest Airways (which began ights to Canada in ternational travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western
the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality.
before the 1940s. Concorde rst ew in 1969 and operated through 2003.
In 1972, Airbus began producing Europes most commer-
With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas
DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally cially successful line of airliners to date. The added ef-
ciencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but
protable, even during the Great Depression. This trend
continued until the beginning of World War II. in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also
features modern electronic cockpits that were common
across their aircraft to enable pilots to y multiple mod-
els with minimal cross-training.
employees, and recruited laid o sta from other airlines. rial, nancial, and board of directors control of distressed
Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of
pricing and additional capacity oerings, often swamp- capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into
ing new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry a protable organization or liquidating an air carrier of
imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented their protable and worthwhile routes and business oper-
an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing.[20] In ations.
this strategy an already established and dominant airline Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied
stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on spe- from reasonably protable, to devastatingly depressed.
cic routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking As the rst major market to deregulate the industry in
out any chance a start-up airline may have. The indus- 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence
try side eect is an overall drop in revenue and service than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S.
quality.[21] Since deregulation in 1978 the average do- legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the
mestic ticket price has dropped by 40%.[22] So has airline outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of Amer-
employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of ican Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:
the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11
bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business.[23]
America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection l-
Airways) remained a signicant survivor from this new ing shows airline industry deregulation was a
entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. mistake.[24] "
In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated envi-
ronment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively
attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an
explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many mil- The airline industry bailout Congress passed the Air
lions who had never or rarely own before became reg- Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L.
ular iers, even joining frequent yer loyalty programs 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the
and receiving free ights and other benets from their already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the
ying. New services and higher frequencies meant that September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB
business iers could y to another city, do business, and Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers
return the same day, from almost any point in the country. for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of
Air travels advantages put long distance intercity railroad the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through
travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks.
having withered away, whilst the former is still protected This resulted in the rst government bailout of the 21st
under nationalization through the continuing existence of century.[25] Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30
Amtrak. billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000
employees laid o.[26]
By the 1980s, almost half of the total ying in the world
took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry In recognition of the essential national economic role of
operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide. a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial
compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to re-
Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost air-
view by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to
line emerged, oering a no-frills product at a lower price.
$10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly
Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus
created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB).
Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent
The applications to DOT for reimbursements were sub-
a serious challenge to the so-called legacy airlines, as
jected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT
did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries.
program personnel but also by the Government Account-
Their commercial viability represented a serious compet-
ability Oce[27] and the DOT Inspector General.[28][29]
itive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA
and Skybus have since ceased operations. Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 bil-
lion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to
Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincor-
427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment,
porated and spun o by newly created and internally
essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carri-
led management companies, and thus becoming nothing
ers operating scheduled service received approximately
more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited -
$4 billion, subject to tax.)[30] In addition, the ATSB ap-
nancially decisive control. Among some of these holding
proved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approxi-
companies and parent companies which are relatively well
mately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Depart-
known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR
ment show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion
Corporation, among a long list of airline holding compa-
and a prot of $339 million from the fees, interest and
nies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized
purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan
are the private equity rms which often seize manage-
guarantees.[31]
3.2. AIRLINE 35
Asian airline industry Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a
division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline
was founded by Indias leading industrialist, JRD Tata.
On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself ew a single
engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal
mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via
Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bel-
lary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent.
Tata Airlines was also one of the worlds rst major air-
lines which began its operations without any support from
the Government.[35]
With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence
in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new ag carri-
ers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses.
Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial
A Biman Bangladesh Airlines Boeing 777-300ER parked at service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became
Shahjalal International Airport, Dhaka. Biman is the ag carrier a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the
of Bangladesh.
name Air India. After the independence of India, 49%
of the airline was acquired by the Government of India.
Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was ocially
In return, the airline was granted status to operate inter-
founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as
national services from India as the designated ag carrier
an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial
under the name Air India International.
Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate
Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL)
Asias oldest scheduled carrier still in operation.[32] Com- DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland,
mercial air service commenced three weeks later from California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with
Manila to Baguio, making it Asias rst airline route. stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and
Bachrachs death in 1937 paved the way for its even- Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the rst Asian airline
tual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and to cross the Pacic Ocean. A regular service between
made it Asias oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It
Asia still operating under its current name.[33] Bachrachs was during this year that the airline was designated as the
majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate ag carrier of Philippines.
Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian coun-
Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed tries started to embrace air transport. Among the rst
Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. So- Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacic of
riano has controlling interest in both airlines before the Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Air-
merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a ways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in
single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines;
daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947
Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in
DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951,
Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National
Airlines in 1947.
TAM Airlines is the largest airline in Latin America in terms of Garuda Indonesia Boeing 737-800 parked at Perth International
number of annual passengers own.[36] Airport. This Indonesian ag carrier is owned by the Indonesian
Government
International
AA UA
BA SN
LH OK
OS
AF LX JP RO CA OZ NH
liance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their pas-
DL UX OU
TK KE JL
TP IB AZ
A3 ME RJ
QR
MF MU BR
ZH senger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-
AM MS AI CZ CXCI
CM SV TG VN
yer programs), oer special interline tickets, and of-
ET MH
AV KQ UL SQ ten engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes sys-
JJ GA
temwide). These are increasingly integrated busi-
QF ness combinationssometimes including cross-equity
LA AR SA
NZ arrangementsin which products, service standards,
schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and
combined for higher eciency. One of the rst airlines
Home countries of airlines in the largest airline alliances: Star to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who
Alliance (grey), SkyTeam (blue) and Oneworld (purple). IATA
partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later en-
codes of founders are outlined in red.
tered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and
Air France in 2004.
Often the companies combine IT operations, or purchase
fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining
power. However, the alliances have been most successful
at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel.
Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their
passengers to dierentiate themselves from local com-
petitors. If an airlines main domestic competitor ies
Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus
aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.
Fuel hedging
A Japan Airlines Boeing 777-300 with special Oneworld livery. Main article: Fuel Hedging
Oneworld is the third largest airline alliance after Star Alliance
and SkyTeam.
Fuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation
Codesharing is the most common type of airline partner- companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile
ship; it involves one airline selling tickets for another air- and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers
[45]
lines ights under its own airline code. An early exam- such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice.
ple of this was Japan Airlines (JAL) codesharing part- Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business
nership with Aeroot in the 1960s on TokyoMoscow prots between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its
ights; Aeroot operated the ights using Aeroot air- fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating
craft, but JAL sold tickets for the ights as if they were Southwests hedging policy to control their fuel costs.
JAL ights. This practice allows airlines to expand their
operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where
they cannot aord to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Seasonality
Another example was the AustrianSabena partnership
on the ViennaBrusselsNew York/JFK route during the Airlines often have a strong seasonality, with trac low
late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery. in Winter and peaking in Summer. In Europe the most
extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August
Since airline reservation requests are often made by city- having more than ten times the winter trac, as Jet2 is the
pair (such as show me ights from Chicago to Dssel- most seasonal among Low cost carriers with July having
dorf), an airline that can codeshare with another airline seven times the January trac, whereas legacy carriers
for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as in- are much less with only 85/115% variability.[46]
deed oering a ChicagoDsseldorf ight. The passen-
ger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the
ight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 3.2.4 Environmental impacts
2 operates the continuing ight (on a dierent airplane,
sometimes from another terminal) to Dsseldorf. Thus Main article: Environmental impact of aviation
the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand ones Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particu-
3.2. AIRLINE 41
Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the air- Flight dispatchers
craft. Flight crew members include: Baggage handlers
Pilots (Captain and First Ocer: some older Ramp Agents
aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or Remote centralised weight and balancing[58]
a Navigator)
Gate agents
Flight attendants (led by a purser on larger air-
craft) Ticket agents
In-ight security personnel on some airlines Passenger service agents (such as airline
(most notably El Al) lounge employees)
Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at
Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. facilities outside the airport.
Ground crew members include:
Crew schedulers
Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible
for certifying the aircraft for ight and man- Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad
agement of aircraft maintenance area of operations (such as maintenance, ight operations
Aerospace engineers, responsible for air- (including ight safety), and passenger service) is super-
frame, powerplant and electrical systems vised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint
maintenance vice presidents to oversee each of the airlines hubs as
well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory pro-
cedures and other administrative tasks.
Avionics engineers responsible for avion- Map of scheduled airline trac in 2009
ics and instruments maintenance
Airframe and powerplant technicians The pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent
years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from
Electric System technicians, responsible for
governments to private and individual sectors or organi-
maintenance of electrical systems
zations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom
and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually
decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in
all regions.
Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but coun-
tries with a de-regulated airline industry have more com-
petition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower
fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in trac growth.
The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and
other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been
observed to be cyclical in its nancial performance. Four
or ve years of poor earnings precede ve or six years of
improvement. But protability even in the good years is
A Philippine Airlines Airbus A340-300 taxiing to stand at T4. generally low, in the range of 2-3% net prot after interest
and tax. In times of prot, airlines lease new generations
Avionics technicians, responsible for mainte- of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher
nance of avionics demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back
3.2. AIRLINE 43
the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, International Air Transport Association
in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren
Buett in 1999 said the money that had been made since International ight
the dawn of aviation by all of this countrys airline com- Legacy carrier
panies was zero. Absolutely zero.[59] He believes it is
one of the hardest businesses to manage. Low-cost carrier
As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Red-eye ight
Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral part-
nerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between car- Regional airline
riers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since
Transportation Security Administration
governments often restrict ownership and merger be-
tween companies in dierent countries, most consolida- Worlds busiest passenger air routes
tion takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200
airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of
business since deregulation in 1978. Many international Airline related lists
airline managers are lobbying their governments to per-
mit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and Airline codes
eciency. Airline liveries and logos
List of airlines
3.2.8 See also
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial
Air charter aircraft
Beyond rights
3.2.9 Notes and references
Cargo airline
[1] DELAG: The Worlds First Airline. Airships.net. Re-
Domestic ight trieved 2010-08-22.
Environmental impact of aviation [2] The Putnam Aeronautical Review edited by John Motum,
p170 Volume one 1990 Naval Institute Press
Federal Aviation Administration
[3] World Aviation in 1919 - Part 1. Royal Air Force Mu-
Flight length seum. Archived from the original on 5 January 2011. Re-
trieved 28 February 2011.
Flight planning
[4] Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij, N.V. History.
FlightAware International Directory of Company Histories. 28. 1999.
Retrieved 30 July 2013.
Government contract ight
[5] History. KLM Corporate. KLM. Retrieved 30 July
Hyper-mobile travel 2013.
[22] Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [45] Gambles that haven't paid o. The Economist. ISSN
0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
[23] Business Week.
[46] Seasonality: Jet2.com and Greek Islands most extreme
[24] Robert Cranall former CEO AA, CNBC. Archived in anna.aero leisure-legacy comparison. Airline Network
from the original on 2013-04-29. News and Analysis. 1 Mar 2017.
[25] http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/ [47] Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M.; Lauritsen, Ryan
stabilizationact.pdf G (2002). Contrails reduce daily temperature range
(PDF). Nature. 418 (6898): 601. PMID 12167846.
[26] Bamber, G.J., Gittell, J.H., Kochan, T.A. & von Norden-
doi:10.1038/418601a. Archived from the original (PDF)
ytch, A. (2009). chapter 5. Up in the Air: How Airlines
on 2006-05-03.
Can Improve Performance by Engaging their Employees.
Cornell University Press, Ithaca. [48] Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air
[27] http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04725r.pdf transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme (Press re-
lease). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Archived from the
[28] Archived July 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[29] Archived July 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. [49] http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN03760.pdf
[30] U. Dot.gov. Archived from the original on 2010-05-27. [50] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2013-07-
Retrieved 2010-08-22. 24. Retrieved 2014-01-01.
3.3. GENERAL AVIATION 45
[51] http://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/default/files/
/docs/Publications/2005pubs/2005-12_nlr_aviation_
fuel_efficiency.pdf
[58] http://www.globalloadcontrol.com
3.2.10 Bibliography
A Diamond DA20, a popular trainer used by many ight schools
1. A history of the worlds airlines, R.E.G. Davies,
Oxford U.P, 1964
Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,[5] 96 per 3.3.3 See also
cent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA
eet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours Environmental impact of aviation
own. There are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders,
and 10,000 certied glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 Associations
pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in
GA activities. GA operates from more than 1,800 air-
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
ports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size
from large regional airports to farm strips. Canadian Owners and Pilots Association
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA),
although regulatory powers are being increasingly trans- Experimental Aircraft Association
ferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). National Business Aviation Association
The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot
licensing, and the objective is to promote high standards
of safety. 3.3.4 References
[1] Glossary. Transport Canada. 14 March 2012. Re-
General aviation in North America trieved 19 December 2016.
General aviation is particularly popular in North Amer- [2] iaopa.org, What is GA?". Retrieved 17 November 2012
ica, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by
pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports [3] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edi-
tion, pp. 238239. Aviation Supplies & Academics,
in the U.S., and over 1,000 in Canada[6] ). In comparison,
1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
scheduled ights operate from around 560 airports in the
U.S.[7] According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots [4] 5. Strategic Review of General Aviation in the UK
Association, general aviation provides more than one per- (PDF). CAA. July 2006. pp. 5253, paras. 5.185.24.
cent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million Retrieved 19 December 2016.
3.3. GENERAL AVIATION 47
Military aviation
4.1 Aerial warfare veloped many missile and precision-guided munition sys-
tems, including the rst cruise missile, the rst short-
For military aviation forces and equipment, see Military range ballistic missile, the rst guided surface-to-air mis-
aviation. For strategic theory on the use of air forces, siles, and the rst anti-ship missiles.
see Airpower. Ballistic missiles became of key importance during the
Cold War, were armed with nuclear warheads, and were
Aerial warfare is the battlespace use of military aircraft stockpiled by the superpowersthe United States and
and other ying machines in warfare. Aerial warfare in- the Soviet Unionto deter each other from using them.
cludes bombers attacking enemy installations or a con- The rst military satellites were used for reconnaissance
centration of enemy troops or strategic targets; ghter in the 1950s, and their use has progressed to world-
aircraft battling for control of airspace; attack aircraft en- wide communication and information systems that sup-
gaging in close air support against ground targets; naval port globally distributed military users with intelligence
aviation ying against sea and nearby land targets; gliders, from orbit.
helicopters and other aircraft to carry airborne forces such
as paratroopers; aerial refueling tankers to extend opera-
tion time or range; and military transport aircraft to move
4.1.2 Aerial reconnaissance
cargo and personnel.[1] Historically, military aircraft have
Main article: Aerial reconnaissance
included lighter-than-air balloons carrying artillery ob-
servers; lighter-than-air airships for bombing cities; vari-
ous sorts of reconnaissance, surveillance and early warn- Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance for a military or
ing aircraft carrying observers, cameras and radar equip- strategic purpose that is conducted using reconnaissance
ment; torpedo bombers to attack enemy shipping; and aircraft. This role can full a variety of requirements,
military air-sea rescue aircraft for saving downed airmen. including the collection of imagery intelligence, observa-
Modern aerial warfare includes missiles and unmanned tion of enemy maneuvers and artillery spotting.
aerial vehicles. Surface forces are likely to respond to en-
emy air activity with anti-aircraft warfare.
4.1.3 Air combat manoeuvring
Main article: History of aerial warfare Air combat manoeuvring (also known as ACM or
dogghting) is the tactical art of moving, turning and sit-
uating a ghter aircraft in order to attain a position from
The history of aerial warfare began in ancient times, with
which an attack can be made on another aircraft. It re-
the use of man-carrying kites in China. In the third cen-
lies on oensive and defensive basic ghter manoeuvring
tury it progressed to balloon warfare.
(BFM) to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent.
Airplanes were put to use for war starting in 1911, ini-
tially for aerial reconnaissance, and then for aerial com-
bat to shoot down the recon planes. Aircraft continued 4.1.4 Airborne forces
to carry out these roles during World War I, but the use
of planes and zeppelins for strategic bombing emerged in Main article: Airborne forces
World War I.
During World War II, the use of strategic bombing in- Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry,
creased. Also during World War II, Nazi Germany de- set up to be moved by aircraft and dropped into bat-
48
4.1. AERIAL WARFARE 49
tle, typically by parachute. Thus, they can be placed be- Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is dened by
hind enemy lines, and have the capability to deploy al- NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce
most anywhere with little warning. The formations are the eectiveness of hostile air action.[3] They include
limited only by the number and size of their aircraft, so ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor
given enough capacity a huge force can appear out of systems, command and control arrangements and passive
nowhere in minutes, an action referred to as vertical en- measures (e.g. barrage balloons). It may be used to pro-
velopment. tect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. How-
Conversely, airborne forces typically lack the supplies ever, for most countries the main eort has tended to be
'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence
and equipment for prolonged combat operations, and
are therefore more suited for airhead operations than for as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft war-
fare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are
long-term occupation; furthermore, parachute operations
are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions. initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting
any projectile in ight.
Advances in helicopter technology since World War II
have brought increased exibility to the scope of airborne
operations, and air assaults have largely replaced large-
scale parachute operations, and (almost) completely re-
4.1.8 Missiles
placed combat glider operations.
Main article: Missile
the survivability and capability of manned ghter jets.[7] Corum, James S. & Johnson, Wray R. (2003). Air-
power in Small Wars - Fighting Insurgents and Ter-
rorists. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of
4.1.10 See also Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1240-8.
Aerial bombing of cities Glines, Carroll V. (1963). Compact History of the
United States Air Force. Hawthorn Books, Inc. ;
Air force New York. ISBN 0-405-12169-5.
Airlift
Gross, Charles J. (2002). American Military Avia-
Airstrike tion: The Indispensable Arm. Texas A&M Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 1-58544-215-1.
Dogght
Higham, Robin (2004). 100 Years of Air Power &
Loss of Strength Gradient Aviation. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-
Timeline of military aviation 58544-241-0.
Lockee, Garette E. (April 1969). PIRAZ. United
States Naval Institute Proceedings.
4.1.11 Notes
[1] See John Andreas Olsen, ed., A History of Air Warfare Olsen, John Andreas, ed. A History of Air Warfare
(2010) for global coverage since 1900. (2010) 506pp; 16 essays by experts provide global
[2] air strike- DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated
coverage
Terms Archived June 4, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Overy, Richard. Why the Allies Won (1997), ch 3,
[3] AAP-6 on bombing in World War II.
[4] Guardian newspaper: Emmanuel Ebou pelted with mis- Overy, Richard. The Air War - 19391945 (1980),
siles while playing for Galatasaray Example of ordinary global coverage of combat, strategy, technology and
English usage. In this case the missiles were bottles and production
cigarette lighters
[6] http://www.govexec.com/pdfs/072309kp1.pdf War in the Air from Oral Histories of the First
World War: Veterans 19141918 at Library and
[7] http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=8164538& Archives Canada
page=1
Warplane: Military Aviation: Key Innovations.
Thirteen/WNET New York. 2006. Archived from
4.1.12 References the original on 17 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-
11-27.
Bibliography
51
52 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
LaGuardia Airport (LGA) control tower in New York City. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport control tower in
Mumbai, India.
tion of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft include the capability to display higher quality mapping,
identication, speed, altitude, and other information de- radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts, and to inter-
scribed in local procedures. In adverse weather condi- face with other systems such as digital ight strips.
tions the tower controllers may also use surface move-
ment radar (SMR), surface movement guidance and con-
trol systems (SMGCS) or advanced SMGCS to control Air control or local control
trac on the manoeuvring area (taxiways and runway).
