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Assessment of Professional Training

Programmes in International Agricultural
Research Institutions: The Case of ICRAF

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DOI: 10.1080/1389224X.2010.515064

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Assessment of Professional Training Programmes in International

Agricultural Research Institutions: The Case of ICRAF
Julliet Wanjikua; Franklin Mairurab; Frank Placec
a
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya b Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility
Institute of CIAT, Nairobi, Kenya c World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya

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 Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension
Vol. 16, No. 4, 413431, December 2010

Assessment of Professional Training

Programmes in International Agricultural
Research Institutions: The Case of ICRAF
JULLIET WANJIKU*, FRANKLIN MAIRURA$ and
FRANK PLACE$$
*International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya, $Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility
Institute of CIAT, Nairobi, Kenya, $$World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
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ABSTRACT The following survey was undertaken in 2005 to assess the effectiveness of
professional training activities in international agricultural research organizations that were
undertaken between 1999 and 2002 at ICRAF (International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry), now World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi. Trainees were randomly selected from
various professional fields in the agroforestry domain. Survey questionnaires and telephone
interviews were adopted. Descriptive statistics, logit regression, cross-tabulations and bi-plot
analysis were used to analyze the data. The Kirkpatricks training evaluation theory provided the
methodological framework for the study. Male participants were more educated and had longer
average professional experience than females. Trainees had good recollection and learning of
various aspects of the training. There was high potential for skill transfer and practical
implementation of training skills among all trainees, but lack of resources was a major limitation.
Female workers faced more constraints during workplace implementation of skills than male
workers. The study has practical implications for current and future design and evaluation of
training in agricultural domains. The work also contributes to knowledge building in training
evaluation within agricultural institutions in Africa, which is poorly documented or lacking in
certain specific settings. The paper is original because scientific evaluation of training activities in
agricultural practice in Africa is rarely or poorly documented, thus adding value to agricultural
research.

KEY WORDS: Agriculture, Agro-forestry, Capacity building, Training, Training impact

Introduction
Agroforestry is an agricultural approach of combining trees and shrubs with crops
and/or livestock. Agroforestry as a profession involves a wide range of skills, both in
the natural sciences and social sciences; as a result, its human resource base should be
well balanced in these broad aspects. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) was
established in 1978 to promote agroforestry research in developing countries, so as to
tackle poverty, environmental degradation and food security challenges in third world
countries. ICRAF joined the Consultative Group on International Agricultural

Correspondence address: Julliet Wanjiku, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box
30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya. Email: j.m.wanjiku@cgiar.org

1389-224X Print/1750-8622 Online/10/040413-19 # 2010 Wageningen University

DOI: 10.1080/1389224X.2010.515064
 414 J. Wanjiku et al.

Research (CGIAR) in 1991 to conduct strategic research on agroforestry at a global

scale. In the scientific field, agroforestry is thus a young discipline, but it is
multidisciplinary and linked with several scientific disciplines.
Training and capacity building has been an integral part of ICRAF overall
working programmes, with all units of ICRAF and collaborating institutions
contributing to training and education of stakeholders. Funded by a consortium
of donors, the training unit at ICRAF has been involved in dissemination of
information to internal staff and external ICRAF partners through short training
courses, individual training, supporting tertiary education and distance lear-
ning. The ICRAF training unit has three core operating programmes including
training, education and dissemination of information. Since the inception of ICRAF
in 1978, several training activities have been organized and a large number of
training materials and university level degree courses have been developed in
different parts of the world. Generally, in the period 19901997, over 200
practitioners were trained on an annual basis and globally, over 3000 trainees have
benefited from ICRAF training activities.
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There is however scarce knowledge and research that has been documented in
relation to evaluation of work-based training effectiveness in agricultural research
institutions in Africa. Most of the training evaluation literature including theory
and published scientific work that is available in the public domain is
predominantly of Western origin. This situation contributes to lack of knowledge,
principles and unclear practices in relation to agricultural training evaluation in
Africa.
In the history of African agricultural research institutions, scientific assessment
of professional training has been rarely implemented or effectively documented in
the public domain. Assessment of learning in training activities provides a
benchmark through which institutions could evaluate the effectiveness of training.
Lundy (2002) showed that post training follow-up helps the transition from
documented knowledge to applied and locally relevant knowledge. Despite the
methodological challenges of assessing training impact (Sharples et al., 2003;
Gardner, 2003; Bates, 2004), several other factors including, poor monitoring and
evaluation structures, lack of resources, weak policy support, and poor docu-
mentation and information systems have contributed to ineffective or non-existent
institutional evaluation systems in many sections of African institutions. As a
result, there is a major gap in agricultural research, where training evaluation
studies have not emerged strongly compared to other fields such as health,
education and psychology. There is also a wide variation and inconsistencies in
evaluation protocols, models and practices even within similar organization
groups. Due to methodological uncertainties, queries relating to past training
evaluation models have been raised by several authors (see e.g. Bates, 2004).
Consequently, it is not clear if application of external training evaluation systems
can sufficiently address the current career and institutional performance require-
ments in African agricultural research institutions. With increasingly changing
organizational structure due to global socio-economic changes (Asopa and Beye,
1997), the future make-up of work-place training practices needs to be re-
considered. In order to measure past training impact and to formulate more
effective and pragmatic training, ICRAF undertook a survey of past trainee
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 415

