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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
REPORT 2016
Building a Better Tomorrow:
Including Youth in the Development of Mongolia
The cover of Mongolia Human Development Report 2016, the sixth
national Human Development Report of the country, reflects the
core message of the report: including youth is essential to the future
development of Mongolia. Behind the individuals on the cover, a ger,
a traditional Mongolian tent dwelling, mirrors figure 7.1 in the report,
which shows that human developmentfocused youth policy is built
upon four thematic pillars. In the cover version, the foundation and
walls of the ger are being supported by youth, who represent various
groups in Mongolian society. A burst of 17 spectral prism colours shine
out from the ger, reminding us of the 17 Sustainable Development
Goals. The background orange is the colour associated with
Sustainable Development Goal 9, which highlights the need to build
resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation for the benefit of human development, which, in our case,
refers to the human development of Mongolian youth.
MONGOLIA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2016
Building a Better Tomorrow:
Including Youth in the Development of Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
2016
300
60
X-822
This report does not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Development Programme or the
Government of Mongolia. It may be reproduced and circulated for non-profit purposes.
Copyright 2016
By the United Nations Development Programme in Mongolia
UN House 14201, United Nations Street 14, Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia
ISBN 978-99973-63-98-5
United Nations Development Programme
email: registry.mn@undp.org
website: http://www.mn.undp.org/
PRODUCTION TEAM
Authors of background papers (in alphabetical order)
Davaadulam Tsegmed, Governance Team Leader, UNDP Mongolia
Dustin Barter, Youth Empowerment and Advocacy Officer, United Nations Population Fund
Erdenechimeg Tserendorj, Gender, Disability, LGBT and Gender Consultant
Khishigbuyan Dayan-Ochir, Education Consultant
Lakshmi Boojoo, Director, Economic Policy and Competitiveness Research Centre, Mongolia
Oyunbileg Shagdarsuren, Health Consultant
Editor
Robert Zimmermann
Translator
Batzorig Bayar
Infographics
Khangai Ganbayar, Hanui Luvsandorj and Batbuyan Ganbaatar
PRODUCTION TEAM 3
FOREWORD
This sixth National Human Development Report of
Mongolia, Building a Better Tomorrow: Including
Youth in the Development of Mongolia, is being pub-
lished at an opportune moment. By focusing on youth,
it focuses on the population group that can contribute
the most to future national development. By focusing on
the challenges faced by youth and identifying the pres-
ent situation of youth based on wide-ranging research
and analysis, it can help guide government interventions
in favour of this key population group. This greatly en-
hances the value of the report.
FOREWORD 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This sixth Mongolia National Human Development dent of the Union of Mongolian Students, Boldbaatar
Report (NHDR) is, more than ever, the fruit of the re- Zagdsuren, Head of the Mongolian Environmental Civ-
search contributions, expertise and support of dedicated il Council, Bayarbaatar Bold, former Coordinator of the
individuals and organizations. The report preparation United Nations (UN) Youth Advisory Panel, Bataa Chu-
team wishes to express the deepest gratitude to all those luunbaatar, former Secretary of the UN Working Group
who provided their intellectual inputs and feedback on Youth, Oyun Battumur, Human Resource Manager
throughout numerous consultative meetings, extensive of Mobicom Corporation, Davaadulam Tsegmed, Gov-
research and preparatory work between December 2013 ernance Team Leader of UNDP Mongolia, Demberel
and May 2016. Basan, General Secretary of Junior Chamber Interna-
tional Mongolia, Enkhsaikhan Bat-Ochir, Officer of the
The NHDR Steering Committee provided strategic
Youth Development Division of MPDSP and Bolortset-
guidance and oversight in the preparation of the NHDR.
seg Sosorburam, Head of the Policy and Planning De-
The committee was chaired jointly by Otgonjargal Baas-
partment of the Mongolian Youth Federation.
anjav, former State Secretary of the Ministry of Popula-
tion Development and Social Protection (MPDSP), and Appreciation is also extended to the Ministry of Labour,
Thomas Eriksson, former Deputy Resident Represent- the National Committee on Gender Equality, the Mon-
ative of the United Nations Development Programme golian Youth Federation, the Ministry of Education,
(UNDP). Other members included Erdenesuren Baatar, Culture and Science, the Ministry of Health, the Insti-
former Vice Chairman of the National Statistical Of- tute of Philosophy, Sociology and Law of the Mongolian
fice of Mongolia (NSO), Shinebaatar Begzsuren, former Academy of Sciences, and the Mongolian Association of
State Secretary of the Ministry of Economic Develop- Persons with Disabilities for their superior support in
ment, and Munkhbat Ayush, President of the Mongolian hosting a series of thematic consultations on youth em-
Youth Federation. ployment, gender equality, policy, political participation
and disability issues.
The Advisory Board presided over the entire process
to ensure that the Report becomes a dynamic advoca- Among the individuals without whom the Report would
cy tool, grounded in evidence-based, thoroughly an- not have been possible are the lead author, Saurabh
alysed research, which will help develop lively debates Sinha, national author Enkhjargal Khorloo, statistics
around the policies and actions necessary to advance hu- expert Gereltuya Altankhuyag, the authors of back-
man development in Mongolia. The board consisted of ground papers, especially Erdenechimeg Tserendorj,
Davaadorj Tsenddavaa, former Director of the School Lakshmi Bodsho, Khishigbuyan Dayan-Ochir, Oyun-
of Economic Studies, National University of Mongolia, bileg Shagdarsuren, Dustin Barter, and many others,
Dolgormaa Jadamba, former Director of the Strategic including research assistants who prepared background
Policy and Planning Department of MPDSP, Amarsai- notes. Invaluable insights and commentary were provid-
khan Duger, Director of the Department of Population ed by the following peer reviewers: Batmunkh Batsukh,
Development Policy Coordination, Amartugs Tsend- Professor at the School of Economic Studies, National
davaa, Head of the Labour Force Migration Division University of Mongolia, Demberel Ayush, Director of
of the Ministry of Labour, Nasanbayar Baavgai, former the Information Dissemination and Training Centre
Director of the Strategic Policy and Planning Depart- of NSO, Erdenebat Bat-Amgalan, Mongolian Students
ment of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, Federation, and Batkhuu Borkhuu, Consultant. Many
Soyolgerel Gochoo, Child and Adolescent Health De- individuals were directly or indirectly involved in the
partment Specialist of the Ministry of Health, Orosoo preparation of background papers, notes, additional sur-
Demberel, Governor of Bayanzurkh District of Ulaan- veys and communication activities. Among these, our
baatar City, Bolormaa Mashlai, Secretary of the National special thanks go to interns and assistants Bayasgalan
Committee on Gender Equality, Oyunchimeg Dandar, Batjargal, Suzanna Sumkhuu, Zoljargal Daramdorj and
Director of the Population and Social Statistics Depart- Anar Khangai.
ment of NSO, Baatarjav Dambadondog, President of
the Association of Disabled Persons of Mongolia, Ba- The team is most grateful to our former colleagues,
yarjargal Damdindagva, Executive Director of the Mon- Sezin Sinanoglu, UN Resident Coordinator and UNDP
golian Scout Association, Batsaikhan Khashbat, Presi- Resident Representative, Thomas Eriksson, UNDP
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRODUCTION TEAM................................................................................................................................. 3
FOREWORD............................................................................................................................................... 4
FOREWORD............................................................................................................................................... 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................................ 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................... 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................16
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The NHDR: What is it? What can it do?........................................................................................................................26
Analytical framework and structure of the report........................................................................................................27
What the NHDR is not......................................................................................................................................................28
The context of youth in Mongolia....................................................................................................................................28
Mongolias youth: key features..........................................................................................................................................29
Youth are a large, heterogeneous group.......................................................................................................................... 31
Youth issues are being addressed through national and sectoral policies.................................................................32
TABLE OF CONTENTS 9
CHAPTER 7. YOUTH POLICY AND BEYOND
Pillar 1: developing capability..........................................................................................................................................133
Pillar 2: increasing opportunity...................................................................................................................................... 135
Pillar 3: empowering youth............................................................................................................................................. 137
Pillar 4: enhancing human security................................................................................................................................138
The challenges in developing and implementing a national youth policy...............................................................139
ANNEXES
Annex I The preparation of the sixth NHDR.............................................................................................................144
Annex II Mongolias previous NHDRs and their impact.......................................................................................... 147
Annex III Technical note: methodology update..........................................................................................................148
Annex IV Changes in the methodology for estimating the HDI.............................................................................150
Annex V Indicators used in the estimation of the MPI in Mongolia...................................................................... 151
Annex VI The performance in education.....................................................................................................................152
Annex VII The performance in health.........................................................................................................................153
Annex VIII Youth unemployment, by location, education and sex.........................................................................154
Annex IX Important milestones in a young persons life in Mongolia................................................................... 155
Annex X Population profile of Mongolia.....................................................................................................................156
Annex XI Mapping youth and violence........................................................................................................................157
Notes......................................................................................................................................................158
References..............................................................................................................................................161
FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Youth Population, 20102040.............................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 1.2 Net Internal Migration, by Age-Group, 20002010.........................................................................................31
Figure 2.1 HDI Country Comparison, 2014..........................................................................................................................38
Figure 2.2 Human Development Index, by Aimag, 2014....................................................................................................39
Figure 2.3 Changes in the Human Development Index and in Its Components, 19802014..................................... 40
Figure 2.4 Comparison: Life Expectancy at Birth, Selected Countries, 2014..................................................................41
Figure 2.5 Life Expectancy at Birth, by Sex, Mongolia, 20002014 ................................................................................41
Figure 2.6 Comparison of HDI and IHDI: Losses Because of Inequality, 2014............................................................42
Figure 2.7 Losses in the HDI Because of Inequality, by Aimag, 2014..............................................................................43
Figure 2.8 Composition of the MPI, Mongolia, 2013..........................................................................................................45
Figure 2.9 Contributions of the MPI Dimensions to the MPI, 2013............................................................................... 46
Figure 3.1 School Attendance Rates, 15-Year-Olds, 2000 and 2010.................................................................................51
Figure 3.2 School Attendance Rates, 16- to 19-Year-Olds, 2000 and 2010......................................................................52
Figure 3.3 Sex Ratios in School Attendance, by Age-Group, 2000 and 2010.................................................................52
Figure 3.4 Enrolments among Youth with Disabilities, by Age and Sex..........................................................................53
Figure 3.5 Increasing Demand for Access to Higher Education among Youth, 2000 and 2010.................................56
Figure 3.6 Population with Higher Educational Attainment, by Quintile, 20022014.................................................57
Figure 3.7 Enrolments in TVET Schools, 20022014........................................................................................................58
Figure 3.8 World Alcohol Consumption population .......................................................................................................... 64
Figure 3.9 Adolescent Birth Rate, 19902013.......................................................................................................................66
Figure 4.1 Trends in the Number of the Employed, 15- to 34-Year-Olds, by Sex, 20002010....................................76
Figure 4.2 Unemployment Rates, by Educational Attainment, 15- to 24-Year-Olds, 2011...........................................78
Figure 4.3 Youth Unemployed for More Than a Year, by Sex, 20112013.......................................................................79
Figure 4.4 Reasons for Unemployment, 15- to 24- year-olds, 2014.................................................................................. 80
Figure 4.5 Youth Employment Status, by Location, 2010...................................................................................................81
Figure 4.6 Employment, 1524 Age-Group, by Type of Economy, Sex, and Location, 2014......................................83
Figure 4.7 Employment Status among the Disabled, 2010..................................................................................................83
Figure 4.8 Economic Activity among 20- to 29-Year-Olds, 2010..................................................................................... 84
Figure 4.9 Students in Tertiary Education, by Major Field of Study, 2002/20032014/2015......................................86
Figure 5.1 Voting among Youth 1834 Years of Age...........................................................................................................93
Figure 5.2 The Understanding of Democracy among Asian Youth..................................................................................96
Figure 5.3 Satisfaction in Governance, 1529 Age-Group, by Education and Residence, 2014..................................98
Figure 5.4 Reasons for Lack of Interest in Politics, 2014................................................................................................. 100
TABLE OF CONTENTS 11
Figure 6.1 Victims and Individuals Sentenced for Crimes, by Age Cohort, 20072015.............................................116
Figure 7.1 Mongolias Human DevelopmentBased Youth Policy..................................................................................132
Figure I.1 Institutional Structure of the Report Preparation Process............................................................................145
Figure VI.1 Highest Level of Education Completed, 10+ Age-Group.............................................................................152
Figure IX.1 M ilestones in a Young Persons Life in Mongolia............................................................................................155
TABLES
Table 2.1 Mongolias Progress in the HDI, 19802014...................................................................................................37
Table 2.2 HDI Growth, 19902014....................................................................................................................................37
Table 2.3 The Multidimensional Poverty Index, Mongolia, 2013................................................................................. 46
Table 3.1 Public Expenditure on Education, 20022015 ..............................................................................................60
Table 3.2 Life Expectancy among Youth, by Age Cohort and Sex, 1990 and 2012 ..................................................61
Table 3.3 Tobacco Consumption among Youth, by Age and Sex, 20052013 ...........................................................63
Table 3.4 Health Consequences of Alcohol Abuse, 2012................................................................................................65
Table 3.5 Age-Specific Abortion Rates among Young Women, 20032013...............................................................66
Table 3.6 Sexual Behaviour among 15- to 24-Year-Olds ................................................................................................67
Table 3.7 Health Sector Revenue and Expenditure, 20002012...................................................................................70
Table 4.1 The School-to-Work Transition, 15- to 29-Year-Olds, by Sex and Location, 2009 ..................................75
Table 4.2 Youth Unemployment Rates, by Age Cohort, 20122014 ............................................................................77
Table 4.3 Total Unemployed, by Length of Unemployment, 20092013 ....................................................................78
Table 4.4 Youth Employment, by Sector, 20092014 .....................................................................................................82
Table 4.5 Employment Categories among the 1534 Age-Group, 20092014 ..........................................................82
Table 5.1 Voter Turnout in Elections for the State Great Khural, 19922012............................................................94
Table 5.2 Trust of Youth in Political Institutions, 2014 ..................................................................................................98
Table 5.3 Interest in Political News among Youth, by Age Cohort, 2014 ...................................................................99
Table 5.4 Youth Involvement in Political Life: Opportunities and Barriers, 2014 ................................................. 100
Table 5.5 Members of the State Great Khural, by Age-Group and Sex, 19922012 ..............................................101
Table 5.6 Engagement of Youth with Government, Community Leaders, or the Media, 2014 ............................102
Table 5.7 Youth Social and Political Activism, by Sex, Education and Location, 2014 ..........................................103
Table 5.8 Volunteerism among Youth...............................................................................................................................105
Table 5.9 Internet Use among Youth, by Age Cohort and Sex, 2014 .........................................................................106
Table 5.10 Sources of Information, by Age Cohort, 2014 ..............................................................................................107
Table 6.1 Vulnerability of Young People to Six Types of Violence.............................................................................113
Table 6.2 The Extent of Violence in Schools, by Age Cohort and Sex, 2013 ...........................................................115
Table 6.3 Attempted Suicides among 13- to 17-Year-Olds, 2013 ................................................................................119
Table 6.4 Possible Factors Contributing to the Vulnerability of Youth to Violence.................................................121
Table 6.5 Social Security Benefits Available to Youth................................................................................................... 126
Table IV.1 National Human Development Indices: Reference Period and Explanatory Notes...............................150
Table V.1 Indicators Used to Construct the MPI, Mongolia.........................................................................................151
Table VI.1 Performance in Education, Global Human Capital Index, Mongolia.......................................................152
Table VII.1 Leading Causes of Mortality among Youth, by Age Cohort, 2010 and 2012 ..........................................153
Table VII.2 Risk Exposure: Survey Responses, 16- to 17-Year-Old Students, Mongolia ...........................................153
Table VIII.1 Unemployed, by Residence, 20092013 .........................................................................................................154
Table VIII.2 Unemployment Rates, 1534 Age-Group, by Education and Sex, 20112013 .......................................154
Table X.1 Population Profile, Mongolia, 20002015......................................................................................................156
Table XI.1 Mapping Youth Vulnerability to Violence and Stakeholder Responses to Violence...............................157
Units
% percent
togrogs, the Mongolian currency
123131 15
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This National Human Development Report category. Over the past two decades, Mon-
(NHDR) of Mongolia the sixth in the se- golia has evolved into a vibrant multiparty
ries focuses on youth. Through the me- democracy with a booming economy, and
dium of the human development approach, it is now at the threshold of a major trans-
it analyses the opportunities, choices and formation driven by the exploitation of its
challenges facing young people in Mongo- vast mineral resources.3
lia today. This approach places people at the
centre of development. It concentrates on To what extent are youth in Mongolia ben-
enlarging peoples opportunities and choic- efiting from the economic growth, the pro-
es to live long, healthy and productive lives. gress in social development and the other
opportunities? What challenges are they
A key overriding message of this report facing in making the choice to achieve
is the contribution of youth to building a outcomes that they value and have rea-
better tomorrow in Mongolia. This contri- son to value?4 What policies are in place
bution depends largely on the capabilities to address these challenges? What can be
and opportunities open to youth in making done by stakeholders to include youth in
choices. Young people are the shapers and the countrys growth and development?
leaders of our global future.1 Like young These are some of the questions motivat-
people elsewhere, Mongolias youth pos- ing this NHDR, which analyses the issues
sess the potential to become the drivers of around four pillars of human development
change and play a significant role in the na- important to youth: developing capabilities,
tions future. They are the first generation in expanding employment opportunities, em-
the country to have spent most of their lives powering youth, and enhancing human se-
under a democratic form of government. curity.
This has been crucial to their outlook and
their experience. Developing the capabilities of
At more than one million, youth aged 15 youth
34 years represent the largest demographic
Enhancing access to knowledge and edu-
group in Mongolia, accounting for 34.9 per-
cation and fostering long and healthy lives
cent of the resident population in 2015 and
among people are two important dimen-
a significant share of the people of work-
ing age. Even by 2040, when the countrys sions of the human development approach.
population is expected to reach 4 million,
an estimated 29 percent will be in the 1534 Youth education
age-group.
Equipping youth with the ability to
The annual growth in gross domestic prod- think creatively through all levels of ed-
uct (GDP) of Mongolia increased to 6.7 ucation and fostering the proper align-
percent in 20052010 and then accelerat- ment of education with labour market
ed to 12.2 percent in 20102014. However, demands are important markers in pre-
according to the World Bank, the growth paring youth for productive, fulfilling
in GDP is projected to have slowed to 2.3 lives.
percent in 2015 and to 0.8 percent in 2016
Education not only enhances job oppor-
because of a sharp contraction in mining
tunities, but also helps people realize the
production and despite a gradual recovery
significance of other aspects of human de-
in non-mining sectors.2 Nearly one person
velopment, such as better health, greater
in five is living below the poverty line, and
empowerment and more active participa-
the regional disparities within the country
tion in society. Mongolia has achieved ap-
are visible. Nonetheless, Mongolia has made
preciable advances in making education ac-
substantial progress in the human develop-
cessible to all citizens, especially youth.
ment index (HDI) at the national level and
is placed in the high human development
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 17
of laboratories in educational establish- Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are
ments, and the acquisition of new textbooks now a major health risk in Mongolia and
and other soft items. account for nearly 80 percent of all deaths.
Deaths by accidents, injuries, poisoning, or
The report concludes that, to foster the de- other external causes are responsible for the
velopment of youth capabilities, the prob- largest share of the deaths across all youth
lems in equitable access to good-quality ed- age cohorts and have been trending upward
ucation, including the expansion of access as causes of death among these age cohorts
among young people with disabilities and since 2010. NCDs often become established
youth in low-income families, must be ur- during adolescence and young age, although
gently addressed through immediate actions most are preventable and treatable. Adoles-
by the Government and other stakeholders. cents and youth have a great potential for
practicing healthy lifestyles if there is an ap-
Youth health propriate policy and support environment.
The adoption of healthy lifestyles is cru-
The report examines the role of structural
cial to reducing health risks and avoid-
factors in the exposure of youth to situa-
ing preventable disease so that youth
tions of risk and explores the opportunity
may live long and healthy lives.
to create a supportive environment for the
Good health is critical to the development adoption of healthy lifestyles among youth.
of young peoples capabilities. Health and In Mongolia, it is evident that structural fac-
well-being are not only crucial to the im- tors such as the low price of tobacco and
mediate quality of life and productivity of alcohol, the excessive marketing and adver-
young people, but they also shape the fu- tisement of unhealthy food items, the high
ture welfare of the population and society. price of fruits, the limited access to sports
However, the exposure of youth in Mongo- and healthy leisure facilities, and the inade-
lia to situations of risk can undermine fu- quate implementation of restrictions on al-
ture capabilities, limit the opportunities to cohol and tobacco use are negatively affect-
avoid preventable disease and mortality and ing the adoption of healthy behaviours by
restrict the possibility of living healthy and young people. The report therefore argues
productive lives. that, despite a tobacco control law and the
recent toughening of traffic regulations, the
A key concern is the slow growth in life Government must take more forceful pol-
expectancy among youth in the 1534 age- icy action to address the structural factors
group. While young women in this group affecting unsafe and unhealthy behaviours
have added two or three years to their lives among youth.
since 1990, life expectancy among young
men has declined across all youth age co- The analysis indicates that the increase in
horts. For example, men are four times the adolescent birth rate is affecting the
more susceptible to traffic accidents than gender inequality index (GII) negatively.
women. The birth rate among adolescents in Mon-
golia is higher than the average in the Asia
The report highlights that the root cause of and Pacific region. It rose from 19 births
the slow progress in life expectancy among per 1,000 women aged 1519 years in 2003
youth and in adult mortality rates may lie to 29 in 2013. The unmet need for family
in the high prevalence of situational risk planning is highest among this age-group,
factors such as alcohol and tobacco abuse, at 36.4 percent. Sexually transmitted infec-
unbalanced diets, lack of physical activity, tions (STIs) continue to represent a major
and obesity among adolescents and youth. public health issue because of widespread,
The analysis indicates that youth in Mon- unsafe sexual behaviours. Young people
golia consume far fewer fruits and vegeta- aged 15 to 24 are not the major age-group
bles and exhibit more than twice the salt for reported cases of HIV, comprising only
consumption relative to the internationally about 20 percent of the cumulative cases.
recommended daily allowance. The share of However, they do account for a majority of
youth who are overweight or obese is high. the reported cases of STIs (ranging between
Close to one third of young people smoke. 40 percent and 50 percent annually), which
Alcohol use is also substantial. suggests that risk scenarios exist rendering
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 19
over the last two or three years has severe- Since 2000, well over 40 percent of the rise
ly affected the employment opportunities in employment has occurred in the service
among youth in the sector and in associated sector, which employs a large share of youth.
sectors. However, most of these jobs are part time or
temporary and do not provide employment
The unemployment rate in 2013 was 10.8 security and stability. Similarly, among youth
percent among the 1534 age-group. It was aged 1534 who are in primary employment,
highest among the 2024 age-group, at 17.0 more than 30 percent are employed in the in-
percent, which was more than twice the na- formal sector. Despite the boom in the con-
tional average rate. Youth unemployment struction industry in recent years, the share
in aimag (province) and soum (district) ad- of young construction workers has risen
ministrative centres, at 17.019.0 percent, only modestly, from 6 percent to 8 percent.
was well above the national average, which Around 80 percent of persons with disabili-
means that opportunities for employment ties are economically inactive. (There are no
among youth in the aimag and soum centres specific data on employment among youth
were limited. with disabilities.)