Air control (known to pilots as tower or tower con-
The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into trol) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. Air
three general operational disciplines; local control or control clears aircraft for takeo or landing, ensuring that
air control, ground control, and ight data / clearance prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If
deliveryother categories, such as Apron control or the air controller detects any unsafe conditions, a land-
ground movement planner, may exist at extremely busy ing aircraft may be instructed to "go-around" and be re-
airports. While each tower may have unique airport- sequenced into the landing pattern. This re-sequencing
specic procedures, such as multiple teams of controllers will depend on the type of ight and may be handled by
('crews) at major or complex airports with multiple run- the air controller, approach or terminal area controller.
ways, the following provides a general concept of the del-
Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications
egation of responsibilities within the tower environment.
process between air control and ground control is an ab-
Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system based on air solute necessity. Air control must ensure that ground con-
trac controllers being located somewhere other than at trol is aware of any operations that will impact the taxi-
the local airport tower and still able to provide air trac ways, and work with the approach radar controllers to cre-
control services. Displays for the air trac controllers ate gaps in the arrival trac to allow taxiing trac to
may be live video, synthetic images based on surveillance cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take o.
sensor data, or both. Ground control need to keep the air controllers aware of
the trac ow towards their runways in order to max-
imise runway utilisation through eective approach spac-
Ground control ing. Crew resource management (CRM) procedures are
often used to ensure this communication process is e-
Ground control (sometimes known as ground movement cient and clear. Within ATC, it is usually known as TRM
control) is responsible for the airport movement areas, (Team Resource Management) and the level of focus on
as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users. TRM varies within dierent ATC organisations.
This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways,
holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersec-
Flight data and clearance delivery
tions where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or
departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clear-
are clearly dened in local documents and agreements at
ances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxi-
each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or ing. These clearances contain details of the route that
working in these areas is required to have clearance from the aircraft is expected to y after departure. Clearance
ground control. This is normally done via VHF/UHF delivery or, at busy airports, Ground Movement Planner
radio, but there may be special cases where other pro- (GMP) or Trac Management Coordinator (TMC) will,
cedures are used. Aircraft or vehicles without radios if necessary, coordinate with the relevant radar centre or
must respond to ATC instructions via aviation light sig- ow control unit to obtain releases for aircraft. At busy
nals or else be led by vehicles with radios. People working airports, these releases are often automatic and are con-
on the airport surface normally have a communications trolled by local agreements allowing free-ow depar-
link through which they can communicate with ground tures. When weather or extremely high demand for a
control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may
phone. Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of be ground stops (or slot delays) or re-routes may be
the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded.
of departure aircraft, aecting the safety and eciency The primary responsibility of clearance delivery is to en-
of the airports operation. sure that the aircraft have the correct aerodrome infor-
Some busier airports have surface movement radar mation, such as weather and airport conditions, the cor-
(SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or ASDE-X, designed rect route after departure and time restrictions relating
to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are to that ight. This information is also coordinated with
used by ground control as an additional tool to control the relevant radar centre or ow control unit and ground
ground trac, particularly at night or in poor visibility. control in order to ensure that the aircraft reaches the run-
There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems way in time to meet the time restriction provided by the
as they are being modernized. Older systems will dis- relevant unit. At some airports, clearance delivery also
play a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems plans aircraft push-backs and engine starts, in which case
5.1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 55
it is known as the Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this at a suitable rate for landing.
position is particularly important at heavily congested air- Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control
ports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock. available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighbor-
Flight data (which is routinely combined with clearance ing terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly
delivery) is the position that is responsible for ensuring with the tower on the airport and vector inbound air-
that both controllers and pilots have the most current in- craft to a position from where they can land visually. At
formation: pertinent weather changes, outages, airport some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar
ground delays/ground stops, runway closures, etc. Flight procedural approach service to arriving aircraft handed
data may inform the pilots using a recorded continuous over from a radar unit before they are visual to land.
loop on a specic frequency known as the automatic ter- Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which
minal information service (ATIS). can provide the procedural approach service either all the
time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.
Approach and terminal control In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by
a three-letter alphanumeric code. For example, the
Chicago TRACON is designated C90.[5]
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associ- The training department at the Washington Air Route Trac
Control Center, Leesburg, Virginia, United States.
ated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to
as terminal control; in the U.S., it is referred to as a TRA-
CON (terminal radar approach control). While every air- Main article: Area control center
port varies, terminal controllers usually handle trac in a
30-to-50-nautical-mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the air- ATC provides services to aircraft in ight between air-
port. Where there are many busy airports close together, ports as well. Pilots y under one of two sets of rules for
one consolidated terminal control center may service all separation: visual ight rules (VFR) or instrument ight
the airports. The airspace boundaries and altitudes as- rules (IFR). Air trac controllers have dierent respon-
signed to a terminal control center, which vary widely sibilities to aircraft operating under the dierent sets of
from airport to airport, are based on factors such as traf-rules. While IFR ights are under positive control, in the
c ows, neighboring airports and terrain. A large and US VFR pilots can request ight following, which pro-
complex example is the London Terminal Control Cen- vides trac advisory services on a time permitting ba-
tre which controls trac for ve main London airports sis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of
up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100 nautical miles weather and ight restrictions. Across Europe, pilots may
(190 km). request for a "ight information service", which is simi-
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all lar to ight following. In the UK it is known as a trac
ATC services within their airspace. Trac ow is service.
broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overights. En-route air trac controllers issue clearances and in-
As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they structions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to
are handed o to the next appropriate control facility (a comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also
control tower, an en-route control facility, or a border- provide air trac control services to many smaller air-
ing terminal or approach control). Terminal control is re- ports around the country, including clearance o of the
sponsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Con-
altitude when they are handed o, and that aircraft arrive trollers adhere to a set of separation standards that dene
56 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These of the trac or when it can ll in a portion of the area
distances vary depending on the equipment and proce- not covered by the long range radar.
dures used in providing ATC services. In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the
U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple
radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at
General characteristics
lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high
terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may
En-route air trac controllers work in facilities called air
require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace as-
trac control centers, each of which is commonly re-
signed to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports
ferred to as a center. The United States uses the equiv-
from aircraft ying below the oor of radar coverage.
alent term air route trac control center (ARTCC). Each
This results in a large amount of data being available to
center is responsible for many thousands of square miles
the controller. To address this, automation systems have
of airspace (known as a ight information region) and for
been designed that consolidate the radar data for the con-
the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR air-
troller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate
craft from the time they depart from an airport or terminal
radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geograph-
areas airspace to the time they arrive at another airport
ical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in
or terminal areas airspace. Centers may also pick up
an eective format.
VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them
into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, re-
main VFR until the center provides a clearance.
Center controllers are responsible for issuing instructions
to pilots to climb their aircraft to their assigned altitude
while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is prop-
erly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate
area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a ow
consistent with the aircrafts route of ight. This eort
is complicated by crossing trac, severe weather, spe-
cial missions that require large airspace allocations, and
trac density. When the aircraft approaches its destina-
tion, the center is responsible for issuing instructions to
pilots so that they will meet altitude restrictions by spe-
cic points, as well as providing many destination airports Unmanned radar on a remote mountain
with a trac ow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being
bunched together. These ow restrictions often be- Centers also exercise control over trac travelling over
gin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position the worlds ocean areas. These areas are also ight in-
aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the formation regions (FIRs). Because there are no radar
aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced. systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers
provide ATC services using procedural control. These
As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a centers con-
procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude,
trol area it is handed o or handed over to the next
distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers
area control center. In some cases this hand-o pro-
record information on ight progress strips and in spe-
cess involves a transfer of identication and details be-
cially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft re-
tween controllers so that air trac control services can
port positions. This process requires that aircraft be sep-
be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local
arated by greater distances, which reduces the overall ca-
agreements may allow silent handovers such that the re-
pacity for any given route. See for example the North
ceiving center does not require any co-ordination if trac
Atlantic Track system.
is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-o, the
aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to Some air navigation service providers (e.g., Airservices
the next controller. This process continues until the air- Australia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Nav
craft is handed o to a terminal controller (approach). Canada, etc.) have implemented automatic dependent
surveillance broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveil-
lance capability. This new technology reverses the radar
Radar coverage concept. Instead of radar nding a target by interro-
gating the transponder, the ADS-equipped aircraft sends
Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typi- a position report as determined by the navigation equip-
cally use long range radar that has the capability, at higher ment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in
altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 the contract mode where the aircraft reports a position,
km) of the radar antenna. They may also use TRACON automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a prede-
radar data to control when it provides a better picture termined time interval. It is also possible for controllers
5.1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 57
and overlook the presence of trac and conditions that 5.1.6 Call signs
lead to loss of minimum separation.[7] Paradoxically, cur-
rent high precision cruising altitude rules increase the risk
of collision between 10 and 33 times over more sloppy al-
ternatives when air trac control errors occur. A prerequisite to safe air trac separation is the as-
signment and use of distinctive call signs. These are
permanently allocated by ICAO on request usually to
scheduled ights and some air forces for military ights.
They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like
Weather KLM, BAW, VLG followed by the ight number, like
AAL872, VLG1011. As such they appear on ight plans
and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or Radio-
telephony callsigns used on the radio contact between pi-
lots and air trac control. These are not always identical
to their written counterparts. An example of an audio
callsign would be Speedbird 832, instead of the written
BAW832. This is used to reduce the chance of confu-
sion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the call-
sign for any other ight is the registration number (tail
number) of the aircraft, such as N12345, C-GABC
or EC-IZD. The short Radio-telephony callsigns for
these tail numbers is the last 3 letters using the NATO
phonetic alphabet (i.e. ABC spoken alpha-bravo-charlie)
for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as
TREE-FORE-FIFE for N12345. In the United States,
the prex may be an aircraft type, model or manufacturer
Airplane taking o from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in place of the rst registration character, for example
with the ATC tower behind. N11842 could become Cessna 842.[8] This abbrevi-
ation is only allowed after communications has been es-
tablished in each sector.
Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major fac- The ight number part is decided by the aircraft opera-
tor in trac capacity. Rain, ice or snow on the runway tor. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well
cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is op-
reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space erated, even if the departure time varies a little across
between landing aircraft. Fog also requires a decrease in dierent days of the week. The call sign of the return
the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay ight often diers only by the nal digit from the out-
for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than bound ight. Generally, airline ight numbers are even if
can be safely and eciently held in the air, a ground de-
eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the
lay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time
ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival
sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in
airport. Europe, have started using alphanumeric callsigns that are
In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is not based on ight numbers. For example, DLH23LG,
thunderstorms, which present a variety of hazards to air- spoken as lufthansa-two-three-lima-golf. Additionally it
craft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the is the right of the air trac controller to change the 'audio'
capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space callsign for the period the ight is in his sector if there is
per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number in-
to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. stead.
Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to air- Before around 1980 International Air Transport Asso-
craft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thun- ciation (IATA) and ICAO were using the same 2-letter
derstorms. callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines af-
Much money has been spent on creating software to ter deregulation ICAO established the 3-letter callsigns
streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air as mentioned above. The IATA callsigns are currently
trac controllers still record data for each ight on strips used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never
of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer used any longer in air trac control. For example, AA
sites, these ight progress strips have been replaced by is the IATA callsign for American Airlines ATC equiv-
electronic data presented on computer screens. As new alent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for El Al,
equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrad- DL/DAL for Delta Air Lines, VY/VLG for Vueling Air-
ing away from paper ight strips. lines, etc.
5.1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 59
The air trac control tower at HartseldJackson Atlanta Inter- Minimum safe altitude warning (MSAW): a tool that
national Airport. alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be ying
too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on
Many technologies are used in air trac control systems. its current altitude and heading.
Primary and secondary radar are used to enhance a con-
System coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller
trollers situation awareness within his assigned airspace
to negotiate the release of ights from one sector to
all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of vary-
another.
ing sizes to controllers screens as radar energy is bounced
o their skins, and transponder-equipped aircraft reply to Area penetration warning (APW) to inform a con-
secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), troller that a ight will penetrate a restricted area.
an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S).
Certain types of weather may also register on the radar Arrival and departure manager to help sequence the
screen. takeo and landing of aircraft.
These inputs, added to data from other radars, are corre- The departure manager (DMAN): A system
lated to build the air situation. Some basic processing oc- aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a
curs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed planned departure ow with the goal to main-
and magnetic headings. tain an optimal throughput at the runway, re-
Usually, a ight data processing system manages all the duce queuing at holding point and distribute
ight plan related data, incorporating in a low or high the information to various stakeholders at the
degree the information of the track once the correla- airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and
tion between them (ight plan and track) is established. air trac control (ATC)).
All this information is distributed to modern operational The arrival manager (AMAN): A system aid
display systems, making it available to controllers. for the ATC at airports, that calculates a
The FAA has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a planned arrival ow with the goal to maintain
fully automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce
the UK brought a new area control centre into service at arrival queuing and distribute the information
the London Area Control Centre, Swanwick, Hampshire, to various stakeholders.
relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton, Mid- Passive nal approach spacing tool (pFAST),
dlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and
60 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
sequence number advisories to terminal con- assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolu-
trollers to improve the arrival rate at congested tion options and pilot requests.
airports. pFAST was deployed and operational
at ve US TRACONs before being cancelled. Mode S: provides a data downlink of ight parame-
NASA research included an active FAST ca- ters via secondary surveillance radars allowing radar
pability that also provided vector and speed processing systems and therefore controllers to see
advisories to implement the runway and se- various data on a ight, including airframe unique
quence advisories. id (24-bits encoded), indicated airspeed and ight
Converging runway display aid (CRDA) enables ap- director selected level, amongst others.
proach controllers to run two nal approaches that
CPDLC: controller-pilot data link communications
intersect and make sure that go arounds are mini-
allows digital messages to be sent between con-
mized.
trollers and pilots, avoiding the need to use ra-
Center TRACON automation system (CTAS) is a diotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where
suite of human centered decision support tools de- dicult-to-use HF radiotelephony was previously
veloped by NASA Ames Research Center. Sev- used for communication with aircraft, e.g. oceans.
eral of the CTAS tools have been eld tested and This is currently in use in various parts of the world
transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation including the Atlantic and Pacic oceans.
and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: trac
management advisor (TMA), passive nal approach ADS-B: automatic dependent surveillance broadcast
spacing tool (pFAST), collaborative arrival plan- provides a data downlink of various ight param-
ning (CAP), direct-to (D2), en route descent advisor eters to air trac control systems via the transpon-
(EDA) and multi-center TMA. The software is run- der (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by
ning on Linux.[11] other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important
is the aircrafts latitude, longitude and level: such
Trac management advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, data can be utilized to create a radar-like display
is an en route decision support tool that automates of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form
time based metering solutions to provide an upper of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where
limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the center over the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the
a set period of time. Schedules are determined that grounds of low trac levels, or technically not fea-
will not exceed the specied arrival rate and con- sible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Aus-
trollers use the scheduled times to provide the ap- tralia, Canada and parts of the Pacic Ocean and
propriate delay to arrivals while in the en route do- Alaska.
main. This results in an overall reduction in en route
delays and also moves the delays to more ecient The electronic ight strip system (e-strip):
airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near
the TRACON boundary, which is required in order
to prevent overloading the TRACON controllers.
TMA is operational at most en route air route traf-
c control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be
enhanced to address more complex trac situations
(e.g. adjacent center metering (ACM) and en route
departure capability (EDC))
MTCD & URET
In the US, user request evaluation tool (URET)
takes paper strips out of the equation for en
route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a
display that shows all aircraft that are either in
or currently routed into the sector.
In Europe, several MTCD tools are avail-
able: iFACTS (NATS), VAFORIT (DFS), Electronic ight progress strip system at So Paulo Intl. control
new FDPS (MUAC). The SESAR[12] pro- tower ground control
gramme should soon launch new MTCD con-
cepts. A system of electronic ight strips replacing the old pa-
per strips is being used by several service providers, such
URET and MTCD provide conict advisories as Nav Canada, MASUAC, DFS, DECEA. E-strips al-
up to 30 minutes in advance and have a suite of lows controllers to manage electronic ight data online
5.1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 61
without paper strips, reducing the need for manual func- Brazil Departamento de Controle do Espao
tions, creating new tools and reducing the ATCOs work- Areo (ATC/ATM Authority) and ANAC Agn-
load. The rsts electronic ight strips systems were inde- cia Nacional de Aviao Civil (Civil Aviation Au-
pendently and simultaneously invented and implemented thority)
by Nav Canada and Saipher ATC in 1999. The Nav
Canada system known as EXCDS[13] and rebranded in Bulgaria Air Trac Services Authority
2011 to NAVCANstrips and Saiphers rst generation
system known as SGTC, which is now being updated by Canada Nav Canada formerly provided by
its 2nd generation system, the TATIC TWR. DECEA in Transport Canada and Canadian Forces
Brazil is the worlds largest user of tower e-strips system, Cayman Islands CIAA Cayman Islands Air-
ranging from very small airports up to the busiest ones, ports Authority
taking the advantage of real time information and data
collection from each of more than 150 sites for use in air Central America Corporacin Centroamericana
trac ow management (ATFM), billing and statistics. de Servicios de Navegacin Area
Australia Airservices Australia (State Owned Estonia Estonian Air Navigation Services
Corporation) and Royal Australian Air Force
Europe Eurocontrol (European Organisation
for the Safety of Air Navigation)
Austria Austro Control
Finland Finavia
Belarus Republican Unitary Enterprise
" (Belarusian Air Navigation)" France Direction Gnrale de l'Aviation
Civile (DGAC) : Direction des Services de la Navi-
Belgium Belgocontrol gation Arienne (DSNA) (Government body)
62 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Greece Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority Oman Directorate General of Meteorology &
(HCAA) Air Navigation (Government of Oman)
Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority (under
(CAD) Government of Pakistan)
Lithuania ANS (Lithuanian ATC) Serbia Serbia and Montenegro Air Trac
Services Agency Ltd. (SMATSA)
Luxembourg Administration de la navigation
arienne (ANA State-owned company) Slovakia Letov prevdzkov sluby
Macedonia DGCA (Macedonian ATC) Slovenskej republiky
Taiwan ANWS (Civil Aeronautical Admin- Many countries have also privatized or corporatized their
istration) air navigation service providers.[18] There are several
models that can be used for ATC service providers. The
rst is to have the ATC services be part of a government
Thailand AEROTHAI (Aeronautical Radio
agency as is currently the case in the United States. The
of Thailand)
problem with this model is that funding can be inconsis-
tent and can disrupt the development and operation of
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago services. Sometimes funding can disappear when law-
Civil Aviation Authority (TTCAA) makers cannot approve budgets in time. Both proponents
and opponents of privatization recognize that stable fund-
Turkey DHMI (General Directorate Of State ing is one of the major factors for successful upgrades
Airports Authority) of ATC infrastructure. Some of the funding issues in-
clude sequestration and politicization of projects.[19] Pro-
United Arab Emirates General Civil Aviation ponents argue that moving ATC services to a private cor-
Authority (GCAA) poration could stabilize funding over the long term which
will result in more predictable planning and rollout of new
United Kingdom National Air Trac Ser- technology as well as training of personnel.
vices (NATS) (49% State Owned Public-Private Another model is to have ATC services provided by a
Partnership) government corporation. This model is used in Germany,
where funding is obtained through user fees. Yet another
United States Federal Aviation Administra- model is to have a for-prot corporation operate ATC ser-
tion (FAA) (Government Body) vices. This is the model used in the United Kingdom,
but there have been several issues with the system there
Ukraine Ukrainian State Air Trac Service including a large-scale failure in December 2014 which
Enterprise (UkSATSE) caused delays and cancellations and has been attributed to
cost-cutting measures put in place by this corporation. In
fact, earlier that year, the corporation owned by the Ger-
Venezuela Instituto Nacional de Aeronautica man government won the bid to provide ATC services for
Civil (INAC) Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. The last model,
which is often the suggested model for the United States
to transition to is to have a non-prot organization that
5.1.9 Proposed changes would handle ATC services as is used in Canada.[20]
The Canadian system is the one most often used as a
In the United States, some alterations to trac control model by proponents of privatization. Air trac con-
procedures are being examined. trol privatization has been successful in Canada with the
creation of Nav Canada, a private nonprot organization
The Next Generation Air Transportation System ex- which has reduced costs and has allowed new technolo-
amines how to overhaul the United States national gies to be deployed faster due to the elimination of much
airspace system. of the bureaucratic red tape. This has resulted in shorter
ights and less fuel usage. It has also resulted in ights be-
Free ight is a developing air trac control method ing safer due to new technology. Nav Canada is funded
that uses no centralized control (e.g. air trac con- from fees that are collected from the airlines based
[21]
on the
trollers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dy- weight of the aircraft and the distance own.
namically and automatically in a distributed way us-
ing computer communication to ensure the required
separation between aircraft.[17]
5.1.10 ATC regulations in the United
[12]
In Europe, the SESAR (Single European Sky ATM States
Research) programme plans to develop new methods,
technologies, procedures, and systems to accommodate FAA control tower operators (CTO) / air trac con-
future (2020 and beyond) air trac needs. trollers use FAA Order 7110.65 as the authority for all
Change in regulation in admittance for possible A.T.C.'s procedures regarding air trac. For more information
regarding their eye-refraction and correction thereof by regarding air trac control rules and regulations, refer to
technology has been proposed. the FAAs website.[22]
64 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
5.1.11 See also [20] Rinaldi, Paul (2015). Safety and Eciency Must Remain
the Main Mission. The Journal of Air Trac Control. 57
5.1.12 References (2): 2123.
[13] http://www.navcanada.ca/NavCanada.asp?
