CRUDE OIL ASSAY FROM THE NGAMIA WELL IN THE SOUTH LOKICHAR

BASIN-TURKANA, KENYA
INTRODUCTION
A crude assay is a detailed report which describes the properties of the whole crude, as
well as the major fractions into which a crude is distilled at the refinery - gasoline,
naphtha, kerosene, jet fuel, middle distillates, gas oils and resid. Typically, the data
contained in a crude assay includes yields generated from the physical distillation or
simulated distillation, specific gravity, gas chromatographic components, sulfur,
nitrogen, viscosity, cold flow (pour point, cloud point, freeze point), conradson carbon,
refractive index, aniline point, basic nitrogen, neutralization number, metals, and
asphalt tests (e.g. penetration and softening point).

Crude oil assay testing involves the chemical evaluation of crude oils often recovered
from subsurface productive zones through sampling using MDT (modular Dynamic
Test) or DST (Drill Stem Test) for analyses in laboratories remote from the well site.
Different crude oil types have unique molecular, chemical characteristics. Differences
can be found even in the same field if samples are from different reservoirs or
productive zones. Also as a field ages crude oil property data will also change.

Crude grades vary considerably from each other - in yield and properties. Crude
characterization is essential to estimate feedstock properties for refinery units, produce
an optimal amount of finished products, meet product quality specifications and to
provide an economic assessment for crude oils. The value of any particular crude
depends upon the specific product slate and refinery configuration. Users can gain a
competitive advantage utilizing the best quality information.

The results of crude oil assay testing provide detailed hydrocarbon analysis data for
refiners, oil traders and producers. Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil
feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if the crude oil could
cause yield, quality, production, environmental and other problems.

In general the data obtained from assays is utilized for:

Upstream Planning - to determine the economic viability of new fields /

discoveries
Supply Organizations - to assign crude value for individual grades
Refinery Operations - to schedule crude receipts and determine product yields
Model Engineers - to optimize refinery crude slates
Research & Development - to design equipment and process planning

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Where common facilities are used to produce from different reservoirs or fields
commingling of crude oils occurs. Examples of commingling include: producing two or
more reservoirs through a single tubing string, mixing gas/oil/water from several wells
in a single separator tank, and using a single pipeline for transporting production from
several fields. Determining the chemical characteristics associated with the crudes from
different sources by conducting assays is essential for allocating production from the
different fields or reservoirs. There are several reasons that accurate assessment of the
individual field contributions may be desirable or necessary. It may be desirable to have
an accurate assessment of the amount of producible oil or gas from different reservoirs
so as to effectively plan production allocation. Petroleum sales value and tax dues often
depends on the quality of oil and varying ownership among different production zones
or neighboring fields, thus back-allocation following assay testing of the crude becomes
important for valuation purposes.

Purchasing decisions and ultimately processing capability all begin with having high
quality assay data. Most crude oils have a lot of variability in their compositions from
one source to another. These needs are especially important if a company wants to deal
with spot market crude purchasing from various parts of the world.

STANDARD CRUDE OIL PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS

API Gravity / Density

This industry standard that is based on ASTM D287/1298, is the single most utilized
crude property measurement for making crude purchases. It is quite common for
measurements to range from values in the low teens (asphaltic crude) to those having
values in the 50s (condensates). While this test normally is done by the hydrometer
method (nowdays, also by digital density meters) and is simple to perform, it does have
some crucial steps that need to be performed. The first step is to insure that the crude
aliquot taken is representative. API is measured along with the temperature of the
crude that is then converted to an API at 60 F (the industry standard).

Sulfur Content
The sulfur content of crude oils is normally in the range of 0.1-5.0-wt %. Sulfur is
normally measured utilizing an x-Ray technique such as the following two methods
ASTM1 D4294 or D5291 using a technique known as X-Ray Fluorescence. The methods

1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is an international standards organization that
develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products,
systems. ASTM test includes methods for the petroleum industry which are accepted worldwide for
quality and reliability.

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have large dynamic ranges and allow analysis to be completed in about 3-5 minutes.
Samples having sulfur contents greater than 5.0 % are measured by methods such as
D1552, a combustion technique. For extremely low levels an Ultraviolet fluorescence
technique is employed (ASTM D5453). Again most of these methods are very robust,
but can be influenced by not having a representative sample.

Pour Point
The pour point of a sample is defined as the temperature normally 3 degrees above the
point a sample no longer moves when inverted. The pour point of a liquid is the
lowest temperature at which it becomes semi-solid and loses its flow characteristics.
In crude oil a high pour point is generally associated with a high paraffin content,
typically found in crude deriving from a larger proportion of plant material. This value
is of particular importance for crudes that are transported through pipelines from
source to load ports. Currently the method of choice for whole crudes is ASTM D5853
which handles crudes that have pour points greater than -36 C. For crudes that have
pour points lower than -36 C ASTM D97 tends to be the method of choice.