Among youth looking for suitable jobs, 63 The report makes a strong case that young
percent have been looking for more than a women face more difficulties in entering or
year, and 40 percent have been looking for re-entering the labour market. The unem-
more than three years. This indicates that ployment rate is higher among young women
youth are more vulnerable to long-term un- than among young men, and it has been ris-
employment and economic insecurity. In this ing among young women. The occupational
environment, youth are in danger of experi- segregation of women is widespread, result-
encing an erosion in skills, a loss in lifetime ing in a concentration of women in a narrow
earnings and greater vulnerability to health range of occupations such as education (80.6
and other risks. They may also become dis- percent), health and welfare (79.4 percent),
couraged from actively seeking jobs. Low and the social sciences, business and law
wages, low labour demand, inadequate pro- (64.3 percent). In engineering, manufactur-
fessional experience, lack of appropriate ing and construction, only 30.0 percent of
qualifications, and lack of information about graduates are women, indicating that there is
available jobs are among the most common a clear underrepresentation of women in sci-
reasons why unemployed youth are unable to ence and technologyrelated fields. Young
find employment. women earn 1.4 times less than young men.
The report emphasizes that more well edu- They dominate in unpaid work: in 2011, 17
cated youth face a higher risk of unemploy- percent of 25- to 29-year-old women re-
ment, which appears to be a perverse out- ported they took care of the home, versus
come of the higher returns to education. The only 1 percent of the men in this age-group.
rates of unemployment among young people The gender gap in the labour market among
with TVET and higher educational attain- youth is evident, and this indicates a need for
ment are much greater than the rates among gender-sensitive labour market policies.
young people with lower levels of education- The Government has placed job creation
al attainment. at the centre of economic and labour poli-
The employment elasticity of growth has cy and programmes by undertaking to link
fallen continuously across many sectors macroeconomic policymaking and labour
since 2000. The growth of mining and the market policies, to invest in initiatives to in-
overall economy, fueled by the increase in tensify industrial development and manufac-
commodity prices, has done little to raise turing, to enhance employment promotion
employment. This is one of the many chal- programmes among young people, persons
lenges in the effort to translate growth into with disabilities, migrants and students, and
productive employment among youth. to expand training and retraining among the
unemployed. Nonetheless, more effort is re-
The employment status of youth varies con- quired to support sustainable and productive
siderably by location. In 2010, about 39.2 youth employment through much larger and
percent of urban youth were employed, com- more intensive youth employment promo-
pared with 22.2 percent among rural youth. tion programmes.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 23
Chapter 1
Introduction
The SDGs reflect major concerns revolving around youth. This is Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
evident in several of the goals and the related targets, as follows: Among the relevant targets:
Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate
lifelong learning opportunities for all changerelated planning and management, including focusing
Among the relevant targets: on women, youth and local and marginalized communities
By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
with technical and vocational skills for employment, decent jobs development, provide access to justice for all and build effective,
and entrepreneurship accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of Among the relevant targets:
adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates
Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic everywhere
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence
Among the relevant targets: against and torture of children
By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in These four goals and the related targets are clearly linked with the
employment, education, or training four thematic pillars of the report described in the next section.
By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth
Source: UN, 2015.
employment
Box 1.2
The 2016 NHDR and the Capability Approach
The capability approach of Amartya Sen is a moral framework puts human agency (rather than organizations such as markets or
according to which social arrangements should be evaluated governments) at the centre of the stage. The crucial role of social
primarily by the freedom they allow so that individuals may promote opportunities is to expand the realm of human agency and freedom,
or achieve the functionings the individuals value. All formulations in both as an end in itself and as a means of further expansion of
this evaluative approach towards capability have two parts: freedom freedom.c
and valuable beings and doings (functionings). This approach fits in well with and, indeed, is a foundation of the
The focus here is on the freedom that a person actually has to do this concept of human development as exemplified in this 2016 NHDR.
or be that, things that he or she may value doing or being.a Human development is the expansion of peoples freedoms to live
For Sen, this freedom has two aspects: (1) the process aspect, long, healthy and creative lives; to advance other goals they have
that is, the ability to act on behalf of what matters (agency), which reason to value, and to engage actively in shaping development
includes institutions, movements and democratic practice, and equitably and sustainably on a shared planet. People are both the
(2) the opportunity aspect, that is, the real opportunity to achieve beneficiaries and the drivers of human development, as individuals
valued functionings selected from among various good possibilities and in groups.
(capability). Agency is the ability of people to act on what they value
Source: Alkire, 2011.
and have reason to value. It is what a person is free to do and a. Sen, 2009, pp. 231232.
achieve in pursuit of whatever goals or values he or she regards as b. Sen, 1985, p. 203.
important.b c. Dreze and Sen, 2002, p. 6.
d. UNDP, 2010, p. 2.n
The approach . . . is essentially a people-centred approach, which
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 27
The key areas analysed in the report are or- the country and lays out the context of youth
ganized into four thematic pillars around in Mongolia. Chapter 2 reviews the progress
human development: in human development in Mongolia. Recent
global estimates of the human development
Pillar 1: develop capabilities among
index (HDI) are used to assess Mongolias
youth, that is, expand the access of
progress at the national level, and the HDIs
young people to good-quality education
by regions and aimags (provinces) are calcu-
and health care and create awareness of
lated by the NHDR national team to assess
and encourage healthy lifestyles
the progress in human development within
Pillar 2: increase opportunities among the country. Chapters 36 form the core of
youth, which requires skill enhance- the report and are structured around the
ment and greater access to employment above four thematic pillars. Within each
opportunities pillar, the analysis focuses on the oppor-
tunities and the challenges youth face and
Pillar 3: empower youth by enhancing concludes with suggestions for developing
political participation and social en- the capabilities of youth, enhancing young
gagement peoples employment prospects, political
participation and social engagement, and
Pillar 4: promote a safe and secure en-
improving the personal security of youth.
vironment by improving the emotional
Chapter 7 concludes with recommenda-
and civil security of young people, ex-
tions to promote development that is more
panding their access to social protec-
inclusive of youth, to make Mongolias de-
tion, and reducing their vulnerability to
velopment trajectory more youth-friendly
violence
and to take advantage of the opportunities
The report consists of seven chapters. Chap- offered by the bulge among youth cohorts
ter 1, this introduction, briefly describes the in the countrys population distribution for
process of NHDR preparation, highlights the overall development of Mongolia.
the importance of youth development for
The NHDR is neither original research nor Mongolia. Through rigorous analyses and
an academic survey of the literature. It is a the objective use of evidence, it reaches
synthesis document that draws on mostly several conclusions, focuses attention on
national data and research to illustrate cru- key issues, and raises critical questions that,
cial messages for policymaking. It touches hopefully, will be debated during the for-
on a range of topics and themes, but does mulation and implementation of the Gov-
not address all challenges facing youth in ernments youth development policy.
Over the past 25 years, Mongolia has un- in 20102014.13 As a result, with a per capita
dergone rapid socio-economic and politi- gross national income (GNI) of US$4,280
cal changes that have transformed it from in 2014, Mongolia is classified as an up-
a socialist country to a multiparty democ- per-middle-income country by the World
racy and a market economy. The economy Bank.14 According to World Bank estimates,
has grown rapidly over the last 15 years. the GDP growth rate is projected to have
The average annual growth in gross do- dropped to 2.3 percent in 2015 and to 0.8
mestic product (GDP) was 5.6 percent in percent in 2016 because of a sharp contrac-
20002005, increased to 6.7 percent in tion in mining production, despite a grad-
20052010 and accelerated to 12.2 percent ual recovery in non-mining sectors.15 The
Box 1.3
Why Focus on Youth?
Young men and women can play a key role in the development Young people today are likely to be healthier and more well educated
process.a Mongolia is a country of young people. Like young people than their parents and can take advantage of modern communications
elsewhere, Mongolias youth are shaping the future of the nation, technologies and media that enable them to engage more fully in
which critically depends on how well youth are integrated into the society. They need to be prepared to live and work in the context
countrys development and become responsible and productive of a quickly changing world, rapid globalization, a technological
citizens. They are the first generation in the country to have spent revolution and the challenges of employment and earning livelihoods.
most of their lives under a democratic government. This has been Youth are the driving force towards the achievement of the SDGs by
crucial to their outlook and their experience. 2030 and of the Sustainable Development Vision2030 of Mongolia,
At more than one million, youth aged 1534 represent the largest which was approved by the State Great Khural (the national
demographic group in the country, constituting 34.9 percent of the parliament) in early February 2016.
population in 2015. Young people are a potential resource of the Although youth have many more opportunities and advantages today
countys economic development, given that they accounted for a than ever before, they face many more challenges that may undermine
significant share of the working-age population in 2015.b their capabilities when they become adults. Greater attention by all
Youth make up 45 percent of the voters in the country, and the stakeholders is thus required to develop the capabilities, increase the
youth vote is likely to become increasingly important and often economic opportunities, strengthen the empowerment, and enhance
even decisive in determining electoral outcomes.c Establishing a the human security of youth, the future of the country.
democratic space and fostering the social engagement of youth are
important for establishing a stable democracy, improving the quality a. UNDP, 2014a.
of governance and creating an active and responsible citizenry. b. NSO, 2015a.
Without opportunities for the meaningful engagement of youth, the c. UNDP, 2014b.
genuine needs and concerns of young people risk being ignored,
thereby supporting economic and social instability.
As a demographic group, youth refers to a adult such as forming opinions and taking
period of transition from the dependence responsibility.
of childhood to the independence of adult-
hood.17 As an age category, youth defies For statistical consistency, the UN defines
easy classification. The lower-bound age youth as the age-group between 15 and 24
often coincides with the minimum age for years, though it recognizes that the meaning
leaving school, usually around age 15. There of the term varies across societies around
is greater variation in the upper-bound age the world.18 Governmental agencies and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
based on psychological maturity, social ac-
in Mongolia use a variety of age ranges to
ceptance, economic independence and abil-
define youth, typically starting around 15
ity to participate in activities considered
and ending between 25 and 39.19 The Na-
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 29
tional Statistical Office of Mongolia (NSO) Youth represent the largest demographic
uses the UN age-classification (1524 years) group and are mostly urban
for statistical purposes. The range of 15
According to the 2010 Population and
34 years is used in the 2006 Government
Housing Census, the 1534 age-group is the
Youth Development Programme and in the
largest demographic group in the country,
2015 draft of the new youth policy.20
representing over 38 percent of the popula-
It is hoped an agreed official definition of tion (figure 1.1). The age-group is projected
the age range for youth can be established to make up 31 percent of the population in
through a national dialogue. Meanwhile, 2020. Even by 2040, when the total popula-
to ensure data consistency and uniformity tion is expected to reach 4 million, an esti-
in analyses and to reflect the local reality, mated 29 percent will be in this age-group.
this report uses the widely accepted 1534
age-classification to define youth.
Figure 1.1
Youth Population, 20102040
% of total population
50 38.6
40 31.4 32.5 29.3 32.5
28 27.7 28.1
Percent
30 21.4
16.8
20
5.7 8.0
10
0
2010 2020 2040
Year
Note: The figure reflects population projection scenario B, which is based on data of the 2010 Population and Housing Census.
Source: NSO, 2011a.
The youth bulge in the age distribution of better opportunities. Nearly 60 percent of
the population in Mongolia represents a the migrants to Ulaanbaatar, the capital, in
boom generation a generation that is 20002010 were in the 1534 age-group,
larger than those immediately before and and the peak migration occurred among the
after that is gradually working its way 1524 age-group (figure 1.2). According to
through the nations age structure.21 As it the 2010 Population and Housing Census,
passes through the working-age population, over 107,000 Mongolians had been resid-
this bulge can produce a demographic divi- ing in foreign countries for more than six
dend in economic growth. months, of which 63.0 percent were youth
aged 1534 years. There is a need for more
One of the most dramatic changes in
sociological and anthropological research
Mongolias population in recent decades
on this phenomenon and on the impact of
has been the increase in rural-to-urban
migration on youth development.
and external migration. Youth, in particu-
lar, are most likely to migrate in search of
50
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80+
Age (years)
Currently, 72 percent of the young live in and different ideas and ways of behaving,
cities, and two urban dwellers in five are and acquire greater independence. Howev-
in the 1534 age-group. While young mi- er, they also face numerous challenges. This
grants are often separated from their par- highlights the importance of paying atten-
ents and traditional support networks, they tion to the mobility of young people in ur-
have a greater opportunity to mix with a ban policy and planning.
diverse group of people, be exposed to new
Young women and men in the 1534 age- Most of the 2534 age-group more than
group are a large, heterogeneous group. 563,000 individuals in 2014 are entering or
The needs, aspirations and challenges of the becoming stable in the job market, marry-
younger age cohorts the 1519 and 20 ing, forming families, or becoming parents.
24 age-groups are substantially different Among this group, building careers, earn-
from those of the older cohort, the 2534 ing good incomes, possessing independent
age-group. The 1519 age-group more accommodations, acquiring high-quality
than 244,000 individuals in 2014 needs nutrition, caring for children, and gaining
universal access to good-quality education, access to good family planning services are
including life skillsbased health educa- key concerns. Even if young people in this
tion, sports and leisure facilities and ado- age-group have jobs, it is estimated that
lescent-friendly health services for healthy more than three fifths of young employees
physical, emotional and psychological de- lack sufficient income to cover their daily
velopment. Nearly one 15- to 19-year-old needs; half require the support of others to
in five has migrated, often to pursue better survive, and 60 percent of those who are
education or employment (see figure 1.2). married are still living with their parents.22
The 2024 age-group nearly 278,000 Overall and like young people elsewhere,
individuals in 2014 requires appropri- Mongolias youth are dynamic, creative and
ate good-quality tertiary or vocational ed- full of aspirations and enjoy the potential of
ucation and skills development that can becoming drivers of change and playing a
prepare them for future employment. The significant role in the countrys future. They
unemployment rate is highest among this are more well educated than their parents,
age-group, at 17 percent. more urbanized, and more well connected
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 31
with each other as well as with the rest of with mental or physical disabilities and les-
the world through the use of information bian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT)
and communication technology (ICT), so- youth often face stigma and discrimina-
cial media and the Internet. tion at work or school, in public places and
even within the family.23 This heterogeneity
There are also young people who are living among the youth population demonstrates
on the street, low-income young people, the importance of addressing the age-spe-
young people in the juvenile justice system, cific priorities and concerns of diverse
youth addicted to alcohol, victims of sexu- youth groups in policymaking. Particularly
al, physical, and emotional abuse, and youth the inclusion of marginalized and hard-to-
who receive little or no support from their reach young people is essential.
families, schools, or communities. Youth
Youth issues are being addressed through national and sectoral policies
Governments worldwide have been gradu- several other political and economic rights
ally recognizing the importance of policy in directly tied to human development (Article
addressing young peoples concerns, hopes 14). Overarching national policies such as
and needs. Of 198 countries, 122 currently the Comprehensive National Development
have national youth policies, a 50 percent Strategy (20082021), which is based on the
rise since 2013.24 Mongolia had no specific Millennium Development Goals, also cover
youth policy until the Government recent- many crucial aspects of youth development
ly drafted a youth development policy and in education, health care, employment, sci-
submitted it to the State Great Khural (the ence and technology, and family affairs.25
national parliament). The Sustainable Development Vision2030
of Mongolia that was recently approved by
The Government has been addressing the State Great Khural includes broader,
youth issues through broader national and youth-specific strategies in these same areas.
sectoral policies and programmes. The
broader sectoral policies involving initia- Two trends are clear from this brief re-
tives on education, health, employment and view of the policies and initiatives of the
security among youth are discussed in sub- Government. First, while much has been
sequent chapters. achieved in favour of youth, youth issues
have been embedded in larger sectoral
Since the country transitioned to a mar- policies, and, so, it is difficult to assess the
ket economy and to democracy during the impact on youth. Second, a lack of coor-
1990s, a wide range of legal and policy re- dination and funding across sectors and
forms have been undertaken. Young people ministries is a key weakness. One may hope
have benefited from general policies. Youth that the comprehensive youth development
have also played a key role in the demo- policy currently being prepared and debat-
cratic change. For example, the leaders of ed will address these limitations by placing
the Mongolian democratic movement were more emphasis on the greater involvement
young, in their 20s and 30s. Broader legal of young people, adequate funding, and
and policy reforms have opened many op- intersectoral and interministerial coordina-
portunities to young people as well as other tion. Considering these gaps and the lessons
groups. learned in the formulation and implemen-
The Constitution of Mongolia, which was tation of youth-inclusive and youth-specif-
adopted in 1992, offers legal guarantees ic policies and programmes is important.
to all citizens, including young people, Numerous interventions focused on youth
through rights to personal liberty and to have already been undertaken (box 1.4).
live in a healthy and safe environment and
Mongolias policies and interventions in favour of youth have a long Protection formed a national committee on youth development and
history. The first youth organization, Boshgiig halah zaluuchuudiin initiated the development of youth policy and programmes and the
evlel, a predecessor of the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Union, was establishment of youth development centres. Monthly consultation
established in 1921. It was active in all aimags and soums (districts) meetings with youth organizations have also been institutionalized.
and served as the national youth organization until the 1990s.a Other youth-specific interventions include the Youth Employment
During the socialist period, youth-specific policies and interventions Promotion Programme, the Youth Labour Exchange, an extension of
were influenced by the political agenda of the time. They were student scholarships for study abroad, the establishment of the 1000
developed and implemented by the state.b The primary objective Students Camp, and the housing programme for young couples. It
was to provide free education and health care services to all citizens, is important to expand such youth-specific initiatives and invest
including youth, and promote youth employment and involvement in more in efforts to address the specific needs of the various youth age
social life. cohorts through youth policies and programmes that encompass the
greater involvement of young people.
The 2006 National Programme to Promote Adolescent and Youth
Development (20072015) was the first youth-specific programme Mongolias young people were actively engaged in the national
in the country. It supported the development of youth capabilities consultations organized by the UN Country Team in 20122014 on
and aimed to enhance youth participation through civil society the post-2015 development agenda. The concerns raised by young
organizations.c The 2013 evaluation of the 2006 Youth Development people during the consultations were focused on high unemployment,
Programme conducted by the Ministry of Population Development the poor quality of education, the mismatch between education and
and Social Protection concluded that few objectives of the programme job opportunities, and the poor quality of health services.e Mongolias
had been met, and many challenges had been encountered during young people also participated actively in the global UN survey,
implementation because of a lack of funding (only about 47 The World We Want. The results show that Mongolian youth are
million were allocated during 20082009), poor coordination, weak especially concerned about health, education, employment and
programme management, and limited youth involvement.a environmental issues.f
The Government Action Plan for 20122016 emphasizes five key
a. MPDSP, 2013.
areas, all of which have a direct bearing on youth development: b. IPSL, 2014.
citizens with jobs and incomes, a healthy and strong citizen, an c. World Vision Mongolia, UNESCO, and NAC, 2013.
educated and knowledgeable citizen, a citizen living in a safe d. Government of Mongolia, 2012.
e. UN Country Team, 2014.
environment, and a free citizen.d f. Have Your Say (database), My World 2015, United Nations, New York, http://data.
myworld2015.org/?country=Mongolia.
In accordance with the action plan, the Government has implemented
several initiatives specific to youth in recent years. The Youth Division
established within the Ministry of Population Development and Social
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 33
Chapter 2
Human development
in Mongolia
0.523
1980
Life expectancy index
HDI index
GNI index
Education index
1. The improvement in the HDI in Mongolia has been remarkable. countries in the region if inequalities across all the three
The HDI of 0.727 places the country within the high human dimensions of the HDI are factored in (see figure 2.6).
development country category with a rank of 90th among 188 5. National estimates show HDIs vary across aimags. Aimags with
countries.a Between 1980 and 2014, life expectancy at birth higher HDIs are better at providing more equitable access to health
increased by 12.5 years; mean years of schooling rose by 3.5 care, education and employment opportunities. All urban centres
years; the expected years of schooling expanded by 4.3 years, have HDIs that are higher than or close to the national average
and the GNI per capita surged by a factor of 3.3. HDI, indicating greater-than-average access to education, health
2. The expansion in education coverage, a component of the HDI, care and job opportunities, which may be both a reason for and a
is a significant achievement. A child starting school in 2014 can consequence of substantial rural-to-urban migration.
expect to receive 14.6 years of schooling, which is high relative to 6. Mongolias gender inequality index (GII) is at the average among
most of the countries in the high human development category.a the group of high human development countries and is a bit better
3. Mongolia has comparatively low life expectancy at birth relative to than the average among the countries in the Asia and Pacific
its level of economic growth. The gap between female and male region, with a value of 0.325, which ranks the country 63rd among
life expectancy has widened in the last decade, especially among 155 countries.a The GII has been declining since 2011, suggesting
young people. The slow progress in life expectancy and the gap that women and men generally enjoy equitable access to health
between female and male life expectancy require urgent attention. care and education.
a. UNDP, 2015a.