participants to solicit their feedback on the impact that courses have had in their
career livelihoods, several years after training, thus the focus of the current study.
The survey also aimed to determine challenges in agroforestry training and
application of skills by workers involved in the agroforestry field. If trainers,
trainees and other stakeholders possess high quality knowledge about training,
then they will be better equipped to engage fruitfully in training activities and
application of skills.
The objectives of the study were as shown below:
. To establish the relevance of past training events to individuals and institutions
in terms of capacity building and utilization in agroforestry.
. To determine whether skills and knowledge imparted during training were
applicable to the participants professional fields.
. To make recommendations so as to improve future training based on
participants perceptions, aspirations and professional circumstances.
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Theoretical Background and Literature Review

Training evaluation literature suggests that there is debate in the field regarding
which approach is best to facilitate the evaluation processes involved. This study
follows Kirkpatricks training evaluation theory (Kirkpatrick, 1959) which is the
most influential source of training evaluation theory (Eseryl, 2002; Bates, 2004).
Evaluation tools and methodologies help determine the effectiveness of instruc-
tional interventions. Despite its importance, there is evidence that evaluations of
training programmes are often inconsistent or missing (Carnevale and Schulz, 1990;
Holcomb, 1993; McMahon and Carter, 1990; Rossi et al., 1979). There is ample
evidence to show that the evaluation and objective assessment of effectiveness and
outcomes of training programmes being implemented by organizations are not
given due importance as that of their planning and implementation (Rajeev et al.,
2009).
Possible explanations for inadequate evaluations include: insufficient budget,
insufficient time, lack of expertise, blind trust in training solutions, or lack of methods
and tools (McEvoy and Buller, 1990). Part of the explanation may be that the task of
evaluation is complex in itself. Evaluating training interventions with regard to
learning, transfer and organizational impact involves a number of complexity factors.
These complexity factors are associated with the dynamic and ongoing interactions of
the various dimensions and attributes of organizational and training goals, trainees,
training situations and instructional technologies. Although the Kirkpatrick Model is
widely used and influential, its shortcomings have been raised in Bates (2004) and
other works, and this is likely to accelerate the search and adoption of alternative
training assessment models. Six different types of educational evaluation have been
identified (these include goal-based evaluation, goal-free evaluation, responsive
evaluation, systems evaluation, professional review, and quasi-legal systems). Goal-
based and system-based approaches are the predominantly applied methods in
training evaluation (Phillips, 1991). Kirkpatricks theory follows the goal-based
evaluation approach and is based on four simple questions that translate into four
levels of evaluation. These four levels are widely known as reaction (gathering data on
 416 J. Wanjiku et al.

participants reactions to training), learning (to assess whether learning objectives

were met), behaviour (to assess job performance or behaviour change), and results
(to assess impact, e.g. in terms of improved work quality). The most challenging
levels of training assessment are the third (behaviour assessment) and the fourth level
(results). In reality it is difficult to measure behaviour change. The fourth level of
Kirkpatricks model focuses on the bottom line impact of the training on the
organization, which few organizations manage or even attempt due to the metho-
dological and physical difficulties involved.
The following components which are key to training evaluation are included in the
design of the study as suggested by Rae (1999).
(i) Assessment of extent to which identified training needs objectives were
achieved by the programme.
(ii) Assessment of the extent to which learners objectives were achieved.
(iii) Assessment of specific knowledge learnt.
(iv) Assessment of commitments that learners are going to implement in the
workplace.
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(v) Assessing how successful trainees were in implementing their action plans.
Other activities such as benefit-cost analysis of training events are crucial in
training evaluation, but this was not implemented in this study.