Whole Crude Simulated Distillation

This method normally is performed by ASTM D5307. This gas chromatography method
is a quick and robust method for determining a true boiling point curve and predicting
crude yields. This external standard method is done on 5 meter fused silica columns
having thin film thickness allowing the analysis to be completed within an hour. A true
boiling point curve can be determined by plotting % off (cumulative yield) versus
temperature.

Comparing a full assay TBP curve to this data and then monitoring the crude over time
is a valuable tool to determine whether or not a full assay may need to be done.

Full Assay
Assay analyses of whole crudes are done by combining an atmospheric and vacuum
distillation run. These two runs when combined will provide a TBP (True Boiling Point
Curve). While these batch distillation methods are labor intensive, taking between three
to five days, they allow the collection of distillation fractions that can be utilized for
testing.
The ASTM D2892 test method is used for the distillation of stabilized crude to a final cut
temperature of up to 400C (752F) Atmospheric Equivalent Temperature (AET). The
crude oil is heated and separated by the distillation column into lighter products such

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as; gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, etc. The lighter products produced in this process are
further refined in various refinery processes.
While each of the distillations techniques have been standardized by ASTM, cut
schemes tend to mimic refinery product classifications and there is no standardization
of the individual inspection formats.
Each company tends to perform both physical and chemical testing that best meet the
needs of their refining operations and product suites.

Metals
The metals concentration in crude can range from a few to several thousand ppm. Low
values of certain elements such as nickel / vanadium can severely affect catalyst
activity. In the past metals were determined by Atomic Absorption, but now most
metals are determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy
(ICPCES). X-ray fluorescence can be a viable technique depending on the concentration.

Mercaptan Sulfur
Mercaptan Sulfur species are undesirable in crude oils, and in some cases are toxic.
These species are normally attributed to sour crudes.
Analysis is normally based on UOP 163, a potentiometric titration method. A
hydrocarbon sample is added to a solution of isopropyl alcohol containing a small
amount of ammonium hydroxide. The solution is then titrated with a solution of silver
nitrate.

Micro Carbon Residue

The carbon residue of a petroleum crude oil is proportional to the asphalt content,
normally measured by Conradson Carbon ASTM D 189. In most cases the lower the
carbon residue, the higher the value that can be placed on the crude oil.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen species in crude oils can cause catalyst poisoning. ASTM D 3228 or ASTM D
4629 normally determines nitrogen content. Either a syringe inlet or boat inlet analyzes
distillate cuts by Oxidative Combustion and Chemiluminescence detection. Whole

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crude, atmospheric and vacuum resids are analyzed by Kjeldahl methodology, a labor
intensive method involving digestion/distillation and finishing up with a titration.

Total Acid Number

The industry standard for this test is based on ASTM D 664. Normally expressed as
Neutralization Number, this test predicts the acidity of an oil/distillate fraction. The
sample normally dissolved in Toluene/IPA/Water is titrated with potassium hydroxide
and the results are expressed as mg KOH per gram of sample. Crude Oils having high
acid numbers are purchased typically have TAN values form 0.05-6.0 mg KOH/gm of
sample. While whole crudes are outside the scope of this titration method, it is the only
recognized method in the industry.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measurement of a fluid resistance to flow. Most measurements use the
force of gravity to produce the flow through a small capillary tube called a viscometer;
thus the measurement is known as kinematic viscosity having a unit of centistoke (cSt).
The viscosity of a fluid is always reported with a temperature, since viscosity will vary
inversely with temperature. Most viscosity measurements follow the guidelines of
ASTM D445. Normally in an inspection grid the viscosity will be measured at three
different temperatures and then plotted on semi-log graph paper. If all measurements
are performed properly a straight line will result.
Aniline Point
This point is defined as the lowest temperature at which aniline is soluble in a specified
amount of sample.
This measure is used to determine the solvency of the hydrocarbons typically paraffinic
hydrocarbons have higher aniline points than aromatic hydrocarbons. This method is
usually performed under the guidelines of ASTM D 611.
Aniline point can be used to determine the quality of ignition in diesel cuts.

Cloud Point
This is defined as the temperature at which a haze appears in a sample which is
attributed to the formation of wax crystals. Cloud point data is used to determine the
tendency of small orifices to plug in cold operating temperatures, normally measured

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on middle distillate cuts. This property can be measured manually by utilizing ASTM D
2500, since many laboratories utilize similar equipment to perform pour points. With
the development of new analytical equipment many laboratories are nowutilizing
phase technology and are performing ASTM D 5773 which is less labor intensive and
more robust.

Freeze Point
The temperature at which crystal start to form in hydrocarbon liquids and then
disappear when the liquid is heated is the freeze point.
Normally performed by ASTM D2386, this method like cloud point is done by ASTM D
5972 by phase technology.

Refractive Index
Refractive index is a ratio technique that takes the velocity of light in air at a specific
wavelength and compares that to the velocity in the sample tested. Normally this is
performed under the guidelines of ASTM D 1218.
This test method can be performed at various temperatures. The refractive index can be
used to estimate the distribution of P-N-A molecules in oil fraction

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)

RVP is measurement of the volatility of a liquid hydrocarbon. Normally this is
performed by ASTM D 323.
This measurement is normally used to predict gasoline performance, normally
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi).
This is normally an inspection that is performed on Whole Crudes having relatively
high APIs.

Salt Content
The salt content is measured by ASTM D 3230 to determine the corrosiveness of a
Crude oil. It is this conductivity method that measures a sample of crude oil dissolved
in water and compares that to reference solutions of salt.

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Water & Sediment
Sediment and water values in crude oils are critical parameters as to whether problems
will occur in the processing in the refinery. In many cases, desalting equipment may be
required in order to handle a given crude slate.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF NGAMIA CRUDE OIL

Test Method Units Result

Bottom Sediment and Water ASTMD4007 % Vol 3.50
Water Content IP386 % Wt 4.07

Density @ 15C ASTMD5002 g/ml 0.8601

API Gravity 32.9

Total Sulphur IP336 % Wt 0.074

Mercaptan Sulphur UOP163(mod) mg/kg 18
Hydrogen Sulphide mg/kg <1

Total Nitrogen ASTMD5762 mg/kg 1100

Basic Nitrogen CBA73 mg/kg to follow

RVP IP69 psi note 2

Flash Point IP34 C note 3

Pour Point(Max) ASTMD5853 C 51

Kinematic Viscosity @ 60C IP71 cSt 43.74

Kinematic Viscosity @ 70C cSt 22.73
Kinematic Viscosity @ 80C cSt 17.50

Total Acid No IP177 mgKOH/g 0.15

Asphaltene Content IP143 % Wt 0.10

Ash Content IP4 % Wt 0.004
Micro Carbon Residue ASTMD4530 % Wt 4.49

Wax Content UOP46 % Wt 24.2

Wax Appearance
Temperature DSC C 47.8
Wax Dissolution Temperature DSC C 68.4

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 Salt IP265 lb/1000Bbls 7

Organic Chloride ASTMD4929 mg/kg <1

Nickel CBA 21 mg/kg 14.6

Vanadium mg/kg 0.4
Iron mg/kg 3.7
Arsenic ICPMS ng/g 10.3
Lead ng/g 1390
Mercury UOP938 ng/g 4

Methane IP344(Mod) %Wt <0.01

Ethane %Wt 0.01
Propane %Wt 0.05
Isobutane %Wt 0.04
n-Butane %Wt 0.10
Isopentane %Wt 0.13
n-Pentane %Wt 0.21
Hexanes+ %Wt 99.46

1
Water contents by ASTMD4007 and IP386 performed on sample as received. All
other
2 testing
Sample solidperformed on dried crude
at test temperature - result unobtainable
3
Sample not suitable for test due to high pour point. Light ends lost during
heating and sampling.

CRUDE OIL CHARACTERISTICS FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD

Many types of crude oil are produced around the world. The market value of an
individual crude stream reflects its quality characteristics. Two of the most important
quality characteristics are density and sulfur content. Density ranges from light to
heavy, while sulfur content is characterized as sweet or sour. The crude oils
represented in the chart are a selection of some of the crude oils marketed in various
parts of the world.
Crude oils that are light (higher degrees of API gravity, or lower density) and sweet
(low sulfur content) are usually priced higher than heavy, sour crude oils. This is partly
because gasoline and diesel fuel, which typically sell at a significant premium to
residual fuel oil and other "bottom of the barrel" products, can usually be more easily
and cheaply produced using light, sweet crude oil. The light sweet grades are desirable
because they can be processed with far less sophisticated and energy-intensive
processes/refineries. The figure shows select crude types from around the world with
their corresponding sulfur content and density characteristics.
The selected crude oils in the figure are not intended to be comprehensive of global
crude production. Rather, they were grades selected for the recurrent and recently

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updated EIA report. There are some crude oils both below and above the API gravity
range shown in the chart.

CONCLUSION
An estimated plot of the crude oil from Ngamia for comparison with other crudes in
terms of density and total sulfur content on the above chart would categorize it as a
light sweet crude with an API of 32.8 and sulfur content of 0.074%.
The Ngamia field has several reservoir zones as shown in the figure below and the
crude assay available for the well does not indicate the sampled interval.

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