4. Mongolia loses less of its HDI value compared with selected
The focus of this chapter is the measure- However, the HDI alone is insufficient be-
ment of progress in human development cause human deprivation and development
in Mongolia. The centrepiece is the HDI, have many facets; so any index of human
which is a summary aggregate of a countrys progress should incorporate a range of in-
achievement along three key dimensions of dicators to capture this complexity.28 Thus,
human development, as follows: over the years, with improved understand-
ing of human development, the UNDP
Long and healthy life, measured by life Human Development Report Office and
expectancy at birth independent researchers have developed
Access to knowledge, measured by the a family of human development indices to
expected years of schooling among chil- measure progress on human development
dren of school-entry age and the mean (annex III).
years of schooling among the adult pop-
ulation26 Mongolias progress in human
development
A decent standard of living, measured
Global estimates indicate that Mongolias
by the GNI per capita as a proxy for the
HDI rose from 0.524 in 1980 to 0.727 in
cost of a basket of the goods and ser-
2014 (table 2.1). The value of the HDI in
vices needed for the best use of human
2014 put the country in the high human de-
capabilities27
velopment category, positioning Mongolia
at 90th among 188 economies. The rank is
shared with China and Fiji.29
To the extent that increased incomes expand Human development and economic growth
the range of choices and capabilities among are closely interrelated, and they affect each
individuals, economic growth enhances hu- other. Economic growth enhances human
man development. The impact of economic development because it allows economic
growth on the progress in human develop- agents to discover and develop their com-
ment is evident in Mongolias recent past. parative advantage, while enhanced capabil-
After the collapse of the centrally planned ities among individuals improve economic
economy in the early 1990s, Mongolia un- performance by permitting the individuals
derwent a painful transition to a market to pursue the occupations in which they are
economy and a pluralist democracy. Eco- most productive. Meanwhile, to sustain hu-
nomic stagnation and significant inflation man development, efforts to improve edu-
were accompanied by high unemployment cational attainment and health should none-
and school dropouts. The HDI rose by only theless have the same priority as efforts to
about 0.18 percent a year in 19902000 (ta- boost economic growth.
ble 2.2). In 20002010, when the economy
was recovering, the HDI grew at an average
Table 2.2
of about 1.7 percent a year, more quickly
relative to the previous decades. Overall, HDI Growth, 19902014
percent
economic growth led to impressive gains in
human development. Most of the improve- Years Average annual increase, %
ment in the HDI since 1990 took place in 19902000 0.18
20002014 when average annual economic 20002010 1.68
growth was around 7.0 percent. 20102014 1.11
19902014 0.96
Source: UNDP, 2015a.
Although Mongolias HDI is 2.3 percent lower than the average HDI among countries in
the high human development category, it is about 2.2 percent above the world average.
Figure 2.1
HDI Country Comparison, 2014
0.8
0.8
0.7
HDI
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Mongolia 0,578 0,589 0,695 0,706 0,714 0,722 0,727
Kyrgystan 0,615 0,593 0,634 0,639 0,645 0,652 0,655
Kazakhstan 0,690 0,679 0,766 0,772 0,778 0,785 0,788
Tajikistan 0,616 0,535 0,608 0,612 0,617 0,621 0,624
East Asia and Pacific Region 0,516 0,593 0,686 0,693 0,702 0,707 0,710
High Human Development Group 0,592 0,642 0,723 0,730 0,737 0,741 0,744
The following analysis of trends in the HDI cations offer better access to education and
and its component indices within Mongolia health care services and that there is a great-
is based on the HDI estimates developed er likelihood that the local populations are
by the NSO using national-level data. The more uniformly able to find employment
2014 national HDI estimates across aimags (figure 2.2). Ulaanbaatar, with around 46.0
reveal large differences in the progress in percent of the countrys population, has the
human development. An important feature highest HDI, at 0.812, which is almost 9
of the aimag HDIs is the clear rural-urban percent higher than the national average.31
divide. Thus, locations with large urban Together, Orkhon Aimag and Ulaanbaatar
centres, such as Orkhon Aimag and Ulaan- account for 48.6 percent of the countrys
baatar, have HDIs that are higher than the population, and one may therefore assume
national average, suggesting that these lo- that almost half the population lives in plac-
Figure 2.2
Human Development Index, by Aimag, 2014
Khovsgol 0,634
Ovorkhangai 0,643
Bayankhongor 0,655
Uvs 0,650
Arkhangai 0,663
Govi-Altai 0,660
Bayan-Olgii 0,657
Bulgan 0,671
Dundgovi 0,672
Zavkhan 0,674
Khentii 0,673
Tov 0,683
Sukhbaatar 0,681
Khovd 0,689
Dornogovi 0,706
Selenge 0,696
Dornod 0,706
Omnogovi 0,687
Darkhan-Uul 0,715
Govisumber 0,723
National 0,735
Orkhon 0,775
Ulaanbaatar 0,812
It is not difficult to identify the reason for the They also underline the uneven human de-
substantial population migration witnessed velopment across aimags, a fact that might
in recent years. Migrants to urban centres otherwise remain hidden.
in Darkhan-Uul and Orkhon aimags and
to Ulaanbaatar account for 80 percent of all However, the differences in HDIs across
internal migrants in Mongolia; Ulaanbaatar aimags should not be taken to imply there
alone attracts 67 percent. Most of the mi- is universal access to education, health care,
grants to Ulaanbaatar in 20052010 came or employment in the aimags with high-
from aimags in the Khangai region.32 Even er HDIs. Indeed, access to opportunities
though it is difficult to establish direct cau- is quite uneven within individual cities. A
sality between HDI values and migration, poverty mapping exercise based on 2010
the implication is clear: the differences in census data shows that there are sharp dis-
human development across aimags are an parities in poverty and shared prosperity
important factor that fuels migration from across the districts of Ulaanbaatar; thus,
aimags with lower HDIs to aimags with Nalaikh District is particularly poor in ac-
higher HDIs, where the prospects for an cess to services.33
improvement in the quality of life are better.
The per capita GNI index grew at an aver- contributed the most to the rise in the HDI
age annual rate of 1.9 percent in 20102014, during these years. The contributions of the
while the life expectancy index grew at 0.9 education and health components to the
percent, and the education index at 0.7 per- HDI were more limited.
cent (figure 2.3). Growth in the GNI index
Figure 2.3
Changes in the Human Development Index and in Its Components, 19802014
0,8
0,75
0,7
0,65
Index
0,6
0,55
0,5
0,45
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Years
The slow growth of the education index in schooling had shown up among the next co-
20112014 was largely the result of only a hort of people 25 years or older.
slight advance in the component indicators,
that is, the mean years of schooling and the The expected years of schooling component
expected years of schooling. Both indica- rose steadily because of the emphasis in re-
tors change slowly, but the reasons for the cent years on boosting school attendance.
low value of the mean years of schooling are A child who entered the education system
not difficult to recognize. People 25 years in 2014 can expect to receive 14.6 years of
or older at the time of the 2010 census the schooling, which is high relative to most
estimation of the mean years of schooling is countries in the high human development
based on 2010 census data had complet- group. The turnaround in the extension of
ed their education under the older system access to education to all children up to sec-
when the school entrance age was 8 years, ondary school and the expansion of enrol-
and a child completed secondary education ments at all levels of education, especially
in 10 years (chapter 3). The value of the since 2000, have thus been a remarkable
mean years of schooling was therefore not success and have contributed to the devel-
likely to contribute much to the education opment of the capabilities of young people.
index until the impact of the education re- However, youth still face considerable chal-
forms and the extended number of years of lenges in gaining equal access to high-qual-
ity education (chapter 3).
Mongolia has comparatively low life expec- age of the countries in the East Asia and
tancy at birth (69.4 years) relative to its level Pacific region and the high human develop-
of economic growth as well as to the aver- ment group (figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4
Comparison: Life Expectancy at Birth, Selected Countries, 2014
76 75
75 74
74
73
72
Years
71
71
70 69 69 69
69
68
67
66
Mongolia Kyrgystan Kazakhstan Tajikistan East Asia and High Human
Pacific Region Development
Group
Life expectancy at birth in Mongolia rose pectancy at birth. In 2014, the difference
steadily, from 64.2 years in 2000 to 67.3 was nearly 10.0 years, 75.5 years among
years in 2010 and to 69.4 years in 2014, women and 65.9 years among men, which
mainly because of improvements in infant is more than twice the world average of 4.6
and child survival after 1990.34 Both the in- years.36 In addition, female life expectancy
fant mortality rate and the under-5 mortali- is rising much more quickly than male life
ty rate declined sharply, by 76.9 percent and expectancy, and, so, the female-male gap is
81.3 percent, respectively, in 19902013.35 widening (figure 2.4).
Figure 2.5
Life Expectancy at Birth, by Sex, Mongolia, 20002014
years
80 9,6 10,0
9,6
9,1 75,49 9,5
Difference in mens and womens life
75 9,0
72,26
8,5
Life expectancy
68,61
70 8,0
expectancy
7,5
66,13 65,91
7,5
7,3
65 62,11
7,0
60,43 64,93 6,5
60 6,0
6,1
5,5
5,7 5,7
55 5,0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
The HDI is an average measure of basic HDI because of inequality is thus the dif-
achievements in human development in a ference between the HDI and the IHDI ex-
country. Like all averages, the HDI masks pressed as a percentage.
inequalities in the distribution of human
This is illustrated in figure 2.6, which is
development across a population. The in-
based on global estimates and shows that
equality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) was intro-
the loss in the HDI (the difference with the
duced in Human Development Report 2010
IHDI) was 12.9 percent in 2014. The adjust-
to measure the loss in human development
ment of the HDI according to the level of
because of inequality.37 The IHDI equals
the HDI if there is no inequality across the inequality indicates that Mongolia ranked
measured population, but it falls below the 60th among the 151 countries on which IH-
HDI if inequality widens.38 The loss in the DIs have been calculated.
Figure 2.6
Comparison of HDI and IHDI: Losses Because of Inequality, 2014
1,0 25,0
0,6 15,0
0,4 10,0
0,2 5,0
0,0 0,0
Mongolia Kyrgystan Kazakhstan Tajikistan East Asia and High Human
Pacific Region Development
Group
IHDI HDI Loss (%)
Figure 2.7
Losses in the HDI Because of Inequality, by Aimag, 2014
percent
Sukhbaatar 14,3
Bayankhongor 13,6
Khovd 13,5
Uvs 13,5
Dornogovi 13,0
Omnogovi 12,6
Arkhangai 12,4
Zavkhan 12,4
Govi-Altai 12,3
Darkhan-Uul 11,7
Dundgovi 11,6
Khentii 11,6
National 11,6
Govisumber 11,5
Tov 11,3
Dornod 11,2
Ovorkhangai 11,0
Ulaanbaatar 10,9
Khovsgol 10,8
Bayan-Olgii 10,8
Selenge 10,4
Orkhon 10,4
Bulgan 10,3
10,0 10,2 10,4 10,6 10,8 11,0 11,2 11,4 11,6 11,8 12,0 12,2 12,4 12,6 12,8 13,0 13,2 13,4 13,6 13,8 14,0 14,2 14,4
Box 2.2
Measuring Gender Inequality in Mongolia
A breakdown of the components of the GII indicates the successes Indicator 4, population with at least some secondary education: the
and the challenges in the effort to achieve gender equality. indicator of the share of men and women with at least secondary
Dimension 1: reproductive health educational attainment is estimated using 2000 and 2010 census
results. There has been no change in secondary educational
Indicator 1, maternal mortality ratio: the ratio registered a sharp
attainment among men (83.0 percent in both years). In contrast,
decline, from 121.5 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in 2001
secondary educational attainment among women rose from 77.8
to 30.0 in 2014. A decline in the ratio has a positive impact on the GII
percent in 2000 to 84.2 percent in 2010. Reducing the gender
at the national level. However, an increase of the ratio in the aimags
difference in secondary education has a positive impact on the GII.
has a substantial impact in worsening the GII across the regions of
the country. Dimension 3: the labour market
Indicator 2, adolescent birth rate: from 21 births per 1,000 adolescent Indicator 5, labour force participation rate: the methodology for
women (1519 years of age) in 2002, the rate rose to 29 births in estimating the labour force participation rate was changed in 2009,
2013. Mongolias adolescent birth rate is higher than the average and, so, the latest data cannot be compared with the data before
among the countries of the Asia and Pacific region. There is a need 2009. Since 2009, however, the average labour force participation
for a proper understanding of the causes of the recent increase before rate was 66.8 percent among men and 61.8 percent among women.
deciding on ways to reduce adolescent pregnancy. An increase in the Though the rate is lower among women, more men than women
adolescent birth rate affects the GII negatively. are unemployed.b This is because more boys and young men are
seeking employment relative to girls and young women. A large
Dimension 2: empowerment
share of women participate in unpaid family work, especially in rural
Indicator 3, share of seats in the State Great Khural: the representation areas. Although there is a disparity in the participation rates between
of women in the State Great Khural rose from a record low of 3.9 women and men, the above statistics suggest that the rate was more
percent in 2008 to 14.5 percent in 2012, which is below the world stable among both women and men in 20022014, and the impact
and Asia-Pacific averages of 22.9 percent and 18.8 percent, of the participation rates on changes in the GII may be negligible.
respectively.a The slow reduction in gender disparity in political
a. Parline Database on National Parliaments, Inter-Parliamentary Union, Geneva, http://
representation contributes negatively to the GII. www.ipu.org/parline-e/parlinesearch.asp.
b. NSO, 2015a.
The GII was 0.325 in 2014, putting Mon- and 4). Some aimags performed poorly on
golia at 63rd among 155 countries. The GII the GII because of deterioration in the re-
is at the average among the group of high productive health dimension. For instance,
human development countries and is a bit the GII in Khentii and Bayan-Ulgii aimags
better than the average among the countries worsened in 2014 relative to 2009 mainly
in the Asia and Pacific region (0.328). because of an increase in teenage pregnan-
cies in both aimags and an increase in ma-
Unlike the HDI, a higher GII value indi-
ternal mortality in Bayan-Ulgii.
cates poor performance. The GII has been
calculated for 20022014 using nation- A striking feature of the variations in the
al-level data. Based on these estimates, the aimag GIIs is the influence of the indica-
GII has been dropping steadily since 2011 tor measuring the share of seats in the State
and is now at the lowest level since 2002, Great Khural. The GII is sensitive to this
that is, women and men fare more equally indicator, and even a slight change in the
now than in previous years. share of women in political representation
has a large effect. For comparisons within
The GII focuses attention on non-income
the country, an alternative indicator, such as
dimensions of inequality such as access to
one that measures the share of seats in the
education, health services and employment
local khurals (councils), may be appropriate.
across location, wealth and sex (chapters 3
Poverty can become manifest across many tions with which poor households typically
dimensions. People may be poor because contend. The 2013 MPI for Mongolia has
they lack adequate incomes, but they may been computed based on an adjusted assets
also be poor because they are deprived in indicator and the Social Indicator Sample
non-monetary dimensions such as health or Survey (SISS) 2013.43 The newly computed
nutrition, educational attainment or skills, MPI for 2013 covers three dimensions and
livelihoods, housing conditions, or politi- 11 indicators (figure 2.8).44 Each dimen-
cal participation. Together, deprivations in sion is equally weighted, and each indica-
these dimensions provide a fuller picture of tor within the dimensions is also weighted
poverty. equally.45 The indicators include an addi-
tional Mongolia-specific indicator, heating,
The global multidimensional poverty index which is crucial in Mongolia because of the
(MPI) was introduced in 2010 to identify extreme climate conditions. For this indica-
multiple deprivations across the same three tor, households are considered deprived if
dimensions as the HDI, that is, education, they use dirty heating, that is, coal or other
health and living standards. (Methodolog- materials such as waste or old tyres. In ad-
ical details are provided in annexes III and dition, the indicator of the number of live-
IV.) It shows the proportion of people who stock has been included as one of the items
are multidimensionally poor that is, suf- considered for the index on asset ownership
fering from a number of deprivations simul- to reflect the reality among herder house-
taneously and the proportion of depriva- holds in rural areas (annex V).
Figure 2.8
Composition of the MPI, Mongolia, 2013
Electricity (4.76%)
Nutrition (16.7%)
Year of schooling
Asset ownership
Child mortality
Clean drinking
water (4.76%)
Floor (4.76%)
Cooking fuel
(4.76%)
(4.76%)
(4.76%)
(16.7%)
(16.7%)
(16.7%)
Note: The percentage share of each indicator constitutes the weight of the indicator in the estimates.
The weighted indicators are used to create percent or above, the household is consid-
a deprivation score, and deprivation scores ered to be living in severe multidimensional
are computed for each household in the poverty. The weights for the standard of liv-
survey. A deprivation score of 33.3 percent ing indicators are different relative to those
one third of the weighted indicators is used by the Human Development Report
used to distinguish between poor and non- Office in estimating the 2010 MPI because
poor households. If the household depri- of the addition of the indicator on heating.
vation score is 33.3 percent or greater, the
household and everyone in it are classified as The MPI is an index obtained as the prod-
multidimensionally poor. Households with uct of two components:
a deprivation score greater than or equal The incidence of poverty (the pover-
to 20.0 percent, but less than 33.3 percent ty headcount ratio), which represents
are considered to be near multidimension- the proportion of people identified as
al poverty. If the deprivation score is 50.0 multidimensionally poor, that is, those
Table 2.3
The Multidimensional Poverty Index, Mongolia, 2013
Multidimensional Headcount Average Population near multidimensional Population in severe
Survey Year
poverty index ratio, % intensity, % poverty, % multidimensional poverty, %
Note: Multidimensional poverty index: percentage of the population that is multidimensionally poor, adjusted by the intensity of the deprivation. Multidimensional poverty headcount: percentage
of the population with a weighted deprivation score of at least 33.3 percent. Intensity of deprivation of multidimensional poverty: the average percentage of deprivation experienced by people in
multidimensional poverty.
Source: Estimated by the NHDR team using the 2013 SISS dataset of the NSO, the United Nations Childrens Fund and the United Nations Population Fund; see NSO, 2014b.
Findings show that education contributed ter 3). Although the MPI was relatively low
less to the MPI in 2013, while the shares of in 2013 because of improvements in the
the dimensions of health and the standard education and health dimensions, the pro-
of living were larger (figure 2.9). This prob- portion of people exhibiting consumption
ably means more households were gaining below the poverty line was 21.6 percent in
access to education so that educational pov- 2014, which means more than one fifth of
erty was declining because of the expansion Mongolians were still living below the pov-
in school enrolments (see above and chap- erty line.
Figure 2.9
Contributions of the MPI Dimensions to the MPI, 2013
percent
60,0 54,5
50,0
40,0
31,3
30,0
20,0 14,2
10,0
0,0
Education Health Standart of living
Source: Estimated by a local expert using the 2013 SISS dataset of the NSO; see NSO, 2014b.
Mongolia has made remarkable progress in human development countries and is a bit
human development in recent years. The better than the average among the countries
HDI has improved steadily, and the country in the Asia and Pacific region. The women
advanced to the high human development and men of Mongolia generally enjoy equi-
category in 2014. table access to health care and education.
Mongolia loses less of its HDI value com- The national averages conceal variations
pared with selected countries in the region within the country. There is a big urban-ru-
if inequalities across all three human devel- ral divide in HDIs. Only the HDIs in urban
opment dimensions are factored in. This aimags are above or close to the national av-
means that Mongolia remains more equal erage. The losses in the HDI in Sukhbaatar,
than most countries in the Asia and Pacif- Bayankhongor, Khovd, Uvs, Dornogovi
ic region and is more or less comparable in and Omnogovi aimags were greatest, that
terms of inequality with countries in Eu- is, access to health care, education and in-
rope and Central Asia. come opportunities was unequally distrib-
uted across the population in these aimags.
Nonetheless, the share of the bottom 20
percent of the consumption distribution in Mongolia faces considerable challenges in
the population has not changed over the last providing equal opportunities to the geo-
20 years. So, while the economy is growing, graphically dispersed population, including
inequality is not narrowing. The proportion young people. The issues of urbanization
of people who exhibit consumption below and migration must be addressed in the
the poverty line is still high, and more than light of issues of human development and
one fifth of Mongolians are living below the concerns about youth to devise suitable
poverty line. This requires immediate atten- solutions that foster balanced and inclusive
tion. human development across the country and
among all people. Confronting the per-
Mongolia shows low life expectancy at birth
sistent inequalities across urban and rural
relative to its level of economic develop-
areas, sex, and wealth status in the access
ment as well as to the average of the coun-
of youth to good-quality health care, edu-
tries in East Asia and the Pacific and the
cation and employment opportunities is es-
high human development group. The gap
sential if there is to be sustainable, inclusive
between female and male life expectancy
development.
has widened in the last decade, especially
among young people. The slow progress in While the HDI is not an age-specific meas-
life expectancy and the gap between female ure of progress in human development,
and male life expectancy therefore call for there are important potential links between
urgent action. the progress in overall human development
and the positive development of youth.
Women are more well off than men in the
three HDI dimensions. The GII of Mongo-
lia is at the average among the group of high
Until 1989, Mongolias achievements in edu- system and in all parts of the country. Since
cation gross enrolment ratios of 98 percent 2000, enrolment ratios have returned to 90
in primary schools, 85 percent in secondary percent.48 This turnaround in the coverage
schools, and 17 percent in higher education of education among most children up to
compared favourably with the results in secondary school is a remarkable success.49
middle-income countries. However, during
Mongolia now emphasizes the education of
the transition to the market economy, Mon-
all citizens, including youth, women and the
golia was experiencing economic and finan-
poor. More than 92 percent of the popula-
cial difficulties that were undermining the
tion has some form of education. By 2010,
progress in the education sector, and gross
half of the population aged 10 and above
enrolment ratios had declined to 84 percent
had completed secondary school, and ap-
in primary schools and 65 percent in sec-
proximately 18 percent had graduated from
ondary schools by 1995. Drop-out rates rose
higher-education institutions (annex VI).
significantly at all levels of the education
Secondary education
Figure 3.1
School Attendance Rates, 15-Year-Olds, 2000 and 2010
120
91,5 94,7 96,9 93,1
100 83,5 83,5
80 64,0
60 44,2
40
20
0
Urban Rural Urban Rural
2000 2010
Male Female
Nine-year compulsory education five ary education is also relatively wide. In the
years of primary education and four years of 2014/2015 school year, the net enrolment
lower-secondary education is now nearly rate was 99.1 percent in primary education
universal. The coverage of upper-second- and 96.1 percent in secondary education.50
Figure 3.2
School Attendance Rates, 16- to 19-Year-Olds, 2000 and 2010
100
90 86,8
78,9
80
70 63,9 66,8
60
49,6
50 45,2
40
30
19,8
20 11,8
10
0
Urban Rural Urban Rural
2000 2010
Male Female
Access to secondary education was fairly tion, there was a shift towards gender parity
even across the top four wealth quintiles: because more boys were attending and com-
1922 percent of each quintile was attend- pleting school in 2010. Thus, the reverse
ing school in 2011. The poorest quintile had gender gap the unusual situation of fewer
a smaller proportion of secondary-school school enrolments among males was nar-
students.51 rowing in education, though it was still wid-
er in rural areas, where, in 2010, fewer than
In primary and lower-secondary school, the
half of 16- to 19-year-old young men were
girl-to-boy ratio was almost at parity (figure
in school, while this was true of two young
3.3). In upper-secondary and higher educa-
women in three in the age-group.
Figure 3.3
Sex Ratios in School Attendance, by Age-Group, 2000 and 2010
150
131
130
138
103 107
128
110
112
90 99
97
70
6-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
2000 2010
Note: Sex ratio = the number of women per 100 men. If there is gender parity, the sex ratio = 100.
Source: NSO, 2001, 2011a, 2011c.
According to the 2010 census, there were dren and youth with disabilities who were
108,071 individuals with disabilities in Mon- of compulsory school age were enrolled in
golia, representing 4.1 percent of the total education in 2010, and enrolments were sig-
population.52 This included about 30,000 nificantly lower among 18- to 29-year-olds
young people in the 1635 age-group. with disabilities. The gender gap in educa-
tion among the disabled follows the general
Little progress has been made in ensuring
trend among the population. Thus, more
access to education among youth with spe-
disabled girls than boys were enrolled (fig-
cial needs. About 66.2 percent of the chil-
ure 3.4).
Figure 3.4
Enrolments among Youth with Disabilities, by Age and Sex
60 55,2
46,7
50
38,6
40 29,7
Percent
30 20,2
20 13,8
5,3 6,8
10
0
15-17 18-19 20-24 25-29
According to the 2010 population census, also face limited job opportunities, which
people aged 10 and above with disabilities may stem from their poor access to educa-
were three times more likely than the rest of tion (chapter 4).
the population to have no education (23.0
percent and 7.5 percent, respectively), and The impact on the HDI of problems in
fewer than 8.0 percent of the people with access
disabilities had achieved higher education, Especially since 2000, the considerable
whereas more than 18.0 percent of the rest improvement in access among youth to all
of the population had higher-education de- levels of education has provided more op-
grees.53 More people with disabilities were portunities for the development of youth
uneducated in rural areas than in urban ar- capabilities and has contributed to the
eas. Almost half the people with congeni- steady rise in the HDI education index.
tal disabilities (47.0 percent), such as people Nonetheless, there are notable disparities
with speech impairments (51.0 percent) and in access among rural youth, youth in poor
people with cognitive disabilities (48.0 per- households and youth with disabilities. This
cent), have no education or are illiterate. may favour a greater loss in the HDI be-
A key issue affecting young people with cause of unequal access and have long-term
disabilities is the absence of access ramps, adverse effects on the well-being of these
books in Braille, teachers trained to assist young people. Urgent policy attention is re-
the disabled and appropriate curricula and quired to address the disparities.
teaching materials. Youth with disabilities
Box 3.2
Choosing a Career
During an interaction with ninth-grade students in a rural secondary detailed and unclear. It would be easier if strengths and weaknesses
school in Uvurkhangai Aimag, the students, whose average age were described or interesting things were noted by the people working
was 15, were asked about their career goals. The majority of female there.
students said they wanted to be doctors or teachers, while most of Student, Ministry of Population Development and Social
the male students said they wanted to be policemen or construction Protection 2013 Policy Review a
engineers. When asked why, a common reply was that parents
Our teacher advised us not to become a teacher by saying that it
perceive that a family should have one policeman and one doctor
is a futile profession, which made us really depressed during the
because these are the most useful people in the soum and are
school-leaving ceremony. I thought we were supposed to follow her
important for the survival of society.
example. Indeed, I was disappointed.
It would be good if an understanding of professions were given at
Student, Ministry of Population Development and Social
secondary school. Unfortunately, we discuss this only when we take
Protection, 2013 Policy Review a
the final graduation exams in the 11th grade. Usually, no information
can be found. There are advertising materials, but these are too a. MPDSP, 2013.
Low learning achievement among carrying out complex procedures and prob-
students lem-solving tasks (35 percent) than in gen-
eral knowledge and in carrying out routine
The low quality of secondary education leads procedures.64
to lower student learning achievement. Ac-
cording to the National Assessment of Stu- The poor quality of education in Mongolia
dent Achievement, which, since 2000, has is captured in the World Economic Forums
been conducted in mathematics and civics Human Capital Report of 2013, which in-
education in grade 8, at the end of basic ed- cludes a global ranking of 122 countries.65
ucation, and which is based on international An overall index assesses each country ac-
tests, the average learning achievement of cording to four pillars: education, health
students in these subject areas was 50 per- and wellness, workforce and employment,
cent and 47 percent, respectively, on a scale and the enabling environment. Mongolia
of 1100, where 100 is the highest possible ranks quite high on access dimensions, but
learning achievement.63 The study has re- poorly on quality dimensions. On the over-
vealed large disparities between urban and all quality of its education system, Mongolia
rural areas. It also shows that adolescents is ranked 115th among 122 countries (annex
in Mongolia perform significantly worse in VI).
Figure 3.5
Increasing Demand for Access to Higher Education among Youth, 2000 and 2010
25
20 21,2
18,3
15 15,4 Male
Percent
Female
10
7,7 Total
7,6 7,6
5
0
2000 2010
The greater demand for higher education ilies cannot afford to migrate and must re-
has led to a noteworthy expansion in enrol- main increasingly disadvantaged in access-
ments in institutions of higher education. ing higher education.
The number of students in these institu-
tions almost doubled, from 98,000 in 2002 In line with the data on tertiary education-
to 178,200 in 2014.68 Among higher-edu- al attainment by sex, there is a significant
cation institutions, 78 percent are located reverse gender gap in tertiary-education en-
in Ulaanbaatar, which is also true of most rolments. Women students outnumber men
colleges. The lack of adequate learning op- students in both public (56 percent women)
portunities in rural areas is a major reason and private (63 percent women) institutions
youth are attracted to Ulaanbaatar and oth- of higher education, particularly in mas-
er cities. However, because housing costs ters degree programmes (63 percent among
and the cost of living have risen rapidly in women, compared with 37 percent among
Ulaanbaatar, rural students from poor fam- men).69
Figure 3.6
Population with Higher Educational Attainment, by Quintile, 20022014
90,0 83,8
80,0
69,2
70,0
60,0
46,2 45,1
50,0
Percent
40,6
40,0
28,1 26,9 21,6 26,0
30,0 18,5
23,6
15,2 15,2 16,3 20,0 17,5 16,9 15,2
20,0 10,8
7,4 8,5 8,0
4,4 5,1
10,0 3,1 1,9 4,0 1,0
0,0 0,0
0,0
Bachelors' Masters' Doctorate
Poorest Q2 Q3 Q4 Richest
Sources: Estimates based on the Living Standards Measurement Study 2002/2003 and 2007/2008 and the 2014 Socio-Economic Survey. See NSO, 2004a, 2007, 2015b.
Young people with disabilities face substan- teachers and do not have the infrastructure
tial barriers to attendance at regular institu- to provide such students with physical ac-
tions of higher education. Most of these in- cess.70 These issues disadvantage youth with
stitutions do not have appropriately trained disabilities and exacerbate their stigma.
Enrolments in technical and vocational ed- ure 3.7). It is evident that some students use
ucation and training (TVET) in Mongolia TVET as an intermediate solution to obtain
have exhibited a mixed pattern in the last school stipends, secondary-education diplo-
decade. The demand for and enrolments mas and vocational-education certificates,
in TVET courses expanded by nearly 2.5 while preparing for admission to proper
times in 20022011, most likely in response tertiary degree courses.71 This is confirmed
to the Government policy of promoting by the decline in the share of people with a
growth in this area. However, enrolments vocational certificate as their highest degree
declined by 11 percent in 20112013 (fig- in 20002010.
60000 48134
46067 45225 42798 42797
50000
Number of students
37867
40000
23241
30000 19500
20000
10000
0
2002 2005 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Years
Government policies directed at TVET re- of these schools were operating in aimags.
form and expansion since 2000 have been The policies also allow private investment
aimed at meeting the demand for skilled in TVET, and there are currently 32 pri-
workers on the labour market. The number vate TVET schools. Despite these positive
of public TVET schools rose from 31 to 76 steps, more needs to be done to help TVET
in 20022014. Two thirds of TVET schools schools produce skilled, well-prepared
are public and have a more well balanced young workers to enhance the opportuni-
regional distribution; in 2013, 60 percent ties for decent jobs.
Key challenges
After the legalization of private higher ed- ment of youth capabilities and undermines
ucation in the early 1990s, the number of the prospects of young people on the labour
institutions of higher education grew from market.
14 in 1991 to 143 in 2002, but, then, by
2014, had decreased to 96, of which 80 were The main reasons for the poor quality of
private establishments accredited by the higher education and TVET are ground-
independent Mongolian National Council ed in the weak governance and financing
for Education Accreditation.72 The reduc- system, the irrelevance of some academic
tion was driven by concerns about quality. programmes, the outdated curricula and
Nonetheless, the 45 percent decline in the technological base in other programmes,
number of institutions in 20022013 was the lack of funding to upgrade faculty qual-
matched by an almost 70 percent increase in ifications and renew laboratory equipment,
enrolments. This has had the adverse out- the limited supply of textbooks, and the lack
come of strengthening the competition for of proper industrial practice or internship
the limited number of seats, thereby often opportunities for students. The divide be-
making admission to a good public univer- tween teaching and research has also weak-
sity more difficult for students. Although ened tertiary-education institutions.73 The
rise in TVET enrolments in 20022011 put
fewer than 20 percent of institutions of
additional strain on existing facilities and
higher education are public, nearly 60 per-
infrastructure. Most of the infrastructure of
cent of the students in tertiary education are
TVET schools requires rehabilitation and
enrolled in public institutions. Moreover,
expansion.74
reducing the number of (private) higher-ed-
ucation institutions has not addressed the The poor quality of TVET and higher ed-
problems of low-quality education provi- ucation is a major concern among youth.
sion, which negatively affects the develop- According to a study by the Mongolian
The Government has always placed educa- The promotion of successful models
tion for all at the centre of national develop- for enhancing the quality of education
ment policy. The Constitution of 1992 and and expanding learning opportunities
the education law guarantee free compulso- among youth.
ry education for all, which represented 12
International accreditation of higher
years of schooling as of 2008. A brief re-
education institutions
view of the Governments policies aimed at
improving access to good-quality education Mongolian institutions of higher education
among youth highlights three main areas of need to become competitive not only local-
focus, as follows: ly, but also in the world market. Thus, in
2010, the Mongolian National Council for
The creation of an enabling legal and
Education Accreditation began seeking
policy framework for education reform
a third-party assessment tool to measure
in specific areas of education based on
and track student learning. In 2012/2013,
sectoral analyses of the state of educa-
two institutions, the School of Economics
tion: the Primary and Secondary Edu-
and Business of the National University of
cation Law, the Higher Education Law,
Mongolia and the Institute of Finance and
and policies and plans are among the
Economics, received relevant international
initiatives undertaken since the 1990s.
recognition. In 2013/2014, one more insti-
The 20122016 Government Action
tution, the School of Computer Science and
Plan renewed the commitment to up-
Management at the Mongolian University
grading the quality of education at all
of Science and Technology, was similarly
levels and to reaching all disadvantaged
recognized.76
groups.
Curriculum reform and teacher training
The implementation of reforms such
as the restructuring of the education In 2012, three laboratory schools, Shine
system, raising the number of years of Erin, Shine Ehlel and Mongol Temuulel,
compulsory schooling, curriculum re- were established to train teachers on the
form, the adoption of new standards, basis of the guideline standards of the Uni-
textbook revision, changes in the ac- versity of Cambridge using Checkpoint and
creditation system, more teacher train- the International General Certificate of Sec-
ing and so on. ondary Education system. Teachers are now
Table 3.1
Public Expenditure on Education, 20022015
percent
This section examines the situational risk among youth in the 1534 age-group is
factors associated with ill health and mor- rising only slowly. Youth in the 1524 age-
tality among youth and reviews the access group added only one year to their lives in
of young people to health services. The role 19902012, while there was no change in
of human agency in mitigating the risk fac- life expectancy among 25- to 34-year-olds
tors is also surveyed. (table 3.2). Disaggregating the data by sex,
we see that, while young women have added
Life expectancy
two or three years to their lives since 1990,
Life expectancy at birth has increased over life expectancy among young men has de-
the years in Mongolia, but life expectancy clined across all age cohorts.
Table 3.2
Life Expectancy among Youth, by Age Cohort and Sex, 1990 and 2012
years
1990 2012
Age cohort
Male Female Both sexes Male Female Both sexes
1519 52 56 54 51 59 55
2024 47 51 49 46 54 50
2529 43 46 45 41 49 45
3034 38 42 40 37 44 40
Source: Life Tables by Country, Mongolia, GHO (Global Health Observatory) (database), World Health Organization, Geneva, http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.61090?lang=en (accessed 16
March 2015).
The data suggest that the reason for the slow causes across each age cohort since 2010.
progress in achieving greater life expectan- Cardiovascular disease, digestive system
cy among young age cohorts, particularly diseases, and cancer are the other killers
young men, as well as in other health out- of youth (annex VII). While cancer is not
come indicators, may lie in the prevalence a leading cause of mortality and morbidity
of situations of risk among youth. Some among youth, there was a fourfold rise in
of these risk situations affect youth in a cancer-related morbidity among the 1534
straightforward manner. For example, un- age-group, from only 10 cases per 10,000
protected sex increases the likelihood of ex- population in 2005 to over 40 cases in 2013.
periencing a sexually transmitted infection The highest number of cases of cancer-re-
(STI) or an unplanned pregnancy. Howev- lated morbidity occurred among the 3034
er, many of the adverse consequences show age cohort.82
up later in life in non-communicable diseas-
Morbidity data disaggregated by location
es (NCDs) such as lung cancer, diabetes and
show that some types of disease predomi-
heart disease. This is confirmed by the fact
nate in certain regions, thereby hinting more
that NCDs and injuries account for nearly
precisely at the role of specific lifestyles or
80 percent of all deaths in Mongolia.81
environmental factors. Thus, accidents, in-
Ill health juries, poisoning and other consequences of
external actions are three times more preva-
In Mongolia, accidents, injuries, poison-
lent in urban areas than in rural areas. Cases
ing, or other external causes are the most
of diseases of the genito-urinary system are
important causes of death across all youth
more prevalent in highland areas; diseases
age cohorts and have tended to increase as
of the digestive system in eastern Mongolia,
Table 3.3
Tobacco Consumption among Youth, by Age and Sex, 20052013
percent
Peers, family members, school teachers and moulding the behaviour of teenagers. Many
the media exercise considerable influence in youth begin smoking after being asked to
Figure 3.8
World Alcohol Consumption population
ages 15+, litres per person of pure alcohol per year
20
18
Mongolian men (11.7) Russian (15.7)
Mongolia (6.9)
16
12 Canada (10.2)
Liters Per Person
Japan (7.2)
8
China (6.7)
0
Country
Table 3.4
Health Consequences of Alcohol Abuse, 2012
Indicator Description Men Women
Age-standardized death rate Deaths due to liver cirrhosis, per 100,000 population above age 15 78.8 47.6
Alcohol-attributable incidence Extent to which alcohol contributes to cirrhosis of the liver, % 71.7 59.8
Source: WHO, 2014b.
A survey found that the problems associ- are four times more susceptible to traffic
ated with daily alcohol consumption are accidents than women.
generally perceived to be significant; more
than 90 percent of respondents regarded Because of rising living standards and grow-
daily alcohol consumption as either harmful ing purchasing capacity among the popula-
or very harmful to health.104 There was no tion, more cars are on the roads. The num-
significant difference in the mean perceived ber of vehicles increased fourfold, and the
risk by age, educational attainment, or sex. number of drivers sevenfold in 20092011.
A substantial share of alcohol users, around Almost half of all drivers (47 percent) are in
6065 percent of youth, also reported the the 1834 age-group and are thus especially
desire to reduce the amount of alcohol they exposed to the risk of traffic accidentrelat-
drink.105 ed morbidity and mortality.
The above analysis provides a good indica- Lack of knowledge about traffic safety, lack
tion of the nature and extent of the problem of driving skills, avoidance of the use of seat
of alcohol use among youth. Urgent action belts (54 percent), and driving under the in-
is required at various levels to strengthen le- fluence of alcohol (34 percent) are the main
gal restrictions to limit alcohol supply and causes of traffic accidents.107 The incidence
of traffic accidents associated with driving
reduce demand by promoting healthy life-
under the influence of alcohol rose more
styles among youth.
than threefold in 20032011, from 389 to
Informal discussions indicate that substance 1,236 cases. The Knowledge, Attitudes and
abuse is on the rise in Mongolia, but inci- Practices Survey found that 15 percent of
dence is still low. However, early prevention current drinkers who drive reported they
is important. had driven while under the influence of
alcohol; one man in five and around one
Injuries and accidents woman in thirteen acknowledged this be-
Injuries and accidents are the main causes haviour.108 There was no difference accord-
of youth mortality. Except among 25- to ing to location, educational attainment, em-
29-year-olds, mortality rates among youth ployment, or age. This highlights the need
age cohorts because of traffic accidents rose to look at alcohol abuse and traffic accidents
by 2.53.5 times in 20102012.106 Deaths together to devise suitable restrictions and
caused by traffic accidents involving motor- other policy measures to reduce the asso-
cycles among men aged 1534 rose almost ciated morbidity and mortality among the
threefold over the three-year period. Men young.
Figure 3.9
Adolescent Birth Rate, 19902013
50
44
45
39 38 38
40 36
34 33
35 32 31
30
per 1,000 live births
29 28 29
30 27
25 21 20 20 20
19 18 19 19 19
20 15
15
10
5
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Years
Table 3.5
Age-Specific Abortion Rates among Young Women, 20032013
Urban Rural
Age-group
2003 2008 2013 2003 2008 2013
1519 0.5 1.0 5.9 0.7 0.9 2.2
2024 16.8 17.2 26.4 7.2 9.1 12.4
2529 33.9 33.0 38.2 15.7 15.6 15.3
3034 47.1 41.1 27.1 21.5 23.2 23.9
Source: NSO, 2004c, 2009b, 2014b.
Table 3.6
Sexual Behaviour among 15- to 24-Year-Olds
percent
Men Women
Indicator
2010 2013 2010 2013
First sexual intercourse under age 15 2.8 4.2 0.2 0.6
Sexual intercourse with more than one partner in the last 12 months 8.4 9.4 1.1 1.5
Used condom for sexual intercourse with more than one partner in last 12 months 48.4 43.5 43.3 30.3
Source: NSO, 2013a, 2014b.
The prevalence of STIs is one of the ma- cent of young men aged 1524 have accurate
jor health issues among youth in Mongo- knowledge about HIV transmission.112 This
lia. Young people aged 15 to 24 are not the evidence suggests that the coverage, quality
major age-group among reported cases of and continuity of STI and HIV prevention
HIV, comprising only about 20 percent of programmes should be expanded to foster
cumulative cases. However, they do account greater awareness and promote safer and
for the majority of reported cases of STIs healthier sexual behaviour among youth.
(ranging between 40 percent and 50 percent
Access to good-quality youth health
annually), which suggests that the risk sce-
care services
narios exist that render youth susceptible to
HIV. However, the HIV prevalence rate is
considerably higher, at 7.5 percent (weight- In Mongolia, access to adolescent- and
ed), among men who have sex with men. youth-friendly health services is limited
The reported new cases of HIV have shown and not always available because prima-
a steady growth since 2005.111 According ry health care workers are not trained
to a 2015 report, among people living with on youth-friendly service skills yet. Cur-
HIV, 41.2 percent were youth under age 30, rently, adolescent health centres operate
of which 54 percent were women, and 43 only in selected areas.
percent were men (3 percent did not state The Government is now committed to
their sex). All reported cases were transmit- making health care more adolescent-
ted through unprotected sexual contact. A and youth-friendly and is planning to
lack of awareness and knowledge of STIs, scale up adolescent health centres and
HIV and prevention methods result in the move from a project approach to a
high prevalence of STIs among youth. Only health system-wide approach.
22.8 percent of young women and 20.7 per-
Education and health are interrelated and The chapter highlights the slow progress
play a vital role in the ability of youth to in improving life expectancy among youth,
enjoy long and productive lives. Youth in particularly young men. The roots of ill
Mongolia today have numerous opportu- health, especially among young men, may
nities to access knowledge and make the lie in the prevalence of situations of risk
right choices to lead healthy lives. These op- such as alcohol and tobacco use, unbal-
portunities include growing enrolments at anced diets, and a lack of physical activity
all levels of the education system especially among adolescents and youth, especially
since 2000 and many positive legal and pol- young men. Stronger legal and policy meas-
icy initiatives to reduce NCD risk factors. ures are therefore needed, for example, to
Nonetheless, as the chapter also highlights, raise the tax on tobacco and on alcohol.
there are major gaps that need to be ad- Health financing should no longer focus
dressed urgently to foster the appropriate only on the provision of health care and
development of youth capabilities. services; it should more broadly address the
environmental and structural factors affect-
The chapter highlights youth with disabil-
ing health.
ities, rural youth and youth from poorer
socio-economic backgrounds. Youth with There has been no major positive change in
disabilities face substantial barriers in ac- the incidence of unsafe sexual behaviours
cessing good-quality education and exhibit over the years. Higher adolescent birth
much lower levels of educational attain- rates, the unmet need for family planning
ment. The reverse gender gap in education and the prevalence of STIs are key sexual
has narrowed, but persists in rural areas. and reproductive health concerns among
The Government thus needs to prioritize youth. To grapple with these concerns,
the elimination of inequalities in education. health policies need to concentrate more on
the sexual and reproductive health needs
The low quality of education blocks many
and rights of young people.
young people from benefiting from their
learning experience. Educational reform Education and health care go hand-in-
must become more focused on the quality hand. In becoming more knowledgeable,
of education based on careful monitoring healthier and more productive and respon-
and research, enhanced and stable national sible citizens, youth are the most important
standards and a substantial increase in in- stakeholders in developing their own capa-
vestment to implement the reform agenda bilities. They have the potential to make in-
successfully and upgrade education infra- formed choices in career development, ad-
structure. vance their awareness and knowledge about
healthy lifestyles, translate these into action
The analysis reveals that accidents, injuries,
and participate in health promotion pro-
poisoning and other external causes are the
grammes. The future prosperity of Mongo-
most important causes of youth mortality.
lias youth depends on the access of young
The Government should undertake forceful
people to good-quality education, the ap-
action to reduce traffic accidents, injuries
propriate development of their skills and
and other external risks to prevent prema-
their pursuit of healthy lifestyles.
ture deaths among young people.