Language=en&Content=ContentDefinitionFiles\
char"005C\relax{}TechnologySolutions\char"005C\
relax{}products\char"005C\relax{}IIDS\char"005C\
relax{}excds\char"005C\relax{}default.xml
contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine air-
to aviation. From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers craft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry
increased 5.2% per year. And in the European Union, also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground
greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% airport vehicles and those used by passengers and sta
between 1990 and 2006.[5] to access airports, as well as through emissions generated
Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the
eciency innovations to airframes, engines, aerodynam- manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport
[16]
ics and ight operations, there is no end in sight even infrastructure.
many decades out to rapid growth in CO2 emissions While the principal greenhouse gas emission from pow-
from air travel and air freight,[6][7] due to projected con- ered aircraft in ight is CO2 , other emissions may in-
tinual growth in air travel.[8][9] This is because interna- clude nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (together termed
tional aviation emissions have escaped international reg- oxides of nitrogen or NO), water vapour and particulates
ulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monox-
2016 agreed on the CORSIA oset scheme, and because ide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO2 immedi-
of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide, lower ately upon release), incompletely burned hydrocarbons,
fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives tetraethyllead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as
a competitive advantage over other transportation modes. hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.[17]
Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in Emissions weighting factor (EWFs) i.e., the factor by
aviations emissions will result in the sectors emissions which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to
amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global CO2 get the CO2 -equivalent emissions for annual eet average
emissions budget by mid-century, if climate change is to conditions is in the range 1.32.9.[18]
be held to a temperature increase of 2 C or less.[10]
There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air Mechanisms and cumulative eects of aviation on cli-
travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading mate
scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external
costs of aviation are taken into account.[11] In 1999 the contribution of civil aircraft-in-ight to global
CO2 emissions was estimated to be around 2%.[17] How-
ever, in the case of high-altitude airliners which fre-
5.2.1 Climate change quently y near or in the stratosphere, non-CO2 altitude-
sensitive eects may increase the total impact on anthro-
pogenic (human-made) climate change signicantly.[17]
A 2007 report from Environmental Change Institute /
Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent cu-
mulative eect.[19] Subsonic aircraft-in-ight contribute
to climate change[17] in four ways:
are regional and local (as opposed to CO2 emissions, to have a global warming eect over-and-above that of
which are global). contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scien-
NO emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, tic uncertainty about the contribution of contrail and
another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling ef- cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts
fect. But this eect does not oset the O3 forming eect to estimate aviations overall climate change contribu-
of NO emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur tion do not tend [20]
to include its eects on cirrus cloud
and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete enhancement. However, a 2015 study found that ar-
O3 , partially osetting the NO-induced O3 increases. ticial cloudiness caused by contrail outbreaks reduce
[21] the dierence between daytime and nighttime tempera-
These eects have not been quantied. This problem
does not apply to aircraft that y lower in the troposphere, tures. The former are decreased and the latter are in-
creased, in comparison to temperatures the day before
such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.
and the day after such outbreaks.[23] On days with out-
breaks the day/night temperature dierence was dimin-
ished by about 6F in the U.S. South and 5F in the
Midwest.[24]
account).[28] Within the categories of ights above, emis- aviation to address its total climate change impacts and
sions from scheduled jet ights are substantially higher not simply the impact of CO2 .[34]
than turboprop or chartered jet ights. About 60% of avi- The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for
ation emissions arise from international ights, and these around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a gure
ights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and its emis- which includes both CO2 and non-CO2 induced eects.
sions reduction targets.[29] The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this
Figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide gure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that
emissions of 100g per passenger kilometre for large jet aviations contribution could grow to 5% of the total con-
airliners (a gure which does not account for the produc- tribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these
tion of other pollutants or condensation trails).[30] emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%.[17] More-
over, if other industries achieve signicant cuts in their
own greenhouse gas emissions, aviations share as a pro-
Emissions by passenger class, and eects of seat- portion of the remaining emissions could also rise.
ing conguration In 2013 the World Bank published
a study of the eect on CO2 emissions of its stas travel
in business class or rst class, versus using economy Future emission levels
class.[31] Among the factors considered was that these
premium classes displace proportionately more economy Even though there have been signicant improvements
seats for the same total aircraft space capacity, and the in fuel eciency through aircraft technology and oper-
associated diering load factors and weight factors. This ational management as described here, these improve-
was not accounted for in prior standard carbon account- ments are being continually eclipsed by the increase in
ing methods. The study concluded that when consider- air trac volume.
ing respective average load factors (percent of occupied A December 2015 report nds that aircraft could gener-
seats) in each of the seating classes, the carbon footprints ate 43 Gt of carbon pollution through to 2050, consum-
of business class and rst class are three-times and nine- ing almost 5% of the remaining global climate budget.
times higher than economy class.[31][32][33] A related arti- Without regulation, global aviation emissions may triple
cle by the International Council on Clean Transport notes by mid-century and could emit more than 3 Gt of car-
further regarding the eect of seating congurations on bon annually under a high-growth, business-as-usual sce-
carbon emissions that:[33] nario. Eorts to bring aviation emissions under an ef-
fective global accord have so far largely failed, despite
The A380 is marketed as a green giant there being a number of technological and operational
and one of the most environmentally advanced improvements on oer.[35][36]
aircraft out there. But that spin is based on
a maximum-capacity aircraft conguration, or Continual increases in travel and freight From 1992
about 850 economy passengers. In reality, a to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% per year,
typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its fuel even with the disruptions of 9/11 and two signicant wars.
performance is comparable to that of a B747- Since the onset of the current recession:
400 ER and even about 15% worse than a
B777-300ER on a passenger-mile basis (cal-
culated using Piano-5 on a ight from AUH to During the rst three quarters of 2010, air
LHR, assuming an 80% passenger load factor, travel markets expanded at an annualized rate
and in-service eet average seat counts). approaching 10%. This is similar to the rate
seen in the rapid expansion prior to the re-
cession. Novembers results mean the annual-
Total climate eects ized rate of growth so far in Q4 drops back
to around 6%. But this is still in line with
In attempting to aggregate and quantify the total climate long run rates of trac growth seen histori-
impact of aircraft emissions the Intergovernmental Panel cally. The level of international air travel is now
on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviations 4% above the pre-recession peak of early 2008
total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its di- and the current expansion looks to have further
rect CO2 emissions alone (excluding the potential im- to run.[37]
pact of cirrus cloud enhancement).[17] This is measured
as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the Air freight reached a new high point in May
exact level of impact of NO and water vapour, govern- (2010) but, following the end of inventory re-
ments have accepted the broad scientic view that they stocking activity, volumes have slipped back to
do have an eect. Globally in 2005, aviation contributed settle at a similar level seen just before the on-
possibly as much as 4.9% of radiative forcing.[29] UK set of recession. Even so, that means an ex-
government policy statements have stressed the need for pansion of air freight during 2010 of 5-6% on
68 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
an annualized basis close to historical trend. ranking would be somewhat lower, as noted in the rank-
With the stimulus of inventory restocking ac- ing study.
tivity removed, further growth in air freight de- Aircraft manufacturers are striving for reductions in both
mand will be driven by end consumer demand CO2 and NOx emissions with each new generation of de-
for goods which utilize the air transport supply sign of aircraft and engine.[47] While the introduction of
chain. ... The end of the inventory cycle does more modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce
not mean the end of volume expansion but mar- emissions per passenger kilometre own, aircraft are ma-
kets are entering a slower growth phase.[37] jor investments that endure for many decades, and re-
placement of the international eet is therefore a long-
In a 2008 presentation[12] and paper [38] Professor Kevin term proposition which will greatly delay realizing the cli-
Anderson of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Re- mate benets of many kinds of improvements. Engines
search showed how continued aviation growth in the UK can be changed at some point, but nevertheless airframes
threatens the ability of that nation to meet CO2 emis- have a long life. Moreover, rather than being linear from
sion reduction goals necessary to contain the century-end one year to the next the improvements to eciency tend
temperature increase to even 4 or 6C. (See also: the to diminish over time, as reected in the histories of both
4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference piston and jet powered aircraft.[45]
(2009)[39] and its proceedings.)[40] His charts show the
A 2014 life-cycle assessment of the cradle-to-grave re-
projected domestic aviation carbon emission increase for
duction in CO2 by a carbon-ber-reinforced polymer
the UK as growing from 11 MT in 2006 to 17 MT in
(CFRP) airliner such as a Boeing 787 including its man-
2012, at the UKs historic annual emission growth rate
ufacture, operations and eventual disposal has shown
of 7%. Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were reduced to
that by 2050 such aircraft could reduce the airline indus-
3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030 would be 28 MT,
trys CO2 emissions by 14-15%, compared use of con-
which is 70% of the UKs entire carbon emissions budget
ventional airliners.[48] The benet of CFRP technology
that year for all sectors of society. This work also sug-
is not higher than that amount of reduction, despite the
gests the foreseeable future which confronts many other
lighter weight and substantially lower fuel consumption
nations that have high dependency on aviation. Hy-
of such aircraft, because of the limited eet penetration
permobile Travelers,[41] an academic study by Stefan
by 2050 and the increased demand for air travel due to
Gssling et al. (2009) in the book Climate Change and
lower operating costs. [48]
Aviation,[42] also points to the dilemma caused by the in-
creasing hypermobility of air travelers both in particular
nations and globally.[43]
Operations eciency Research projects such as Boe-
ings ecoDemonstrator program have sought to iden-
Scope for improvement tify ways of improving the eciency of commercial
aircraft operations. The U.S. government has encour-
Aircraft eciency While it is true that late model jet aged such research through grant programs, including the
aircraft are signicantly more fuel ecient (and thus emit FAAs Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise
less CO2 in particular) than the earliest jet airliners,[44][45] (CLEEN) program, and NASAs Environmentally Re-
new airliner models in the rst decade of the 21st Cen- sponsible Aviation (ERA) Project.
tury were barely more ecient on a seat-mile basis than
the latest piston-powered airliners of the late 1950s (e.g. Adding an electric drive to the airplanes nose wheel may
improve fuel eciency during ground handling. This ad-
Constellation L-1649-A and DC-7C).[45] Claims for a
high gain in eciency for airliners over recent decades dition would allow taxiing without the use of the main
engines.[49][50][51]
(while true in part) has been biased high in most stud-
ies, by using the early inecient models of jet airlin- Another proposed change is the integrating of an
ers as a baseline. Those aircraft were optimized for in- Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System to the airstrips
creased revenue, including increased speed and cruising of airports. Some companies such as Airbus are cur-
altitude, and were quite fuel inecient in comparison to rently researching this possibility. The adding of EMALS
their piston-powered forerunners.[45] would allow the civilian aircraft to use considerably less
Today, turboprop aircraft probably in part because of fuel (as a lot of fuel is used during take o, in comparison
their lower cruising speeds and altitudes (similar to the to cruising, when calculated per km own). The idea is
earlier piston-powered airliners) compared to jet airlin- to have the aircraft take o at regular aircraft speed, and
[52][53]
ers play an obvious role in the overall fuel eciency of only use the catapult for take-o, not for landing.
major airlines that have regional carrier subsidiaries.[46] Other opportunities arise from the optimization of airline
For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top timetables, route networks and ight frequencies to in-
of a 2011-2012 fuel eciency ranking, if its large re- crease load factors (minimize the number of empty seats
gional carrier turbo-prop equipped Horizon Air were own),[54] together with the optimization of airspace.
dropped from the lumped-in consideration, the airlines However, these are each one-time gains, and as these op-
5.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION 69
portunities are successively fullled, diminishing returns able biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the rst
can be expected from the remaining opportunities. time in North America. This marks the rst sustainable
Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact biofuel demonstration ight by a commercial carrier us-
is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would ing a twin-engined aircraft, a Boeing 737-800, powered
lead to a signicant reduction in high-altitude contrails by CFM International CFM56-7B engines. The biofuel
for a marginal trade-o of increased ight time and an blend included [62]
components derived from algae and jat-
estimated 4% increase in CO emissions. Drawbacks ropha plants.
2
of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to One fuel biofuel alternative to avgas that is under devel-
do this, especially in Europe and North America and in- opment is Swift Fuel. Swift fuel was approved as a test
creased fuel burn because jet aircraft are less ecient at fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, allowing
lower cruise altitudes.[55] the company to continue their research and to pursue cer-
While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic tication testing. Mary Rusek, president and co-owner
ights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter ights bring of Swift Enterprises predicted at that time that 100SF
two signicant benets: they often burn considerably less will be comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and
fuel per passenger mile, and they typically y at lower more fuel-ecient than other general aviation fuels on the
altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no market.[63][64]
concerns about ozone or contrail production. As of June 2011, revised international aviation fuel stan-
dards ocially allow commercial airlines to blend con-
ventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. The re-
Alternative fuels Main article: Aviation_fuel newable fuels can be blended with conventional com-
Chemical_composition mercial and military jet fuel through requirements in
Main article: Aviation_fuel LNG the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566, Specica-
tion for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized
Hydrocarbons.[65]
Some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and
Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use In December 2011, the FAA announced it is awarding
in jet aircraft.[56] Some aircraft engines, like the Wilksch $7.7 million to eight companies to advance the devel-
WAM120 can (being a 2-stroke Diesel engine) run on opment of drop-in commercial aviation biofuels, with a
straight vegetable oil. Also, a number of Lycoming en- special focus on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of
gines run well on ethanol. its CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel Ini-
tiative) and CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, En-
In addition, there are also several tests done combining
ergy and Noise) programs, the FAA plans to assist in the
regular petrofuels with a biofuel. For example, as part
development of a sustainable fuel (from alcohols, sugars,
of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways ew a Boeing 747
biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils) that
from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol
can be dropped in to aircraft without changing current
Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burn-
infrastructure. The grant will also be used to research
ing a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.[56]
how the fuels aect engine durability and quality control
Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the ight
standards.[66]
was high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic
oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large Finally, liquied natural gas is another fuel that is used in
increase in greenhouse gas emissions.[56] Also, the major- some airplanes. Besides the lower GHG emissions (de-
ity of the worlds aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller pending from where the natural gas was obtained from),
piston aircraft, and with major modications many are another major benet to airplane operators is the price,
capable of using ethanol as a fuel.[57] Another consider- which is far lower than the price for jet fuel.
ation is the vast amount of land that would be necessary
to provide the biomass feedstock needed to support the
needs of aviation, both civil and military.[58] Reducing air travel
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed Personal choices and social pressure The German
the worlds rst commercial aviation test ight partially
video short The Bill[67] explores how travel and its impacts
using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel,
are commonly viewed in everyday developed-world life,
can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees
and the social pressures that are at play. British writer
and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth
George Marshall has investigated common rationaliza-
yields.[59][60] Air New Zealand set several general sustain-
tions that act as barriers to making personal choices to
ability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such biofuels
travel less, or to justify recent trips. In an informal re-
must not compete with food resources, that they must be
search project, one you are welcome to join, he says,
as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they should be
he deliberately steered conversations with people who are
cost competitive with existing fuels.[61] attuned to climate change problems to questions about re-
In January 2009, Continental Airlines used a sustain- cent long-distance ights and why the travel was justied.