Methods
Sampling Method
In 2005, ICRAF undertook a survey to assess the effectiveness of group training
activities that were undertaken between 1999 and 2002. A database of all training
activities that had been compiled by the ICRAF Training Division was used for
the sampling frame. From this database, a random sample of 162 scientists drawn
from six different global regions was selected using computing methods. The
trainees were mostly drawn from various International Agricultural Research
Institutes (IARIs), National Agricultural Research Institutes (NARIs) and
universities.

Research Tools
A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from respondents. Following the
initial analysis, interviews by telephone were implemented with a sample of 11 res-
pondents to gather more in-depth information.

Data Analysis
Data was analyzed using SPSS and Microsoft Excel. Excel was used to recover
trainee course information from an existing database (19992002) that had been
compiled by the Training Division, using a double-lookup procedure (nested
MATCH and OFFSET Microsoft Excel worksheet functions) to match the data-
base information with questionnaire data. Statistical analysis of data was done using
SPSS software.
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 417

Results and Discussions

Courses Undertaken by Trainee Respondents

Table 1 shows the courses that were attended by respondents in group training
activities between 1999 and 2002 at ICRAF headquarters, Nairobi.
Most of the respondents (64%) undertook one or more component of the training
of trainers course, designed to enhance training skills among trainers in their
respective places of work (Table 1). This is because most of the trainees were involved
in research, training and student supervision activities in their respective institutions
of work. Other major courses were market research courses (related to agricultural
product markets) (9%), data management modelling and analysis courses (8%), and
more specialized courses such as participatory research methods and experimental
design for agroforestry experiments.

Demographic and Professional Characteristics of Respondents

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Table 2 shows general demographic and professional characteristics of respondents,

including gender distribution, professional qualifications and educational character-
istics of respondents (Table 2). Male participants had significantly longer average
professional experience (mean 13 years) than females (mean 10 years) and had a
longer experience with present employers than female employees. Within education
categories, males were more qualified than women (Table 2). Men had a higher
proportion that were qualified with PhDs (14%) and Masters degrees (63%), com-
pared to women who had 6% (for PhD) and 23% for Masters degree attainments.

Career Disciplines of Respondents

Figure 1 shows the career disciplines of the respondents in their respective
institutions. Trainees were drawn from 10 main types of professional activities.
Most respondents were mainly in the field of academics (31%), agroforestry (28%),
environmental sciences (24%) and research (23%).

Recollection and Relevance of Training

Over 80% of the respondents had very good or good recollection of most aspects
of the training events (Figure 2). The main aspects of training that were evaluated
included course content, training materials and teaching techniques.
Most (62%) of the respondents revealed that the training was relevant to their
professional activities or current work (Table 3). The trainees also reported that at
the time of training, the objectives and content of training were relevant to their
current work and also that knowledge of the subject matter increased during the
training. Over the last 20 years a substantial amount of research has been generated
regarding the design and implementation of effective training programmes (Pidd,
2004), and most professional training programmes have been found to be relevant
and satisfactory (e.g. Rashid, 2006). This view has been broadly accepted by
international agencies (World Bank, 2008; Rivera, 2001) and several training
evaluation studies.
 418 J. Wanjiku et al.

Table 1. Group training courses attended by participants (19992002) at ICRAF.

% by

Course type Course name Frequency Course Course type

Training of trainers Training of trainers course 86 53.1

Regional training course 6 3.7
Agroforestry research for development 10 6.2 64.2
Teaching advances in agroforestry 1 0.6
research and development
Training materials workshop 1 0.6
Total 104
Market research Methods for analysis of agricultural 15 9.3 9.3
markets
Tree Domestication Tree domestication 9 5.6 5.6
Agricultural extension Agroforestry seminar for agricultural 6 3.7 3.7
staff training district extension staff
Data management Follow-up training workshop on data 6 3.7
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and modelling in management and analysis for