1. The duration of the school-to-work transition among young 4. About 50 percent of young men and 38 percent of young women
people varies by sex and location. Rural youth are more likely to aged 1534 are employed, and youth make up around one third
enter the labour market with fewer capabilities and often end up of the people working in the informal economy.
in the informal sector. Young women and urban youth begin the 5. The growing number of the educated unemployed points to the
transition later. The longer time taken by urban youth is often a weak link between the education system and the labour market.
result of a skill mismatch or the limited availability of jobs.
6. There are few opportunities for employment in the formal sector
2. Strong economic growth has not translated into sufficient gains in rural areas, whereas three quarters of employed youth in
in decent and productive employment among youth. Youth Ulaanbaatar are active in the formal sector.
unemployment in aimag and soum centres is well above the
7. A significant gender gap in the labour market is evident. Young
national average.
women face more difficulty in labour market entry, and, when
3. Youth comprise nearly 60 percent of all unemployed. The they do enter, they are not only more likely to receive lower
unemployment rate in 2013 was 10.7 percent among the 1534 wages than young men, but are also more likely to be active in a
age-group; the unemployment rate among 20- to 24-year-olds narrow range of occupations.
(17.3 percent) was twice the national unemployment rate (7.9
8. Youth with disabilities have limited opportunities for employment,
percent). Among youth looking for suitable jobs, 63 percent
especially in rural areas, and most of them are self-employed.
have been looking for more than a year, and 40 percent have
been looking for more than three years. These youth are in 9. The future prosperity of Mongolias youth depends on them
danger of experiencing eroding skills and other risks. obtaining appropriate skills and on the expansion of employment
opportunities so they may benefit from the growth in the
economy.
Access to employment because of econom- While searching for their first stable jobs af-
ic growth is a crucial means of expanding ter completing their education, youth pass
the substantive freedoms that people value. through a transition phase, the school-to-
These freedoms are strongly associated with work transition. The duration of this transi-
improvements in the quality of life, such as tion varies by location and sex. Employment
greater opportunities for people to become statistics classify those looking for jobs,
healthier and more well educated and to such as youth undergoing the school-to-
live longer. Stable employment also enables work transition, alongside the unemployed.
families to invest in developing their chil- Obtaining a first stable job marks the cul-
drens capabilities, which demonstrates the mination of the transition. It depends on a
role of employment in enhancing human number of key factors such as the skills of
development. young people and the availability of appro-
priate jobs.
Obtaining a job and becoming financially
independent are important markers of the This chapter examines the extent and na-
successful transition of young people to ture of youth unemployment and highlights
adulthood as they acquire the freedom to the characteristic features of the transition.
Table 4.1
The School-to-Work Transition, 15- to 29-Year-Olds, by Sex and Location, 2009
years
Youth who have ever attended school Youth who have never attended school
Group Beginning of transition, average End of transition, average age Transition
Average age of first entry into work
age at dropping out at first entry into work duration, years
Total 19.8 22.3 2.5 13.1
SEX
Men 19.4 21.7 2.3 14.0
Women 20.2 23.0 2.8 11.5
LOCATION
Urban 21.1 24.0 2.9 15.9
Rural 18.2 19.3 1.1 13.0
SEX, LOCATION
Men, urban 21.5 23.4 1.9 16.7
Women, urban 21.5 24.7 3.2 15.8
Men, rural 18.2 19.8 1.6 14.4
Women, rural 18.2 19.9 1.7 10.7
Source: UCW, 2009.
A number of conclusions follow. First, the Second, urban youth begin the transition
shorter transition in rural areas is largely later (at an average of 21.1 years of age),
an outcome of youth there entering the la- which is a reflection of their preference for
bour force at an earlier age. Together with acquiring higher levels of education (chap-
the lower returns to education and to job ter 3).
searches, this suggests that rural youth enter
the labour force with fewer capabilities. Third, urban youth take more time to se-
cure employment (1.9 years among young
Figure 4.1
Trends in the Number of the Employed, 15- to 34-Year-Olds, by Sex, 20002010
131,0 121,3
140
120
120
100
100
72.7
80 69.1 80
57,0
60 48.4 60 50,2
40 32,5
18.7 40
20
20 6,9
0
2000 2010 0
Year 2000 2010
Year
The entry of youth in the labour market bour market because of family obligations,
picks up among the 2534 age cohort, for example, to look after children. It may
though far more men than women are work- be recalled that the average age of women at
ing, even though more women than men first marriage is 24.2 years, which coincides,
graduate with degrees in higher education. on average, with the period when the young
This suggests either that labour demand is complete their education and start the tran-
in less-skilled sectors that attract more men sition to their first jobs.124
or that women delay their entry into the la-
Youth have higher employment expecta- employment rate was highest among 20- to
tions, but many of them cannot find work. 24-year-olds, at 18 percent, which is more
The data in the 20122014 labour force than two times greater than the national
surveys show an unemployment rate of 11 unemployment rate (table 4.2). Almost all
percent among 15- to 34-year-olds.125 These unemployed 15- to 29-year-olds (83 per-
data refer to the formally unemployed, that cent) are looking for work for the first time,
is, those people who are registered at em- which highlights the particular difficulties
ployment centres. The actual unemploy- youth face in gaining an initial foothold in
ment shares are likely to be higher. The un- the labour market.126
Table 4.2
Youth Unemployment Rates, by Age Cohort, 20122014
percent of the economically active
While the unemployment rate among 20- to among rural youth, underscoring the dif-
34-year-old men fell in 20122013, unem- ferent nature of the urban and rural labour
ployment among young women increased markets, particularly the role the livestock
and was consistently higher than the rate and agricultural sector plays in absorbing
among men, even though more women young rural workers.127 Despite the higher
than men were in education. The school- employment rate among rural youth, job
to-work transition is also longer among quality is a greater problem in rural areas
young women, that is, young women face given the predominance there of the infor-
more difficulty than young men in finding mal economy (annex table VIII.1).
suitable jobs (see table 4.1). This could be
More well educated youth are confronted by
because the transition coincides with the
a higher risk of unemployment, which ap-
time when many young women are starting
pears to be a perverse outcome of the high-
families, and, so, opt out of the labour mar-
er returns to education. The rates of unem-
ket. Young women may also prefer to wait
ployment among young people with TVET
for suitable jobs that provide more liberal
and higher educational attainment are much
maternity benefits.
higher than the rates among young people
The limited opportunities for employment with lower levels of educational attainment
in the aimag and soum administrative cen- (figure 4.2). The unemployment rate among
tres are a serious concern. The youth unem- TVET graduates has increased over time
ployment rate in these places is much higher (annex table VIII.2). Common to many de-
than the national average, around 19 per- veloping and middle-income countries, this
cent and 17 percent, respectively. Analysis phenomenon is partially the product of the
suggests that the unemployment rate among fact that less well educated young people be-
urban youth is more than double the rate gin the transition to work at an earlier age
Figure 4.2
Unemployment Rates, by Educational Attainment, 15- to 24-Year-Olds, 2011
18,7
16,2
20 10,4
15 9,2
Percent
5,6
10 1,9
5
0
ng
ar y
sic
ar y
al
er
on
gh
oli
Ba
im
nd
a ti
Hi
ho
Pr
co
oc
sc
Se
l/ v
No
ic a
hn
c
Te
Education attainment
Sources: Pastore, 2008; data of the 2011 Labour Force Survey, Census and Survey Catalogue (database), National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, http://web.nso.mn/nada/index.php/
catalog/LFS.
Most young job-seekers spend more 40 percent for more than three years. A
than a year looking for work disaggregation by sex shows that nearly 62
percent of 15- to 24-year-old men and 55
Long-term unemployment unemployment
percent of women in the same age-group
lasting more than a year is not limited to
have to wait for more than a year for their
young people. Among the unemployed over
first jobs and are vulnerable to categoriza-
35 years of age, 72 percent are in long-term
tion as long-term unemployed.129 The pro-
unemployment (table 4.3). However, the portion of young people waiting for suitable
problem is more serious among young peo- employment for more than a year increases
ple, most of whom are first-time job-seek- with age with little variation by sex (figure
ers. Among these people, 63 percent have 4.3).
been unemployed for a year or more, and
Table 4.3
Total Unemployed, by Length of Unemployment, 20092013
number
Age-group Less than 1 month 12 months 35 months 611 months 12 years 3 years or above Total
1534 3,065 3,834 7,187 5,215 12,252 21,410 52,963
Over 35 1,719 1,956 4,605 3,412 8,005 22,045 41,742
Total 4,784 5,790 11,792 8,627 20,257 43,455 94,705
Source: Calculated from data of the 20092013 Labour Force Surveys, Census and Survey Catalogue (database), National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, http://web.nso.mn/nada/index.
php/catalog/LFS.
60,0 49,1
60,0
50,3 47,7
50,0 47,1 44,9 48,0 50,0 48,1
44,7 43,7 45,7
42,2 43,4
40,7 41,1 39,8
40,0 40,0 38,9 37,6 38,3
34,7 33,7
Percent
Percent
29,8 30,6
30,0 30,0
0,0 0,0
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34
Source: Data of the 20112013 Labour Force Surveys, Census and Survey Catalogue (database), National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, http://web.nso.mn/nada/index.php/catalog/LFS.
Young people unemployed for long peri- suitable jobs, young people in poorer house-
ods will not only suffer financially, but also holds have limited access to financial and
start to lose their skills, reducing their fu- social support. The urgency to earn an in-
ture work potential. Youth unemployment come may push them to take the first avail-
can also reduce a countrys economic po- able job. Many settle for dead-end or mis-
tential by underusing human capabilities.130 matched jobs. Measures aimed at creating
Many youth in Mongolia, particularly young employment incentives and fostering career
women, extend their time in school to seek training and job mediation among youth are
to build knowledge or new skills, while thus key.
they wait for better job opportunities. In
some cases, youth simply accept low-pay- The reasons for youth unemployment
ing, poor-quality jobs below their skill and About 60 percent of the unemployed sur-
educational levels. This can result in the vey respondents in the 1534 age-group
erosion of skills, reduced lifetime earnings who said they could not find work in pro-
and greater vulnerability to health risks and fessional fields or had been unsuccessful in
other risks (chapters 3 and 6). looking for jobs displayed a disturbing level
Families are crucial as youth enter the un- of hopelessness (figure 4.4). Around 15 per-
known world of work for the first time. cent and 14 percent of the unemployed in
They are a source of emotional and finan- this age-group said, respectively, that there
cial support during this period when many were no jobs suitable to their professional
young people also have family responsibili- interests or that they lacked the appropriate
ties of their own. Moreover, most youth do professional experience. Young respond-
not rely on public or private job services, ents also cited low wages, lack of adequate
but use informal methods such as contacts qualifications, lack of information about the
through family or friends. jobs and training available, lack of contacts
to provide assistance, lack of job mediation
Unemployment exacerbates inequalities services, and lack of other support mecha-
among youth because, while youth in more nisms, including counselling (such as mock
well off households have access to financial job interviews), unpaid and paid internships
support from their families, social networks and volunteering opportunities aimed at
and other connections to help them find youth, as well as apathy.
Others
25,3%
Note: Other reasons include doing seasonal work, pregnant or caring for a child, exited military service in the last year, low wages, in education or training, returned from living abroad, and restructuring
at previous place of employment.
Source: Data of the 2014 Labour Force Survey, Census and Survey Catalogue (database), National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, http://web.nso.mn/nada/index.php/catalog/LFS.
One consequence of low labour force par- is that rising youth unemployment, particu-
ticipation and high youth unemployment is larly long-term unemployment, if left unad-
limited contributions for retirement bene- dressed, could lead to a lost generation of
fits or a late start to contributions. Another workers.131
Youth employment
Mining is the key driver of economic The rise in commodity prices and the ad-
growth in Mongolia. Internationally, min- vances in sectors associated with the mining
ing tends not to be labour intensive, and it boom have not had a sustainable impact on
therefore typically creates few jobs, but in- employment across the economy. The em-
come growth in the sector leads to greater ployment elasticity of growth has been fall-
domestic consumption, which, in turn, fu- ing steadily across many sectors since 2000,
els demand and growth in related and other meaning that employment creation has not
sectors. However, this does generate nega- kept pace across the economy with the rate
tive side effects. of economic growth generally or with the
rate of growth of the mining and related
In the case of Mongolia, because of a min-
sectors. It also means that a large number
ing boom, mining sector employment dou-
of the young graduates who are making
bled in 20022012, while the average wage
the transition from school to work are not
rate in the sector rose by 121 percent in real
finding jobs.133 This represents a substantial
terms.132 Mining also created jobs indirect- challenge in translating the rapid economic
ly, in mining supplier companies, thereby growth that has been occurring in Mon-
raising incomes and consumption in these golia into productive employment among
sectors. Thus, construction, trade and other youth. Moreover, the decline in the mineral
mining-related services expanded. A con- sector over the last two or three years has
struction boom was one result: more than severely impacted sustainable employment
a third of the new jobs in 20102013 were opportunities among youth even in the
created in the construction sector, though mining and associated sectors. For example,
these were usually low skilled and did not many TVET programmes were started to
help provide employment to women or to meet the projected demand in the mining
graduates with higher-level degrees.
Figure 4.5
Youth Employment Status, by Location, 2010
45,0 39,2
40,0
35,0
30,0
22,2
Percent
25,0
20,0 15,2
15,0 10,1
10,0 7,0
4,5 5,1
2,5
5,0
0,0
Employed Unemployed Looking for a job Unable to find a suitable job
Urban Rural
That youth made up more than half (almost 20112013 is another positive development.
56 percent) of the newly employed in 2014 is More than half of employed young people
encouraging. That the number of young em- prefer to work as paid employees, and this
ployers and entrepreneurs rose from 1,992 share rose from 40 percent in 2009 to 56
to 3,105 (an increase of nearly 56 percent) in percent in 2014 (table 4.5).
Table 4.5
Employment Categories among the 1534 Age-Group, 20092014
percent
There was a sharp decline in the share of more than 30 percent of those employed in
unpaid workers contributing to family work the informal sector. In rural areas, only 6
in this period. Informal employment is of- percent of working youth hold jobs in the
ten the last resort among young people who formal economy (figure 4.6). Meanwhile, in
have no professional training and who face 2011, economic growth was at an all-time
difficulty finding jobs in the fields of their high of 17.5 percent, and an increased con-
choice.136 In recent years, informal employ- tribution from the industrial sector is likely
ment has surged among youth. The number to have led to an expansion of businesses in
of young people aged 1534 whose primary the formal economy. In Ulaanbaatar, three
employment is in the informal sector shot quarters of employed youth enjoy wage jobs,
up by nearly a quarter, from 49,500 in 2009 and almost two thirds hold jobs in the for-
to 60,700 in 2013, and youth constituted mal economy.
100%
90%
80% 36,5
70% 55,3 58,7
65,3 66,7 63,3 68,8
60% 81,1 74,3
86,4
50% 94,3
40%
30% 63,5
44,7 41,3
20% 34,7 33,3 36,7 31,2 25,7
10% 13,6 18,9
5,7
0%
L
tre
r al
t ar
st
al
st
ga
ntr
AL
AL
TA
ntr
We
Ea
Ru
en
aa
an
ce
TO
Ce
nb
gc
Kh
FE
um
aa
ma
Ul
So
Ai
Formal Informal
Figure 4.7
Employment Status among the Disabled, 2010
60 56,2
50
41,7
40 35,7
Percent
27,7
30
20,1
20
12,9
10
1,6 2,5 0,6 0,5
0,3 0,2
0
Paid employers Employees Self employed Members of Contributing to Others
cooperative family business
Employment status
Figure 4.8
Economic Activity among 20- to 29-Year-Olds, 2010
Percent
30 24
30
20 15
12 12 11 20 14
17
9 11 13 12
10
10 3 4
1 1
0 0
d
ob
rs
ob
rs
ke
ke
ye
yin
ye
yin
he
he
aj
aj
ma
ma
plo
plo
ud
ud
Ot
Ot
for
for
me
me
Em
Em
St
St
in g
in g
Ho
Ho
ok
ok
Lo
Lo
Figure 4.9
Students in Tertiary Education, by Major Field of Study, 2002/20032014/2015
45000
40000
35000
Number of students
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Engineering
Educational and
pedagogy
Social Science
Commercial
and business
management
Mathematics and
computer science
Service
Natural Science
Medical Science
Architectur and
urban planning
Agriculture, forestry
and fishery
2002/2003 2010/2011 2013/2014 2014/2015
However, the sectors eliciting the greatest late 1990s and early 2000s. These schools
labour market demand were health care are popular, particularly among young peo-
(37.7 percent), construction (32.5 percent), ple. Today, youth are prioritizing language
administration and food services (29.9 per- learning more than ever. While many young
cent), manufacturing (28.6 percent) and ag- people are able to benefit from these alter-
riculture (23.5 percent). native learning programmes in cities, rural
youth have only limited access to such op-
In the new knowledge economy, the search portunities.
for applicants proficient in foreign languag-
es, especially English, is widespread. Al- Meanwhile, many courses in higher-edu-
most 65 percent of the employment offers cation institutions are teacher driven and
on the BizNetwork professional business attract only limited demand on the labour
website and over two thirds of the employ- market. Clearly, there is a mismatch be-
ment offers in Udriin Sonin, a daily news- tween the qualifications of graduates and
paper, call for the command of a foreign the needs of the labour market. The quality
language, in addition to work experience of education must be improved to ensure a
(60 percent and 52 percent of the offers, re- closer link between labour supply and the
spectively) and computer skills (46 percent demands of the labour market and help
and 44 percent, respectively), as a specific bring appropriate job-seekers and employ-
requirement.146 Language schools focusing ers together.
on English began to be established in the
The Government has placed job creation at site training, vocational training and
the centre of national policy priorities. Gov- retraining, and distance education and
ernment policies aimed at enhancing job apprenticeship training.
opportunities and reducing unemployment
focus on three main axes, as follows: Despite the increasing policy recognition of
the importance of generating employment,
Linking macroeconomic policies with reducing youth unemployment is still one
employment outcomes. The Govern- of the most important challenges facing
ment undertook a series of positive steps the country. The severe imbalance between
recently to support investments in eco- economic and employment growth persists.
nomic growth and intensify industrial
development and manufacturing. This The Mongolian with a Job and Income
included macroeconomic and industrial Programme
policies and measures such as the adop- Within the framework of the Government
tion of the new Investment Law, the Action Plan 20122016, the Government
Government policy on public-private has pledged to generate 150,000 new jobs
partnerships, the revised Law on Voca- through the Mongolian with a Job and In-
tional Education and Training, the Law come Programme.148 The action plan also
on the Legal Status of Industrial and provides for efforts to align the skills of the
Technology Parks, the Mongolian In- workforce with labour demand through vo-
dustrialization Programme 20092016, cational training and the activities of other
and the Government policy on the educational institutions.
high-technology industry.147
The Young Mongolian with a Job and
Focusing on employment promotion Income Programme
and job creation policies and pro-
grammes. The Government has un- This programme was launched by the Youth
dertaken several actions to provide Labour Exchange in January 2014. The aim
comprehensive support to entities of the programme is to facilitate the partic-
and initiatives that create employment ipation of students and young people in the
among young people, among people labour market by offering them temporary
over the age of 40 and among others work and imbuing them with an under-
experiencing difficulty finding work, standing of the world of work.
including the disabled, migrants and
Special social benefits to link employers
students. The year 2011 was declared
and the unemployed
the Year of Employment Promotion. In
2011, the Employment Promotion Law, In 2013, a programme was created to of-
adopted in 2004, was revised. fer employers the opportunity to list job
announcements with local labour units or
Initiating training and retraining among
with the Labour Exchange in Ulaanbaatar.
the unemployed and supplying job me-
The programme likewise provides unem-
diation services. The Government has
ployed individuals with the opportunity
introduced online labour intermediary
to undergo on-the-job training in fields of
networks to link job-seekers and poten-
their choice. Individuals accepted for the
tial employers directly. The Department
programme receive a monthly benefit of
for Vocational Education and Training
190,000 during training, while employers
Policy Implementation, established
and training institutes receive 65,000 per
within the Ministry of Labour, is cur-
trainee per month to cover training costs.
rently managing three types of training
Of 6,417 participants in the programme,
initiatives to fulfil its mandate to carry
5,087 (79 percent) have found employment
out employment training activities: on-
upon graduation.149
1. Youth participate actively in elections. Around 45.7 percent of percent) regularly follow political news, and nearly half (46.4
youth have participated in some way in elections since 1990. percent) follow issues of concern to them. Only 17.0 percent are
Of survey respondents aged 1834 years in Mongolia, 18.0 not much interested in what goes on in the wider world.
percent say they have voted in most elections, and 24.7 percent 5. Close to half of survey respondents (48.9 percent) believe
have voted in several elections. Only 11.1 percent have never themselves capable of engaging with politics. However, 52.7
voted. More generally, voter turnout has been declining over the percent feel that politics do not affect their lives, and 60.0
last two decades, dropping from a near universal 96 percent to percent feel that injustice is driving good people away from
less than two thirds in 19922012. politics.
2. Youth rank freedom and liberty as the crucial attributes of 6. Youth actively participate in social activities individually and
democracy. Yet, youth have little trust in political parties, though collectively at various levels through NGOs, youth programmes,
they trust the army, television, the Presidency, and the police. youth-led initiatives and volunteering.
3. Youth tend to be dissatisfied with governance. Young people 7. Youth are active on the Internet and on social media such
who have higher educational attainment or who reside in urban as Twitter and Facebook. While often used for recreational
areas are more critical about governance than their less well purposes, the new media are also a key source of information
educated or rural counterparts. and allow youth to make their voices heard in ways that were not
4. Youth are not disengaged from politics. More than a third (35.5 possible only a few years ago.
Youth is a period of life when people start to reasoned choices. Together, these contrib-
be heard and recognized outside their fam- ute to the empowerment of youth, which
ilies. They establish their identities as inde- is defined loosely as the process by which
pendent individuals. They begin interacting young people take control of their lives. In
with the broader community and the wider its broadest sense, empowerment is the ex-
world. Youth is also a period of life when pansion of the freedom of choice and ac-
people begin to exhibit dynamism and ex- tion. It signifies increasing authority over
ercise choice. the resources and decisions that affect ones
life.
The state first recognizes the rights and ob-
ligations of people as citizens during this The concept of human development, which
period of life. Most of these rights and obli- is a process of enlarging the choices availa-
gations are established between the ages of ble to people, lies at the heart of empower-
15 and 21 years, by which time the young ment. Both concepts human development
are considered legally responsible for their and empowerment describe processes,
actions (annex IX). but human development entails enlarging
choices, while empowerment is the process
Young people can shape the future by
of acquiring the ability to choose among
demonstrating active citizenship, leading
these enlarged choices.152
social change, improving their communi-
ties and advocating for social justice. They Youth who are healthy, well educated and
have the ability to participate meaningfully employed are more well empowered to ex-
in decision-making, determining their own press their choices more effectively and
needs, holding governmental leaders and demand action individually or collectively.
public servants accountable and making However, empowerment is not automatic.
Participation in elections
One feature of the transition of young peo- Overall, youth participate actively in elec-
ple into adulthood is voting and otherwise tions. Nearly half (45.7 percent) have partic-
demonstrating active citizenship. In 2013, ipated in some way in elections since 1990:
youth in the 1834 age-group constituted 18.0 percent have voted in most elections,
45.2 percent of the total voting-age popu- and 24.7 percent have voted in several elec-
lation in Mongolia. This means their voting tions. Only 11.1 percent have not voted in
preferences can be important in elections any election (figure 5.1).
and even decisive in determining electoral
outcomes.
Figure 5.1
Voting among Youth 1834 Years of Age
Voting patterns
60
40
Percent
20
0
Voted in all elections Voted in majority of the elections Voted in some elections Did not vote in any elections
There has been a declining trend in overall ed in table 5.1 indicate there is a decreas-
voter turnout over the last decade. While ing trend in youth voting registration. The
not exclusively a youth problem, voter turn- declining trend in voter turnout and the
out dropped from a near universal 96 per- turnout among the voting-age population is
cent in 1992 to less than two thirds in 2012, a sign of the growing apathy among youth
the lowest turnout in the six elections in the about voting.
democratic era. The survey data illustrat-
The transition of Mongolia to democracy began in 1990. The new weaknesses in governance, lack of a political culture conducive to
Constitution was adopted in 1992, and the country has undergone the flourishing of democracy, and low levels of political participation.
unprecedented political, economic, and social change since Regressive trends in the values of liberal democracy have been
then. Mongolia has experienced peaceful and regular transfers of noted by domestic commentators and are labelled as evidence
power during six successive elections for the State Great Khural of superficial democracy. Democracy becomes superficial if the
and for president. Human rights are well respected; the media are political arena favours the superficial exchange of slogans, personal
free, and political competition is genuine. These successes are attacks and orchestrated events over the serious discussion of
all the more remarkable given that constitutional democracy has issues, problems and ideas.
developed without prerequisites, that is, without a previous history of
Despite remarkable progress in the consolidation of democracy in
democracy or social pluralism, which some believe to be necessary
Mongolia over the last 25 years, the countrys democratic institutions
for democracy to flourish.a
have failed to curtail the rise in corruption, inequality, unemployment
Today, Mongolia represents a model of peaceful democratic and poverty. A real test of Mongolias democracy lies ahead: whether
transition for the region and is viewed by international observers as political institutions will be able to respond to the aspirations of
a stable democracy. It is also one of the few countries in the region to citizens for prosperity and the betterment of their lives and address
be ranked as free on the freedom in the world 2014 index of Freedom the emerging tensions over the new-found mineral wealth.
House.b A free country is characterized by openness to political
competition, a climate of respect for civil liberties, significant and a. Fish, 1998.
independent civic life, and independent media. By these measures, b. Freedom House is an independent watchdog organization that supports democratic
Mongolia has reached an acceptable international standard of change, monitors the status of freedom around the world, and advocates for democracy
democracy. and human rights. See Freedom in the World 2014, Freedom House, Washington, DC,
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2014.
However, several other measures point to the weaknesses of c. The democracy index is compiled by the Economist Intelligence Unit. It measures the state
democracy in Mongolia. The country is ranked 61st among 167 of democracy in 167 countries. It is based on 60 indicators grouped in five categories:
electoral process and pluralism, civil liberties, functioning of government, political
countries on the 2014 democracy index and was categorized as participation, and political culture. Besides a numeric score and a ranking, it classifies
a flawed democracy.c According to the index definition, flawed each country by one of four regime types: full democracy, flawed democracy, hybrid
regime, or authoritarian regime. The index was introduced in 2006 and was updated
democracies are countries that have free and fair elections, and, even in 2008 and 20102014. See Democracy Index 2014, Economist Intelligence Unit,
if there are problems (such as infringements on the freedom of the London, https://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=Democracy0115.
media), basic civil liberties are respected. There are also significant Source: Drawn from various assessments.
The consolidation of democracy requires surveys, the Asian Barometer Survey (ABS)
broad understanding and belief among a (wave 3), which was carried out in 2010
population that democracy is the most ap- 2012 in the East and South-East Asia region
propriate form of government and prefer- (box 5.3), and a survey conducted by the In-
able to the alternatives. The future of de- stitute of Philosophy, Sociology and Law at
mocracy in any country depends largely on the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 2013
the extent to which the younger generation that relied on the same questionnaire, but
is robustly committed to the democratic focused exclusively on youth in Mongolia.155
form of government. This proposition is The two surveys use different age-classifi-
anchored on the assumption that citizens cations for youth. The ABS survey classi-
universally have the same cognitive under- fies the 1829 age-group as youth, while the
standing of democracy. survey of the Institute of Philosophy, Soci-
ology and Law centres on the 1834 age-
To examine how Mongolians, especial- group.
ly youth, view democracy, we rely on two
In the ABS, four sets of questions on social equity, norms and support for democracy, which covers the desirability, suitability and
procedures, good governance, and freedom and liberty are designed preferability of democracy over any other sort of government; (b)
to elicit a gauge of young peoples understanding of democracy. whether democracy can solve societys problems; and (c) whether
According to the social equity concept, democracy is a political democracy is a greater priority than economic development.
system that guarantees protection for the disadvantaged and the The second set of questions, the indirect measure, assesses peoples
government provision of a minimum standard of living for all. orientation towards liberal democratic values and fundamental
The norms and procedures component refers to the view that principles, including political equality, accountability, political
democracy is an essential set of procedural arrangements that liberalism, political pluralism and the separation of powers. In the
institutionalize equal rights, open political competition, accountability, questions on this measure, the word democracy is deliberately
and the separation of powers. avoided.
Good governance highlights the governments ability effectively to All responses in the survey have been processed and classified under
manage public resources, provide equitable services, ensure the rule four different types of democratic orientation among individuals:
of law and be free of corruption. consistent democrats (high support for democracy, high liberal
democratic values), critical democrats (low support for democracy,
According to the freedom and liberty component, the key element
high liberal democratic values), non-democrats (low support for
of democracy is the protection of political freedom and civil liberty,
democracy, low liberal democratic values), and superficial democrats
including freedom of expression, of association and of religion.
(high support for democracy, low liberal democratic values).
The ABS has encompassed two additional sets of questions to probe
the substance and depth of commitment to democracy among Asian
Source: Chu and Huang, 2009.
youth. The first, the direct measure, assesses (a) the expressed
The results of the ABS show that Asian golians consistently expressed a high level
people generally consider the following el- of support for democracy. Over 80 percent
ements, in descending order of importance, of the respondents agreed that democracy is
as essential to democracy: good govern- suitable for the country. This was the high-
ance, social equity, norms and procedures, est share in the region.
and freedom and liberty (figure 5.2). Mon-
Figure 5.2
The Understanding of Democracy among Asian Youth
100% 4,6
19 13,8 18,3 17 13,1 15,4 15,8 12,3
19,7 26,1 22,6
29 17,6
80% 14,3 17,5
19,7 23,8 26,1 23,1 27,6
22,7 24,2
60% 21,4 21,9 27
Percent
Countries
Good Governance Social Equity Norms and Procedures Freedom and Liberty
Note: CM = Cambodia, CN = China, ID = Indonesia, JP = Japan, KR = Republic of Korea, MN = Mongolia, MY = Malaysia, PH = the Philippines, SG = Singapore, TH = Thailand, TW = Taiwan, VN = Viet
Nam.
Source: UNDP, 2014b.
Figure 5.3
Satisfaction in Governance, 1529 Age-Group, by Education and Residence, 2014
50 43,7
% chossing favourable responses
20 14
11,8 11,1 10,3 12,1 11,5
6 7,9
10
0
Rule of law Control of corruption Political and social equality Government responsiveness
Table 5.3
Interest in Political News among Youth, by Age Cohort, 2014
percent of respondents
Close to half the survey respondents (48.9 and engagement have any impact on the
percent) consider themselves capable of en- Government. This could be because more
gaging with politics, and 55.5 percent do than 60 percent feel that politics are dirty
not agree that politics are an issue of con- and that injustice is driving good people
cern only among older people. However, an away from politics. Half the respondents
equal share (52.7 percent) seem disengaged (50.4 percent) feel Government leaders can-
from politics and feel that politics do not not be trusted to take the proper course; the
affect their lives. respondents thus show their dissatisfaction
with the way politics function in the coun-
Opinion is divided equally across youth
try (table 5.4).
about whether their political participation
Over a third of the respondents attribute nature of politics and of politicians discour-
their lack of interest in politics to a lack of ages more than half from political participa-
trust in politicians, and 22 percent attribute tion (figure 5.4).
it to a lack of understanding of politics. The
Figure 5.4
Reasons for Lack of Interest in Politics, 2014
percent
40
30
20
10
0
Politics does not I cannot influence Do not trust Do not undestand Can not access Do not know how Not applicable
matter to me politics politicians politics political to answer
information
The declining trend in youth involvement on their lives because few political activities
in politics today contrasts with the situation correspond with or protect their interests.
during the democratic revolution of 1990, In every election, political parties promise
which was driven largely by young people. they will reduce unemployment and create
As young people, many of the current polit- jobs. However, there is no improvement in
ical leaders were active youth leaders of the the lives of unemployed youth. This dif-
peaceful revolution. ference between words and actions caus-
es youth to lose confidence in politics and
Interviews and focus group discussions
their respect for politicians.
among student groups confirm some of the
reasons elicited by the surveys for the low Second, students believe political parties
level of interest of youth in politics. First, lack political culture and maturity and that
youth believe that electoral promises are not the parties compete only for power. Youth
delivered and that politics have little impact express their dislike of politicians who en-
Table 5.5
Members of the State Great Khural, by Age-Group and Sex, 19922012
number
Young people are passive in their engage- much attention to youth participation in de-
ment with their elected representatives cision-making. Youth are underrepresented
in the State Great Khural and in local in local khurals. Only about 5 percent of
khurals.159 Despite recent initiatives to raise survey respondents aged 15 to 30 have been
citizen participation in budgeting and plan- involved in lobbying or activism, that is,
ning processes and in the use of local devel- contacting influential people to solve local
opment funds, decision makers do not pay problems (table 5.6).
Person or entity Once More than once No Could not answer Refused to answer
Members of the State Great Khural 2.6 1.9 90.9 1.3 3.3
Representatives of local khurals 3.4 2.2 88.9 2.1 3.4
High-level public officials 4.1 2.5 87.6 2.2 3.7
Influential local leaders 7.2 4.6 82.2 3.0 2.9
Influential non-governmental representatives 4.9 2.7 86.3 3.0 3.0
Media 3.0 1.6 88.6 3.2 3.5
Source: IPSL, 2014.
A recent study finds that there is a lack of processes, a lack of human rights education
proper feedback mechanisms about public and limited access to information to make
services and that young people rarely take informed decisions. The problems encoun-
part in community activities because they tered by youth in gaining access to informa-
believe their ideas and opinions are largely tion and to opportunities for capacity devel-
ignored.160 Youth also feel they have limited opment and participation are more acute in
understanding of their rights and of legal rural areas.161
Many civil society, private sector and Gov- the political system, youth are actively en-
ernment leaders are quite young. Mongolia gaged in social life across many areas, in-
enjoys a 98 percent literacy rate and, in re- cluding civil society, the media, sports, the
cent years, has achieved tremendous growth arts, culture and the environment. Young
in access to and the use of the Internet and people are more likely to be active in infor-
social media. These factors point to the mal, cause-oriented political activity that is
ability or, at least, the potential of youth to less institutionalized, such as participation
participate and influence the countrys de- in demonstrations, boycotts and direct ac-
velopment through social engagement.162 tion.163 In the late 1980s, for example, the
leaders of the Mongolian democratic move-
Civic and social engagement is a key com-
ment were young people in their 20s and
ponent of positive youth development. It
30s. Similarly today, Mongolias democratic
empowers young people and allows them
system has opened up many opportunities
to exercise citizenship, develop life skills,
for youth involvement in civil society and
network, and enhance their employability
civic organizations.
and learning outcomes. Despite the gener-
al sense of apathy and disenchantment with
Table 5.7
Youth Social and Political Activism, by Sex, Education and Location, 2014
percent of total responses
Indicator Political party Public organization Charity Religious organization Youth organization
SEX
Men 47.2 55.0 63.6 16.7 44.4
Women 52.8 45.0 36.4 83.3 55.3
EDUCATION
Tertiary 52.0 52.6 45.5 16.7 70.4
Specialized secondary 8.4 10.5 18.2 16.1 3.7
Complete secondary 27.9 21.1 18.2 50.0 11.1
Incomplete secondary 9.1 15.8 18.2 16.7 11.7
Elementary, uneducated 2.6 0 0 0 3.7
LOCATION
Urban 57.3 36.9 63.6 33.4 40.7
Rural 42.7 63.2 36.4 66.7 59.3
Source: IPSL, 2014.
The Network of Mongolian Volunteer Or- relevant policies and programmes linked
ganizations is an independent, non-profit with major national development plans. Be-
membership organization established in cause of widespread research globally, many
1997. Members include more than 30 volun- stakeholders recognize volunteerism as a
teer organizations active in health care, ed- strategic, people-centred tool for addressing
ucation, the environment, human rights and poverty, social integration, youth empow-
other areas. The network aims to raise the erment, environmental protection, human-
recognition of volunteerism as a vehicle for itarian action and so on. Well-supported
development and change and to strengthen and facilitated volunteer programmes that
the capacities of local volunteer organiza- are integrated into national development
tions. The vast majority of volunteers in the strategies, laws and planning can open ave-
network are youth 15- to 34-years of age. nues for people and communities, especial-
ly youth, to take proactive action to meet
Despite the existence of the network, as-
challenges that they encounter in their daily
sessing the extent of informal volunteerism
lives. Likewise, youth volunteers can play
is difficult because volunteerism is not high-
a critical role in the implementation of the
ly organized or highly visible. Moreover,
SDGs in the next 15 years, in disseminating
many people informally volunteer for per-
information on the important issues, trans-
sonal satisfaction and do not maintain links
lating the agenda into local initiatives, and
with any volunteer organization.
strengthening their ownership of their own
If the necessary elements of youth civic en- development and the development of their
gagement are in place, a positive process can countries.
be initiated whereby adults recognize young
The use of ICT for social engagement
people as assets in development and sup-
port the continued participation of youth
in civic activities. Young people are also be- I was on Facebook looking at several
ginning to believe they are capable of pro- groups and pages on volunteering. Then
ducing positive change in society through I came across a post on Gegeen Undes
social engagement. and wrote an email to their Gmail ac-
count. After they replied, I got involved
However, Mongolia has not fully devel- in teaching at an orphanage in Amgalan
oped an infrastructure to help promote during the summer.
youth volunteerism through innovative in- Internet user
itiatives. Volunteer organizations and other
key stakeholders have been advocating for a
framework law on volunteerism, including
Table 5.9
Internet Use among Youth, by Age Cohort and Sex, 2014
percent
The Internet reached Mongolia in 1996. In- started as a Facebook group. It now recruits
ternet use and mobile phone coverage have members through Facebook and connects
expanded rapidly since then, including in through email and face-to-face meetings.
rural areas. The number of Internet users
per 100 population rose steadily, from 0.0 However, despite the rapid growth in the
in 1996 to 1.6 in 2008, 3.9 in 2009, 7.3 in Internet and social media, only about one
2010, and 24.5 in 2012.166 By 2015, there fourth of youth use the Internet and social
were 2,430,000 Internet subscribers, which media as a source of information. Television
represents about 81 percent coverage. This remains an important channel of informa-
has opened many opportunities for youth. tion for youth (52.4 percent). The use of the
Most Internet users are young and use the Internet as a source of information is great-
Internet to seek out and engage in social ac- er among younger age cohorts (table 5.10).
tivities. Zaluusiin Tusgal Negdel, an NGO,
Age cohort Television Internet Social media Print media Family and friends FM radio Talking to people Work colleagues
1619 46.2 29.9 6.8 9.0 2.5 3.4 1.4 0.9
2024 49.3 26.2 5.9 10.2 3.2 2.5 2.3 0.5
2529 54.1 21.1 4.5 10.7 3.9 1.8 2.5 1.4
3034 60.8 16.2 3.1 12.3 3.1 1.7 1.7 1.0
Total 52.4 23.5 5.1 10.5 3.2 2.4 2.0 0.9
Source: IPSL, 2014.
Young people also often lack the capacity This brief review shows that Mongolian
to analyse and filter information, identify youth actively participate in social activities
true or false information and extract in- and are sensitive to complex issues. They
formation useful for their purposes.167 The are deeply concerned about social prob-
emergence of new forms of expression and lems, have energy and fresh ideas and are
communication and the Internet are not using ICTs to form new associations that
necessarily directly correlated with greater are structured around themes of current in-
political participation. Nor can they replace terest. They are concerned about larger so-
active political participation. The challenge cial issues rather than only youth-related is-
is therefore to ensure that the new forms of sues. This is clear evidence of youth agency.
communication and mobilization help re- Youth also often contribute financially from
inforce youth social engagement and youth their own meagre resources to promote the
participation in the political process.168 common social good.
Young people can shape the future by fectiveness of the Government. They have
demonstrating active citizenship, leading in higher expectations of good governance
social change, improving their communities and accountability, but youth everywhere
and advocating for social justice. Good cit- desire a responsive government and con-
izens in a democracy exhibit social engage- crete results based on honest commitments.
ment, which means they are able to use their Policymakers and political leaders should
constitutionally protected political rights to view these deficits of trust as testimony that
advance the common good and contribute improvements in governance and in the
to their communities. Young people have conduct of politicians are required to re-
much to offer society, including innovation, connect youth meaningfully to the political
creativity and new ways of thinking. Their process, to reestablish their trust in govern-
participation in democracy promotes active mental institutions and to include them as
citizenship, strengthens social responsibil- agents of development.
ity and can enhance democratic processes
and institutions. Despite disillusionment about politics and
the Government, their significant, though
Despite their strong belief in democracy, declining participation in elections indi-
Mongolian youth generally lack a deep un- cates that youth are not entirely indifferent
derstanding of democracy. This is evident or disinterested. Though they are generally
in their responses to survey questions about less likely to participate in politics through
fundamental democratic principles and val- traditional channels such as elections and
ues. The views of many Mongolian youth membership in political parties, they do
are inconsistent and superficial. Young peo- engage in activism through the Internet
ple tend to understand democracy only in and informal social networks. Indeed, the
terms of freedom and liberty. Internet has rapidly emerged as a key me-
dium to mobilize youth participation, build
Youth are relatively knowledgeable and are
networks for social engagement and foster
attentive to news and media reporting about
information sharing. The additional expan-
government and politics, though there is a
sion of Internet access and connectivity es-
need for greater coverage and access to in-
pecially in rural areas has the potential to
formation among all young people. Better
transform this generation of youth into ef-
civic education on human rights, democracy
fective agents of social change.
and legal systems can build confidence and
the capacity to understand politics among Supporting and including young people in
youth and help young people form their the development process are essential for
own opinions and add their voices to policy several reasons. First, youth have a lot of
discussions. energy, fresh ideas and idealism and can of-
fer useful insights and perspectives. Second,
There is a general perception that political
youth represent a large share of the popu-
parties and political institutions, including
lation and, as a result, their voices can be
the electoral process, fail to appeal to this
expressions of more general needs in soci-
critical segment of the population because
ety. Third, young people are the custodians
of the lack of credible political programmes
of their environments and the leaders of
that effectively and specifically target young
tomorrow. Young people need democracy,
people. Youth, especially urban residents
and democracy needs young people.
and the more well educated, appear to be
the most critical of the performance and ef-
Implement voter education programmes In this way, youth will be enabled to engage
aimed at first-time voters and youth more positively and effectively in the devel-
who do not participate in elections. opment of their communities. Supporting
and including young people in the devel-
Improve the volunteer infrastructure so opment process are empowering as well as
that it can promote the safer, more ac- critical for the future.
Box 6.1
Fast Facts
1. Young people aged 1834 make up about 49 percent of the 3. Police records show that 88.1 percent of the victims of domestic
crime victims and 67 percent of the individuals sentenced in violence in 2015 were women, and 57.2 percent were youth aged
the courts. Crime rates tend to be higher in urban areas than in 1434 years. The new Criminal Code was enacted in 2015, and
rural areas, and the 1829 age-group is the most vulnerable to it provides for the inclusion of domestic violence as a category
crime. Various structural and individual factors contribute to the of crime in Mongolia.
vulnerability of young people to violence, including poverty and 4. Almost 80 percent of LGBT persons have experienced some
unemployment, inequality of opportunity, poor living conditions, form of human rights abuse or discrimination.
weaknesses in the legal system and personality disorders.
5. The emotional and financial support of families is critical in
2. More than 30 percent of 13- to 15-year-old students and helping the young during the transition to adulthood and in
almost 20 percent of 16- to 17-year-old students experienced reducing the vulnerability of the young to violence. There is a
bullying on one or more days during the 30 days previous to a strong case for targeted social assistance to support youth in
survey.a Cyber bullying has emerged as a new source of sexual low-income households for the first year after they leave school.
harassment of girls. a. WHO and NCPH, 2013.
Human security was broadly defined in Hu- also other risks such as workplace accidents
man Development Report 1994.169 It con- and air pollution. All these situations make
sists of two components: freedom from fear young people more vulnerable.
and freedom from want. These components
are mirrored in the seven main categories During the transition from childhood to
of human security: economic security, food adulthood, many young people are exposed
security, health security, environmental se- to various kinds of violence as victims or
curity, personal security, community securi- perpetrators. This exposure can under-
ty and political security. Protecting human mine the security, dignity and livelihoods
security involves the capacity to identify of young people and endanger the process
threats, to avoid them whenever possible of acquiring the freedoms and the capabili-
and to mitigate the effects if human securi- ties they need to lead the lives they wish to
ty is violated.170 lead.171
The previous chapters examine the chal- This chapter analyses the extent and nature
lenges youth face in gaining access to of the exposure of young people to violence
good-quality education, skills and jobs and and explores the main contributory factors
the situations of risk created among young that increase the vulnerability of youth to vi-
people by tobacco use, alcohol abuse, un- olence. Various sources of social protection
protected sex, and traffic accidents, which available to youth are examined, including
render youth vulnerable to ill health, alco- the changing role of the family. The con-
holism, STIs, teenage pregnancy and in- cluding section offers suggestions on what
juries. These risk situations are common may be done to reduce the vulnerability of
among youth in all countries. There are young people to violence.
Violence is a major barrier to the goal of extensive and careful sociological research
equitable and sustainable human develop- and interpretation on these issues.
ment. It infringes the fundamental human
right to physical integrity and freedom from The typology of violence presented in
fear, jeopardizes the basic human capabili- the WHO World Report on Violence and
ties of young people and undermines the ca- Health divides violence into three broad
pacity of youth to participate as responsible categories according to the characteristics
citizens in the economic, political and social of those committing the violent acts, as fol-
life of the country. lows:172
Table 6.1
Vulnerability of Young People to Six Types of Violence
Interpersonal violence Self-directed violence Collective violence
Domestic violence
Bullying and harassment
Suicide Hate crimes, stigma and discrimination
Homicide, other crimes
Trafficking of people for sexual exploitation
Source: Krug et al., 2002.
Youth face the risk of these types of vio- the same age cohort. Likewise, unprotected
lence as victims or as perpetrators. For ex- sex is most often imposed by young men on
ample, bullying is typically perpetrated by young women. Similarly, in cases of traf-
13- to 17-year-olds on other individuals in ficking, young girls are usually the victims,
Table 6.2
The Extent of Violence in Schools, by Age Cohort and Sex, 2013
percent
There is a risk that early experiences of with assault. While there is no legal provi-
bullying as victim or perpetrator may con- sion making bullying an offence in Mongo-
tribute to or otherwise lay the groundwork lia, school administrators and parents are
for later and more excessive involvement in aware of the problem and are working to
violence. reduce young peoples vulnerability to bul-
lying practices. For example, parents moni-
What is being done? tor school premises; police provide support
Bullying should be considered a multidi- to the parents, and school administrations
mensional phenomenon that partly overlaps cooperate with parents to help reduce cases
of violence and crimes around schools.
Figure 6.1
Victims and Individuals Sentenced for Crimes, by Age Cohort, 20072015
60,0
50,1
50,0 45,0
40,0 34,3
Percent
25,9
30,0
15,0 17,1
20,0
5,7 6,9
10,0
0,0
Below 18 18-29 30-34 35+
Age (years)
Young people in the 1829 age-group are the share of woman perpetrators during
clearly the most vulnerable to crime as vic- this period was constant at 89 percent.179
tims or perpetrators. This is in line with in-
Crime rates tend to be higher in urban areas
ternational evidence that an overwhelming
than in rural areas. The urban share of total
majority of the individuals who participate
reported offences increased from 61 percent
in violence against young people are about
in 2011 to 69 percent in 2015; the share of
the same age and sex as their victims; often,
Ulaanbaatar climbed from 56 percent to 65
the victims know their assailants.178
percent during this period.180
Age-disaggregated data on woman victims
are not available, but, overall, the share of Recent years have witnessed the use of the
woman victims rose from 37 percent in 2011 Internet, which is widely accessed by youth,
to 40 percent in 2015; this may include vic- for the online sexual harassment of young
tims of domestic violence. In comparison, girls (box 6.2).
Sexual harassment, including requests for nude photographs or Through his fake Facebook account, suspect S, an 18-year-old in
videos, unwelcome sexual advances, or blackmail, is frequent a rural aimag, targeted attractive young girls who had posted public
on social media sites, such as Facebook, which have gained communications on the social networking service. He used a similar
phenomenal popularity in Mongolia.a method of creating intimate conversations after luring the girls with
In 2014, of 2,430,000 Internet users, nearly 80 percent were active fake online shopping advertisements. He later used the information
users of Facebook; many were teenagers. One risk of such a large he had acquired from the girls for sexual harassment.
number of active Facebook users is the creation of fake accounts. According to the police experience, people who spend most of their
According to police, offenders create intimate conversations with time on Facebook posting about their daily lives publicly are more
victims through online chat rooms and private messages, after likely to become victims. Parents should speak with their children
which they request explicit photographs and videos. Later, these about the risks of expressing intimate details about themselves
intimate photographs and videos are used to try to acquire sexual publicly and should exercise some control over their childrens
favours or large sums of money or for sexual harassment. social media accounts. According to the General Police Department:
An article in the UB Post reported that police officials had Everyone should freely report sexual harassment to the police if it
investigated 59 Internet-related crimes involving 39 victims.b Two happens to them. Teenagers should be very careful when becoming
of the perpetrators were Mongolians; the others were in foreign friends with strangers, and, if its not important, dont post your
countries. Suspect B, a 16-year-old in an eastern aimag, opened information and pictures to the public.
a fake account and allegedly used it to chat with girls for long
periods to gain their confidence and then collect nude photographs. a. In Mongolian law, sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome sexual advances, orally,
More than 1,000 photographs were found on Bs cell phone and physically, or in any other form; blackmail for sexual purposes; the creation of an
unacceptable situation of sexual intercourse that is inevitably accompanied by negative
computer, which B had used to harass his victims for sexual favours workplace, social position, or material and psychological impacts; and exerting pressure
and money. and threatening behaviour.
b. A news item in the UB Post, 11 December 2014.
Globally, human trafficking is one of the Trafficking for sexual exploitation is the
most rapidly growing types of organized most typical form of trafficking, although
crime, victimizing millions of people and trafficking for forced labour, servile mar-
reaping billions in profits. It is estimated riage, crime-related activities, or other pur-
that about 800,000 women, children and poses is also relatively frequent. Among the
men are trafficked for sexual or other forms victims assisted by the Mongolian Centre
of exploitation each year.181 for Gender Equality between 2003 and
2009, 30 percent had been trafficked for
Nature, extent and trends forced labour, and 45 percent for sexual ex-
ploitation.184 A study by the Asia Foundation
Mongolia is a source and, to lesser finds that a combination of factors, includ-
extent, a destination country for men, ing absence of a regular income, unemploy-
women and children subjected to forced ment and poverty, was the most important
labour and sex trafficking. driver of the vulnerability of respondents to
trafficking, but that no single factor had a
US Department of State,
direct causal relationship to trafficking.185
2015, p. 249
The recent rise in trafficking has also been
linked to the increase in urban migration.186
The first human trafficking case in Mon-
golia was reported in 2000.182 Since then, Youth, mostly young women, are usually the
Mongolia has emerged as a transit and a victims of trafficking. Youth in the 1519
source country. In 20062007, documented and 2024 age cohorts are considered the
cases of trafficking jumped nearly tenfold, most vulnerable. A study of data on 2004
from 13 to 115.183 2007 finds that 50 percent of the victims
Table 6.3
Attempted Suicides among 13- to 17-Year-Olds, 2013
average, %3
Adolescence is the period during which ducing young peoples vulnerability. The is-
young people form friendships and experi- sue of suicides and attempted suicides thus
ment with ideas and new experiences. They requires urgent and careful research to clar-
undergo major changes and form their iden- ify the contributory factors. There should
tities. It is not uncommon for adolescents also be wider access to counselling and
to be prone to extreme mood swings. The good-quality mental health services among
data on attempted suicides among this age- young people.
group are therefore not entirely reliable as
indicators of the true exposure of youth to Discrimination against minorities198
the phenomenon. Still, they do highlight I was beaten up; they flung stones at
that 1317 years of age is the period when me and sprayed urine from a Pepsi bot-
adolescents are quite vulnerable and require tle when I wore womens clothing. One
emotional support from their families, a time, a security man at a hotel in which
stable environment at home and profession- I was to pass a night brought two oth-
al counselling, if necessary, to help them er men and beat me up. I went to the
deal with the mood swings. police, but the policeman told me off,
saying, Its your fault: you wore wom-
There is little research on emotional secu-
ens clothes. He did not consider me a
rity and suicides among youth in Mongolia,
victim, but discriminated against me as
and the data are scanty. Yet, identifying the
a transgender.
risk factors in suicide and understanding
their role are key to prevention and to re- 26-year-old transgender woman
Some students take up part-time jobs while Family support is not necessarily uncon-
studying to lessen the financial burden on ditional. For example, it is often not pro-
their families, but, more typically, parents vided to youth with an LGBT orientation.
pay tuition, rent and upkeep for their chil- In a survey carried out among the LGBT
dren until the children find stable employ- community, 86.7 percent of respondents in-
ment. Financial dependence may not end dicated they had not told their families of
with the attainment of college education their sexual orientation or gender identity,
or obtaining a job. Parents do not usually frequently because they were afraid to do
regard as a burden their support for their so.216 In a study conducted in Ulaanbaatar in
young adult children who continue to live in 2012 among men who have sex with men, a
the parental home until the children reach mere 16.5 percent had disclosed their sexual
their late 20s and sometimes even later. preferences to their families.217 Many who
The financial and emotional dependency of have come out have been accused of ruin-
young adults on their parents exists along- ing the reputations of their families. Many
side a growing desire among youth for inde- openly LGBT individuals have become es-
pendence and a space of their own. tranged from their families or are excluded
from family gatherings.218 The lack of social
Parental support is not limited to mone- and familial understanding and support has
tary assistance for children transitioning a negative impact on well-being and men-
to adulthood. Thus, there is often a deep tal health outcomes. In the survey among
emotional link between young adults and the LGBT community mentioned above,
their parents. The family also plays a cru- nearly three fourths of the respondents said
cial role in protecting youth against violence they had considered suicide because of soci-
and health risks. How well youth do later in etys intolerance and failure to understand
life depends not only on how well equipped them.219
Though many changes have taken place in The young are dynamic and full of new
the composition and structure of families ideas, and they are agents of change. They
as a result of migration and globalization, are aware, connected with each other and
the family remains the primary institution globally through social media, and can par-
of socialization among young people and ticipate more intensively to build awareness,
can still play an important role in the pre- for example, through Facebook groups.
vention of youth crime. The most effective They can be socially engaged and increase
prevention efforts will need to focus on the their participation in sports and other ac-
family unit. tivities to develop their capabilities and en-
hance their security.
Early victimization and the experience of
violence in the home, substance abuse and
other, similar experiences may make some
young people particularly vulnerable to fu-
ture victimization or perpetration of vio-
lence. All actors should focus on the impor-
tance of family life in addressing the related
issues.
Figure 7.1
Mongolias Human DevelopmentBased Youth Policy
HD PILLARS
PRIORITY AREAS
KEY PRINCIPLES
Promote healthy eating habits at home Cut tobacco use and excessive alcohol
with emphasis on fruits and vegetables. consumption.
Make the home a smoke-free environ- Adopt diversified dietary habits.
ment and avoid smoking at home be- Participate in life skills training courses.
cause of the harmful effects of passive
Increase participation in physical activ-
smoking.
ities, such as sports, cycling, or walking
Parents and older siblings should aim to to school or work and joining fitness
become role models for younger chil- clubs.
dren and adopt healthy habits.
Skill enhancement and greater access to em- and women seeking work, the majority have
ployment are central goals of efforts to in- been looking for a year or more.
crease the opportunities available to young
people to lead the lives they wish to lead. Youth in poorer households are at a great-
er disadvantage during the school-to-work
Priority area 3: reduce the skill transition. Because of the urgency to start
mismatch earning income quickly, many young people
in the lower wealth quintiles are pushed to
Priority area 4: create more jobs for
take the first available employment and end
youth
up in dead-end or mismatched jobs.
The main barriers faced by young people in
Women outnumber men at all levels of high-
obtaining decent, productive employment
er-education degree programmes; yet, their
are the mismatch between supply and de-
educational achievements do not translate
mand on the labour market, the skill mis-
into greater workforce participation or bet-
match between education and the labour
ter employment opportunities. Many young
market, the inadequate quality of labour,
women who start families before finding
the lack of employment opportunities, es-
work stay out of the labour market or re-
pecially in rural areas, and the lack of career
main unemployed for a long time because
development services.
re-entry into the labour market is often dif-
Despite strong economic growth perfor- ficult.
mance in recent years, Mongolia has been
About 80 percent of persons with disabili-
confronted by the serious challenge of
ties, including youth, are economically in-
translating growth into employment, par-
active. Those who are active are more likely
ticularly among the large youth population.
to be self-employed, suggesting that barri-
The unemployment rate among the 2024
ers exist to the economic activity of people
age-group is, at 17 percent, twice the nation-
with disabilities.
al unemployment rate. Among young men
Participation in political activities and en- erally proud of their fledgling democracy.
gagement in social and community affairs Youth make up more than 45 percent of the
foster youth empowerment. voting population and participate actively;
around 45 percent have participated in elec-
Priority area 5: promote political
tions. They desire a responsive government
participation
and concrete results based on legitimate ex-
Priority area 6: encourage social pectations and commitments.
engagement
Moreover, youth are actively engaged in so-
The conduct of politicians and political cial activities, including through civil socie-
parties in recent years has eroded the trust ty organizations and volunteerism. The In-
of young people in political institutions. ternet has rapidly emerged as a key medium
More than one third of the young people for mobilizing participation, sharing infor-
surveyed attributed their lack of interest in mation and building social networks among
politics to their lack of trust in politicians. youth. The engagement of young people
Urban youth and youth living in poorer in social activities demonstrates that they
households tend to have less confidence in have a lot of energy and idealism. Often,
political institutions. Youth have a poor per- the young are looking for opportunities,
ception of the quality of governance, and support and guidance to engage positively
they are passive in engaging directly with and effectively in the development of their
their elected representatives because they communities.
feel such contacts are ineffective and only
Action points
symbolic. Only 15 percent of young people
are involved in lobbying or political activ- Policymakers and political leaders should
ism to solve local problems. view the trust deficit as a serious reminder
that improvements in governance are re-
Nonetheless, although youth may seem
quired to engage with youth on policies that
disillusioned, they are not politically indif-
impact youth and to include young people
ferent or disinterested. Mongolians are gen-
in the development process. To ensure the
Reduced vulnerability to violence and of internal and external migration. The rise
strong family support help create a secure in the incidence of single-parent households
environment so that young people are able and in divorce rates may affect the ability
to live long, safe, healthy and creative lives. of families to provide a secure environment
for young people.
Priority area 7: reduce the vulnerability
to violence Action points
Priority area 8: strengthen family and All stakeholders can promote a secure en-
community support vironment among youth. The Government
and other actors can adopt the following
Young people are exposed to various sit- measures to reduce youth vulnerability to
uations of risk such as domestic violence, violence:
bullying, crime, attempted suicide, human
trafficking, and hate crimes. These situa- Strengthen the legal framework and the
tions of risk threaten the security of young implementation of appropriate laws and
people in school, at work, in public places, regulations.
and at home. The vulnerability of youth to Ensure universal access to infrastruc-
violence adversely affects the potential for ture services.
enhancing human development.
Set up youth development centres and
The family plays a crucial role in protect- youth clubs in aimag and soum admin-
ing the young against exposure to violence istrative centres to expand the social en-
whether as victims or as perpetrators. It is gagement and productive use of leisure
also the main source of financial support by young people.
among youth during the transition to adult- Create incentives to curb the excessive
hood and the period between the comple- consumption of alcohol.
tion of formal education and the first sta- Undertake research and the collection
ble employment. During this time, young of reliable data to foster effective anal-
people receive no financial support from ysis of the issues and better policymak-
the Government and must depend only on ing.
parents, older siblings, or others.
Introduce a targeted social assistance
However, families do not always furnish benefit to support youth from poorer
support to their children among the youth households during the school-to-work
age cohorts. Moreover, the structure of the transition. The benefit could be availa-
family is undergoing rapid changes because ble for one year after the completion of
formal education and administered as a
Governments are recognizing the impor- cations for developing youth capabilities, in-
tance of dealing with young peoples con- creasing opportunities, empowering youth
cerns and needs by passing targeted youth and enhancing their security: 3 (ensure
legislation and adopting relevant policies. healthy lives and promote well-being for all
Among 198 countries, 122 have national ages), 4 (ensure inclusive and equitable qual-
youth policies, a 50 percent rise since 2013. ity education and promote lifelong learning
Mongolia is keen to develop a comprehen- opportunities for all), 5 (achieve gender
sive youth development policy. Hopefully, equality and empower all women and girls),
this NHDR will encourage rigorous re- 8 (promote sustained, inclusive and sustain-
search and analysis, raise awareness of the able economic growth, full and productive
issues, focus attention on the challenges employment and decent work for all), and
facing youth, and foster policy discussions, 16 (promote peaceful and inclusive socie-
thereby contributing to the design of the na- ties for sustainable development, provide
tional youth policy. The following are some access to justice for all and build effective,
of the priorities in the drafting and imple- accountable and inclusive institutions at all
mentation of a national youth policy. levels).
Integration with the national develop- The Government has designed the Sustain-
ment agenda and planning framework able Development Vision2030 of Mongo-
lia, which was adopted by the State Great
A youth policy is more likely to be success-
Khural in early 2016. Discussions on youth
ful if it is well integrated into national pol-
issues during the preparation of the NHDR,
icy, planning, budgeting and implementa-
along with issues and solutions identified
tion mechanisms. In Mongolia, youth issues
by young people through the global Unit-
are being addressed through general and
ed Nations survey, The World We Want,
sectoral policies. However, youth develop-
have provided a unique opportunity so the
ment issues are not adequately reflected in
Sustainable Development Vision2030 of
the national policy and planning frame-
Mongolia reflects the priorities of youth.224
work. Integration with the budget process
is also weak. Coordination on youth policy across
line ministries
Youth issues should become more well in-
tegrated into Mongolias SDGs. Work is A youth policy must be well coordinat-
currently under way to identify the coun- ed across line ministries. Youth issues cut
try-specific targets. All SDGs are linked across sectors, and most policies that influ-
with youth issues, but especially the follow- ence the resolution of the issues are imple-
ing SDG goals have the most direct impli- mented by separate line ministries. Thus, the
ANNEXES 143
Annex I The preparation of the sixth NHDR
NHDRs are prepared through an autono- helped build a platform for advocacy and
mous, country-led, country-owned process the continued engagement of youth in the
of consultation, research and writing by a NHDR. A peer review group composed of
team of national experts. The team com- national experts reviewed the background
bines their specialist knowledge on a se- papers and the initial drafts of the report
lected research topic that reflects national and supplied valuable, detailed comments
development priorities from the perspective that helped improve quality.
of people. In a procedure that strengthens
capacities, they analyse the related issues The institutional structure
to bring forth new ideas and contribute to The key principles of an NHDR are na-
more relevant, richer and more well round- tional leadership of the process, extensive
ed national policies. They engage national participation and consultation among key
partners in identifying inequities and gaps stakeholders, and national ownership of the
in sharing the advantages of development. product.
The intended audience of NHDRs includes
policymakers, civil society, academia, inter- In light of the recent Human Development
national partners, multilateral and interna- Report Office guidelines and the experience
tional financial institutions, and the general of UNDP-Mongolia in the preparation of
public, including young people. five NHDRs, the following structures have
been established to prepare the NHDR in
The preparation of this NHDR has been a time-bound manner, while ensuring the
supervised by a NHDR steering commit- smooth functioning of the process.
tee supported by an advisory board and a
peer review group. The steering committee The NHDR steering committee: A
and the advisory board have enjoyed broad five-member NHDR steering committee
representation among various stakeholders, supplied strategic guidance and oversight
including members of the Government, during NHDR preparation, including han-
civil society, agencies of the United Nations dling sensitive issues. The steering commit-
(UN), research institutions and youth repre- tee was chaired jointly by the state secretary
sentatives, who have provided guidance and of the Ministry of Population Development
inputs to the report writing team. (A more and Social Protection and the deputy resi-
detailed description of the preparation pro- dent representative of UNDP. Other mem-
cess and the related institutional structure is bers included the vice chairman of the Na-
supplied below.) tional Statistical Office of Mongolia (NSO),
the state secretary of the Ministry of Eco-
Informal consultations among stakeholders nomic Development and the president of
took place throughout the drafting process. the Mongolian Youth Federation.
Two formal consultations were also organ-
ized: an inception workshop at the start, in The NHDR advisory board: An advisory
September 2013, and a consultation in Oc- board, composed of prominent national
toberNovember 2014 to discuss the first experts, was responsible for assessing the
draft of the report. During the preparation quality of the analysis, data reliability and
of background papers and with the support accuracy, and the soundness of the report
of the UN Youth Advisory Panel, a series recommendations. All key stakeholder
of online consultations were conducted in groups were represented on the board.
AprilJuly 2014. Moderated e-discussions
Peer review group: The NHDR advisory
enabled a broad cross-section of stake-
board set up a smaller peer review group,
holders to exchange opinions. Because of
with five members, whose main responsibil-
the familiarity of young people with social
ity was regularly to review the background
media and e-forums, virtual consultations
papers, background notes and the draft ver-
Figure I.1
Institutional Structure of the Report Preparation Process
NHDR
NATIONAL NHDR ADVISORY BOARD
COORDINATOR
(UNDP
Support) REPORT WRITING TEAM
LEAD AUTHOR - 1
NATIONAL AUTHOR - 1
NATIONAL CONSULTANT - 1
ANNEXES 145
Consultations Share the draft report structure and the
outline of the report, obtain stakeholder
Public debate and advocacy are central fea-
perspectives and experiences relating to
tures of the preparation of an NHDR and
the theme, define the subthemes to be
also of awareness-building following publi-
covered and identify the broad contours
cation. To exert an impact on national poli-
and the scope of the analysis of specific
cy and overall discussions on issues relating
issues
to youth, the consultative process aimed to
Share the plans and time-lines associat-
maximize stakeholder engagement and en-
ed with the preparation process
sure inclusive preparation, promote advoca-
cy of the NHDR and help build a strong Initiate discussion on the identification
constituency for human development. of key messages and promote buy-in
and capacity-building among stakehold-
Inception workshop ers
The national inception workshop was or- Virtual network consultations
ganized to discuss the draft structure of the
report. Participants included policymakers, A series of tightly moderated time-bound
governmental officials, researchers, acade- e-discussions were organized on the theme
micians, and representatives of civil society and subthemes of the NHDR. This enabled
organizations, the media, the private sector, a broad cross-section of stakeholders to ex-
and UN agencies. The inception workshop change knowledge, raise and debate issues
had the following goals: on youth and human development in Mon-
golia and engage in a lively, diverse and rich
Create broad awareness of the relevance
debate of relevance to the report. Because
of human development
of the familiarity of young people with so-
Draw attention to the challenges facing
cial media and e-forums, the virtual con-
youth
sultations helped deepen advocacy for the
Promote broad awareness of the glob- NHDRs among youth.
al Human Development Report and
NHDRs, share Mongolias experience National consultation on the first draft
in preparing NHDRs and discuss how
Once ready, the first draft of the NHDR was
an NHDR on youth could contribute to
translated and shared with a wide audience
well-informed policymaking
to elicit comments and feedback to help re-
fine the content and sharpen the messages.
Mongolias first NHDR (Human Develop- labour statistics was reviewed and refined.
ment Report, Mongolia, 1997) introduced An analysis of the time use survey was car-
the concept of human development and ried out. Partly as a result of the NHDR,
included the calculation of the national hu- the Law on Employment Promotion was
man development index (HDI). amended in 2008. The amendment focused
on creating an appropriate framework for
The second report (Human Development
employment promotion, additional services
Report, Mongolia, 2000: Reorienting the
to target groups confronted by difficulties
State) focused on institutions and govern-
in finding jobs, structural changes in the
ance. Some of the challenges identified in
decentralization of employment promotion
the report are still being confronted. The
services and the improvement of integrated
report opened a broad debate on the impor-
information systems on labour registration
tance of good governance during the transi-
and employment. The Law on Employment
tion to a market-oriented economy.
Promotion went into effect on 1 October
The third report (Urban-Rural Disparities 2011.
in Mongolia, 2003) focused on disparities
The fifth report (From Vulnerability to
across population segments and the pos-
Sustainability: Environment and Human
sibility of promoting human development
Development, 2011) focused on environ-
across all communities. For the first time,
mental challenges and human development.
the gross domestic product (GDP) and an
It contained several important innovations,
HDI were calculated for each aimag (prov-
including wide-ranging research contribu-
ince). The ranking of aimags according
tions, the extensive participation of aimag
to the HDIs significantly influenced the
governors and population groups in surveys
thinking and attitudes of aimag governors.
on human development issues, the introduc-
The report initiated an extensive debate on
tion of the multidimensional environmental
inequality and regional development issues.
vulnerability indicator and an attempt to
As a follow-up to the recommendations of
estimate the carbon dioxide footprint of
the report, a human development textbook
Ulaanbaatar. Various impacts of the report
was published, and human development
are being observed by the newly established
programme curricula were introduced at
Ministry of Environment and Green Devel-
the National University of Mongolia.
opment. Mongolia hosted an international
The fourth report (Employment and Pov- meeting among environment ministers, and
erty in Mongolia, 2007) helped introduce the multidimensional environmental vul-
improvements in the data collection on nerability indicator is being used by officials
employment and poverty and in the iden- in the sector nationwide. The indicator was
tification of relevant policies. The first calculated in the Provincial Competitive-
poverty mapping and Millennium Devel- ness Report 2014 produced by the Research
opment Goal mapping were undertaken by Centre for Economic Policy and Competi-
the NSO, thus making poverty data avail- tiveness (EPCRC, 2015).
able on the lowest administrative levels.
The methodology used in the collection of
ANNEXES 147
Annex III Technical note: methodology update
ANNEXES 149
Annex IV Changes in the methodology for estimating the HDI
Poor performance in any dimension of hu- various dimensions of well-being and that
man development is now directly reflected we should be attentive to changes in any of
in the HDI, and there is no longer perfect them.
substitutability across dimensions. A key
change has been the shift to a geometric Additionally, the maximum values in each
mean that measures the typical value of a dimension have been shifted to the ob-
set of numbers. Thus, since 2010, the HDI served maximum rather than a predefined
has been the geometric mean of the three cut-off beyond which achievements are ig-
dimensional indices. This method reveals nored. However, there is no change in the
whether a countrys performance is well practice of using the log of income. Incomes
rounded across the three dimensions. As a are instrumental in human development,
basis for comparisons in achievement, this but the contribution of incomes to human
method is also more responsive to intrinsic development declines as incomes increase.
differences in the dimensions relative to a Table IV.1 offers information about trends
simple average. It recognizes that health, in the indices of human development in
education and income are all important, Mongolia.
but also that it is difficult to compare these
Table IV.1
National Human Development Indices: Reference Period and Explanatory Notes
Index Reference period Note
Human development 20102013 New methodologies developed to estimate HDIs were approved by the chairmans order
index (HDI), inequality- of 2 July 2014. These methodologies were developed on the basis of Technical Notes in
adjusted human Human Development Report 2013 (UNDP, 2013a) and the methodology of the United Nations
development index Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for estimating mean years of schooling. The
(IHDI) new methodologies developed by the National Statistics Office of Mongolia were applied to
estimate the HDI and IHDI for aimags.
Gender inequality index 20022013 The methodology used to estimate the GII is in the package of methodologies approved by the
GII) national steering committee on 2 July 2014.
Multidimensional 2010, 2013 The Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative estimated MPIs in 2005 using raw 2005
poverty index (MPI) datasets of the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS). The NHDR team estimated the MPI for
2013 was based on a raw dataset of the Social Indicator Sample Survey (SISS) 2013.
Table V.1 shows the indicators that have been used to calculate the MPI in Mongolia.
Table V.1
Indicators Used to Construct the MPI, Mongolia
Education Health Standard of living
1. Years of schooling 3. Nutrition 5. No electricity: the household is deprived if it does not have an electricity connection
2. School attendance 4. Under-5 mortality 6. No access to clean drinking water
Dug well either protected or unprotected
Spring either protected or unprotected
Rain-water, snow water
Cart with a small tank or drum
Surface water (river, stream, lake, or pond)
Other
7. No access to adequate sanitation
A flush system to a pit latrine
A flush system to an unknown destination
Pit latrine: ventilated improved pit latrine, pit latrine with a slab, pit latrine without a slab,
open pit
Mobile latrine
Open defecation
Other
8. The household uses dirty cooking fuel
Coal (stone coal, lignite, wood coal)
Charcoal
Straw, shrubs, grass
Tyres, rubber
Other
9. The household has a dirty floor
Earth, sand, or soil floor: if the household resides in a ger (a Mongolian yurt, or
traditional tent dwelling)
Dung floor: if the household resides in a ger
Other
10. The household uses dirty heating fuel: if the household uses boiler, stove, or other types of
heating and mainly uses the following fuel for heating
Coal (stone coal, lignite, wood coal)
Charcoal
Straw, shrubs, grass
Tyres, rubber
Other
11. Assets: if the household does not have a television, radio, refrigerator, washing machine,
mobile phone, motorcycle, car, truck, agricultural land, livestock, or farm animals, it is
considered deprived
ANNEXES 151
Annex VI The performance in education
Figure VI.1
Highest Level of Education Completed, 10+ Age-Group
35 30
32
30,5
25,1
30 25
17,9
15,8 15
15
11,8 11,6
10
10 7,5 7,8 7,6
5,7
7,6
7,8
7
3,6 6,5
5
5 2,8
3,3
0 0
No education Primary Basic Secondary Technical and Specialised Degree and
vocational secondary higher
Level of education
Table VI.1
Performance in Education, Global Human Capital Index, Mongolia
Pillar 1: education Rank (among 122 countries) Value Sample values, minimum-maximum
ACCESS
Primary enrolment rate, % 31 99 58100
Secondary enrolment rate, % 58 76 16100
Tertiary enrolment ratio, % 38 57 1103
Education gender gap 45 0.994 0.6451.000
QUALITY
Internet access in schools 72 3.92 1.646.64
Education system 115 2.57 1.995.98
Primary schools 75 3.51 1.976.82
Mathematics and science education 60 4.13 1.886.29
Management schools 116 2.86 2.296.09
ATTAINMENT
Primary educational attainment n.a. n.a. 5100
Secondary educational attainment n.a. n.a. 2100
Tertiary educational attainment n.a. n.a. 044
Overall rank in the education pillar 76 n.a. n.a.
Note: Mongolia does not have any scores on international assessments such as the Programme for International Student Assessment. n.a. = not applicable.
Source: WEF, 2013.
Table VII.1
Leading Causes of Mortality among Youth, by Age Cohort, 2010 and 2012
mortality rate per 10,000 individuals
Table VII.2
Risk Exposure: Survey Responses, 16- to 17-Year-Old Students, Mongolia
percent of responses
ANNEXES 153
Annex VIII Youth unemployment, by location, education and sex
Table VIII.1
Unemployed, by Residence, 20092013
number
Table VIII.2
Unemployment Rates, 1534 Age-Group, by Education and Sex, 20112013
percent
According to the Law on Families, once a 18 are legally independent and responsible
child reaches the age of 14, the parents or for their actions. Youth 1618 years of age
guardians are only responsible for moni- can achieve a similar status upon their re-
toring and supporting the child, whereas a quest and with the permission of their par-
child under the age of 14 has the right to ents or guardians. According to the Medical
receive care. The Law on the Registration Insurance Law, people over age 16 must pay
of Citizens enables young people to obtain for their own health insurance.
citizen identity cards at the age of 16. The
Constitution allows young people to vote These milestones are depicted in figure
beginning at the age of 18, while the Citi- IX.1.
zenship Law provides that all people over
Figure IX.1
Milestones in a Young Persons Life in Mongolia
Eligible to vote
Legally independent
14 16 18 21
Age (years)
ANNEXES 155
Annex X Population profile of Mongolia
Table X.1
Population Profile, Mongolia, 20002015
Indicators 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Resident population as of the end of year (thous. persons) 2407.5 2562.4 2653.9 2704.5 2760.6 2823.1 2937.9 2990.2
Male population 1192.4 1271.2 1317.1 1314.8 1343.5 1375.9 1438.0 1474.9
Female population 1215.1 1291.2 1336.8 1389.7 1417.1 1447.2 1499.9 1515.3
Annual population growth rate (%) 1.4 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.1
Urban population (%) 57.2 60.2 68.0 66.2 65.9 66.9 66.4 68.0
Population under 15 years age (%) 33.8 32.6 28.0 27.2 27.7 28.0 33.7 30.1
Population 15-24 years age (%) 21.9 22.3 20.8 20.2 19.3 18.5 17.4 16.5
Population 25-34 years age (%) 17.0 17.2 17.8 18.2 18.2 18.3 18.8 18.4
Population 15-64 years age (%) 62.7 63.8 68.1 68.8 68.4 68.0 68.0 66.1
Population 65 years age and older (%) 3.5 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.9 4.0 3.8
Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births) 32.8 20.7 20.2 16.5 15.5 14.6 15.1 15.0
Working age population 15-34 years age (%) 38.9 39.5 38.5 38.4 37.5 36.8 36.2 34.9
Economically active population (thous. persons) 847.6 1001.2 1147.1 1124.7 1151.1 1198.3 1206.6 1243.9
Employed population (thous. persons) 809.0 968.3 1033.7 1037.7 1056.4 1103.6 1110.7 1151.2
Unemployment rate (%) - - 9.9 7.7 8.2 7.9 7.9 7.5
Source: NSO, various years, Mongolian Statistical Yearbook and Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Ulaanbaatar.
Table XI.1
Mapping Youth Vulnerability to Violence and Stakeholder Responses to Violence
ANNEXES
157
Notes
Executive Summary es, suggested that youth should be defined is a comprehensive survey that replaced the
at between 15 and 34 years of age, broken Reproductive Health Survey and the Demo-
down into adolescents (1517), young adults graphic and Health Survey. See NSO, 2014b.
1 UNFPA, 2014a.
(1825) and older young adults (2634); see 44 The education and health dimensions in the
2 World Bank, 2015. IPSL, 2014. MPI are each based on two indicators, while
3 The quotation and other information in this 20 UNFPA, 2014b. the standard of living dimension is based on
paragraph are taken from Overview, World seven indicators. See annex V.
21 Bloom, Canning, and Sevilla, 2003, p. xii.
Bank, Washington, DC, http://www.world-
22 MPDSP, 2013. 45 UNDP, 2013a.
bank.org/en/country/mongolia/overview (ac-
cessed 16 November 2015). 23 See Gardner, 2014; UNDP and USAID, 2014.
4 Sen, 1999, p. 291. 24 Youth Policy Press, 2014.
Chapter 3
5 NCCD, 2015. 25 MPDSP, 2013.
6 UNDP, 2015a, p. 3. 46 Eckersley, 2008.
7 WHO and NCPH, 2013. 47 Braun and Brown, 2014.
8 NHRCM and CHRD, 2002. Chapter 2
48 ADB, 2008a.
9 NHRCM, 2012. 49 Engel and Prizzon, 2014.
26 Access to knowledge was previously meas-
ured by the adult literacy indicator, but the 50 MECS 2013, 2015.
focus had to be changed to distinguish among 51 NSO, 2011a.
Chapter 1 countries after almost all countries began
52 NSO, 2011a.
reaching nearly universal literacy. The chil-
10 UNDP, 2015a. dren of school-entry age indicator is meas- 53 NSO, 2011a.
11 Sezin Sinanoglu, United Nations (UN) resident ured by the total number of years of school- 54 Lower-secondary school ended at grade 7
coordinator and UNDP resident representative ing a child of school-entry age can expect to until 1963; at grade 8 in 19642004, and,
in Mongolia, speaking at the National Univer- receive if prevailing patterns of age-specific beginning in 2005, at grade 9.
sity of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 23 November enrolment rates remain constant throughout 55 World Data on Education (database), 7th edi-
2011. the childrens lives. Mean years of schooling tion, 2010/2011, International Bureau of Edu-
among the adult population is measured ac- cation, United Nations Educational, Scientific
12 Sen, 1999, p. 291.
cording to the average number of years of ed- and Cultural Organization, Geneva, http://
13 Khurelbaatar, 2015. ucation received in a lifetime by people aged www.ibe.unesco.org/en/services/online-ma-
14 GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US 25 years or older. terials/world-data-on-education.html, ac-
dollars). See Country and Lending Groups, 27 Expressed in constant 2011 international pur- cessed 22 December 2015.
World Bank, Washington, DC, July 2015, chasing power parity US dollars. 56 UNESCO and UNICEF, forthcoming.
http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-
28 UNDP, 1990, p. 13. 57 UNESCO and UNICEF, forthcoming.
and-lending-groups.
29 UNDP, 2015a. 58 UNESCO and UNICEF, forthcoming.
15 World Bank, 2015, p. 2.
30 UNCTAD, 2014. 59 UNICEF and MECS, 2012.
16 Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty
Lines (% of population), World Bank, Wash- 31 NSO, 2015a. Estimates based on the sup- 60 There are 103 non-standard buildings in aim-
ington, DC, http://data.worldbank.org/coun- ply-use table, 20112013. ag and soum schools, but only 38 in Ulaan-
try/mongolia (accessed 10 March 2015). 32 NSO, 2014a. baatar. Non-standard buildings are those that
17 UNDESA, n.d. 33 UNDP, 2012a. need urgent repair and refurbishment. There
are 4,897 outside latrines in rural schools, but
18 The definition of the age of youth was agreed 34 UNDP, 2015a.
only 101 in Ulaanbaatar. See MECS, 2014.
by the General Assembly in 1981. In some 35 UNDP, 2013b.
analyses, youth are divided into teenagers or 61 Interviews with students in Uvurkhangai Aim-
36 CHD, 2014. ag.
adolescents (15- to 19-year-olds) and young
adults (20- to 24-year-olds). When the Gen- 37 UNDP, 2010. 62 MYF, 2012.
eral Assembly, by a 1995 resolution, adopted 38 UNDP, 2013a. 63 The study is a local adaptation of two inter-
the World Programme of Action for Youth to 39 Opening remarks by Beate Trankmann, UN national tests among students, the Trends in
the Year 2000 and Beyond, it reiterated that resident coordinator and UNDP resident rep- International Mathematics and Science Study
the UN defined youth as the 1524 age co- resentative, at the launch of Human Develop- and the Civic Education Study.
hort. General Assembly resolutions issued in ment Report 2015 (UNDP, 2015a) in Mongolia 64 World Data on Education (database), 7th edi-
2001 and 2008 and a 2007 resolution of the on 15 December 2015. tion, 2010/2011, International Bureau of Edu-
UN Commission for Social Development re-
40 Sen, 1999, p. 291. cation, United Nations Educational, Scientific
inforced the use of the same age-group for
41 UNDP, 2014c. and Cultural Organization, Geneva, http://
youth. See UN, 1995.
www.ibe.unesco.org/en/services/online-ma-
19 A survey of the Institute of Philosophy, Sociol- 42 UNDP, 2014d.
terials/world-data-on-education.html, ac-
ogy and Law, Mongolian Academy of Scienc- 43 The SISS, undertaken for the first time in 2013, cessed 22 December 2015.
NOTES 159
Thailand, and Viet Nam) and 5 South Asian 173 Information derived from the baseline sur- 204 UNDP, 2014e.
countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, vey associated with the Youth Development 205 UNDP, 2014e.
and Sri Lanka). The ABS (wave 4) is upcoming Project (20132016) of the Independent Re-
206 NSO, 2011a.
in mid-June 2016. The survey of the Institute search Institute of Mongolia and the United
of Philosophy, Sociology and Law, Mongolian Nations Population Fund that was conducted 207 World Bank, 2011.
Academy of Sciences, was conducted in 2013 in 2014. 208 See At a Glance: Mongolia, Air Pollution Is
and involved the collection of responses from 174 2016 data of the General Police Department, Endangering Childrens Health in Mongo-
over 1,200 young people aged 1534 years Ulaanbaatar. lia, United Nations Childrens Fund, New
in five aimags and in districts in Ulaanbaatar. York, http://www.unicef.org/health/mongo-
175 UNFPA and NCAV, 2014.
The survey was supported by the UNDP Youth lia_90290.html. Accessed 22 May 2016..
Empowerment through Civic Education Pro- 176 Information of the United Nations Office on
209 Graham, Bruce, and Perold, 2010.
ject. Drugs and Crime.
210 Advocates for Human Rights and NCAV, 2013.
156 Chu and Huang, 2009. 177 NSO, 2015a.
211 Kelleher and OConner, 1995; Short, 1998.
157 UNDESA, 2008, p. 114. 178 UNDESA, 2005.
212 Johnson, 1996; Rodgers, 1994.
158 The information in this subsection is taken 179 NSO, 2015a.
213 Kantor and Jasinski, 1998.
from the websites of the organizations men- 180 NSO, 2015a.
tioned. 214 OLeary, 1993.
181 Malarek, 2003.
159 As a measure of the political interest of youth, 215 Krug et al., 2002.
182 NHRCM and CHRD, 2002.
the survey of the Institute of Philosophy, So- 216 NHRCM, 2013.
183 Asia Foundation, 2008
ciology and Law asked respondents whether, 217 NCAV, UNAIDS, and JHSPH, 2012.
individually or collectively in the last three 184 Asia Foundation, 2008.
years, they had approached Government 218 Peitzmeier et al., 2015.
185 Asia Foundation, 2008.
representatives to solve issues of concern to 219 NHRCM, 2013.
186 Asia Foundation, 2008.
them and their communities; see IPSL, 2014. 220 NSO, 2011c.
187 SDC et al., 2009.
160 World Vision Mongolia, UNESCO and NAC, 221 Gankhuyag and Banzragch, 2014.
2013. 188 See Asia Foundation, 2006; NHRCM and
CHRD, 2002; UNICEF, 2007. 222 Many reports have cited excessive drinking
161 World Vision Mongolia, UNESCO and NAC, and violence among migrant Mongolian men,
2013. 189 SDC, 2008.
especially migrants living in Germany, the
162 Interview with Badruun Gardi, Zorig Founda- 190 Barnard, 1993. Republic of Korea, and the United States. The
tion. 191 SDC and HSPSC, 2008. media have reported several cases of homi-
163 Henn and Foard, 2012. 192 The revised Criminal Code was adopted by the cide in which both the victim and the perpe-
State Great Khural in 2015. trator were immigrant men. See also MOL,
164 UNV, 2013. UNFPA and MPDA, 2005.
165 Norris, 2005. 193 UNICEF, 2006.
223 Advocates for Human Rights and NCAV, 2013.
166 ITPTA, 2012. 194 US Department of State, 2015.
167 IPSL, 2014. 195 CHD, 2014.
168 International IDEA, 2013. 196 WHO, 2014c. Chapter 7
197 WHO, 2014c.
198 The discussion in this subsection relies on 224 See Have Your Say (database), My World
Chapter 6 Gardner, 2014; UNDP and USAID, 2014. 2015, United Nations, New York, http://data.
199 NHRCM, 2012. myworld2015.org/?country=Mongolia.
169 UNDP, 1994. 200 UNDP and USAID, 2014. 225 Spillovers and complementarities are men-
tioned in World Bank (2007), but in a different
170 Wanasinghe-Pasqual, 2011. 201 Hick, 2012.
context.
171 UNDP, 1994. 202 UNFPA, 2014b.
226 NSO, 2014a.
172 Krug et al., 2002. 203 Fajnzylber, Lederman, and Loayza, 1999;
Messner, 1988; Unnithan and Whitt, 1992.
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*-Preliminary results
**- Updated by meat weight, sold in the market (for meat price index, the meat sales volume /weight/ by outlet were used)
Source: Mongolian Statistical Yearbook, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, NRSO, Ulaanbaatar.
MONGOLIA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS 19972016