70 CHAPTER 5. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Reecting on actions contrary to their beliefs, he noted, expense bills charged to an employer, frequent yer points
"(i)ntriguing as their dissonance may be, what is espe- can be racked up quickly.[73] Thus, free travelfor which
cially revealing is that every one of these people has a the individual has to pay nothing extrabecomes a re-
career that is predicated on the assumption that informa- ality. Across society, this too can be expected to lead
tion is sucient to generate change an assumption that to much air traveland greenhouse gas emissionsthat
a moments introspection would show them was deeply otherwise would not occur.[75]
awed.[68] Several studies have contemplated the elimination of
frequent yer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of
Business and professional choices anti-competitiveness,[76] ethics,[77] conict with societys
overall well-being,[78] or climate eects.[79] There is a
record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and
With most international conferences hav-
of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not al-
ing hundreds if not thousands of participants,
low the programs until 1992, then changing its policy be-
and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane,
cause its airlines were disadvantaged.[76] In 2002, Norway
conference travel is an area where signicant
banned domestic FFPs in order to promote competition
reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions
among its airlines.[80] In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president
could be made. ... This does not mean non-
of Brani said the government should consider ordering
attendance. (Reay 2004)[69]
an end to frequent-yer programs, which he said allow
unfair competition.[81]
For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has al-
ready been successfully used to host several international A Canadian study said that because of competition no
conferences,[69] and technology has likely progressed sub- airline could unilaterally end its FFP, but that a national
stantially since then. The Tyndall Centre for Climate government could use its regulatory power to end the pro-
Change Research has been systematically studying means grams broadly, which in Canadas case would also require
to change common institutional and professional prac- North America-wide cooperation.[78] In further analysis,
tices that have led to large carbon footprints of travel by a Scandinavian study which recommended an end to fre-
research scientists, and issued a report. (Le Qur et al. quent yer plans said, the only possible way of prohibit-
2015).[70][71][72] ing FFPs successfully now that they have spread from the
US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a
global basis. The basis exists: it could be done by the
Ending incentives to yfrequent yer programs World Trade Organization.[76] A recent study which sur-
Over 130 airlines have "frequent yer programs" based veyed frequent yers in the U.K. and Norway, looked
at least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments into behavioral addition to frequent ying and the yers
for ights taken. Globally, such programs included about dilemma of the conict between the social and per-
163 million people as reported in 2006.[73] These pro- sonal benets of ying and air travels impact on climate
grams benet airlines by habituating people to air travel change.[79] It concluded that:
and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit
card companies and other businesses, in which high prot Continued growth in both frequent ying
margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats practices and concern over air travels climate
for a high price.[73] The only part of United Airlines busi- impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the
ness that was making money when the company led for question of whether one or the other will reach
bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent yer program.[73] a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Self-
Concerning business travel, The ease of international air regulation, external regulation, social norms,
travel and the fact that, for most of us, the costs are met technology and physical resources will con-
by our employers, means that ... globe trotting conference tinue to co-constitute the balance. An increas-
travel is often regarded as a perk of the job.[69] However, ing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may
the perk usually is not only the business trip itself, but also (re)frame ying as more open to collective ex-
the frequent yer points which the individual accrues by ternal mitigation.[79]
taking the trip, and which can be redeemed later for per-
sonal air travel. Thus a conict of interest is established, This means government action.
whereby bottom-up pressure may be created within a rm
or government agency for travel that is really not neces- Potential for governmental constraints on demand
sary. Even when such conict is not a motivation, the One means for reducing the environmental impact of avi-
perk of frequent yer miles can be expected to lead in ation is to constrain demand for air travel, through in-
many cases to personal trips that would not be taken if a creased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Sev-
ticket had to be paid for with personal funds.[74] eral studies have explored this:
By just using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay ones
household expenses, personal or business bills, or even The UK study Predict and Decide Aviation, climate
5.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION 71
change and UK policy, notes that a 10% increase in new directive was adopted by the European Parliament in
fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand, July 2008 and approved by the Council in October 2008.
and recommends that the British government should It became eective on 1 January 2012.[92]
manage demand rather than provide for it.[82] This Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute inves-
would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes tigated the possible eects on Small Island Developing
" against the expansion of UK airport capacity States (SIDS) of the European Union's decision to limit
and constrains demand by the use of economic in- the supply of Certied Emission Reductions (CERs) to its
struments to price air travel less attractively.[83] ETS market to Least Developed Countries (LDCs) from
A study published by the campaign group Aviation 2013.[93] Most SIDS are highly vulnerable to the eects
Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by of climate change and rely heavily on tourism as a basis
levying 9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate for their economies, so this decision could place them at
of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would some disadvantage. The researchers therefore highlight
be reduced to 2%.[84] the need to ensure that any regulatory frameworks put in
place to tackle climate change take into account the devel-
The ninth report of the House of Commons opment needs of the most vulnerable countries aected.
Environmental Audit Select Committee, published
A report published by researchers at the Centre for
in July 2006, recommends that the British govern-
Aviation, Transport and Environment at Manchester
ment rethinks its airport expansion policy and con-
Metropolitan University found that the only way to have
siders ways, particularly via increased taxation, in
a signicant impact on emissions was to put a price on
which future demand can be managed in line with
carbon and to use a market-based measure (MBM), such
industry performance in achieving fuel eciencies,
as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).[94]
so that emissions are not allowed to increase in ab-
solute terms.[85]
Airline claims that ying will now be green sumed when microbial populations decompose propylene
are a myth. Taking a plane is the fastest and glycol.[105]:223
cheapest way to fry the planet and this deal Sucient dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters are
won't reduce demand for jet fuel one drop. In- critical for the survival of sh, macroinvertebrates, and
stead osetting aims to cut emissions in other other aquatic organisms. If oxygen concentrations drop
industries, below a minimum level, organisms emigrate, if able and
possible, to areas with higher oxygen levels or eventually
although another critic called it a timid step in the right die. This eect can drastically reduce the amount of us-
direction.[100] able aquatic habitat. Reductions in DO levels can reduce
or eliminate bottom feeder populations, create conditions
that favor a change in a communitys species prole, or
Eects of climate change on aviation alter critical food-web interactions.[105]:230
Airports can generate signicant water pollution due to Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and
their extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the
other chemicals. Airports install spill control structures cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Several
and related equipment (e.g., vacuum trucks, portable times a decade, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar par-
berms, absorbents) to prevent chemical spills, and mit- ticle event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft
igate the impacts of spills that do occur.[103] ying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at par-
ticular risk.[110][111][112][113]
In cold climates, the use of deicing uids can also cause
water pollution, as most of the uids applied to air-
craft subsequently fall to the ground and can be car- 5.2.6 See also
ried via stormwater runo to nearby streams, rivers or
coastal waters.[104]:101 Airlines use deicing uids based Air transport and the environment (United King-
on ethylene glycol or propylene glycol as the active dom)
ingredient.[104]:4
Aviation Environment Federation, a UK focused
Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are known to exert non-prot direct action group
high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) dur-
ing degradation in surface waters. This process can ad- Biofuels
versely aect aquatic life by consuming oxygen needed Continuous descent approach
by aquatic organisms for survival. Large quantities of
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column are con- Chemtrail conspiracy theory
5.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION 73
Electric aircraft [12] Anderson, K. (17 June 2008). Reframing climate change:
from long-term targets to emission pathways (esp. slide
Flying Matters, a pro-aviation coalition in the United 24 onward).
Kingdom
[13] McNeil BI, Matear RJ (2008). Southern Ocean acidica-
Hydrogen powered aircraft tion: A tipping point at 450-ppm atmospheric CO2. Pro-
ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (105:48;
Hypermobility (travel) p.18860). (In the Southern Ocean, an ecological tipping
point due to wintertime aragonite undersaturation is pro-
Plane Mad (direct action group) jected to occur by the year 2030 and no later than 2038.)
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front. By S. Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer. 2 August
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[81] Orlando Sentinel (1989). Brani Will SlimDown, Keep
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March 2015. & Anderson, K. (2012). Aviation and shipping privileged
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[96] Milman, Oliver (6 October 2016). First deal to curb 5.2.8 External links
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Guardian. London, United Kingdom. Retrieved 2016- Concerns
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[97] UN aviation pact will not be aligned with Paris climate Air travel, climate change, and green con-
goals, M. Darby, Climate Change News, 6 Oct 2016. sumerism. Appropedia.
[98] The new UN deal on aviation emissions leaves much to be planestupid.com. Plane Stupid. network of grass-
desired, D. Hodgkinson & R. Johnston. The Conversa- roots groups that take non violent direct action
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[99] Weak Market-based Measure Allows Airplanes Green- airportwatch.org.uk. AirportWatch. oppose any
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[100] Green Groups Warn Deal to Lower Aviation Pollution is an aviation policy for the UK which is in full ac-
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[103] Sector S: Vehicle Maintenance Areas, Equipment Clean- on the environment
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[104] Technical Development Document for the Final Eu- The aviation sectors climate action framework
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[105] Environmental Impact and Benet Assessment for the Fi-
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Airport Deicing Category (Report). EPA. April 2012.
Aviation Sustainability Center. Washington State
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[106] Leaded Fuel Is a Thing of the PastUnless You Fly a Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment.
Private Plane. Mother Jones. Retrieved 2017-05-21. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
5.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION 77
Studies
Articles
Piloting
78
6.1. AVIATOR 79
the "pilot in command" derives from that of a ships cap- United States
tain.
In 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licens-
ing requirements for American civil aviation.
6.1.2 Civilian Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a
mandatory retirement age of 65, having increased from
age 60 in 2007.[4]
6.1.3 Military
6.1.5 Space
6.1.7 See also
The general concept of an airplane pilot can be applied
to human spaceight, as well. The spacecraft pilot is Aircrew (ight crew)
the astronaut who directly controls the operation of a
Airline pilot uniforms
spacecraft, while located within that same craft (not re-
motely). This term derives directly from the usage of Air safety
the word pilot in aviation, where it is synonymous with
aviator. Note that on the N.A.S.A Space Shuttle, the Pilot Fatigue
term pilot is analogous to the term "co-pilot" in avia-
tion, as the "commander" has ultimate responsibility for IMSAFE (mnemonic for pilots tness to y)
the shuttle.
List of aerospace engineers
List of aviators
6.1.6 Pilot certications
List of Russian aviators
Further information: Pilot licensing and certication
Women of Aviation Worldwide Week, an interna-
tional celebration of all women of aviation
Pilots are required to go through many hours of ight
training and theoretical study, that dier depending on
the country. The rst step is acquiring the Private Pilot 6.1.8 References
License (PPL), or Private Pilot Certicate. This takes at
least 40 hours of ight time with a Certied Flight In- [1] Aeronautics in 1904. Colliers Self-Indexing Annual.
structor (CFI). New York: P. F. Collier & Son. 1905. p. 6.
6.1. AVIATOR 81
[6] Pope, Stephen (July 11, 2013). FAA Finalizes ATP Rule
for First Ocers. Flying Magazine. Retrieved October
15, 2014.
82
7.1. AIR SAFETY 83
cial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 dio ranges and the non-directional beacon (NDB). The
was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles,[2][3] ground based VOR stations were often co-located with
while for driving, the rate was 150 per 10 billion vehicle- DME transmitters. With the proper receiving equip-
miles for 2000. This computes to a fatality rate for driving ment in the aircraft, pilots could know their radials in de-
to be 750 times higher per mile than for ying in a com- grees to/from the VOR station, as well as the slant range
mercial airplane. There were no fatalities on large sched- distance.[5] A number of ground based Weather radar sys-
uled commercial airlines in the United States in 2015 for tems can detect areas of severe turbulence.
the sixth year running.[4] Ground-based navigation aids are being supplanted
by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System
7.1.2 Navigation aids and instrument (GPS), which make it possible for pilots to know their po-
sition with great precision anywhere in the world. With
ight the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS),
Satellite navigation has become accurate enough for ver-
tical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used
increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route
navigation. However, because the GPS constellation is a
single point of failure, on-board Inertial Navigation Sys-
tem (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still re-
quired for backup.
In June 2014 the International Air Transport Associa-
tion said it was working on implementing new measures
to track aircraft in ight in real time. A special panel
was considering a range of options including the produc-
tion of equipment especially designed to ensure real time
tracking.[6]
The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not Engine failure
understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999.[13]
It has since been suggested that positive lightning might Further information: Turbine engine failure and ETOPS
have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At
that time, aircraft were not designed to withstand such
An engine may fail to function because of fuel starva-
strikes because their existence was unknown. The 1985
tion (e.g. British Airways Flight 38), fuel exhaustion (e.g.
standard in force in the US at the time of the glider crash,
Gimli Glider), foreign object damage (e.g. US Airways
Advisory Circular AC 20-53A,[13] was replaced by Advi-
Flight 1549), mechanical failure due to metal fatigue (e.g.
sory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006.[14] However, it is un-
Kegworth air disaster, El Al Flight 1862, China Airlines
clear whether adequate protection against positive light-
Flight 358), mechanical failure due to improper main-
ning was incorporated.[15][16]
tenance (e.g. American Airlines Flight 191), mechani-
The eects of typical lightning on traditional metal- cal failure caused by an original manufacturing defect in
covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage the engine (e.g. Qantas Flight 32, United Airlines Flight
from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. The Boeing 232, Delta Air Lines Flight 1288), and pilot error (e.g.
787 Dreamliner of which the exterior is carbon-ber- Pinnacle Airlines Flight 3701).
reinforced polymer received no damage from a lightning
In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usu-
strike during testing.[17]
ally results in a precautionary landing being performed,
for example landing at a diversion airport instead of con-
tinuing to the intended destination. Failure of a second
Ice and snow engine (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or damage to other
aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure
Ice and snow can be major factors in airline accidents. In (e.g. United Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency
2005, Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid o the end of landing is not possible, result in the aircraft crashing.
a runway after landing in heavy snow conditions, killing
one child on the ground.
Structural failure of the aircraft
Even a small amount of icing or coarse frost can greatly
impair the ability of a wing to develop adequate lift, which
Examples of failure of aircraft structures caused by metal
is why regulations prohibit ice, snow or even frost on the
fatigue include the de Havilland Comet accidents (1950s)
wings or tail, prior to takeo.[18] Air Florida Flight 90
and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (1988). Now that the
crashed on takeo in 1982, as a result of ice/snow on its
subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and
wings.
nondestructive testing procedures are in place.
An accumulation of ice during ight can be catastrophic,
Composite materials consist of layers of bers embedded
as evidenced by the loss of control and subsequent crashes
in a resin matrix. In some cases, especially when sub-
of American Eagle Flight 4184 in 1994, and Comair
jected to cyclic stress, the layers of the material separate
Flight 3272 in 1997. Both aircraft were turboprop air-
from each other (delaminate) and lose strength. As the
liners, with straight wings, which tend to be more suscep-
failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on
tible to inight ice accumulation, than are swept-wing jet
the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based)
airliners.[19]
have to be used to detect such a material failure. In the
Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de- 1940s several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamina-
iced before takeo whenever the weather involves icing tion of plywood in their construction.
conditions. Modern airliners are designed to prevent
ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by
either routing heated air from jet engines through the Stalling
leading edges of the wing, and inlets, or on slower air-
craft, by use of inatable rubber "boots" that expand to Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a
break o any accumulated ice. point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is
Airline ight plans require airline dispatch oces to mon- dangerous and can result in a crash if the pilot fails to
itor the progress of weather along the routes of their make a timely correction.
ights, helping the pilots to avoid the worst of inight ic- Devices to warn the pilot when the aircrafts speed is
ing conditions. Aircraft can also be equipped with an ice decreasing close to the stall speed include stall warning
detector in order to warn pilots to leave unexpected ice horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft),
accumulation areas, before the situation becomes critical. stick shakers, and voice warnings. Most stalls are a re-
Pitot tubes in modern airplanes and helicopters have been sult of the pilot allowing the airspeed to be too slow for
provided with the function of Pitot Heating to prevent the particular weight and conguration at the time. Stall
accidents like Air France Flight 447 caused by the pitot speed is higher when ice or frost has attached to the wings
tube freezing and giving false readings. and/or tail stabilizer. The more severe the icing, the
7.1. AIR SAFETY 85
higher the stall speed, not only because smooth airow the aircraft impaired passengers ability to evacuate, with
over the wings becomes increasingly more dicult, but areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-
also because of the added weight of the accumulated ice. neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close
Crashes caused by a full stall of the airfoils include: to the exits. Much research into evacuation and cabin and
seating layouts was carried out at Craneld Institute to try
to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which
British European Airways Flight 548 (1972) led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by
United Airlines Flight 553 (1972) mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements
relating to the design of galley areas. The use of smoke
Aeroot Flight 7425 (1985) hoods or misting systems were also examined although
both were rejected.
Arrow Air Flight 1285 (1985)
South African Airways Flight 295 was lost in the Indian
Northwest Airlines Flight 255 (1987) Ocean in 1987 after an in-ight re in the cargo hold
could not be suppressed by the crew. The cargo holds
The Paul Wellstone crash (2002) of most airliners are now equipped with automated halon
Colgan Air Flight 3407 (2009) re extinguishing systems to combat a re that might oc-
cur in the baggage holds. In May 1996, ValuJet Flight
Turkish Airlines Flight 1951 crash (2009) 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes
after takeo because of a re in the forward cargo hold.
Air France Flight 447 (2009) All 110 people on board were killed.
At one time, re ghting foam paths were laid down be-
Fire fore an emergency landing, but the practice was consid-
ered only marginally eective, and concerns about the de-
pletion of re ghting capability due to pre-foaming led
the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation
in 1987.
One possible cause of res in airplanes is wiring prob-
lems that involve intermittent faults, such as wires with
breached insulation touching each other, having water
dripping on them, or short circuits. These are dicult
to detect once the aircraft is on the ground. However,
there are methods, such as spread-spectrum time-domain
reectometry, that can feasibly test live wires on aircraft
during ight.[20]
Bird strike
NASA air safety experiment (CID project) Main article: Bird strike
span or the nose cone. Core damage usually results with and external factors.[23] The ability of the ight crew to
impacts near the blade root or on the nose cone. maintain situation awareness is a critical human factor in
The highest risk of a bird strike occurs during takeo and air safety. Human factors training is available to general
landing in the vicinity of airports, and during low-level aviation pilots and called single pilot resource manage-
ying by military aircraft, crop dusters and helicopters ment training.
for example. Some airports use active countermeasures, Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the ight instru-
ranging from a person with a shotgun through recorded ments caused the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 401
sounds of predators to employing falconers. Poisonous in 1972. Controlled ight into terrain (CFIT), and error
grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to during take-o and landing can have catastrophic conse-
insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive counter- quences, for example causing the crash of Prinair Flight
measures involve sensible land-use management, avoid- 191 on landing, also in 1972.
ing conditions attracting ocks of birds to the area (e.g.
landlls). Another tactic found eective is to let the grass
at the aireld grow taller (approximately 12 inches (30
cm)) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot Pilot fatigue Main article: Pilot Fatigue
see one another.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
denes fatigue as A physiological state of reduced men-
Human factors
tal or physical performance capability resulting from
sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or
See also: aviation medicine
workload.[24] The phenomenon places great risk on the
Human factors, including pilot error, are another poten-
crew and passengers of an airplane because it signi-
cantly increases the chance of pilot error.[25] Fatigue is
particularly prevalent among pilots because of unpre-
dictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian disrup-
tion, and insucient sleep.[26] These factors can occur
together to produce a combination of sleep deprivation,
circadian rhythm eects, and 'time-on task' fatigue.[26]
Regulators attempt to mitigate fatigue by limiting the
amount of hours pilots are allowed to y over varying pe-
riods of time. Experts in aviation fatigue often nd that
these methods fall short on their goals.
Controlled ight into terrain Main article: and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet
Controlled ight into terrain (7,900 m) the damaged section of the skin gave way un-
der the dierence in pressure between the inside of the
Controlled ight into terrain (CFIT) is a class of acci- aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized ex-
dents in which an aircraft is own under control into ter- plosively necessitating a rapid descent to denser (breath-
rain or man-made structures. CFIT accidents typically able) air and an emergency landing. Post landing exam-
result from pilot error or of navigational system error. ination of the fuselage revealed [32]
a 12 in (30 cm) hole on
Failure to protect ILS critical areas can also cause CFIT the right side of the airplane.
accidents. In December 1995, American Airlines Flight
965 tracked o course while approaching Cali, Colombia Volcanic ash
and hit a mountainside despite a terrain awareness and
warning system (TAWS) terrain warning in the cockpit Main article: Volcanic ash and aviation safety
and desperate pilot attempt to gain altitude after the warn-
ing. Crew position awareness and monitoring of naviga-
Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes can dam-
tional systems are essential to the prevention of CFIT ac-
age propellers, engines and cockpit windows.[33] [34] In
cidents. As of February 2008, over 40,000 aircraft had
1982, British Airways Flight 9 ew through an ash cloud
enhanced TAWS installed, and they had own over 800
and temporarily lost power from all four engines. The
million hours without a CFIT accident.[28]
plane was badly damaged, with all the leading edges be-
Another anti-CFIT tool is the Minimum Safe Altitude ing scratched. The front windscreens had been so badly
Warning (MSAW) system which monitors the altitudes sand blasted by the ash that they could not be used to
transmitted by aircraft transponders and compares that land the aircraft.[35]
with the systems dened minimum safe altitudes for a
Prior to 2010 the general approach taken by airspace reg-
given area. When the system determines the aircraft is
ulators was that if the ash concentration rose above zero,
lower, or might soon be lower, than the minimum safe
then the airspace was considered unsafe and was conse-
altitude, the air trac controller receives an acoustic and
quently closed.[36] Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers enable
visual warning and then alerts the pilot that the aircraft is
liaison between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the
too low.[29]
aviation industry.[37]
Deliberate aircrew action In 1988, the United States shot down Iran Air Flight
655.