agroforestry agroforestry experiments
experiments Training workshop on data 3 1.9
management and analysis for 7.4
agroforestry experiments
Data management and analysis in 1 0.6
agroforestry research
Field experimentation and data collection 1 0.6
Introductory water erosion prediction 1 0.6
Total 12
Participatory Participatory research methods for 6 3.7
research methods upland agroforestry systems and
in agroforestry watershed management 5.6
Participatory monitoring and evaluation 2 1.2
Participatory on-farm experimentation 1 0.6
and integrated approaches to
land management
Total 9
Specialized Sustainable land use systems and 1 0.6
agroforestry agroforestry research for the humid 1.2
training tropics of Asia
Planning and evaluation of zonal and 1 0.6
land-use specific projects
Total 2
Scientific writing Scientific writing 1 0.6 0.6
Experimental design Design of agroforestry experiments 2 1.2 1.2
Characterization Agroforestry characterization and 1 0.6 0.6
and diagnosis diagnosis
Management Leading and managing for 1 0.6 0.6
training collaborative advantage
Grand Total 162 100 100.0

Source: Author Survey, 2007.

Note: Training of trainers involved training of individuals who are also involved in training others in their
respective institutions.
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 419

Table 2. Demographic and professional characteristics of ICRAF trainee respondents.

Gender Frequency Percentage

Males 115 70.9

Females 47 29.1
Total 162 100
Gender
General professional characteristics Male Female Grand mean
Age of respondent (years) 43 41 42
Years of professional experience 13 10 12
Years with present employer 12 9 11
Education level Male Female Total
Masters 72 (63.3) 26 (22.8) 98 (61)
Bachelors 25 (21.9) 14 (12.3) 39 (24)
PhD 16 (14.0) 7 (6.1) 23 (14)
High school level 1 (0.9) 0 (0) 1 (0.6)
Total 114 (100) 47 (100) 161 (100)
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Source: Author Survey, 2007.

Notes: Values in parentheses are column percentages.

A cross tabulation between discipline and relevance of training objectives and

course content shows that over 80% of respondents from every discipline type found
the training contents relevant to their (trainees) work (Table 4).
Correlations between relevance, recollection and frequency of use of skills revealed
high and significant associations (Table 5). Frequency of use of skills was associated
with increased training relevance, better recollection of course content, recollection
of instructors and training materials, but had weak associations with recollection of

2.1%
5.3%
6.4%
8.5% 31.21% Academics

Agroforester
11.7% Environmentalists

Researchers

Social scientist
13.9%
Manager/Administrators
28.19% Agronomist

Extension officers

23.15% Veterinarian

Soil scientist
24.16%

Figure 1. Career disciplines of respondents.

Source: Author Survey, 2007.
 420 J. Wanjiku et al.

Figure 2. Recollection of course content, teaching techniques and training materials by

trainees.
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
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teaching techniques. This finding generally agrees with Switzer, Nagy and Mullins
(2005) who found that training perception was generally positively linked with
training transfer.
Further, a logit regression analysis was carried out to show the relationship between
training relevance and other trainees characteristics (Table 6). Relevance was not
significantly related with most trainee demographic and professional characteristics
because most of the trainees found the training to be relevant. Contrariwise, use and
application of skills showed significant associations in some aspects, because different
workers with different characteristics are likely to face different challenges during
application of skills. These aspects included gender, and trainees being in scientifically
intensive fields such as agronomy and soil science. Those trainees in the field of social
sciences, management and agroforestry were reported to be significantly related with
training relevance. Further, the topics covered during the training enhanced training
skills, improved research skills and data management skills in addition to improved
knowledge and overall improved work skills among others. Male trainees were likely
to use the skills attained more than females. Older trainees were also likely to use the
skills acquired during the training especially in the fields of agronomy, management,
agroforestry and soil sciences more than younger trainees. Training should be devised
so that it suits the needs of gender diversity and age or professional levels of diverse
staff. The assessment of relevance and recollection of the training are consistent and

Table 3. Relevance of topics covered during the training to respondents current work.

Relevance Frequency Percentage

Very relevant 101 62.3

Relevant 19 36.4
Irrelevant 2 1.2
Total 162 100
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 421

Table 4. A cross tabulation of type of discipline of trainees and relevance of objectives and
content of training to trainees work.

Training objectives
relevant

Discipline type Yes No Total

Academics 29 (96.7) 1 (3.3) 30 (100)

Forestry/agroforestry 28 (100) 0 (0) 28 (100)
Environmental sciences and natural 21 (87.5) 3 (12.5) 24 (100)
resource management
Research 24 (100) 0 (0) 24 (100)
Management 12 (100) 0 (0) 12 (100)
Plant science/agronomy 8 (100) 0 (0) 8 (100)
Social sciences 7 (87.5) 1 (12.5) 8 (100)
Soil sciences 2 (100) 0 (0) 2 (100)
Animal science 4 (80) 1 (20) 5 (100)
Extension 5 (100) 0 (0) 5 (100)
Pure Science 5 (100) 0 (0) 5 (100)
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Notes: Pearson Chi-Square12.971, DF10, Sig 0.225.

Source: Author Survey, 2007.

satisfactory with the first level of training assessment according to Kirkpatricks

training model.

Use and Application of Skills

Most of the respondents used skills frequently*often and very often (Figure 3). Over
80% reported to use the acquired skills often in their current work. This indeed
confirmed the relevance of training (see Table 4) as 98% of those trained found the
training relevant in their current work.
Those who attended agroforestry, data management and management courses,
applied their skills very often, while those who attended market analysis and tree
domestication applied their skills often (see Table 7).
Most respondents applied skills gained during training more often, with a lesser
proportion utilizing the skills very often across all courses (Table 7). The main groups
which used the skills frequently in the post-training period included respondents who
undertook management, agroforestry and data analysis courses, while over half of
the respondents who registered for tree domestication and market analysis used the
skills often. This implies that skills gained mainly enhanced agroforestry work
including tree domestication, data management and analysis and also the skills
gained helped in leading and managing collaborative work as a management aspect.
Table 8 shows the utilization rates of skills learned according to gender of
participant.
Among males and females, more males used skills more often than females
(Table 8). This calls for more women to be incorporated into more training and
other development agendas so as to enhance workplace gender balance.
Respondents were asked to state areas in which they had applied and improved on
their skills after training (Table 9). This meets some of the objectives of the results
Downloaded By: [Mairura, Franklin] At: 05:02 7 January 2011

422
J. Wanjiku et al.
Table 5. Correlation between relevance, recollection variables and frequency of use of skills.

Recollection Recollection Recollection of Recollection

Relevance of course Recollection of other teaching of training Frequency of
Parameters of topics content of instructors trainees techniques materials use of skills

Relevance of topics 1
Recollection of 0.173** 1
course content
Recollection of 0.155 0.574** 1
instructors
Recollection of 0.146 0.316** 0.439** 1
other trainees
Recollection of 0.009 0.596** 0.555** 0.305** 1
teaching
techniques
Recollection of 0.216** 0.6167** 0.602** 0.241** 0.517** 1
training materials
Frequency of 0.541** 0.298** 0.211** 0.008 0.14 0.339** 1
skill use
Notes: *Significant at 0.05 level, **significant at 0.01 level.
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 423

Table 6. Significance levels of logit regressions of respondent characteristics affecting relevance

of training to trainees work and use of skills.

Variable Relevance of training Use of skills

Gender 0.797 0.000

Age 0.935 0.073
Professional experience 0.804 0.399
(years)
Years of education 0.174 0.582
Environment 0.286 0.912
Agronomy 0.688 0.000
Agroforestry 0.035 0.051
Soil science 0.778 0.000
Academic 0.314 0.812
Social sciences 0.086 
Research 0.469 0.821
Animal sciences 0.59 0.361
Management 0.05 0.023
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Extension 0.688 0.683

Pure sciences 0.652 
Source: Author Survey, 2007.

assessment domain as outlined in Kirkpatricks theory. The most common area was
in utilization of ICRAF training resource materials and collaboration with
researchers within respondents own institutions and within ICRAF and other
institutions, while contact with course collaborators to elaborate on specific issues
was low or non-existent. Continued consultation of training material was reported by
most respondents as shown by Santucci and Sergi (1984) and several related studies.
In addition, skills acquired from training were also used for publications by 33% of
respondents, presenting seminars (51%), giving advice to colleagues (70%), super-
vision of students (44%), developing work plans (50%), training in consultancy (25%)

Rarely Never
Occasionally 2% 1%
13%

Very often
39%

Often
45%

Figure 3. Use of acquired skills.

Source: Author Survey, 2007.
 424 J. Wanjiku et al.

Table 7. Relationship between type of training event and how often respondents got an
opportunity to use the skills acquired during the training.

How often respondents have had an opportunity to use the skills acquired
during the training

Course type Very often Often Occasionally Rarely Never Total

Training of 36 (42.3) 35 (41.2) 13 (15.3) 1 (1.2) 0 (0) 85 (100)

trainers
Market analysis 5 (24) 11 (52) 4 (19) 1 (4.8) 0 (0) 21 (100)
Data analysis 6 (75) 2 (25) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 8 (100)
Agroforestry 4 (80) 0 (0) 1 (20) 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (100)
Participatory 1 (50) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (50) 2 (100)
rural appraisal
Management 1 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (100)
Modelling 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (100) 0 (0) 1 (100)
Scientific writing 0 (0) 1 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (100)
Tree 3 (30) 6 (60) 1 (10) 0 (0) 0 (0) 10 (100)
domestication
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Source: Author Survey, 2007.

Notes: Values in parenthesis are row percentages.

and facilitating training courses (61%). This implies that the impacted skills and
knowledge during the training were used in diversified activities across research and
development disciplines, and substantial utilization of skills and potential to transfer
skills to the workforce was attained in the training events.
A cross tabulation of discipline of trainees and knowledge increase shows that
almost all trainees (96%) experienced a positive impact on the knowledge acquired as
a result of training (Table 9). Trainees within disciplines of plant sciences, soil sciences,
animal sciences, research, management, pure sciences and extension recorded the
highest impact (with 100% of all trainees) (Table 9). The learning assessment
suggested by Kirkpatricks theory was achieved by evaluating whether knowledge
increased, which was sufficiently achieved by the current study.

Constraints Faced While Practising the Acquired Skills at Workplace

The major constraints that were faced by the trainees when they implemented skills
are shown in Table 10.

Table 8. Use of skills among ICRAF group training respondents by gender.

Frequency of use of skills

Gender Very often Often Occasionally Rarely Never Total

Male 49 (77.4) 49 (68.6) 11 (52.4) 3 (100) 2 (100) 115 (70.9)

Female 14 (22.6) 23 (31.4) 10 (47.6) 0 (0) 0 (0) 47 (29.1)
Total 64 (100) 72 (100) 22 (100) 3 (100) 2 (100) 162 (100)
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
Notes: Values in parentheses are row percentages.
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 425

Table 9. Skills which respondents had practised and improved upon in the post-training phase
(N162).

Yes No

Skill Frequency % Frequency %

Using ICRAF training materials 127 78.4 35 21.6

Collaboration with colleagues in own institution 118 72.8 44 27.2
Collaboration with colleagues in other institutions 99 61.1 63 38.9
Regular assignments 50 30.9 112 69.1
Subsequent academic programmes 49 30.2 113 69.8
Subsequent academic courses 61 37.7 101 62.3
Independent study 67 41.4 95 58.6
Contact with course facilitators to discuss specific topics 35 21.6 127 78.4
Source: Author Survey, 2007.

The most common constraint in the implementation of skills acquired in training

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was lack of funds (37%), labour (27%) and lack of equipment (17%) for implementing
action plans. This implies that most workplaces were poor in terms of offering material
support to enable implementation of training skills. Among the respondents who took
the training of trainers course, the main constraint was lack of funds and labour, while
those who had management and data management responsibilities cited lack of
equipment (computer software and hardware) as main constraints. Gender analysis
indicated that a higher proportion of females (79%) faced constraints during
implementation of training skills than the male proportion (59%). Constraints to
implementation of training may result from different situations, but they are also a
measure of organizational support for training. Switzer et al. (2005), Ford and
Weissbein (1997), Rouiller and Goldstein (1993), Tracey et al. (1995) and Facteau et al.
(1995) have shown that employees in a supportive organizational environment were
more likely to implement knowledge and skills acquired in training, thus calling for

Table 10. Constraints faced in implementing action plans in the workplace.

Constraints Frequency %

Lack of funds 60 37
Lack of labour 44 27
Lack of equipment (computers, photocopiers, software, lab) 28 17
Poor collaboration and communication with stakeholders 17 11
Poor project and data management 6 4
Working field area is of low potential for agroforestry 4 2
(climatic constraints)
Training was too short 3 2
Training not consistent with area of specialty 1 1
Total 162 100

Males who faced constraints (percentage within gender)* 67 58

Females who faced constraints (percentage within gender)* 33 70
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
Notes: *Data is based on a binary question (whether constraints were faced). Total number of males 115, total
number of females 47.
 426 J. Wanjiku et al.

increased workplace training support in the agricultural domains. Several other

individual and organizational factors not investigated in this study also influence
training outcomes. Individual trainee characteristics such as motivation (Mathieu
et al., 1992; Colquitt et al., 2000) and trainee efficacy (Mitchell et al., 1994; Stevens and
Gist, 1997; Stajkovic and Luthans, 1998) have been shown to have a significant
influence on training transfer. The pre-training environment (Quinones, 1995; Smith-
Jentsch et al., 1996) and training design (Driskell et al., 1992) have also been shown to
influence skill transfer. The post-training (workplace) environment appears to play a
particularly important role. For example, support for training and organizational
support (in the form of formal policy and practices relating to training) can strongly
influence transfer (Burke and Baldwin, 1999). Workplace social and peer (co-worker)
support for training events can also influence transfer.

Relationship between Capacity Building and Capacity Utilization

Respondents Intention on Use of Skills for Agroforestry Development. Most respon-
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dents intended to use skills acquired after training to enhance research, training and
empower communities especially women and also in teaching agroforestry (Table 11).
Other potential uses of training skills included improved collaboration with
government institutions, better dissemination of knowledge on use of agroforestry
technologies and other tree domestication activities to farming communities and
enhanced communication of scientific research output to wide research clients,
among others.
Table 12 shows areas of application of training skills according to discipline of
trainee respondents. Academics were the most active group, with high application of
skills in all areas. They were actively involved in supervision of students, research,
facilitating training, seminars and consultancies. Respondents who were in environ-
mental science and natural resource management fields applied their newly acquired
skills most frequently in advising colleagues, facilitating training and developing

Table 11. Ways the trained respondents plan to continue using knowledge and skills in
agroforestry research and development.

Promised areas of skill application Frequency %

Improved research 43 27
Training and empowering communities 33 20
Teaching and student assessment 26 16
Tree domestication activities 17 10
Collaboration with the government 10 6
Dissemination 9 6
Statistical analysis 8 5
Agroforestry museum 5 3
Improved media communication for improved extension 4 2
Publications 4 2
Participating in international forums 2 1
Total 162 100
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
Downloaded By: [Mairura, Franklin] At: 05:02 7 January 2011

Table 12. Areas in which respondents have applied training skills according to discipline portfolio.

Skills

Advise Supervise Develop Facilitate

Disciplines Publications Seminars colleagues students plans Research Consultancy training courses Total

Assessment of Professional Training Programmes

Academics 23 24 19 36 19 24 30 24 24
Agroforestry 19 24 14 19 21 14 14 20 18
Environmental 13 16 17 17 19 11 16 18 16
science and
NRM
Research 19 10 18 4 9 22 16 10 14
Management 8 9 10 4 10 5 8 10 8
Agronomy 2 2 7 6 5 6 0 4 5
Social sciences 6 2 4 1 4 5 11 4 4
Pure science 4 6 4 6 5 3 3 2 4
Extension 6 2 3 3 4 3 0 5 3
Veterinary science 2 2 4 3 3 3 0 1 2
Soil sciences 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 1 1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author Survey, 2007.
Notes: Respondents applied skills in more than one field and output area.

427
 428 J. Wanjiku et al.

2.5
Academics
2
Research
Facilitate Environmental
1.5 Research
training science Advise
Agroforestry
courses 1 colleagues
Supervise
0.5
students Seminars
0 Agronomy

-3 -2 -1 0 1 Veterinary2 3 4
-0.5 Management science
Develop plans Pure Science Soil sciences
-1
Extension
Social sciences
-1.5 Publications

-2
Consultancy
-2.5

-3

Figure 4. Biplot showing the relationship between disciplines in which knowledge and skills
acquired during the training are applied.
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Source: Author Survey, 2007.

plans. Among agroforesters skills were mainly applied in seminars, developing work
plans and facilitating training courses.
There were few soil scientist respondents; they mainly reported employing their
skills in research and consultancy. Disciplines that have little application across all
skills include social sciences, management, veterinary science, extension and pure
science.
Figure 4 is the correspondence biplot, showing the association between major
areas where training skills and different training disciplines interact. Correspondence
analysis is a descriptive/exploratory technique designed to analyze simple two-way
and multi-way tables containing some measure of correspondence between the rows
and columns (Benzecri, 1992). Those respondents who were involved in the research

Table 13. Proposed means to improve future training suggested by trainee respondents.

Ways to improve training Frequency %

More practical and field oriented 76 47

Allocate more time 38 23
More networking, participation, and interaction among 11 7
multi-stakeholders
Follow work plans 10 6
Provide resources and funding 9 6
Scrutinize resource persons and materials 9 6
Improve on statistical methods 3 2
Improve human resource infrastructure capacity of 1 1
National
Agricultural Institutions
Centralize training activities 1 1
Limit number of participants 1 1
Should be continuous process 1 1
Influence policy through research 1 1
Grand total 162 100
 Assessment of Professional Training Programmes 429

and agronomy field applied their skills mostly in research and in mentoring
colleagues. Those who practiced veterinary science, soil science, social science and
extension were closely associated in skill application; their areas of application
mainly included publications, consultancy, and development of plans. Meanwhile,
the respondents from academic fields, environmental sciences and agroforestry were
closely involved in student supervision, seminars and facilitating training courses.

Means to Improve on Future ICRAF Training

Respondents were asked to suggest ways in which ICRAF could improve on future
training activities. Several proposals that were suggested by trainees are outlined in
this section (Table 13).
Of all suggestions, the highest response was that future training should be more
practical and field oriented and should be allocated sufficient time to improve on
future training. Other important suggestions included more time allocation to
training, enhanced staff interaction after training and utilization of work plans to
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achieve specific goals.

Conclusions
The study concluded that respondents had very good recollection of training
aspects, and increased knowledge, but there were key challenges when it comes to
implementation of training skills. The survey showed that training has a high
potential to transfer knowledge, but lack of resources was a major constraint. In
assessing capacity-building and utilization, academics were the most active and
robust group, with a high application of skills in most career themes that were
investigated. In analyzing future capacity-building capabilities in agroforestry
development, most respondents indicated that they would improve agroforestry
through research, teaching, promoting agroforestry, farmer training and female
empowerment, while publishing came out low in comparison. Gender and age
differences in human resource development within IARIs were detected by the
survey, with men facing fewer constraints and more opportunities than women,
which need to be addressed by targeted training. Regarding future improvement of
training, practicality was emphasized by trainees as was advised. The survey satisfied
key elements of Kirkpatricks theory, in which the reaction and learning and results
phases were most addressed. There was good training perception and a high potential
to learn and utilize skills, however a supportive environment during skill utilization is
necessary to enhance training transfer.

Recommendations

1. To improve ICRAF group training further, attention should be given to

making the training more practical and field oriented, with necessary material
and funding support.
2. Timely feedback among participants and their respective institutions and multi-
stakeholders is needed to enable continuous capacity development activities.
 430 J. Wanjiku et al.

3. For the participants to realize relevant capacity-building and to implement

programmes and action plans resulting from training activities in the post-
training phase, adequate institutional support in terms of labour and materials
is essential.
4. There is a need to incorporate more women in the training activities to enhance
gender balance.
5. To enhance future training evaluation activities, more work needs to be done
in developing and implementing evaluation methods. More investment and
incentives are needed to enhance evaluation practices. Enhanced and more
efficient data collection and management systems are needed to enhance future
evaluation practices, such as through development of computer-aided systems.
6. Relevant training evaluation systems for the agricultural domain need to
be developed as it is not clear whether evaluation systems sourced from
other fields are fully transferable into the agriculture field. Problems have been
raised by several authors regarding the use of original evaluation models in
diverse current situations. As a result, evaluation systems that are suitable
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for African workplaces need to be developed especially in the agricultural

field. Considering that agricultural research work aims to achieve tangible
agro-ecosystem objectives such as yield gains, training evaluation methods
should ultimately be able to determine office-based impacts as well as real
field-based outcomes.
7. Training evaluators have an ethical obligation to consider and to reflect on and
evaluate the extent to which the models used in practice can help provide
needed training benefits. Past training models that have been widely adopted in
training evaluation have been shown to have weaknesses that need to be
addressed in contemporary workplaces. As a result, continuous development
and experimentation with evaluation models is needed to ensure that training
evaluation systems remain relevant in future changing workplaces.

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