Although most air crews are screened for psychological
In 2001, the Ukrainian Air Force accidentally shot
tness, some have taken suicidal actions. In the case of
down Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 during an exer-
EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the rst ocer delib-
cise.
erately crashed into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain
was away from his station in 1999 o Nantucket, Mas- In 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down.
sachusetts.
In 1982, Japan Airlines Flight 350 crashed while on ap-
7.1.4 Accident survivability
proach to the Tokyo Haneda Airport, killing 24 of the 174
on board. The ocial investigation found the mentally ill
Further information: Pre-ight safety demonstration,
captain had attempted suicide by placing the inboard en-
Aircraft safety card, Brace position, Aircraft rescue and
gines into reverse thrust, while the aircraft was close to
reghting, and Airport crash tender
the runway. The rst ocer did not have enough time to
countermand before the aircraft stalled and crashed.
In 1997, SilkAir Flight 185 suddenly went into a high dive
from its cruising altitude. The speed of the dive was so Airport design
high that the aircraft began to break apart before it nally
Airport design and location can have a large impact on
crashed near Palembang, Sumatra. After three years of
aviation safety, especially since some airports such as
investigation, the Indonesian authorities declared that the
Chicago Midway International Airport were originally
cause of the accident could not be determined. However,
built for propeller planes and many airports are in con-
the US NTSB concluded that deliberate suicide by the
gested areas where it is dicult to meet newer safety stan-
captain was the only reasonable explanation.
dards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling
In 2015, on March 24, Germanwings Flight 9525 (an Air- for a runway safety area, usually extending 500 feet (150
bus A320-200) crashed 100 kilometres (62 mi) northwest m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end
of Nice, in the French Alps, after a constant descent that of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of
began one minute after the last routine contact with air the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing
trac control and shortly after the aircraft had reached a buer space free of obstacles. Many older airports do
its assigned cruise altitude. All 144 passengers and six not meet this standard. One method of substituting for
crew members were killed. The crash was intentionally the 1,000 feet (300 m) at the end of a runway for airports
caused by the co-pilot, Andreas Lubitz. Having been de- in congested areas is to install an engineered materials ar-
clared unt to work without telling his employer, Lub- restor system (EMAS). These systems are usually made
itz reported for duty, and during the ight locked the pilot of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the en-
out of the cabin. In response to the incident and the cir- ergy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. As of 2008,
cumstances of Lubitzs involvement, aviation authorities they have stopped three aircraft at JFK Airport.
in Canada, New Zealand, Germany and Australia imple-
mented new regulations that require two authorized per-
sonnel to be present in the cockpit at all times. Three days Emergency airplane evacuations
after the incident the European Aviation Safety Agency
issued a temporary recommendation for airlines to ensure According to a 2000 report by the National Transporta-
that at least two crew members, including at least one pi-tion Safety Board, emergency aircraft evacuations happen
lot, are in the cockpit at all times of the ight. Severalabout once every 11 days in the U.S. While some situ-
airlines announced they had already adopted similar poli- ations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on
cies voluntarily. re, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers
can be the use of the evacuation slide. In a Time arti-
cle on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a
Military action new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evac-
uation tests in 2006, 33 of the 873 evacuating volunteers
Passenger planes have rarely been attacked in both peace- got hurt. While the evacuation was considered a success,
time and war. Examples: one volunteer suered a broken leg, while the remaining
32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In
In 1955, Bulgaria shot down El Al Flight 402. her article, Ripley provided tips on how to make it down
the airplane slide without injury.[38]
In 1973, Israel shot down Libyan Arab Airlines
Flight 114.
7.1.5 Accidents and incidents
In 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air
Lines Flight 007. List of airship accidents
7.1. AIR SAFETY 89
Lists of aviation accidents and incidents It is therefore important to use each statistic in a proper
context. When it comes to a question about risks associ-
Aviation accidents and incidents ated with a particular long-range travel from one city to
List of airliner shootdown incidents another, the most suitable statistic is the third one, thus
giving a reason to name air travel as the safest form of
Flight recorder, includes ight data recorder and long-range transportation. However, if the availability of
cockpit voice recorder an air option makes an otherwise inconvenient journey
possible, then this argument loses some of its force.
These individuals are trained and authorized to con- Aviation Safety Network
duct aviation accident and incident investigations for the Aviation Safety Reporting System
government organizations responsible for aviation safety.
They possess specialized expertise and training in specic Ballistic parachute
elds, such as aircraft structures, air trac control, ight
Crashworthiness
recorders and human factors. They may be employed
by governments, manufacturers or unions and perform Hazard analysis
fact-nding, analyses, and report writing as part of their
duties.[46] Health hazards of air travel
IATA Operational Safety Audit
Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
7.1.7 Safety improvement initiatives
Lasers and aviation safety
The safety improvement initiatives are aviation safety
Mid-air collision
partnerships between regulators, manufacturers, oper-
ators, professional unions, research organisations, and Pilot error
international aviation organisations to further enhance
safety. Some major safety initiatives worldwide are: Safety of emergency medical services ights
Sensory illusions in aviation
Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) in the Sixty second review, a technique used by ight at-
US. The Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST) tendants to focus and prepare for a sudden emer-
was founded in 1998 with a goal to reduce the com- gency
mercial aviation fatality rate in the United States by
80 percent by 2007. SKYbrary
Swiss cheese model
European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) . The
European Strategic Safety Initiative (ESSI) is an avi- Tombstone mentality
ation safety partnership between EASA, other reg- Travel Safety
ulators and the industry. The initiative objective is
to further enhance safety for citizens in Europe and Uncontrolled decompression
worldwide through safety analysis, implementation
Wind shear
of cost eective action plans, and coordination with
other safety initiatives worldwide. Zonal safety analysis
7.1. AIR SAFETY 91
7.1.10 Notes and references [24] Operation of Aircraft (PDF). International Standards
and Recommended Practices. February 25, 2013.
[1] NIOSH Commercial Aviation in Alaska. United States
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. [25] Caldwell, John; Mallis, Melissa (January 2009).
Archived from the original on 16 November 2007. Re- Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation. Aviation,
trieved 2007-10-15. Space, and Environmental Medicine. 80 (1): 2959.
doi:10.3357/asem.2435.2009.
[2] Fatalities Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
[26] Caldwell, John A.; Mallis, Melissa M.; Caldwell, J. Lynn
[3] Passenger miles Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (January 2009). Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation.
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 80 (1): 29
[4] 59. doi:10.3357/asem.2435.2009.
[5] The VOR [27] U.S. drops prosecution of allegedly tipsy pilots (second
story)
[6] IATA wants new airline tracking equipment. Malaysia
Sun. Retrieved 10 June 2014. [28] EGPWS
[7] Haaretz: Two planes nearly crash at Ben Gurion Airport [29] ATC MSAW system
due to glitch
[30] Ladkin, Peter B.; with colleagues (October 20, 1997).
[8] Jerusalem Post: Weeds blamed for spate of near-misses Electromagnetic Interference with Aircraft Systems:
at Ben-Gurion Airport why worry?". University of Bielefeld Faculty of Tech-
nology. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
[9] Momento24.com : An error in the control tower almost
caused two planes to collide [31] Hsu, Jeremy (December 21, 2009). The Real Reason
Cell Phone Use Is Banned on Airlines. livescience.com.
[10] ABC local NTSB, FAA investigate near-miss mid-air col- Retrieved December 24, 2015.
lision
[32] National Transportation Safety Board Aviation Acci-
[11] La Guardia Near-Crash Is One of a Rising Number dents: SEA06LA033. National Transportation Safety
Board. 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
[12] Bundesstelle fr Flugunfalluntersuchung Investigation
Report on crash near Ueberlingen [33] Danger to Aircraft from Volcanic Eruption Clouds
[13] Schleicher ASK 21 two seat glider [34] Guidance for Flight Crews and Controllers
[14] FAA Advisory Circulars [35] Flightglobal archive Flight International 10 July 1982 p59
[15] Hiding requirements = suspicion they're inadequate, [36] http://www.newscientist.com/article/
Nolan Law Group, January 18, 2010 dn18797-can-we-fly-safely-through-volcanic-ash.html
[16] A Proposed Addition to the Lightning Environment Stan- [37] Volcanic AshDanger to Aircraft in the North Pacic
dards Applicable to Aircraft. J. Anderson Plumer. Light-
ning Technologies, Inc. published 2005-09-27. [38] How to Escape Down an Airplane Slide and Still Make
Your Connection! Amanda Ripley. TIME. January 23,
[17] Jason Paur (June 17, 2010). Boeing 787 Withstands 2008.
Lightning Strike. Wired.
[39]
[18] FAA Chapter 27
[40] 7.10 in CAP 1036 Global Fatal Accident Review
[19] airlinesafety.com August 1998, revised June 2000 and
September 2002 Robert J. Boser, Editor-in-Chief, Airli- [41] Preliminary ASN data show 2016 to be one of the safest
neSafety.com years in aviation history. Aviation Safety Network. Flight
Safety Foundation. 29 December 2016.
[20] Smith, Paul; Cynthia Furse & Jacob Gunther (Dec 2005).
Analysis of Spread Spectrum Time Domain Reectom- [42] The risks of travel Archived September 7, 2001, at the
etry for Wire Fault Location.. IEEE Sensors Journal. 5 Wayback Machine.. The site cites the source as an Octo-
(6). Archived from the original on 2010-05-01. ber 2000 article by Roger Ford in the magazine Modern
Railways and based on a DETR survey.
[21] Part33-Airworthiness standards-Aircraft Engines sec-
tion 33.76 Bird ingestion [43] Beck, L. F.; Dellinger, A. M.; O'neil, M. E. (2007).
Motor vehicle crash injury rates by mode of travel,
[22] How the Pilots Checklist Came About United States: using exposure-based methods to quantify
dierences. American Journal of Epidemiology. 166 (2):
[23] Baron, Robert (2014). Barriers to Eective Communi- 212218. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm064.
cation: Implications for the Cockpit. airline safety.com.
The Aviation Consulting Group. Retrieved October 7, [44] Flight into danger 07 August 1999 New Scientist
2015. Space
92 CHAPTER 7. AVIATION BEST PRACTICES AND TRAINING
[45] http://aviation-safety.net/statistics/period/stats.php?cat= 141 contains rules for pilot training schools. The sec-
A1 tions most relevant to aircraft pilots and AMTs (Avia-
tion Maintenance Technicians) are listed below. Many of
[46] Diehl, Alan (2013) Air Safety Investigators: Us- the FARs are designed to regulate certication of pilots,
ing Science to Save Lives-One Crash at a Time.
schools, or aircraft rather than the operation of airplanes.
Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 9781479728930.
http://www.prweb.com/releases/DrAlanDiehl/
Once an airplane design is certied using some parts of
AirSafetyInvestigators/prweb10735591.htm these regulations, it is certied regardless of whether the
regulations change in the future. For that reason, newer
[47] John Croft (Apr 7, 2017). What Is The Certication Tip- planes are certied using newer versions of the FARs, and
ping Point?". Aviation Week & Space Technology. in many aspects may be thus considered safer designs.
Safety Behaviours, a guide for pilots (comprehensive Part 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility,
human factors information) Acrobatic and Commuter Airplanes
NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) Part 25 Airworthiness Standards: Transport Cat-
egory Airplanes
Latest Aviation Safety Occurrences at the Aviation
Safety Network Part 27 Airworthiness Standards: Normal Cate-
gory Rotorcraft
Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued
to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Part 29 Airworthiness Standards: Transport Cat-
Health, 2003 egory Rotorcraft
7.2 Federal Aviation Regulations Part 34 Fuel Venting and Exhaust Emission Re-
quirements for Turbine Engine Powered Airplanes
The Federal Aviation Regulations, or FARs, are rules Part 35 Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
prescribed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
governing all aviation activities in the United States. The Part 39 Airworthiness Directives
FARs are part of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regu-
Part 43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance,
lations (CFR). A wide variety of activities are regulated,
Rebuilding, and Alteration
such as aircraft design and maintenance, typical airline
ights, pilot training activities, hot-air ballooning, lighter- Part 45 Identication and Registration Marking
than-air aircraft, man-made structure heights, obstruction
lighting and marking, and even model rocket launches, Part 47 Aircraft Registration
model aircraft operation, sUAS & Drone operation, and
kite ying. The rules are designed to promote safe avi- Part 61 Certication: Pilots, Flight Instructors,
ation, protecting pilots, ight attendants, passengers and and Ground Instructors
the general public from unnecessary risk. Since 1958, Part 63 Certication: Flight Crewmembers Other
these rules have typically been referred to as FARs, Than Pilots
short for Federal Aviation Regulations. However, another
set of regulations (Title 48) is titled Federal Acquisitions Part 65 Certication: Airmen Other Than Flight
Regulations, and this has led to confusion with the use of Crewmembers
the acronym FAR. Therefore, the FAA began to refer
to specic regulations by the term 14 CFR part XX.[1] Part 67 Medical Standards and Certication
Part 101 Moored Balloons, Kites, Unmanned Many other FARs depend on denitions, which are found
Rockets, Unmanned Free Balloons, and Certain in Part 1.1[2]
Model Aircraft
Part 105 Parachute Operations Part 23 contains airworthiness standards required for is-
suance and change of type certicates for airplanes in
Part 107 Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems
these categories :[3]
Part 117 Flight and Duty Limitations and Rest Re-
quirements: Flightcrew Members nine or less passengers, 12,500 pounds or less
MTOW :
Part 119 Certication: Air Carriers and Commer-
cial Operators normal : nonacrobatic operation (bank angle <
60);
Part 121 Operating Requirements: Domestic,
Flag, and Supplemental Operations utility : limited acrobatic operation (60 <
bank angle < 90);
Part 125 Certication and Operations: Airplanes acrobatic : no restrictions
Having a Seating Capacity of 20 or More Passengers
or a Payload Capacity of 6,000 Pounds or More commuter category: multiengine airplanes, 19 or
less passengers, 19,000 pounds or less MTOW,
Part 129 Operations: Foreign Air Carriers and nonacrobatic operation (bank angle < 60).
Foreign Operators of U.S. Registered Aircraft En-
gaged in Common Carriage
This part has a large number of regulations to ensure
Part 133 Rotorcraft External-Load Operations airworthiness in areas such as structural loads, airframe,
performance, stability, controllability, and safety mecha-
Part 135 Operating Requirements: Commuter and nisms, how the seats must be constructed, oxygen and air
On Demand Operations and Rules Governing Per- pressurization systems, re prevention, escape hatches,
sons on Board Such Aircraft ight management procedures, ight control communi-
cations, emergency landing procedures, and other limita-
Part 136 Commercial Air Tours and National tions, as well as testing of all the systems of the aircraft.
Parks Air Tour Management
It also determines special aspects of aircraft performance
Part 137 Agricultural Aircraft Operations such as stall speed (e.g., for single engine airplanes not
more than 61 knots), rate of climb (not less than 300
Part 139 Certication of Airports ft/min), take-o speed (not less than 1.2 x VS), and
weight of each pilot and passenger (170 lb for airplanes
Part 141 Flight Schools in the normal and commuter categories, and 190 lb for
airplanes in the acrobatic and utility categories).
Part 142 Training Centers
The Cessna 177, Cirrus SR20 and Piper PA-34 Seneca
Part 145 Repair Stations are well-known airplanes types that were certicated to
FAR Part 23.
Part 147 Aviation Maintenance Technicians Most of the Federal Aviation Regulations, including Part
Schools 23, commenced on February 1, 1965. Prior to that date,
airworthiness standards for airplanes in the normal, util-
Part 183 Representatives of The Administrator
ity and acrobatic categories were promulgated in Part 3
of the US Civil Air Regulations. Many well-known types
7.2.2 Regulations of interest of light airplane are type certicated to CAR Part 3, even
though they remained in production after 1965. For ex-
The FARs are divided into tens of thousands of sepa- ample, the Cessna 150 and Piper Cherokee are type cer-
rate sections, many of which have large numbers of re- ticated to CAR Part 3.
searchers using them on any given day. A few of the reg- The FAA is proposing to institute a new system of
ulations particularly interesting to laypersons, relevant to performance-based airworthiness standards instead of
current political issues, or of historical interest are listed the current prescriptive design requirements. The current
below. weight and propulsion classications of small airplane
94 CHAPTER 7. AVIATION BEST PRACTICES AND TRAINING
regulations could be replaced by performance and risk- more passengers are type certied in this part. Rotorcraft
based standards for aircraft weighing less than 19,000 with more than 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) maximum takeo
pounds and seating 19 or fewer passengers.[4] weight must be certied to additional Category A stan-
dards dened in this part.
Part 25
Part 91
This part contains airworthiness standards for airplanes in
the transport category. Section 91.3(b) This regulation states that the pilot-in-
command is the party directly responsible for, and is the
Transport category airplanes are either:
nal authority as to, an aircraft being operated.
Jets with 10 or more seats or a maximum takeo Additionally, this regulation states that in an emergency
weight (MTOW) greater than 12,500 pounds (5,670 requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command may
kg); or deviate from any regulation contained within Part 91 to
the extent required to handle the emergency.
Propeller-driven airplanes with greater than 19 seats
or a MTOW greater than 19,000 pounds (8,618 kg).
not only the airport Air Force One is using but nearby air-
aviation are far more intensive than those for general avi-
ports as well.[9] Others, including the Transportation Se-ation, and specic training is required. Hence, ights are
curity Administration, argue that they are necessary for often referred to as Part XX operations, to specify which
national security.[10] one of the dierent sets of rules applies in a particular
The responsibility for screening requests for TFR and for case. Also, ight schools will often designate themselves
subsequent granting or denying them, lies with the FAAs as Part 61 or Part 141 to distinguish between dierent
Oce of System Operations Security.[11] levels of training and dierent study programs they could
oer to the students.
Part 61 is certication for all pilots, ight instructors, and
Two-way radio communications failure Section ground instructors.
91.185 of the Federal Aviation Restrictions deals with
loss of radio communications while in ight. If a loss Part 63 is certication for ight crewmembers other than
of radio communications were to be encountered during pilots; such as ight engineers and ight navigators.
VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered Part 65 is certication for airmen other than ight
after loss of communication with the ground and other crewmembers; such as Air Trac Control Tower Oper-
aircraft, the pilot of the aircraft shall continue the ight ators, Aircraft Dispatchers, Mechanics, Repairmen and
under VFR and land as soon as practicable. If, however, Parachute Riggers.
the failure occurs in IFR conditions and/or the VFR con-
Part 91 is general operating rules for all aircraft. Gen-
ditions are not forthcoming, the pilot should continue un-
eral aviation ights are conducted under this part. Part
der the following conditions:
91, Subpart (K) prescribes operating rules for fractional
ownership programs.
Route The pilot will follow:
Part 117 species ight and duty-time limitations and
rest requirements for ightcrew members.
The route assigned in the last
contact with ATC before loss Part 121 is scheduled air carrier (airliners).
of communication, or, if being Part 133 is external load (helicopter) operations.
radar vectored, continue direct
to the radar x specied in the Part 135 is a set of rules with more stringent standards
vector clearance; for commuter and on-demand operations.
In the absence of an assigned Part 141 is a more structured method for pilot training,
route, the pilot will follow the based on FAA syllabus and other standards.
route advised by ATC;
In the absence of an ATC as- Maintenance
signed or advised route, the
pilot will follow the route set Part 21 is certication procedures for products and parts.
down in the ight plan.
Part 39 are airworthiness directives.
Altitude The pilot will continue at the Part 43 is maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuild-
highest of the following altitudes or ight ing, and alteration.
levels: Part 145 contains the rules a certicated repair station
must follow as well as any person who holds, or is required
The altitude assigned in the to hold, a repair station certicate issued under this part.
last contact with ATC before
loss of communication;
The minimum altitude for IFR Charter
operations;
Part 380 applies to Public Charter air transportation
The altitude advised by ATC
of passengers in interstate or foreign air transportation;
to be expected in a further
whether furnished by a certicated commuter or foreign
clearance.[12]
air carrier, or an air taxi operator, that directly engages in
the operation of aircraft; or Public Charter operators
Private, commuter, and commercial operations
7.2.3 See also
For all pilots, there is an important distinction in the parts
that address classes of ight. These parts do not distin- Airspace
guish type of aircraft, but rather type of activity done with
the aircraft. Regulations for commuter and commercial Flight permits
96 CHAPTER 7. AVIATION BEST PRACTICES AND TRAINING
Day-night average sound level [12] Federal Aviation Regulation Sec. 91.185 IFR oper-
ations: Two-way radio communications failure.. Risin-
Joint Aviation Requirements gup.com. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
National Security Area
Night aviation regulations 7.2.5 External links
Prohibited airspace Federal Aviation Administrations repository of
FARs and SFARs
Restricted airspace
14 CFR Title 14Aeronautics and Space Legal
Safety pilot
Information Institute
Special ight rules area
FAR/AIM.org Online FAR/AIM and other freely
Special use airspace available FAA documentation
7.2.4 References
[1] Overview Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR)" (PDF). FAA.gov. Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
[5] http://fsims.faa.gov/PICDetail.aspx?docId=8900.1,Vol.
4,Ch3,Sec1_SAS
Aviation Weather
8.1 Thunderstorm
Electrical storm redirects here. For other uses, see
Electrical storm (disambiguation).
TSTM redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see
Thirty Seconds to Mars.
For the Chinese play, see Thunderstorm (play).
97
98 CHAPTER 8. AVIATION WEATHER
severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phe- clouds.[7] Generally, thunderstorms require three condi-
nomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards. tions to form:
Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly in-
icted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and ash 1. Moisture
ooding caused by heavy precipitation. Stronger thun-
derstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and 2. An unstable airmass
waterspouts.
3. A lifting force (heat)
There are four types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-
cell cluster, multi-cell lines, and supercells. Super-
cell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe. All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three
Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable ver- stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and
tical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be the dissipation stage.[8] The average thunderstorm has
responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thun- a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions
derstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take
of wildres from the heat generated from the cloud-to- an average of 30 minutes.[9]
ground lightning that accompanies them. Several means
are used to study thunderstorms: weather radar, weather
stations, and video photography. Past civilizations held Cumulus stage
various myths concerning thunderstorms and their devel-
opment as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earths The rst stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or
atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture
the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and, probably, are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for
Venus. this lift can be solar illumination, where the heating of the
ground produces thermals, or where two winds converge
forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of
8.1.1 Life cycle increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools
into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at
high altitude, which appear as cumulus clouds. As the
water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released,
which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than
the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an
updraft through the process of convection (hence the term
convective precipitation). This process creates a low-
pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunder-
storm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 mil-
lion kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the Earths
atmosphere.[10]
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warmer air
rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom[3]
(this eect can be seen with a hot air balloon).[4] Clouds
form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises
within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so,
it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air
condenses.[5] When the moisture condenses, it releases
energy known as latent heat of vaporization, which al- Anvil-shaped thundercloud in the mature stage over Swifts Creek,
lows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler Victoria
surrounding air[6] continuing the clouds ascension. If
enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this pro- In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air
cess will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air
to form and produce lightning and thunder. Meteoro- and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the tropopause.
logical indices such as convective available potential en- The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a
ergy (CAPE) and the lifted index can be used to assist characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is called
in determining potential upward vertical development of cumulonimbus incus. The water droplets coalesce into
8.1. THUNDERSTORM 99
larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice par- 8.1.2 Classication
ticles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If the
updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long
enough to become so large that they do not melt com-
pletely but fall as hail. While updrafts are still present,
the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creat-
ing downdrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of
both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage
of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. Dur-
ing this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur
within, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning,
and even tornadoes.[11]
Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will
rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',[8] Conditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexes
but, if there is sucient change in wind speed and/or di-
rection, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft,
and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell,
stage can sustain itself for several hours.[12] multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and su-
percell. Which type forms depends on the instability and
relative wind conditions at dierent layers of the atmo-
Dissipating stage sphere ("wind shear"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in
environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20
30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines
can have longer life cycles as they form in environ-
ments of signicant vertical wind shear, normally greater
than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7
mi) of the troposphere,[15] which aids the development
of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe
weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunder-
storms, most commonly associated with large hail, high
winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values
of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the devel-
A thunderstorm in an environment with no winds to shear the opment of organized thunderstorm complexes.[16] Those
storm or blow the anvil in any one direction with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water val-
ues greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).[17] Upstream
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually re-
by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not sup- quired for the development of organized convection.[18]
port super cellular development, this stage occurs rather
quickly, approximately 2030 minutes into the life of
the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of Single-cell
the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This
phenomenon is known as a downburst. The cool air Main article: Air-mass thunderstorm
carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts o the in- This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm
ow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the with one main updraft. Also known as air-mass thun-
thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an at- derstorms, these are the typical summer thunderstorms
mosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool
as soon as they send out an outow boundary in all di- unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front
rections, which then quickly cuts o its inow of rela- from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunder-
tively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorms fur- storms, the term cell refers to each separate principal
ther growth.[13] The downdraft hitting the ground creates updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isola-
an outow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a po- tion, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop
tential hazardous condition for aircraft to y through, as an outow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm de-
a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, velopment. Such storms are rarely severe and are a re-
resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent re- sult of local atmospheric instability; hence the term air
duction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outow mass thunderstorm. When such storms have a brief pe-
boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear riod of severe weather associated with them, it is known
becomes.[14] as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly
100 CHAPTER 8. AVIATION WEATHER
Multicell lines
Supercells
8.1.4 Hazards
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by
severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While
severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and
summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud-to-ground lightning
derstorm to minimize injury and damage. during and after a storm. The American Red Cross rec-
ommends that people follow these precautions if a storm
is imminent or in progress:[80]
Preparedness
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken Take action immediately upon hearing
before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the thunder. Anyone close enough to the
form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at storm to hear thunder can be struck by
any time of the day or year).[81] Preparing a family emer- lightning.[83]
gency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm Avoid electrical appliances, including
arises quickly and unexpectedly.[82] Preparing the home corded telephones.[80] Cordless and wire-
by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can less telephones are safe to use during a
be blown over in high winds, can also signicantly reduce thunderstorm.[83]
the risk of property damage and personal injury.[83]
Close and stay away from windows and
The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United doors, as glass can become a serious haz-
States recommends several precautions that people ard in high wind.[80]
should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:[81]
Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing con-
ducts electricity.
Know the names of local counties, cities,
and towns, as these are how warnings are If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn
described.[81] on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the
vehicle and avoid touching metal.[80]
Monitor forecasts and weather condi-
tions and know whether thunderstorms
are likely in the area.[84] The NWS stopped recommending the lightning crouch
in 2008 as it doesn't provide a signicant level of pro-
Be alert for natural signs of an approach- tection and will not signicantly lower the risk of being
ing storm. killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.[84][85][86]
Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to
avoid being caught outdoors when a
storm hits).[84] 8.1.6 Frequent occurrences
Take action early so you have time to get
See also: United States rainfall climatology
to a safe place.[84]
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the
Get inside a substantial building or hard-
topped metal vehicle before threatening
weather arrives.[84]
If you hear thunder, get to the safe place
immediately.[84]
Avoid open areas like hilltops, elds, and
beaches, and don't be or be near the tallest
objects in an area when thunderstorms
are occurring.[81][84]
Don't shelter under tall or isolated trees
during thunderstorms.[84]
If in the woods, put as much dis-
tance between you and any trees during
thunderstorms.[84]
A mild thunderstorm over Niagara Falls, Ontario.
If in a group, spread out so that you
increase the chances for survivors who
could come to the aid of any victims from polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical
a lightning strike.[84] rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At
any given time approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are
occurring on Earth.[87] Kampala and Tororo in Uganda
Safety have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places
on Earth,[88] a claim also made for Singapore and Bogor
While safety and preparedness often overlap, thunder- on the Indonesian island of Java. Other cities known for
storm safety generally refers to what people should do frequent storm activity include Darwin, Caracas, Manila
106 CHAPTER 8. AVIATION WEATHER
8.1.7 Types of lightning The loud bang that is heard is the super heated air around
the lightning bolt expanding at the speed of sound. Be-
cause sound travels much more slowly than light the ash
is seen before the bang, although both occur at the same
moment.
There are several types of lightning:
8.1.12 See also [11] Pilots Web The Aviators Journal (2009-06-13).
Structural Icing in VMC. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
Barbers pole
[12] Jon W. Zeitler & Matthew J. Bunkers (March 2005).
Continuous gusts Operational Forecasting of Supercell Motion: Re-
view and Case Studies Using Multiple Datasets (PDF).
Convective storm detection National Weather Service Forecast Oce, Riverton,
Wyoming. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
Hector (cloud)
[13] The Weather World 2010 Project (2009-09-03). Vertical
Severe thunderstorm warning and Severe thunder- Wind Shear. University of Illinois. Retrieved 2006-10-
storm watch 21.
Thundersnow [14] T. T. Fujita (1985). The Downburst, microburst and mac-
roburst: SMRP Research Paper 210.
Tornado warning
[15] Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Me-
Tornado watch
teorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
Training (meteorology) 2010. pp. 209.
[4] Yikne Deng (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Chi- [20] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line.
nese International Press. pp. 11213. ISBN 978-7-5085- American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-06-
0837-5. Retrieved 2009-06-18. 14.
[5] FMI (2007). Fog And Stratus Meteorological Physical [21] University of Oklahoma (2004). The Norwegian Cy-
Background. Zentralanstalt fr Meteorologie und Geo- clone Model (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF)
dynamik. Retrieved 2009-02-07. on September 1, 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
[6] Chris C. Mooney (2007). Storm world: hurricanes, poli- [22] Oce of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology
tics, and the battle over global warming. Houghton Miin (2008). Chapter 2: Denitions (PDF). NOAA. pp. 2
Harcourt. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-15-101287-9. Retrieved 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-05-06. Re-
2009-08-31. trieved 2009-05-03.
[7] David O. Blanchard (September 1998). Assess- [23] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Bow echo. American
ing the Vertical Distribution of Convective Avail- Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
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American Meteorological Society. 13 (3): 870 [24] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Line echo wave pattern.
7. Bibcode:1998WtFor..13..870B. doi:10.1175/1520- American Meteorological Society. ISBN 1-878220-34-9.
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Lightning and Its Hazards. Hughston Sports Medicine
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Retrieved 2008-03-23. P2.13 Florida lightning deaths and injuries 20042007.
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[40] Lance F. Bosart & Thomas J. Galarneau, Jr. (2005). ogy. Springer. p. 401. ISBN 978-1-4020-3264-6. Re-
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Meteorological Society Coastal Meteorology Conference. [56] Dongxia Liu; Guili Feng & Shujun Wu (Febru-
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[57] Damir Poakal; eljko Veenaj & Janez talec [73] National Weather Service. Flood Products: What Do
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inuence of orography. Atmospheric Research. [74] National Weather Service. Flash Flood. NOAA. Re-
93 (13): 516. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..93..516P. trieved 23 August 2011.
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[75] National Weather Service Forecast Oce Columbia,
[58] Rene Munoz (2000-06-02). Fact Sheet on Hail. Uni- South Carolina (2009-01-27). Downbursts.... National
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2009-07-18. 2009-09-09.
[59] Nolan J. Doesken (April 1994). Hail, Hail, Hail ! The [76] Suphioglu C. Thunderstorm Asthma Due to Grass Pollen.
Summertime Hazard of Eastern Colorado (PDF). Col- Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1998;116:253260. doi:10.
orado Climate. 17 (7). Retrieved 2009-07-18. 1159/000023953
[64] Renno, Nilton O. (August 2008). A thermodynam- [80] American Red Cross. Thunderstorm Safety Checklist
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Tellus A. 60 (4): 68899. Bibcode:2008TellA..60..688R. [81] National Weather Service Weather Forecast Oce.
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x. Thunderstorm. Severe Weather Preparedness Informa-
[65] Edwards, Roger (2006-04-04). The Online Tornado tion. Albuquerque, NM: NOAA. Retrieved 24 August
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[90] David Roth. Unied Surface Analysis Manual (PDF). [108] Kerr, Richard A. (2000). Deep, Moist Heat Drives
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2006- Jovian Weather. Science. 287 (5455): 946947.
10-22. doi:10.1126/science.287.5455.946b. Retrieved 2007-02-
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[91] Oce of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (2001-
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[92] Bill Giles O.B.E (2004-09-01). Lightning. BBC.
Archived from the original on March 23, 2008. Retrieved
2008-06-29. 8.1.14 Further reading
[93] Goddard Space Flight Center (2003-01-14). Lightning Burgess, D. W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R.
really does hit more than twice. National Aeronautics Desrochers, 1993: Tornado detection and warning
and Space Administration. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics,
[94] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Ball Lightning. Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No.
American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-09- 79, American Geophysical Union, 203221.
09.
Cordi, S. F., 1998: Forecasting MCS mode and mo-
[95] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Lightning. American tion. Preprints 19th Conf. on Severe Local Storms,
Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-09-09. American Meteorological Society, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, pp. 626629.
[96] Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Heat Lightning.
American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2009-09- Davies, J. M., 2004: Estimations of CIN and LFC
09. associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells.
Weather Forecast., 19, 714726.
[97] Garner, Rob (26 June 2015). Fermi Catches Antimatter-
Hurling Storms. nasa.gov. Retrieved 19 July 2016. Davies, J. M., and R. H. Johns, 1993: Some wind
and instability parameters associated with strong and
[98] Ouellette, Jennifer (January 13, 2011). Fermi Spots An-
timatter in Thunderstorms. Discovery News. Retrieved
violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear
16 January 2011. magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynam-
ics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.),
[99] Alan Moller (2003-03-05). Storm Chase Ethics. Re- Geophysical Monograph 79, American Geophysical
trieved 2009-09-09. Union, 573582.
[100] Florida Institute of Technology (2009-06-02). Scientists David, C. L. 1973: An objective of estimating the
use high-energy particles from space to probe thunder- probability of severe thunderstorms. Preprint Eight
storms. Retrieved 2009-09-09. conference of Severe Local Storms. Denver, Col-
orado, American Meteorological Society, 223225.
[101] VORTEX2 (2009). What is VORTEX2?". Retrieved
2009-09-09. Doswell, C.A., III, D. V. Baker, and C. A. Liles,
[102] Peter P. Neilley & R. B. Bent (2009). An Overview
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Doswell, C.A., III, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns
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(1993): Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tor-
[103] Obsidians Lair (2008-06-11). A Haudenosaunee Pan- nado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Haz-
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79, American Geophysical Union, 557571.
[104] John D. Cox (2002). Storm Watchers. John Wiley & Sons,
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1993: Some wind and instability parameters asso-
[105] Martin Luther. Christian History. Retrieved 6 July ciated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II:
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Variations in the combinations of wind and instabil-
[106] Elkins-Tanton, Linda T. (2006). Jupiter and Saturn. New ity parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynam-
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[107] Watanabe, Susan, ed. (February 25, 2006). Surprising
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112 CHAPTER 8. AVIATION WEATHER
J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson, Atmospheric Ther- the crosswind component perpendicular to the for-
modynamics, published by D. Reidel Publishing mer.
Company, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1973
A vehicle behaves as though it is directly experiencing
M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers, Short Course
a lateral eect of the magnitude of the crosswind com-
in Cloud Physics, Third Edition, published by
ponent only. The crosswind component is computed by
Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, EAN
multiplying the wind speed by the sine of the angle be-
9780750632157 ISBN 0-7506-3215-1
tween the wind and the direction of travel while the head-
wind component is computed in the same manner, using
8.1.15 External links cosine instead of sine. For example, a 10 knot wind com-
ing at 45 degrees from either side will have a crosswind
Anatomy of a thunderstorm component of 10 knots sin(45) and a head/tailwind
component of 10 knots cos(45), both equals to 7.07
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology knots.
Air trac control display at an airport of aircraft To determine the crosswind component in aviation, avi-
avoiding thunderstorm ators frequently refer to a nomograph chart on which the
wind speed and angle are plotted, and the crosswind com-
ponent is read from a reference line. Direction of travel
8.2 Crosswind relative to the wind may be left or right, up or down, or
oblique.[1]
For other uses, see Crosswinds (disambiguation).
A crosswind is any wind that has a perpendicular com- 8.2.2 Impact
When winds are not parallel to or directly with/against In aviation, a crosswind is the component of wind that
the line of travel, the wind is said to have a crosswindis blowing across the runway, making landings and take-
component; that is, the force can be separated into two os more dicult than if the wind were blowing straight
vector components: down the runway. If a crosswind is strong enough, it can
damage an aircrafts undercarriage upon landing. Cross-
the headwind or tailwind component in the direction winds, sometimes abbreviated as X/WIND, are reported
of motion, in knots, abbreviated kt, and often use the plural form
8.2. CROSSWIND 113
Air navigation
E6B
Tacking (sailing)
Crosswind stabilization
8.2.4 References
[1] Miles L. Loyd. Crosswind Kite Power (pdf). Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.
9.1 Text
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JWNoctis, Capt burhaan, Madi125, Jianhui68, UY Scuti, N0n3up, Xyzdef, Mikhat, Monkbot, Patient Zero, Theoryofman, Trackteur,
Zachtheboss902, Solimp, Project manager awery, Jshade123, Snabbkae, Delfont, Kourousis, James.bennett.russell, Prinsgezinde, Kas-
parBot, CLCStudent, Pilot2019, InternetArchiveBot, FishsticksAreLife123, FishsticksAreLife13, Zynal.nabi, GreenC bot, Fishsticks13,
Gulumeemee, JamestheAviator, SkyEye MCCIX, BACS Limited, AquaKyle10, SuperSainGouku, Tompop888, Pikabeehappy, DylanFuj,
Xianyunjushi and Anonymous: 455
Aviation history Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation?oldid=786268988 Contributors: Derek Ross, XJaM, Christo-
pher Mahan, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Heron, GrahamN, Hephaestos, Olivier, Lisiate, Rbrwr, Frecklefoot, Infrogmation, Qwitchibo,
114
9.1. TEXT 115
Liftarn, Tannin, Dramatic, Paddu, (, Arpingstone, Paul A, Tiles, Blimpguy, Looxix~enwiki, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, G-Man,
Notheruser, Rlandmann, Mark Foskey, , Mihai~enwiki, Bogdangiusca, Jiang, Astudent, Cherkash, Smack, GRAHAMUK,
Beachey, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Audin, Wik, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Grendelkhan, Thue, Opus33, Pollinator, Lumos3, Rad-
icalBender, Mrdice, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Tlogmer, Chris 73, RedWolf, Nurg, Chris Roy, Academic Challenger, Wikibot, Rsduhamel,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Alan Liefting, Kurohone, Greyengine5, Wolfkeeper, Dissident, Theon~enwiki, Curps, Zinnmann, Avsa, Per Honor
et Gloria, Saaga, Solipsist, Matthead, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Neilc, K7jeb, Gadum, SarekOfVulcan, Yath, HorsePunchKid, Beland, Van-
ished user 1234567890, Mukerjee, 1297, Rlquall, Thincat, Sam Hocevar, Clemwang, Trevor MacInnis, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
FranksValli, Regebro, Dpm64, IlyaHaykinson, Martpol, Shellbell, Bender235, ESkog, Brian0918, CanisRufus, El C, Bikeal, Rgdboer,
Bobo192, Mdd, Alansohn, AnnaP, Guy Harris, Denniss, Snowolf, GeorgeStepanek, Wtshymanski, Edgr, Kusma, Gene Nygaard, Tobyc75,
Akuchling, A D Monroe III, Velho, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, LOL, Jpers36, Polyparadigm, JBellis, Chochopk, Fred J, Tabletop, HollyI,
Paullb, Stefanomione, Wgmleslie, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Jmcc150, Swerveut, Stilgar135, ElKevbo, The wub, Daderot, Latka,
Ysangkok, Themanwithoutapast, Flowerparty, Leslie Mateus, DrGeoduck, Ahunt, No Swan So Fine, Matt314, MoRsE, VolatileChemi-
cal, RobertWalden, Mollyclare, JarrahTree, RadioFan, Van der Hoorn, Mythsearcher, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Wimt, GeeJo, Marcus
Cyron, David R. Ingham, Herbertxu, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Dialectric, Grafen, Thiseye, Jpbowen, Quadbox, Syrthiss, Gadget850, Dead-
EyeArrow, Mareklug, Spute, Eurosong, Sandstein, Canadia, Michael32710, Acer, Vicarious, Fram, Airodyssey, David Biddulph, Guinness
man, Allens, Katieh5584, robot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc Lacoste, CRKingston, Jagged 85, Fsamuels, Ifnord, Kjb, Can-
thusus, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Durova, Chris the speller, Autarch, MK8, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Grimhelm, Wuapinmon,
RayAYang, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Trekphiler, AussieLegend, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Ww2censor, Greenshed, Napalm Llama,
Ma.rkus.nl, The PIPE, DMacks, Mion, Wilt, Will Beback, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, Khazar, Loodog, MilborneOne, AB, Minna Sora no
Shita, RandomCritic, Optakeover, Geologyguy, MAG1, Graufbold, Saxbryn, EmissaryMark, Iridescent, JoeBot, Skapur, J Di, CapitalR,
Courcelles, ChrisCork, INkubusse, CmdrObot, The Font, Dgw, Donaldd23, Ballista, Todowd, Ken Gallager, Yaris678, Slazenger, Cyde-
bot, Grahamec, Bilko2, Phil in the 818, Kazubon~enwiki, Doug Weller, Teratornis, DonFB, Kozuch, Aditya Kabir, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
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dom Passer-by, Spellcast, VolkovBot, ABF, Macedonian, Leebo, JohnBlackburne, AlnoktaBOT, Gene Hobbs, Chienlit, Maxtremus, Sdsds,
Plenumchamber~enwiki, Moogwrench, Soundofmusicals, Tsarevna, Econterms, Natg 19, Michaeldsuarez, LanceBarber, Sevela.p, OLMu-
seum, Monty845, Magmarch, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Restre419, Tiddly Tom, BotMultichill, Sukram60, Yintan, Revent, Bentogoa, The-
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cospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Wk muriithi, Autiger, Jovrtn, Bender235, Sc147, Ylee, Jaques O. Carvalho, MBisanz, Neil
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man, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Camw, PoccilScript, Twinjalanugraha, Tboersma, Commander Keane, JeremyA, Ardfern, Kelisi, Dmol,
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9.1. TEXT 117
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Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, User name two, Alonso de Mendoza, Just a guy from the KP, Full-date unlinking bot, DocYako,
Zonglowe, Thevstyle, Diannaa, WikiTome, AddThreeAndFive, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Altes2009, DexDor, Samdacruel, DASH-
Bot, GoingBatty, Dcirovic, ZroBot, H3llBot, Quite vivid blur, Grampion76, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Joefromrandb, Primergrey,
Braincricket, Calabe1992, Chorobek, Gob Lofa, Mark Arsten, Jeancey, ProudIrishAspie, DA - DP, Dexbot, Dissident93, XXzoon-
amiXX, F4uids, Numbermaniac, Jwelter2, Jamesmcmahon0, A Certain Lack of Grandeur, Finnusertop, WPGA2345, MrMixtureMan,
Barjimoa, Monkbot, American Starkiller, Moiz Rafay, Atvica, KasparBot, JudgeDfg, MBlaze Lightning, InternetArchiveBot, Curro2,
Nani1992, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Linesman75 and Anonymous: 186
Air trac control Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control?oldid=789654506 Contributors: Ed Poor, SimonP, Anto-
nioMartin, Patrick, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, Voidvector, Mdupont, Arpingstone, Pcb21, CesarB, CatherineMunro, Glenn, Jschwa1,
Evercat, Cherkash, Ghewgill, Lommer, GRAHAMUK, Hashar, Darkov, Novum, RodC, Alexs, WhisperToMe, Maximus Rex, SEWilco,
Francs2000, Denelson83, Robbot, Murray Langton, AlainV, JoelKatz, Altenmann, Stephan Schulz, Modulatum, Syclop, Nilmerg, He-
manshu, Hadal, Isopropyl, Buster2058, Wiko~enwiki, Nikita Borisov~enwiki, Allstar86, Bobblewik, Alexf, Kiesi~enwiki, Beland, Vina,
Iphoting, SimonLyall, Sam Hocevar, Huaiwei, Mr Smoke, Johnwalton, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, DmitryKo, Mormegil, Archer3, Solitude,
Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Sladen, Marsian~enwiki, Dpm64, Andrewferrier, Michael Zimmermann, Mani1, Bender235, CanisRufus,
Bobo192, Spalding, Stesmo, R. S. Shaw, Dbchip, Kierano, Krellis, Mareino, Espoo, Yvh11a, Wtmitchell, Juan Toledo, BDD, Mattbrundage,
GiovanniS, Dan100, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Lkinkade, Novacatz, Woohookitty, LrdChaos, Twinjalanugraha, Jpers36, Yuriybrisk, Fre-
plySpang, JIP, Josh Parris, Kotukunui, Rjwilmsi, Leeyc0, TheRingess, Vegaswikian, XLerate, Mmullens, LjL, Enumclaw, SNIyer12,
FayssalF, Ground Zero, Intersoa, Ysangkok, Jgvanzandt, Gparker, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Leslie Mateus, Timo Kouwenhoven, Ahunt,
Chobot, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Jtkiefer, Ikar.us, Thoreaulylazy, CambridgeBayWeather, Schoen, Rsrikanth05,
Nicke L, Bullzeye, Jdvh, Teutsch, Cleared as led, Adam Rock, Voidxor, BOT-Superzerocool, Vlad, Bayerischermann, Rpvdk, Arthur
Rubin, Rhallanger, Streltzer, LeonardoRob0t, Crid, AGToth, Meegs, Paul Erik, SmackBot, Reedy, Rsiano, Verne Equinox, Michaelfavor,
Matthuxtable, Zyxw, Eskimbot, Nil Einne, SmartGuy Old, Hmains, Chris the speller, Lovecz, Bluebot, Agateller, Stevotower, Ksenon,
Asleitz, Rolypolyman, DHN-bot~enwiki, Zsinj, Gvjekoslav, DanielES15, Init~enwiki, Normxxx, Thomaslau~enwiki, Flyguy649, Base-
TurnComplete, Sanjeev Kumar Gupta, Pacman5, Zeamays, Phydeaux, Swatjester, Dr. Sunglasses, Khazar, J 1982, NewTestLeper79,
Spikydan1, Justinbrett, Romanticcynic, Andrwsc, Tbeddab, Iridescent, J Di, Natrajdr, Oobyduby, SkyWalker, CmdrObot, Van hels-
ing, Crimson Observer, Harej bot, Bill.albing, Cahk, Cnvi, UncleBubba, Meno25, Crowish, DarkoS, Flymeoutofhere, Torc2, M.S.K.,
Thijs!bot, Epbr123, 24fan24, Headbomb, Marek69, Bamseh~enwiki, Philip.t.day, Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, Seaphoto, Quite-
Unusual, TtK, RBaldorn, Robbbb, Roothog, Blair Bonnett, JAnDbot, MER-C, Hut 8.5, Imansola, Azunprinzess, Exerda, Canjth, Nyq,
Jetstreamer, Huseyx2, Mtd2006, BilCat, Gomm, KenT, Arrowyer72, Inspector Baynes, Drewmutt, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Ash,
Charles T. Victorian, J.delanoy, Thenoyzone, TomCat4680, Bot-Schafter, SinWin, Dhaluza, STBotD, Homer Landskirty, Frenz 69,
Izno, JohnDoe0007, The Little Internet Kitty, Fuzzygenius, VolkovBot, Itsfullofstars, AlnoktaBOT, Srilm, Gdowens, Philip Trueman,
Matth matth, SteveClement, Rei-bot, Higgs11927, Dictouray, BDantas, Micken, J bag, DiQinaBox, Whick16, Roguebwing, Romeotango,
Wykypydya, Enigmaman, Sumoaltus, Guru Cube, Hptschupp, WereSpielChequers, Danielson8181, ToePeu.bot, Jauerback, Polarbear70,
Quest for Truth, A. Carty, Oda Mari, Prince.Paul.K, Allmightyduck, Aduelluk, Vmrgrsergr, Lightmouse, Geographyprof, OKBot, An-
chor Link Bot, Baggj, Markrw, ImageRemovalBot, Mx. Granger, MenoBot, Martarius, ClueBot, Robomanx, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Micha Sobkowski, Sv1xv, Sumboy1088, Jbronso, Romney yw, Tgruwell, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Kimsil, MikeP996, XLinkBot,
Fastily, Nathan Johnson, Kc7jfv, Sierrabravo1984, HappyJake, SilvonenBot, Dgtsyb, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Phlegm Rooster, Gpb7700,
Tern stein, Gregouille, MrOllie, Download, SoSaysChappy, Glane23, Doniago, Lightbot, A300st, Bermicourt, Legobot, Comanche82,
Yobot, Qwerty1746, Mmxx, Edmedmoped, JayLink1971, Againme, Tempodivalse, Gandolni~enwiki, Mariiwakura, Uscumlic, Rubin-
bot, Galoubet, Materialscientist, Jcs45, RobertEves92, Citation bot, GB fan, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Werner65, Greghm, Ajpralston1,
Joshuakester, Citrusmangler, Chongkian, Abuk SABUK, Nameless23, Atco, Klausschulze, Nicozica, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Gcalis,
Mr.Fickles, PrairieOjibway, Mdtownes, PigFlu Oink, I dream of horses, LittleWink, A8UDI, Hoo man, Yos233, Plane Person, Trap-
pist the monk, Padrulez, FFM784, Lotje, Tofutwitch11, Realatc, Jross.hfdesign, Reaper Eternal, Nursebootsy, Grampjet, RjwilmsiBot,
Dsantiago1997, DexDor, Beyond My Ken, DASHBot, TGCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, Blayvas, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, ST2803,
Kasturi srinivasan, DolphinBGG, Slightsmile, FlugKerl, Dcirovic, AvicBot, ZroBot, Josve05a, Wackywace, Adityanandipinta, Lyncs,
L Kensington, A gorilla goes to the fair, BioPupil, CharlieEchoTango, Bugnap, Rocketrod1960, Diamondland, ClueBot NG, Catlemur,
Committed Identity, Braincricket, Atcgod, Chillllls, Hassan Hamdan, Olepstorstad, Unitedstates1000, Northamerica1000, Academy633,
Frze, Aimanleo92, Wim Bladt, WernerSchoeman, Saa.caas, Minsbot, BattyBot, Yavor18, Mblally, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Licocavok, Cay-
boquist, Jemappelleungarcon, Sriharsh1234, Flazaza, Eschuh12, Stevo3047, Babitaarora, Pushback approved, Finnusertop, Hjay50, Oct-
moussa, Henry3898383, Param Mudgal, SmackoVector, Nutjaru, Boonstis, Fattymatty15, Dontcallmeshirley, Filedelinkerbot, Meliscar,
DellLenovoHaier, Spacegirl99, Fleivium, Carlo Dani, IOS314, Tybomb124, KasparBot, JebKeb, SDEMVA, Pdfspath, Lbrown110, MB,
UA535, Welshwizzard-71, CLCStudent, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, John Hannibal Smith, Bender the Bot, Redrobo09, Nourhan
Mahmoud and Anonymous: 464
Environmental impact of aviation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation?oldid=786424297 Contrib-
utors: Kku, IceKarma, Raul654, Phil Boswell, UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, Matthew Stannard, Pgan002, Andycjp, Dan aka jack, Nickptar,
Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Tirin, Max Naylor, Uncle G, Rtdrury, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, DVdm, Bgwhite, Wave-
length, Arado, Splette, Gaius Cornelius, Alarichall, Epipelagic, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc
Lacoste, Verne Equinox, KVDP, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Shalom Yechiel, Ecozeppelin, BrownHairedGirl, John, Vgy7ujm, J 1982,
MilborneOne, Peterlewis, Dl2000, Quartz1, Mctorres, Neelix, DShantz, Cydebot, Wakeyjamie, Rieman 82, Mercury624, Hebrides,
Cimbalom, Headbomb, Mmcknight4, D.Wardle, Hydro, OhanaUnited, MaxPont, Swpb, Indon, A3nm, Gomm, Hans Dunkelberg, Shawn
in Montreal, KylieTastic, DASonnenfeld, Funandtrvl, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Imme5150, Insanity Incarnate, Saneeta, Jrun,
Flyer22 Reborn, Factotem, Kpaynter, Msrasnw, Dolphin51, Mrfebruary, BSABill, ClueBot, Watti Renew, Moreau1, Djk3, Nathan John-
son, Addbot, DOI bot, Ronhjones, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Trapiella, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Quebec99,
MauritsBot, Xqbot, MerlLinkBot, FrescoBot, Menwith, Brodmont, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Serols, Plane
Person, Reelx09, Irt78, Robvanvee, GregKaye, Diannaa, Wiking, John of Reading, Lorast, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil, Tommy2010, Dcirovic,
H3llBot, Petrb, Mercury miner, ClueBot NG, Barton Campbell, Coastwise, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Denovoid, BG19bot,
NewsAndEventsGuy, Andol, Marcocapelle, CeraBot, ChrisGualtieri, MKR125188, Peterbircak, Dexbot, Pintoch, SambarnardODI, Mel-
onkelon, Sosthenes12, Mr Imicplatetarium, Aqualily6, Monkbot, Ziraios, TerryAlex, Izkala, Rubbish computer, BU Rob13, Jamesimo24,
InternetArchiveBot, Mike4ebooks, RobbieIanMorrison, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 111
118 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Aviator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_pilot?oldid=788833983 Contributors: Mav, Robert Merkel, Deb, SimonP, Im-
ran, Olivier, AntonioMartin, Infrogmation, Zocky, Tannin, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Gbleem, Arpingstone, SebastianHelm, Blimpguy,
Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Suisui, EdH, Palmpilot900, Hashar, Jay, DJ Clayworth, Pearson james, Wernher, Camerong, Cluth,
Shantavira, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Ray Radlein, Donreed, Jondel, Wikibot, Xanzzibar, Sina~enwiki, Jyril, Cobaltbluetony, Netoholic, Ice-
berg3k, Marlonbraga, Bobblewik, Ray Trygstad, DavidBrooks, Xmnemonic, LiDaobing, Margana, Adamsan, Husnock, Bodnotbod, Karl-
Henner, Joyous!, Sonett72, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, N328KF, Monkeyman, Imroy, Xezbeth, Martpol, Bender235, Holford, SpaceGhost,
CanisRufus, Indiver, Keno, Tronno, Nk, Captain433180, Alansohn, Moanzhu, Carbon Caryatid, Lectonar, Milesli, Deacon of Pndapet-
zim, Drat, BDD, Richard Weil, Smoth 007, JeTK, Alvis, Woohookitty, Katyare, RHaworth, Twinjalanugraha, James Kemp, Commander
Keane, Zzyzx11, Prashanthns, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Cuchullain, Kbdank71, Ketiltrout, Sj, Seidenstud, Rogerd, Jmcc150, UsagiM,
Ground Zero, Nihiltres, Coll7, Jdm, RexNL, Gurch, Ahunt, Aberwulf, Chobot, PKM, DVdm, Bgwhite, Albrozdude, Banaticus, Wave-
length, Borgx, Spotteddogsdotorg, Jlittlet, J. M., Red Slash, Lexi Marie, DanMS, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Lo-
gawi, LiamE, Tearlach, Malcolma, Ospalh, Nate1481, Northstop, BOT-Superzerocool, Vlad, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, GraemeL,
AGToth, Katieh5584, Florian Jesse, DVD R W, Yvwv, SmackBot, Looper5920, Radoslaw Ziomber, Marc Lacoste, NineEighteen, Leki,
Kilo-Lima, Jagged 85, ZS, Nil Einne, IstvanWolf, Ga, Gilliam, Algont, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Carl.bunderson, Bluebot, Suf-
jen, Nbarth, Peteve~enwiki, Il palazzo, Av8trxx, Decltype, Abmac, Kneale, Matt Whyndham, The PIPE, Bidabadi~enwiki, Ohconfucius,
Rory096, Srikeit, Hestemand, Kuru, J 1982, Mugsywwiii, Jaywubba1887, Runningfridgesrule, Nobunaga24, Ex nihil, Ace Class Shadow,
TastyPoutine, Saxbryn, Jc37, Macabe, Clarityend, LukeDouglas, Trialsanderrors, Courcelles, Bottesini, Tawkerbot2, Dave Runger, Bill-
bike, Swordman182, FleetCommand, Anakata, Flechette, CWY2190, Dgw, ShelfSkewed, John Thaxter, Eli6, Fnlayson, Jmaynard, Gogo
Dodo, Chasingsol, Chrislk02, CrazyElk, After Midnight, Voldemortuet, Greenboxed, Aldis90, Mattisse, Barticus88, Ivvan Cain, Itchi
and scratchy winners, AndrewDressel, Headbomb, Cool Blue, Consvl, Sinn, Barracuda1187, Inthe80s, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Ma-
jorly, Ozzieboy, Efyoo, BigNate37, Brendandh, Ma5k, A.M.962, Alphachimpbot, Born2ie, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Andonic, Hut 8.5,
PhilKnight, LittleOldMe, Jasrdor, Meeples, Guerrid, ZPM, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Askari Mark, Willevans9, Swpb, Whippen, De-
donite, Nyttend, Animum, SSZ, BatteryIncluded, BilCat, Spellmaster, IanUK, DerHexer, Tony in Devon, Acole5, Bobby Jim, Hdt83,
MartinBot, Lakselv, Sergey371~enwiki, Est!~enwiki, Jim.henderson, Centpacrr, JulianHensey, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Koplimek,
J.delanoy, Trusilver, Skngpunk, Arrivisto, Tntdj, Dbiel, Jasper558, Letter M, McSly, Sebwite, Oakshade, Mrkidd85, Mrg3105, Dada-
Neem, Ahuskay, Mysterious BIG, Dhaluza, Bennelliott, Infodon, Wikipeterproject, Random Passer-by, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Pcpilot12,
Deor, CWii, HJ32, Soliloquial, Oshwah, Allstargold, Ciotech, Dictouray, Captainlegg, Martin451, Topspeak, MearsMan, Sitacuisses, Gae-
tanc, Ozipozi, Adam.J.W.C., Falcon8765, AgentCDE, Sesshomaru, Koalorka, Xedatec, Tarheelathlete, MarkBolton, Liljem155, Dagadt,
Flyer22 Reborn, Ein, Jordo1489, Matt3534, Asikhi, Archtransit, Denisarona, Eyusuf, Canglesea, TSRL, MenoBot, MBK004, ClueBot,
Binksternet, Xilften, Dlworkman, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ariadacapo, Librarian2, Heltzen, Gawaxay, JIMMYLINE, Matthew-
jeans, Michaelsbaum, Nimbus227, TonyBallioni, Werdnaxonk, Lartoven, Faireldfencer, NuclearWarfare, Thingg, ChannelNewsAsiaFa-
natic, Versus22, Teleomatic, Antediluvian67, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Peter Bankss, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, WikHead, Silvonen-
Bot, WikiDao, Jwzoom, Addbot, Betterusername, Haruth, Meachly, NjardarBot, Kiiskila, Blaylockjam10, Coope08, Lightbot, Zorrobot,
Greyhood, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, 2D, Yngvadottir, Robert333, Mo7amedsalim, Twpsyn Pentref, AnomieBOT, Knuter~enwiki,
Hadden, Dakumangalsingh66, Zero108, XB70Valyrie, Materialscientist, A123a, Stronach, Neurolysis, DirlBot, Xqbot, Sketchmoose,
DKong27, Tdawson73, TechBot, Ched, BritishWatcher, Hawk820, Almabot, RibotBOT, SassoBot, 737Capt, Doulos Christos, B767-
500, Fabish Boaitey, Edgars2007, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Kierzek, Paine Ellsworth, I dream of horses, Mcmanus1992, Deltaker, AHe-
neen, B737Capt, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Carllikespie, TjBot, TGCP, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Wikiaeroskytech, HTVictor, NoisyJinx,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Darkght, Beach Port, Rijels, 1cheddarosten1, Ida Shaw, Shuipzv3, Bluegreenpea, Hamdun Zadi, Azlewis, H3llBot,
Kilopi, Brandmeister, Donner60, Neil P. Quinn, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Vorno, SusikMkr, Wingtipvortex, Snotbot, Coru-
sant, Alpha7248, Antiqueight, 24 moto, Chickentime, BG19bot, Jay8g, OttawaAC, Pitaboi, David.moreno72, AllThingsThatInvolveAir,
Jeasmeane, XXzoonamiXX, PauloMSimoes, RMCD bot, Capt Sami, William2001, AmaryllisGardener, The Giant Purple Platypus, Dan-
pimlott97, Jwratner1, Elaqueate, Loopy30, BethNaught, Raman2511, Halfhat, NamSor Onomastics, Willhesucceed, Lilgeld, KasparBot,
Mizz mizzi, My Chemistry romantic, Mmiddei4, HeatherPopeTurner, Omni Flames, KGirlTrucker81, El cid, el campeador, Skirts89,
AFBoomer, Hello6927, TwentyOneWiki and Anonymous: 467
tarium, Mark James Holland, Pedatomic (c)., Kinostl, Filedelinkerbot, Andymii, Joey1niner, Wynnster8, Kourousis, ChengrongHe, Jkorb,
Yliu929, InternetArchiveBot, BananaCarrot152, Eno Lirpa, GreenC bot, Hyperdraco, Bender the Bot, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
258
Federal Aviation Regulations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Regulations?oldid=788538640 Contributors:
Justfred, Ellmist, Cherkash, Rrostie, Hadal, Stevei, Scott Wilson, Neilc, Beland, DavidNorris, Rich Farmbrough, Eric Shalov, Giraedata,
PaulHanson, Lectonar, Woohookitty, Miketwo, 051150, Vegaswikian, Margosbot~enwiki, Ahunt, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Milena
Popovic, CambridgeBayWeather, Cleared as led, Voidxor, Tony1, Evrik, CLW, Marc Lacoste, Direktorxxx, Agateller, DMacks, Alan.ca,
Eastlaw, Yeehaw, Altaphon, Hervegirod, Mereda, Alphachimpbot, Guerrid, Froid, ORLANDO, Nono64, RightSideNov, Bodybagger,
SieBot, Chamblyen, Happysailor, Lightmouse, Dolphin51, Joedoedoe, Drewinfo, Freenaulij, LeheckaG, WikHead, Lightbot, Legobot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Efa, Materialscientist, Bihco, Omnipaedista, Thehelpfulbot, HamburgerRadio, Jakestew, DexDor, Cybergothiche,
AeroPsico, Brankopilic, BattyBot, Joewalko, Cyberbot II, Jtamblyn, Garret.healy, T.Verron, Sam.gov, Katie Henry, Coisabh, Tschantzcc,
GreenC bot, EdRehr, A33321654, Bender the Bot, Mark The Droner and Anonymous: 72
Thunderstorm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm?oldid=788331433 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen,
The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, -- April, Scipius, SimonP, Luckymama58, Frecklefoot, Ubiquity, Lir, Michael Hardy, Fuzzie, Gabbe, Ixfd64,
Arpingstone, SebastianHelm, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Djaquay, Julesd, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Hike395, RadarCzar, Emperorbma, Ike9898,
Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Jerey Smith, Samsara, Metasquares, Slawojarek, Cornellier, Cedars, Timvasquez, MPF, Gtrmp, Wonder al,
SwissMoomin, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Kpalion, Utcursch, Beland, OverlordQ, Herrick~enwiki, Johnwalton, Famartin, Mike Rosoft,
Discospinster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Edibobb, Smyth, Xezbeth, GregBenson, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd,
JoeSmack, El C, Edward Z. Yang, Tom, Bobo192, Grue, Fir0002, Func, Evolauxia, BrokenSegue, Cohesion, Chrisvls, MWS, Helix84,
Jakew, Alansohn, Gary, Lightdarkness, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Skatebiker, Itsmine, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, Mahanga, Shimeru, MONGO,
Hard Raspy Sci, Wayward, Icydid, Enzo Aquarius, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Wiktator, Vary, Tangotango, The
wub, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs465465, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Gordin~enwiki, Harmil, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Leslie
Mateus, Terrx, Pbulises, Srleer, DVdm, NoAccount, Kummi, Wavelength, Sceptre, Jimp, Epolk, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar,
Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Icelight, Retired username, CrazyC83, Cholmes75, Ravedave, Raven4x4x, Dbrs, DeadEyeArrow,
Psy guy, Bota47, JonathanLamb, Wknight94, Bidiot, Ageekgal, Theda, E Wing, Nemu, Dspradau, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Tim
R, Staxringold, Katieh5584, Roke, Jro660, Medicinematt, Suburbancow, Sardanaphalus, FearTec, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydro-
gen Iodide, Melchoir, NorthernFire, WilyD, Cormallen, Momoko, Jrockley, Teimu.tm, Frymaster, Ga, Xaosux, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie,
Hmains, Skizzik, Martial Law, Rmosler2100, Lovecz, Bidgee, Keegan, Sirex98, Raymond arritt, EncMstr, SchftyThree, Zinneke, Colonies
Chris, Zsinj, Dethme0w, Vulcanstar6, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Rrburke, Homestarmy, Addshore, Jmlk17, E. Sn0 =31337=, Salt Yeung,
The PIPE, Kuzaar, Jidanni, OcarinaOfTime, J 1982, This user has left wikipedia, Mgiganteus1, Scetoaux, Patau, Thegreatdr, The Man in
Question, 16@r, Pierre cb, Special-T, Burynew, Mr Stephen, Imagine Wizard, P199, Peter Horn, Laggard, KJS77, Levineps, Iridescent, The
Giant Pun, Paul venter, Tmangray, Devin122, Dragonix, Igoldste, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, The tyr3nt, Tawkerbot2, Annihilatenow,
Xcentaur, JForget, Tanthalas39, Ale jrb, BennyD, JohnCD, Kylu, NickW557, Jonathan8964, ShelfSkewed, Orca1 9904, Natasha2006,
Gogo Dodo, STV0726, ST47, Agne27, 7H3 P0WN463, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Sp, Ecarrel, Mtpaley, WxGopher, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Pajz, Ultimus, Oliver202, Headbomb, John254, Massimo Macconi, Dfrg.msc, Philippe, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, Mentisto, Super-
Cow, AntiVandalBot, Mjl72, Seaphoto, Opelio, Jj137, Wikibryce, PhJ, Danger, Spencer, Lonestar662p3, Storkk, Myanw, Skywatcher68,
Uusitunnus, JAnDbot, Kaobear, MER-C, Shorvath, Arch dude, Sophie means wisdom, TheOtherSiguy, Roleplayer, TAnthony, Alastair
Haines, Acroterion, Guerrid, Canjth, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Think outside the box, Nahog, Avicennasis, Catgut, Theroadislong,
Allstarecho, DerHexer, JaGa, Nathan Hall, Hbent, Calltech, Hdt83, MartinBot, Vicpeters, Arjun01, Lelandrb, Roastytoast, R'n'B, Com-
monsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Theonlysilentbob, Lilac Soul, Themanfromsiam, Paranomia, J.delanoy, AstroHurricane001, Nigholith,
Jesant13, 12dstring, Fleiger, Lttlalb277, Janus Shadowsong, Jeepday, Vanished User 4517, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Kraftlos, Cmichael,
KylieTastic, Cometstyles, Warlordwolf, Vanished user 39948282, Inter16, TWCarlson, WinterSpw, TheNewPhobia, Catluver101, Cardi-
nalDan, Idioma-bot, Wikieditor06, Lights, VolkovBot, Error9312, TreasuryTag, CWii, Jlaramee, Mrh30, Trex21, WarddrBOT, Aesopos,
Philip Trueman, Spurius Furius Fusus, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, AlexRampaul, Altruism, Vipinhari, Qxz, Piperh, DennyColt,
CanOfWorms, Solo1234, LeaveSleaves, Ben Ward, Saturn star, Kwb8988, BabylonClo, Spinningspark, Gangsters PeteWentz, Monty845,
Estanoir, Nye229, Yartrebo, Alexandre Bouthors, SevereIdaho, Thebisch, The Random Editor, SieBot, StAnselm, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Mr
Share, Hertz1888, Gerakibot, Yintan, Tiptoety, JD554, Fujita, Smartjason, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, KPH2293, Bagatelle, Shiragiku,
Lightmouse, Ks0stm, Dj mike89, StaticGull, Wuhwuzdat, Hamiltondaniel, Neo., Denisarona, Muhends, ImageRemovalBot, Martarius,
ClueBot, LAX, CarolSpears, The Thing That Should Not Be, Southern Illinois SKYWARN, Rjd0060, BookeWorm, Hippostud, UserDoe,
Farras Octara, Shaded0, Xenon54, Blanchardb, RafaAzevedo, Pyrolysis, Oobyer, Excirial, Gnome de plume, Jusdafax, TonyBallioni,
Erebus Morgaine, Jerry Zhang, Lartoven, Combat1019, Povertypop the 7th, JamieS93, TheRedPenOfDoom, 7&6=thirteen, Yeahbabies,
Thingg, Accas1, Aitias, Adammacia, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Dollsworth, DumZiBoT, Guppy22, Nooristani, Death
horn 5, Jax 0677, BodhisattvaBot, Quellyn, Q247, Jimmydeguara, Sickler77, WikiDao, Me, Myself, and I, Miagirljmw14, Cyclonebiskit,
Bhockey10, Bonzeemer, Addbot, L33tb0b, ConCompS, AVand, Chalkman123, Jojhutton, Albamhandae, Leszek Jaczuk, Noozgroop,
Dog1990, MrOllie, BepBot, Maslen, SamatBot, AtheWeatherman, Aktsu, Tyw7, Itfc+canes=me, Ehrenkater, Rehman, Tide rolls, Ver-
bal, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Greyhood, HerculeBot, Rakimambo, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Bunnyhop11, Tohd8BohaithuGh1,
TaBOT-zerem, KingScreamer, Naudefjbot~enwiki, Ojay123, Victoriaearle, Guy1890, Tromba206, Patriiick, KamikazeBot, Jalantucker,
IW.HG, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, AmritasyaPutra, IncidentalPoint, Jim1138, IRP, Greenbreen, AdjustShift,
Flewis, Giants27, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, S h i v a (Visnu), Sionus, Phthinosuchusisanances-
tor, Capricorn42, Matt7771, Jmundo, KrisBogdanov, Coretheapple, Danielgibsonfor3, Wuuh, Smallman12q, Arex, Sandcherry, Fres-
coBot, Originalwana, VS6507, Michael93555, Mr. Comodor, Galorr, Fgkljlgjfkjg, Ddjdjd, Citation bot 1, MarB4, Redrose64, JIK1975,
Pinethicket, Ponycide, Back dancer, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, Serols, Supportstorm, RandomStringOfCharacters, Full-date
unlinking bot, KnowledgeRequire, White Shadows, Getheren, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Gamemusicmaker, D climacus, GooseYArd,
Lotje, Callanecc, Vrenator, Joshuaxkimchi, Papizan, GGT, Smarty02, Diannaa, Mttcmbs, Titlicker, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth,
Nevin.williams, Hornlitz, Bento00, DexDor, Will research for food, Jackehammond, Regancy42, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Fishmander, Ks0alt, Tommy2010, Christlover1, Stormchaser89, Lou1986, AsceticRose, ZroBot, John
Cline, Ida Shaw, NicatronTg, The Lord of the Allosaurs, H3llBot, Scott9999999, Christina Silverman, Kilopi, MonoAV, Donner60, Epic-
stonemason, GrayFullbuster, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Jack Greenmaven, CocuBot, This lousy T-shirt, Wetassas-
sass, Sleddog116, Movses-bot, Snotbot, Frietjes, Go Phightins!, Jeroenelf, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Bcormier1234, Bibcode Bot,
Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Lexicurry, Pine, Harmonicsonic, Nochoje, TCN7JM, Christianmairdrain, S9p9a9r9k, Wiki13, Sporty-
rod, Ashley79746, IraChestereld, Zweatherboy, Altar, CitationCleanerBot, Deonking, Zedshort, Physicsch, Sarah.awesome, MeanMoth-
erJr, BattyBot, Brohnhdon, Bob1234567890bob1234567890, XXmYrAnNdAxX, Cyberbot II, Phnomnes Naturels, Arcandam, Lexter
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120 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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CurtismagnusA, Monkbot, Kinetic37, JustMeAndOnlyMe, JustThinkOfUs, Thelogoontherun, MRD2014, Iamahashtag, Julietdeltalima,
Sangdeboeuf, LolBean21, Luke49237, Mada126, Rb119, VTDK, Kiki715, Grinstorm, Ha1704, Idontcare45678, Ericgrandpre15, CAP-
TAIN RAJU, Brodie Flynn, Cactuslynx, Dcasey98, GSS-1987, Writer Mania, InternetArchiveBot, Mcina9059, TheFancyFedoraWielder,
Taylor94941, GreenC bot, Marvellous Spider-Man, Gods Godzilla, Imminent77, Wikishovel, RHPATE01, Stone4D, Marconi sparks,
Rodshark20005, Magic links bot, Tornado chaser and Anonymous: 970
Crosswind Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosswind?oldid=788302054 Contributors: Danny, Mxn, Lommer, Maximus Rex,
Kiteinthewind, Kjgn, Grutness, Hezery99, Jmcc150, SuperDude115, Armistej, Arado, Change1211, Raraa, Colonies Chris, Pierre cb,
PRRfan, Reswobslc, Thadius856, Darklilac, Kaobear, Pavlik M, Infrangible, STBot, Pleasantville, Maxtremus, Brenont, ClueBot, Unbut-
tered Parsnip, Chaosdruid, XLinkBot, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot, IRP, Innotata, Frankthomas62, John of Reading,
Bdijkstra, Reify-tech, Comatmebro, Super Nintendo Chalmers, WPGA2345 and Anonymous: 21
9.2 Images
File:14-bis_de_Alberto_Santos_Dumont.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/14-bis_de_Alberto_
Santos_Dumont.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This image is available from Gallica Digital Library under the digital ID btv1b8433366m
Original artist: Jules Beau
File:1874DuTemple.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/1874DuTemple.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Flix du Temple Original artist: Flix du Temple (1823-1890)
File:2010-07-15_B767_Delta_N1611B_EDDF_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/2010-07-15_
B767_Delta_N1611B_EDDF_02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Own work
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wo-st-01_QR-Lizenzcode.png' class='image'><img alt='Wo-st-01 QR-Lizenzcode.png'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Wo-st-01_QR-Lizenzcode.png' width='100' height='100' data-le-
width='100' data-le-height='100' /></a> Original artist:
Wo st 01 (There are 682 Pictures in my Category)
File:8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/
8402_STS41B_Challenger_Thunderstorms_over_Brazil.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/EFS/
photoinfo.pl?PHOTO=STS41B-41-2347 Original artist: NASA
File:ATL-Tower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/ATL-Tower.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 us Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: JGlover - Attribute to J. Glover, Atlanta, Georgia in any use outside of WikiMedia Foundation projects.
File:A_Vlaicu_III_02.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/A_Vlaicu_III_02.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: personal collection Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:AderAvion3(1897).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/AderAvion3%281897%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:AeroportoGuarulhos_Torre2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/AeroportoGuarulhos_Torre2.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Bruno Dantas
File:AirTraffic-8.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/AirTraffic-8.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/air_traffic/controller_staffing/images/AirTraffic-8.jpg Original artist: Work of the United
States Federal Government under the terms of 17 U.S.C. 105
File:Air_Bishkek_A320-200_EX-32002_DME_Dec_2012.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Air_
Bishkek_A320-200_EX-32002_DME_Dec_2012.png License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Air-Bishkek/
Airbus-A320-231/2209830/L/ Original artist: Nikiforov Konstantin
File:Air_Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Air_
Malta_Pre_Flight_Inspection_Airbus_A320.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kristoferb
File:Air_india.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Air_india.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Lumikus1
File:Air_traffic_heathrow.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Air_traffic_heathrow.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kierano
File:Airbus_A340_(Philippine_AL)_RP-C3438_(15656997111).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
8/89/Airbus_A340_%28Philippine_AL%29_RP-C3438_%2815656997111%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: RP-
C343827102014LHR Original artist: John Taggart from Sunbury on Thames, Middlesex
File:Airport_Oslo_Gardermoen_-_Control_tower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Airport_
Oslo_Gardermoen_-_Control_tower.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Radosaw Drodewski
(Zwiadowca21)
File:Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_(1909).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/
Alberto_Santos_Dumont_flying_the_Demoiselle_%281909%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Joao Luiz
Musa; Marcelo Breda Mourao, Ricardo Tilklan
9.2. IMAGES 121
Credits:
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
126 CHAPTER 9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES