Electric Power

Research Institute

TEXTILE
INDUSTRY:
PROFILE AND
DSM OPTIONS

Prepared by
RESOURCE DYNAMICS CORPORATION
and
BATrELLE-COLUMBUS DIVISION
 R E P O R T S U M M A R Y
SUBJECTS Demand-side planning / Industrial / Market assessment

TOPICS Demand-side management Industrial technology alternatives

Demand-side planning Marketing
Electrotechnology Load management

AUDIENCE Customer service representatives / Demand-side, R&D, and corporate

planners / Marketing managers

Textile Industry: Profile and DSM Options

Demand-side management approaches and emerging electro-
technologies promise to increase the efficiency and productivity
of the textile industry. This guidebook provides utilities with a
comprehensive overview of the textile industry's challenges,
manufacturing processes, technologies, and energy-use patterns,
as well as opportunities for electrotechnologies and demand-side
management options.

BACKGROUND Throughout the utility industry, demand-side management (DSM) is gain-

ing greater acceptance as a resource that promotes value for utilities as
well as their customers. The great diversity in industrial business situations
and energy-use patterns, however, often makes it difficult to understand
how to apply DSM in the industrial sector. By better understanding their
customers' needs and the technology options available, utilities can develop
programs that are more successful in promoting DSM and electrotechnology
applications.

OBJECTIVES To identify opportunities for improving energy efficiency, enhancing pro-

ductivity, and promoting load management objectives.
-To help utilities develop and implement DSM programs.

APPROACH On the basis of literature surveys and interviews with experts in the textile
and utility industries, investigators created this guidebook to describe the
textile industry and advise on the selection of appropriate DSM and electro-
technology approaches. As background for their research, they relied
on the DSM framework developed under EPRl's DSM project (report -
EAIEM-3597).
.~

RESULTS This guidebook presents a detailed profile of the textile industry, providing
information about the markets, processes, technologies, and energy-usage -
patterns of the major types of customers in this industry. Following the ~

framework of the DSM project, it presents the DSM technologies and market
implementation methods appropriate for achieving the various load-shape
objectives within the textile industry. It describes a step-by-step approach ~

for the development of a DSM plan that can help not only the utility but

EPRl CU-6789s Electric Power Research Institute

 ~~~ ~

also textile customers, through lower energy costs, greater productivity,

and improved product quality.

EPRl PERSPECTIVE This textile industry guidebook is part of a broad framework of tools
and data designed to assist utilities in working with the industrial sec-
tor. These products help utilities better understand and meet the needs
of their industrial customers. They also suggest how utilities can help
achieve their load-shape objectives in the industrial sector. Among
-~ ~ ~~~

EPRl's other industry-related products is IMlS (Industrial Market Infor-

mation System software), available through the Electric Power Software
Center, to help utilities identify markets for various electrotechnologies. ~

In addition, lndustrial Load Shaping: An lndustrial Application of DSM

(report CU-6726) describes a methodology and real-world applications of
~~

DSM in the industrial sector. Tech Applications and Tech Commentaries,

available through EPRl's Centers for Materials Production and Materials
Fabrication, further explain how industries can benefit from electrotech-
nologies. And lndustry Briefs, currently under development and available
in mid-1990, will provide insight into industrial processes, technologies,
and energy-use patterns at the three- and four-digit SIC level. When
used together, these documents will aid in development of DSM pro-
grams that will benefit both utilities and their industrial customers.
~

PROJECT RP2885-1
EPRl Project Manager: Paul C. Meagher
Customer Systems Division
Contractors: Resource Dynamics Corporation; Battelle-Columbus
Division

For further information on EPRl research programs, call

EPRl Technical Information Specialists (415) 855-2411.
Textile Industry: Profile and DSM Options

CU-6789
Research Project 2885-1

Final Report, July 1990

Prepared by

RESOURCE DYNAMICS CORPORATION

8605 Westwood Center Drive
Vienna, Virginia 22180

BATTELLE-COLUMBUS DIVISION
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201

Prepared for

Electric Power Research Institute

3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304

EPRl Project Manager

P C. Meagher
Demand-Side Planning Program
Customer Systems Division
 ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to Research Reports Center .
(RRC), Box 50490, Palo Alto, CA 94303, (415) 965-4081. There is no charge for reports
requested by EPRl member utilities and affiliates, U.S. utility associations, U.S. government
agencies (federal, state, and local), media, and foreign organizations with which EPRl has
an information exchange agreement. On request, RRC will send a catalog of EPRl reports.

Clecinc Power Research Institute and EPRl are registewd service m a r k of Electric Power Research Institute, Inc

Copyright 0 1990 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc All rights reserved

NOTICE
This report was prepared by the organmtion(s) named below as an account Of w r k sponsored by the Electr~c
Power Research Institute. Inc (EPRI) Neither EPRI, members of EPRI. the arganiralion(s) named below, nor any
pefson acting on behalf Of any of them, (a) makes any warranty, enpress or impled. with respect to the use of any
information. apparatus. method. or process disclosed in this repon 01 that such use may not infringe privately
owned rights: or (b) assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or lor damages resulting from the use of.
any information. apparatus. method, or process disclosed in this report.
Prepared by
Resource Dynamics Corporation
Vienna. Virginia
and
Banelie-Columbus Division
Columbus, Ohio
 ABSTRACT

The T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y Guidebook provides e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y planning, marketing, and

customer s e r v i c e s t a f f w i t h a p r a c t i c a l t o o l t o b e t t e r understand t h e t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y and t h e challenges i t faces: i t s manufacturing processes, technologies, and
energy use; and i t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r demand-side management (DSM). The Guidebook
concludes w i t h guidance and summary data f o r developing and e v a l u a t i n g DSM plans t o
r e a l i z e such o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Resource Dynamics Corporation and Battelle-Columbus D i v i s i o n wish t o thank t h e

numerous t e x t i l e companies, associations, equipment s u p p l i e r s , government agencies
and u t i l i t i e s t h a t a s s i s t e d i n p r o v i d i n g information used i n t h i s study. Of
p a r t i c u l a r n o t e were t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f D r . Gary N. Mock o f North Carolina State
U n i v e r s i t y and N. James Covington.

Paul Meagher o f t h e Demand-Side Planning Program o f t h e Customer Systems D i v i s i o n

(CSD) coordinated t h i s p r o j e c t . I. L e s l i e Harry and K. R. Amarnath o f CSD's
I n d u s t r i a l Program provided valuable review and i n p u t , as w e l l as t h e T e x t i l e
I n d u s t r y Scoping Study, an important precursor t o t h i s Guidebook.

Resource Dynamics Corporation

B a t t e l le-Columbus D i v i s i o n
February, 1990

V
 CONTENTS

Sect i o n

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5-1

Purpose o f t h e Guidebook 5-1
The T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y 5-1
Business and Product Trends 5-5
Manufacturing Processes and Energy Use 5-8
G e t t i n g S t a r t e d : C h a r a c t e r i z i n g Potent ia1 DSM O p p o r t u n i t i e s 5-13

1 OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 1-1

Purpose o f t h e Guidebook 1-1
The T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y 1-2
Business and Product Trends 1-3
E l e c t r i c i t y ' s Role i n Improving Competitiveness 1-5
Opportunities f o r the E l e c t r i c U t i l i t y Industry 1-6
How t o Use t h i s Guidebook 1-7
Organization o f t h i s Guidebook 1-10

2 MEETING TEXTILE-CUSTOMER NEEDS THROUGH ELECTRICITY 2-1

T e x t i l e E l e c t r i c i t y Use by I n d u s t r y Segment and Process 2-3
Importance o f E l e c t r i c i t y 2-3
Competing Technologies and Energy Sources 2-5
Technology A c q u i s i t i o n and Decision Making 2-7
A b i l i t y t o Modify E l e c t r i c i t y Use 2-9
DSM Program O p p o r t u n i t i e s and Constraints 2-11

3 DSM PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION 3-1

S e t t i n g DSM Objectives 3-2
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Appropriate DSM Programs 3- 2
E v a l u a t i o n and S e l e c t i o n o f DSM Programs 3-3
Program Implementation 3-8
Program M o n i t o r i n g 3-8

vii
 CONTENTS (Continued)

Section

4 DEVELOPING A DSM PLAN FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 4-1

Organizing f o r DSM 4-1
Step 1. I d e n t i f y and Characterize T e x t i l e Customers 4-2
Step 2. Analyze T e x t i l e E l e c t r i c Loads and End Uses 4-5
Step 3. I d e n t i f y Applicable DSM Technologies and Process Changes 4-8
Step 4. I d e n t i f y Market Implementation Methods 4-9
Step 5. Evaluate and Select DSM Programs 4-15
Step 6. Develop T e x t i l e - I n d u s t r y DSM Plan 4-18

APPENDIX A OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY A- 1

The T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y A-1
Suppliers t o the T e x t i l e Industry A-3
Major Markets and End Uses o f T e x t i l e M i l l Products A-5
Regional Impacts o f T e x t i l e Production A-8
Segmentation and S p e c i a l i z a t i o n A-12
I n d u s t r y Concentration A-13
Competitive Forces and Imports A-14
Cost-Based Competition A-17
Impact o f Competitive Responses A-22
Business and Product Trends A-25

APPENDIX B MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND ENERGY USE 8-1

U n i t Processes i n Dry Processing B-8
U n i t Processes i n Wet Processing 8-12
T e x t i l e Production Costs 8-14
T e x t i l e Manufacturing Processes and Technologies 6-17
Energy Consumption in t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y B-19
E l e c t r i c i t y Use i n t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y 8-25
Energy Consumption by S p e c i f i c Processes B-30

viii
 CONTENTS (Continued)

Section

APPENDIX C TEXTILE INDUSTRY ELECTROTECHNOLOGY EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

Adjustable Speed D r i v e Equipment Suppliers c-1
Heat Exchangers and Heat Recovery Equipment Suppliers c-3
I n f r a r e d Processing Equipment Suppliers c-4
I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pump Equipment Suppliers C-6
Microwave Heating and Drying Equipment Suppliers c-7
Radiofrequency Heating and Drying Equipment Suppliers C-8
U l t r a v i o l e t Curing Equipment Suppliers c-9

APPENDIX D DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES FOR THE

TEXTILE INDUSTRY D-1
Radiofrequency Drying and Heating 0- 1
I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pumps 0-6
Membrane Processes D-17
U l t r a v i o l e t Curing D-32
Microwave Processing D-42

ix
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Fiqure

5-1 The T e x t i l e Complex 5-2

5-2 Import Share o f T e x t i l e Markets 5-5

5-3 Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing 5-8

5-4 Importance o f E l e c t r i c i t y as an Energy Source: T e x t i l e Industry s- 10

2-1 Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing 2-1

2-2 Importance o f E l e c t r i c i t y as an Energy Source 2-4

4-1 Load P r o f i l e s f o r T e x t i l e M i l l s 4-6

4-2 U t i l i t y vs. Customer B e n e f i t s 4-18

4-3 I l l u s t r a t i v e DSM Plan: S t r a t e g i c Conversation 4-20

A-1 The T e x t i l e Complex A-2

A-2 End Uses o f T e x t i l e M i l l Products A-7

A-3 1985 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y Shipments by S t a t e A-8

8-1 Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing 8-1

8-2 Yarn Formation: Process Flow, Energy Inputs,

and Process Outputs 8-3

8-3 F a b r i c Formation: Process Flow, Energy Inputs,

and Process Outputs 8-4

8-4 F l o o r Coverings: Process Flow, Energy Inputs,

and Process Outputs 8-5

B-5 Nonwovens: Process Flow, Energy Inputs,

and Process Outputs 8-6

8-6 T e x t i l e F i n i s h i n g : Process Flow, Energy I n p u t s ,

and Process Outputs 8-7

8-7 1985 T e x t i l e Energy Use 8-26

8-8 1985 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y E l e c t r i c i t y End Uses 8-27

B-9 1985 Manufacturing E l e c t r i c i t y Use by Region 8-29

xi
 ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

Figure

B-10 1985 Process Heat Energy Sources B-35

D- 1 Drying o f T e x t i l e Spools D-3

D-2 Closed-Cycle Heat Pump System D-6

D-3 Open-Cycle Heat Pump 0-7

0-4 Open-Cycle I n d u s t r i a l Heat Pump D-10

D-5 P e r m s e l e c t i v i t y o f RO and UF Membranes D-19

D-6 Generalized Schematic o f T e x t i l e Treatment Processes D-20

D-7 Membrane-Based Hybrid L i q u i d Separation Process D-23

D-8 Spiral-Wound, Hollow-Fine-Fiber, and Flat-Element Membrane D-24

D-9 Cross Section of a Tubular RO Membrane and Schematic

o f a Tubular RO Membrane Module D-25

D-10 The Separation Spectrum D-27

D-11 UV Curing Process D-33

D-12 Types o f UV Sources D-35

D-13 Commercial UV Processor U n i t s D-36

D-14 Schematic Representation o f D i e l e c t r i c Hysteresis Heating D-42

D-15 Comparison o f Microwaves and Conventional Drying D-43

xii
 TABLES

s-1 Textile Industry Summary: Industry Segments 5-14

S-2 Textile Industry Summary: Unit Processes or End Uses 5-17

s-3 Textile Industry Summary: DSM Technologies and Process Changes 5-20
s-4 Textile Industry Summary: DSM Market Implementation Methods 5-23

1-1 Textile Industry Summary: DSM Technologies and Process Changes 1-8
2-1 1985 Electricity Consumption by Specific Textile Processes 2- 4
2-2 1985 Non-Electric Energy Consumption by
Specific Textile Processes 2-6

2-3 Selected Competing Energy Technologies 2- 8

2-4 1985 Textile Industry Electricity Costs and Intensity 2-12

4-1 Textile Industry Summary: lndustry Segments 4-4
4-2 Textile Industry Summary: Industry Energy Use 4- 7

4-3 Textile Industry Summary: Unit Processes or End Uses 4-10

4-4 Textile Industry Summary: DSM Technologies and Process Changes 4-12

4-5 Textile Industry Summary: DSM Market Implementation Methods 4-16

A-1 1985 Overview of the U.S. Textile Industry A- 2

A-2 1985 Suppliers to the Textile Industry (Projected) A- 3
A-3 1985 Manufacturing Sector Suppliers to the Textile Industry
(Projected) A- 4
A-4 1985 Manufacturing Sector Buyers of Textile Mill Products (Projected) A- 6
A-5 1986 Regional Manufacturing Activity A-10
A-6 1985 Textile Industry Manufacturing Activity A-11
A-7 1986 Regional Impacts o f Textile Manufacturing A-11
A-8 Ratios of Primary Product Specialization in Selected Textile
Mills (Percent) A-13

xiii
 TABLES (Continued)

Table

A-9 Share o f T e x t i l e Shipments Accounted f o r by 20 Largest

Companies (Percent) A-14

A-10 Import Share o f T e x t i l e Markets (Percent) A-15 ~

A-11 Index o f Production f o r t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y A-16 ~

A-12 Hourly Compensation Rates f o r T e x t i l e Production Workers A-18

A-13 1983-1985 Permanent T e x t i l e Plant Closings i n t h e Southeast A-20

A-14 New C a p i t a l Expenditures i n t h e T e x t i l e M i l l I n d u s t r y A-21

A-15 Trends i n U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y P r o d u c t i v i t y ( P r o d u c t i v i t y

Indexes -
1977 = 100) A-23

A-I6 Comparative Rates o f Modernization i n Spinning and

Weaving, 1985 (Percent) A-24

A-17 Import Share o f T e x t i l e Machinery Market (Percent) A-25

B-1 Dry and Wet Processing M i l l s Categories B-8

8-2 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y Average Costs Per D o l l a r o f Output by

Cost Category and 3 - D i g i t S I C , 1985 8-14

8-3 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y U n i t Labor Cost by Type, 1985 8-16

8-4 S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t Text i1e Manufacturing Techno1o g i es--Dry Processing B-18

B-5 S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t T e x t i l e Manufacturing Technologies--Wet Processing 8-20

B-6 Advanced T e x t i l e Manufacturing Technologies B-21

8-7 T o t a l Energy Consumption i n t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y B-22

B-8 1985 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y Energy Costs and Energy I n t e n s i t y B-22

B-9 Energy I n t e n s i t y i n t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y B-24

B-10 Energy P r o d u c t i v i t y Trends i n t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y 8-24

B-11 E l e c t r i c i t y Consumption i n t h e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y B-26

B-12 1985 T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y E l e c t r i c i t y Use i n t h e Southeast 8-29

xiv
 TABLES (Continued)

6-13 Energy Consumption in Dry Processing Mills 6-31

6-14 1985 Electricity Consumption by Specific Textile Operation 6-32
6-15 Energy Consumption in Wet Processing Mills 6-34
6-16 1985 Non-Electric Energy Consumption by Specific Textile
Processes 6-36
D-1 Summary of Capital and Operating Costs for
Closed-Cycle Heat Pumps D-13
D-2 Summary of Projected Capital Costs for New and Retrofit
MVR Systems 0-14
D-3 Comparison of Types of Membrane Permeators D-28
D-4 UV Lamp Operating Characteristics D-37
D-5 Comparative Microwave Drying Data D-45

xv
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Electricity is more than just the largest energy source for textile manufacturers;
it is a unique and invaluable resource for improving their troubled competitive
position. Automation and emerging electric-based textile processing technologies
promise to increase significantly the efficiency and productivity of the industry.

PURPOSE OF THE GUIDEBOOK

This Textile Industry Guidebook is designed to provide electric utility planning,

marketing, and customer service staff with a practical tool t o :
0 Understand the textile industry and the challenges it faces
0 Understand energy use and the different processes and technologies found
within the industry
0 Identify and characterize opportunities for improving energy efficiency,
enhancing productivity, and promoting load management as sound approaches
that will benefit both the customer and the utility
0 Help develop a demand-side management (DSM) plan to realize such
opportunities.

The purpose of this Executive Summary is to acquaint the reader with the primary
conclusions of the study and the technical information covered in the Guidebook.

THE TEXTILE INOUSTRY

The textile mill industry produces spun yarns, thread, woven and knit fabrics, and
floor coverings such as rugs and carpets. It also produces nonwoven fabrics such
as synthetic leathers, and miscellaneous textile products such as tire cord.

The textile mill industry (or for the purposes of this study, simply the textile
industry) is part of the "textile complex," a system of independent enterprises

s- 1
involving many segments outside of SIC 22 and tied together by complex business
relationships. Figure S-1 highlights some of the relationships between these
segments.

Natural Fiber Manmade Fiber

Producers Producers
SICS 01,02 SIC 28

Furnishings
SICS 26,30,
SICS22.23,25
31,37.39

Figure S-1. The Textile Complex

In addition t o the textile industry (SIC 22), the textile complex consists of
suppliers and markets for the textile industry. Suppliers include natural fiber
producers in the agriculture industry (SICs 01 and 02), manmade fibers from the
chemical industry (SIC 28), and textile machinery producers (SIC 3552). Markets
include industrial fabrics (SICS 26, 30, 31, 37, and 39), home furnishings (SICs
22, 23, and 25), and apparel (SIC 23).

The textile industry is its own biggest supplier, accounting for over 40 percent
o f its inputs on a dollar basis. The chemical industry represents nearly 30
percent, and the agriculture sector accounts for another 8 percent.

The three major end-use markets (apparel fabrics, home furnishings, and industry
fabrics) each account for about one-third of all textile industry shipments.
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC 22) consists of the following 3-digit SIC
sectors:
SIC 221 - Cotton weaving mills
SIC 222 - Manmade fiber weaving mills
SIC 223 - Wool weaving and finishing mills
SIC 224 - Narrow fabric mills
SIC 225 - Knitting mills
SIC 226 - Textile finishing (except wool)
SIC 227 - Floor covering mills
SIC 228 - Yarn and thread mills
SIC 229 - Miscellaneous textile mills.

Reqional Impacts

Approximately 80 percent of the total U.S. textile shipments originate from the
Southeast region, while about 9 percent of shipments originate from the Mid-
Atlantic states of New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.

Wool weaving and finishing mills (SIC 223) and narrow fabric mills (SIC 224) are
concentrated in New England. This region accounts for 77 percent and 50 percent,
respectively, of shipments in these two textile industry sectors. Due to the
bulky nature of carpets (SIC 227), transportation costs are high, so floor
covering mills are more widely dispersed in the U.S. than textile mills producing
other textile products. Major carpet and rug mills are found in Georgia,
California, Texas, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

Industry Concentration

The textile industry consists of about 5,300 companies operating over 7,000 mills,
ranging from highly integrated to small, independent plants. Many of these
companies are small establishments performing single operations on a contract
basis for other mills. The most common type of textile mill is the greige mill,
in which spinning, knitting, and weaving operations are combined to produce greige
goods--unfinished textile products.

5-3
Industry concentration varies from segment to segment. The highest concentration
ratios are found in the cotton and manmade fiber industries (SICs 221 and 222)
where the 50 largest firms accounted for approximately 97 and 90 percent of
shipments in those sectors, respectively. The four largest firms accounted for 41
and 40 percent, respectively. The industry segments with the lowest concentration
ratios are the knitting mills, textile finishing, and yarn and thread mills. Many
of these mills are small, independently owned operations.

With the recent number of mergers and acquisitions, these concentration ratios
have increased considerably.

Production Costs

Production costs in the textile industry, as in all other manufacturing sectors,

consist of labor, raw material, energy, and other costs such as the cost of
financial and insurance services, capital charges, and non-production supplies.
Across all 3-digit textile SIC categories, raw material costs account for 40-70
percent of the average costs per dollar of output, averaging about 60 percent.

Raw materials consist mostly of fiber or yarn staple. In finishing plants,

chemical dyes are also a major raw material. The floor coverings industry is the
textile sector whose raw materials cost captures the largest share (69 percent) o f
a dollar of output.

Labor costs average about 22 percent per dollar of output in the textile industry,
but is as high as 29.7 percent in narrow fabric mills (where considerable detailed
work is required to produce specialty items such as laces, beltings, ribbons, and
bindings) and as low as 11.9 percent in floor covering mills (SIC 227).

Fossil energy costs average about 1.3 percent of dollar output in SIC 22, but are
higher in the textile finishing segment (SIC 226) due to the many fossil-fuel-
based finishing and coating processes in that particular segment. Electricity
cost per dollar of output in the textile industry as a whole averages about 2.3
percent. Electricity cost per dollar of output for the entire manufacturing
sector (SICs 20-39) averages about 1.4 percent. Spinning and weaving mills are
the most electricity intensive. In these mills (SICs 221, 222, and 228)
electricity costs are 3 . 9 percent, 3.5 percent, and 3.8 percent of shipments,
respectively.

s-4
BUSINESS AN0 PRODUCT TRENDS

In t h i s , t h e o l d e s t o f American manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s , many of the b a s i c

manufacturing methods have n o t changed f o r decades o r longer. The t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y i s conservative and has been slow t o accept t e c h n o l o g i c a l change.
Recently, however, cheaply produced f o r e i g n t e x t i l e products have gained a
f o o t h o l d i n many domestic markets f o r c i n g w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d manufacturers t o
reexamine t h e i r competitiveness. R i s i n g l a b o r costs, a r a p i d l y - g r o w i n g array o f
new chemical f i b e r s , and s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e x t i l e machinery must now be accommodated.
Domestic and i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition and technology have combined t o f o r c e
changes i n t e x t i l e manufacturing methods.

R i s i n g imports o f t e x t i l e products now present a formidable economic t h r e a t

d e s p i t e steady increases i n shipments, m i l l consumption o f f i b e r , and c a p a c i t y
utilization. As shown i n Figure S-2, i n 1975, 14 percent o f a l l t e x t i l e goods
s o l d i n t h i s c o u n t r y were imported; over 37 percent were imported i n 1986. I n the
apparel f a b r i c s sector, imports captured over 50 percent o f t h e market i n 1986.

Apparel and
Apparel Fabric

1970 1975 1980 1985

Year

F i g u r e S-2. import Share o f T e x t i l e Markets

s-5
Most U.S. i n d u s t r i e s have seen domestic market shares h e l d by imports increase due
t o a s t r o n g U.S. d o l l a r and a U.S. government p o s i t i o n f a v o r i n g f r e e trade. The
t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y s i t u a t i o n has been a d d i t i o n a l l y a f f e c t e d by i t s h i g h l a b o r
i n t e n s i t y (some 22 percent o f t o t a l output d o l l a r s ) and b y i t s dependence on
f o r e i g n sources f o r t e x t i l e machinery. Imports h o l d n e a r l y 60 percent o f t h e
t e x t i l e machinery market. This competition has forced t h e U.S. t e x t i l e industry
t o seek ways t o improve performance by working towards f i v e important goals
described i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs.

Improving Labor P r o d u c t i v i t y

I n response t o increased f o r e i g n competition, t h e i n d u s t r y i s now attempting t o

reduce t h e l a b o r content o f i t s products. Between 1980 and 1985, t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y
employment d e c l i n e d 15 percent w h i l e shipments increased by 13 percent. Wages
were a l s o cut, and constant d o l l a r value-added p e r f u l l t i m e e q u i v a l e n t employee
i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y grew f a s t e r than t h e average f o r a l l manufacturing. As
t e x t i l e f i r m s c u t l a b o r costs, they increased c a p i t a l expenditures.

Improving Process E f f i c i e n c y

T e x t i l e manufacturing i n v o l v e s mu1t i p l e , r e p e t i t i v e batch processing. This

g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s considerable manual i n s p e c t i o n and i n t e r v e n t i o n because most
technologies do n o t perform o p t i m a l l y o r lend themselves t o automation. In the
p a s t , workers had t o be employed t o d e t e c t and r e p a i r breakages r e s u l t i n g from
poor f i b e r q u a l i t y and t o avoid over- o r under-processing o f f a b r i c i n the
f i n i s h i n g processes. Now, automation i s made p o s s i b l e by t h e increased use o f
s y n t h e t i c s , more u n i f o r m q u a l i t y i n n a t u r a l f i b e r s , and advanced spinning and
weaving technologies.

S y n t h e t i c f i b e r s and improved n a t u r a l f i b e r s e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r constant

manual i n s p e c t i o n . New technologies o f f e r f a s t e r f i b e r and f a b r i c processing
speeds and d i m i n i s h t h e r i s k o f expensive and t i m e consuming breakage r e p a i r s .
Today, some t e x t i l e producers are experimenting w i t h f a s t e r - d r y i n g dyes and
technologies designed t o e l i m i n a t e many intermediate process steps. T e x t i l e
companies a r e a l s o moving toward computerized m o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l o f production
processes and automated i n s p e c t i o n procedures t o ensure f i b e r , yarn, and f a b r i c
q u a l i t y a t a l l p r o d u c t i o n stages.

S-6
Improving Product Quality

The development of durable synthetic fibers and higher agricultural standards for
natural fibers has yielded improvements in yarn strength, uniformity, and
cleanliness. These advances in fiber quality lead to higher fabric quality, much
o f which can be attributed to technology advances: improved fiber blends can be
achieved by opening and picking equipment; new carding technology achieves better
integration of fibers which results in fewer breakages; new loom designs process
yarns at faster speeds; and state-of-the-art spinning machines produce first-
quality fabric in a shorter period than conventional equipment.

Reducins Production Costs

Although the U.S. textile industry's productivity level grew at a faster rate than
the average for all manufacturing between 1976 and 1986 (5.2 percent annually
compared to 2.8 percent), additional productivity improvements must be realized to
maintain a presence in today's competitive market. Textile companies can lower
production costs through a number of methods. Simplifying and accelerating
production processes, for example, combining processes or using faster-drying
dyes, would allow products to get to market more quickly. Today's rapid
developments in fiber and fabric types require that newly-developed production
processes be carefully researched to ensure applicability to all fibers and
fabrics.

Meeting Environmental Requlations

Electrotechnologies can be used, directly and indirectly, to meet federal, state,

and local environmental restrictions placed on the textile industry. Direct
environmental benefits from electrotechnologies appear to be promising. For
example, membrane separation processes allow for recycling and recovery of useful
thermal energy and chemicals used in textile drying and finishing, thus reducing
the amount of hazardous chemicals disposed of by mills. Heat exchangers and heat
recovery systems perform the same recycling task with similar advantages.
Electricity used in lieu of conventional thermal processes eliminates or reduces
point-source emissions. This indirect benefit can be substantial if large numbers
of conventional thermal energy processes are replaced with electric-based
technologies.

s-7
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND ENERGY USE

Typical t e x t i l e manufacturing f a c i l i t i e s are made up o f one o r more o f f i v e basic

processes: y a r n formation, t h r e e classes o f m a t e r i a l formation (woven/knitted
f a b r i c , f l o o r coverings, and nonwoven f a b r i c ) , and f i n i s h i n g . These processes can
then be c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o two types o f processing, d r y and wet.

Basic T e x t i l e Processes

F i g u r e 5-3 d e p i c t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among these processes and processing

categories. Each o f t h e f i v e b a s i c processes i s b r i e f l y described below.

Floor
Yarn I Finishing/
Covering
Dyeing
Formation Formation
-+

;
I

I
I
I
Nonwoven
b Fabric I
Formation
I

-1 Dry Processing
(Greige Mills)
Wet Processing
(Finishing Mills)

F i g u r e S-3. Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing

Yarn Formation. Natural o r manmade f i b e r s o r blends are spun i n t o yarn through

various p i c k i n g , combing, and t w i s t i n g processes. Yarn formation equipment such
as p i c k i n g , card, and combing machines gather f a b r i c s l o o s e l y i n t o a c o r d - l i k e
form known as a s l i v e r . These s l i v e r s are passed through drawing frames t o
increase alignment, then through a r o v i n g frame t o apply t w i s t .

S-8
Woven o r K n i t t e d Fabric Formation. Fabric formation i n v o l v e s t h e conversion o f
yarn i n t o f a b r i c . A warping machine winds numerous separate strands o f yarn onto a
beam. A s l a s h i n g machine t r e a t s t h e yarn w i t h a s i z e , which i s a h o t s o l u t i o n o f
s t a r c h , wax, o i l s , and water, t o coat and strengthen t h e yarn i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
f u r t h e r processing. The yarn i s then woven o r k n i t t e d i n t o grey, o r unfinished,
fabric.

F l o o r Covering Formation. F l o o r coverings a r e produced e i t h e r by weaving o r by

t u f t i n g , a process where yarn i s attached t o t h e carpet backing d i r e c t l y .

Nonwoven F a b r i c Formation. I n nonwoven f a b r i c formation, yarns o r f i b e r s are

bound t o g e t h e r using adhesive chemicals o r heat. Nonwoven f a b r i c s a r e mainly used
i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l and home f u r n i s h i n g sectors. Web forming and bonding a r e
p e c u l i a r operations t o t h i s process.

Finishinq. F i n i s h i n g processes vary w i t h t h e f a b r i c and product end-use; they

i n c l u d e bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, s a n f o r i z i n g , and heat s e t t i n g . These
operations a r e designed t o impart q u a l i t i e s such as c o l o r fastness, f e e l , and
p r o t e c t i o n from shrinkage.

These f i v e b a s i c processes i n v o l v e numerous and sometimes r e p e t i t i v e batch

operations, which can be placed i n t o two broad categories--dry and wet, depending
on whether o r n o t a l i q u i d i s involved.

Dry processing o f t e n takes p l a c e i n greige m i l l s and includes a l l t h e t e x t i l e

processing operations t h a t take place through t h e stage where t h e yarn i s spun and
t h e woven o r k n i t t e d grey f a b r i c i s formed (except slashing). They i n c l u d e
opening, blending, carding, spinning, weaving, and k n i t t i n g .

Wet processing i n v o l v e s t h e m a j o r i t y o f processes t h a t dye o r f i n i s h t h e spun yarn

o r woven/knit g r e i g e f a b r i c o r f l o o r covering. Also included i n wet processing i s
slashing, which takes place p r i o r t o f a b r i c o r yarn dyeing and/or f i n i s h i n g but
involves t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i q u i d chemicals t o t h e yarn. Some m i l l s are now
integrated.

s-9
T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y Energy Use

As shown i n F i g u r e 5-4, e l e c t r i c i t y provides 31 percent o f t h e t o t a l energy used

i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y and represents t h e i n d u s t r y ' s l a r g e s t source.
This
compares w i t h t h e market share o f 19 percent h e l d by e l e c t r i c i t y f o r t h e e n t i r e
manufacturing s e c t o r (SICS 20-39).

Coal
19%
Figure S-4. Importance o f E l e c t r i c i t y
as an Energy Source: T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y

Less than one percent o f e l e c t r i c i t y i s self-generated. Cogeneration i s a

t e c h n i c a l l y v i a b l e o p t i o n f o r meeting some o f t h e i n d u s t r y ' s e l e c t r i c needs, due
t o t h e l a r g e amounts o f process steam r e q u i r e d f o r d r y i n g and f i n i s h i n g , t h e
existence o f waste products ( f i b e r s t h a t can be i n c i n e r a t e d ) , and t h e presence o f
waste heat. However, many t e x t i l e p l a n t s are small establishments which may n o t
be able t o a f f o r d t h e c a p i t a l investment r e q u i r e d t o cogenerate.

The primary end uses o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l i n d u s t r y are motor d r i v e ,

l i g h t i n g , and process heat. Motor d r i v e accounts f o r 83 percent o f t h e
e l e c t r i c i t y consumed i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l i n d u s t r y . L i g h t i n g , representing 15
percent, i s t h e n e x t l a r g e s t e l e c t r i c i t y consumer: process h e a t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s
represent o n l y about 2 percent.

Motor d r i v e e l e c t r i c i t y use i s broken down i n t o m a t e r i a l s processing (45 p e r c e n t ) ,

m a t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g (35 percent), and pumps, fans, and compressors (about 20

s-10
percent). Materials-processing equipment performs the separating, combing, and
other materials-processing steps that are carried out during spinning and weaving.
Opening and card machinery, which use their steel fingers for plucking and
combing, and spinning machinery, which twists and separates fibers, are materials-
processing equipment.

Materials-handling activities take place throughout textile manufacturing,

starting from the rotating fiber-opening machinery to finishing, where fabric is
printed or heat set using rollers and rolling frames. Materials handling also
takes place during fabric formation where bales of fiber are moved through the
mill.

Pumps, fans, and compressors account for a large portion of the electricity used
in HVAC systems. About 20 percent of the energy used in finishing mills is
electricity, mostly to power small motors scattered through the mill. Pumps are
used for fluid processing in dyeing to pump dyes, rinse water, and other liquids
into and out of dye becks. Fans are also used in convection ovens used for drying
and finishing and for blowers in opening and blending machines.

Textile Plant Enerqy Use and DSM Opportunities

The importance of energy in a particular textile mill depends on the type o f

processing that is done at the mill--wet or dry. In general, dry processes are
electricity intensive while wet processes are fossil-energy intensive.

Dry Processing. The spinning, twisting, and weaving processes performed in these
mills require considerable amounts of motive power. Except for slashing, all
operations performed in the dry processing mill use electricity as the primary
energy source. Steam used in the slashing operation is usually generated by
boilers burning natural gas, coal, fuel oil, or other petroleum products.

Electricity supplies about 80 percent of the total energy requirements in greige

mill (dry mills). There are few opportunities for further electricity penetration
in dry processing. Most of the increases will come from automation programs. A s
more companies automate their plants and install computerized systems for process
control, their reliance on uninterrupted electric power will increase, but only
slightly. New technology developments that might increase electricity consumed by

s-11
drive motors include mechanical moisture-removal devices such as vacuum extractors
and roller squeezers.

Since a typical greige mill will have many motors running during a normal work
day, there are numerous opportunities for conservation and load management in dry
processing. For example, high-efficiency electric motors with adjustable speed
drives can help this equipment run more efficiently, reducing overall electricity
costs.

HVAC systems are also very important in greige mills because they must work with
the machinery to filter out the large amounts of debris, lint, and other material
generated during production processes. Impaired air quality from the collection
of cotton dust in the air, for example, may create a hazard to operators as well
as a risk of potentially fouling the machinery. Opportunities for heat recovery
exist for HVAC systems designed to capture waste heat from machinery and redirect
it into the ventilation system, thus eliminating hot spots. More-efficient
spinning, weaving, and knitting technologies will also provide opportunities for
conservation.

Wet Processinq. Wet processing often requires large inputs of thermal energy,
mainly to heat liquids and chemical dyes and to dry and finish textiles. Process
heating is dominated by fossil fuels because they can heat evenly and
inexpensively with readily available technologies. In textile processing, the
quantity of heat, temperature, and method of application varies widely. Some
methods (such as singeing) require direct applications of open flame, eliminating
the possibility of electric process heat applications. Others require steam cans
or calendars for the application of heat and pressure. In all cases the
application and maintenance of a certain temperature is crucial to avoid over- or
under-processing. The design and application flexibility of gas equipment allows
ready application of heat in those processes where heat is required.

The textile firm's ability to modify electricity use is more pronounced in wet
processing applications than in dry. The majority of wet processes dye or finish
spun yarn and woven or knit greige fabric. Also included in this category is a
process called slashing, which takes place prior to fabric or yarn dyeing and/or
finishing and involves the application of liquid chemicals to the yarn in order to
improve weaving efficiency by strengthening the yarn. A variety of electric
technologies now compete with conventional fossil-fuel-fired technologies for

5-12
s l a s h i n g , d r y i n g , dyeing, and c u r i n g . Approaches f o r modifying e l e c t r i c i t y use i n
wet processing include:

0 Increased a p p l i c a t i o n s o f process heating technologies

--Radiofrequency
--Infrared
'--Ultraviolet curing

0 Increased a p p l i c a t i o n s o f o t h e r electrotechnologies
--Membrane s e p a r a t i o d f i l t r a t i o n techniques
- - I n d u s t r i a l process heat pumps/heat recovery systems
--Thermal energy storage
--Ultrasonics
--Process automation.

Examples o f i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n c l u d e using i n d u s t r i a l process heat pumps and

f i l t r a t i o n techniques t o recover waste chemicals and using e l e c t r i c heating
technologies t o replace conventional dyeing and d r y i n g processes. HVAC
opportunities also exist. F i n i s h i n g p l a n t s r e q u i r e l a r g e v e n t i l a t i n g systems f o r
t h e removal o f vapors, odors, fumes, and o t h e r contaminants.

GETTING STARTED: CHARACTERIZING

POTENTIAL DSM OPPORTUNITIES

As noted p r e v i o u s l y , e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s have many o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o h e l p t h e

t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y f u r t h e r improve i t s competitive p o s i t i o n , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e
advancing u t i l i t y DSM o b j e c t i v e s . These o p p o r t u n i t i e s range from o v e r a l l energy
conservation, t o l o a d management, t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c e l e c t r o -
technologies.

I n h e l p i n g t o understand t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y and i t s p o t e n t i a l DSM o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,

a s e r i e s o f f o u r t a b l e s has been developed t o provide a f i r s t step i n
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e DSM options and t o summarize t h e t e c h n i c a l
i n f o r m a t i o n provided i n t h i s Guidebook.

Please note t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n represented i n each o f t h e t a b l e s r e f l e c t s

t y p i c a l t e x t i l e plants. Because s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a n t design and
processing equipment e x i s t , caution i s required i n using t h i s information.

I n d u s t r y Seqments

The f i r s t t a b l e (Table S-1) summarizes t h e key c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e n i n e

t h r e e - d i g i t S I C segments o f t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . The information includes key

S-13
 Table S-l

TEXTILE INDUSTRY SUMMARY: INDUSTRY SEGMENTS

industry
Industry industry Trendrl
Segment comments
Products
(3-Digit Sic)

21. Cotton ),err, uphoirtery. and surgical Growthin home furnishin in

abricr durtrial.and medical mar?&;
Weaving De<iinemapparel markets
More CanlinuOuS produdion
More frequent air changer fOT
product quality
Domination byaiviet looms

1 2 . Manmade Fib, I r e s . drapery. upholrlery Growth in automotive and

Weaving ibergiarr.ilnd automotive industria markets
abri'r More v " n u O u s production
More frequent air changer for
product quality
Domination byair.jet looms

13 - Wool Weavins lianketi and overmat material Detline in apparel markets

,nd other woolen fabrics Espetiaily strong Lompetifion
Finishing
from importi
Somespare 'apacityfar DSM
Small part of textile industry

24. Narrow Fabric libbonrand bindings Growth in woven label. eiastx

tape. and zipper markets
Mills
Decline in other markets
small partoftextile industry

2 5 - Knitting Mills ;iris'. boys', women'r.and men's

mriery, bathing suits. neckties.
lati, knitted underwear and
Lightwear. jersey fabrics. lace
ioodr. gloves. mittenr. and
iedtpr&dr

1 6 - Textile ..
>vedfinished fabrics. dved Growth in blocked knits
Batchdyeing has reduced
Finishing iiirhed broadwoven fabrics. dveina time
8nd dyed finished narrowfabrics Inb;a& in the ele<trir
requirements from continuous
d eing printing,and
bLsch;na o r o ~ e i s e s
Growth in tufted nylon carpst
2 1 - Floor Coverin,
and offire carpet square1
Milk markets
Growth in the YIB of open-end
and air-Jetspinning

farnr, spooled yarnr.and1hread Growth in rewing thread and

2 8 - Yarnand
)f allfibertypes textured nylon markets
Thread Mills Most plants havealready
modernized
Growth of opemend spinning
Detiine of ring spinning

mgtalion leather. o i l h t h . tire Growth in syntheticnonwoven

29. Miscellaneou
:ord. bonded fiber fabrics. braidei felts forautomotive. carpet.
Textiles andfurniture markets
:ord. feitr. piiiawfiliingr. pips
:overing. burlap,and other Decline in lace and upholstery
onw woven fabrics padding
Growth in coated fabrics

S-14
 Table S - 1 (Continued)

-
AppraximateAllo~atlonofEnergyUfeAmang Unif Pio~errerorEndUrer.% *

T
:"el Mark6
Shares by
lndurtry
Segment.
peK.e"l

m
'I.
-0

/51

i37
-

/ 4
-

/23
-

i
23
-

i
21
-

/
32

i
30
-

i
25
-
14 and Waste

5-15
i n d u s t r y products, summary i n d i c a t o r s , i n d u s t r y t r e n d s , and energy use by u n i t
process estimates.

As shown i n Table S-1, f i g u r e s f o r "Purchased E l e c t r i c i t y as a % o f Shipments"

range from 0.7 percent f o r F l o o r Covering M i l l s ( S I C 227) t o 3.9 percent f o r
Cotton Weaving ( S I C 221). The e l e c t r i c i t y percentage f i g u r e f o r a l l o f t e x t i l e s
( S I C 22) i s 2.3 percent; t h i s percentage i s q u i t e a b i t h i g h e r than t h e 1 . 4
percent f o r a l l o f manufacturing ( S I C S 20-39). This suggests t h a t , on t h e whole,
t e x t i l e customers should be more i n t e r e s t e d i n assessing t h e i r use of e l e c t r i c i t y
than t h e average i n d u s t r y customer.

The o p e r a t i n g p a t t e r n f i g u r e s d e p i c t t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y as g e n e r a l l y running
t h r e e s h i f t s p e r day, f i v e days a week w i t h an e x t r a catch-up and maintenance
s h i f t on Saturdays. As a process i n d u s t r y w i t h a h i g h l a b o r i n t e n s i t y , t h i s type
of p a t t e r n i s g e n e r a l l y n o t favorable f o r major amounts o f l o a d s h i f t i n g .

The f i g u r e s r e f l e c t i n g t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f energy use among u n i t process o r end uses

c l e a r l y show t h e degree o f e l e c t r i c i t y use i n t h e d r y processing a c t i v i t i e s
(spinning, weaving, etc.) versus t h e degree o f f o s s i l - f u e l use i n t h e wet
processing a c t i v i t i e s (dyeing, d r y i n g , f i n i s h i n g , etc.). With t h e process heating
e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s (radiofrequency, i n f r a r e d , etc.) t a r g e t e d on many o f those wet
processing a c t i v i t i e s , i t i s easy t o see how a small percentage o f market
p e n e t r a t i o n by these electrotechnologies could y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n
e l e c t r i c use. Even though i n t h e e n t i r e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y (SIC 2 2 ) , e l e c t r i c i t y
holds a 31-percent f u e l market share, t h e average market share f o r i n d i v i d u a l
i n d u s t r y segments ( 3 - d i g i t S I C S ) v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from 11 percent t o 59
percent.

A d d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r y and business t r e n d information about t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i s

provided i n Appendix A.

I n d u s t r y Processes and End Uses

The second t a b l e (Table S-2) summarizes t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e key u n i t

processes i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . Included a r e i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e r e l a t i v e
p o t e n t i a l o f each u n i t process f o r achieving a l t e r n a t i v e load shape o b j e c t i v e s and
notes regarding processing trends f o r each u n i t process i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y .

S-16
- -
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A 2
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z
0
t
VI
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VI
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x
zz
D
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-
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VI
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VI
The opportunities for strategic load growth are primarily in the electrification
of processes previously served by competing fuels. The most opportune processes
include warping/slashing, washing, dyeing, drying, and finishing. Naturally, most
of these processes fall into the wet processing category.

Strategic conservation opportunities exist in wet as well as dry processing. Solid

opportunities also exist in plant services, particularly in HVAC and materials
hand1 ing.

Load manaqement opportunities are tied to the ability of customers to modify

existing loads and/or timing of electricity consumption. Most of the load
management opportunities exist i n plant services.

Flexible load shape programs have only limited application in the textile
industry. The major application areas are HVAC, opening/blending/picking, drying,
and finishing.

Some of the major processing trends featured in the table include:

0 Increase of open-end spinning
0 Potential penetration of radiofrequency into warping and slashing
processes and into drying of bulky packages of fiber and yarn
0 Growth of air-jet looms
0 Trend toward combining desizing with scouring and bleaching (DSB)
0 Development of more-efficient technologies and processes for dyeing and
finishing
0 Growth of automation and shop floor communications systems for materials
handling
0 Increased regulatory scrutiny over waste treatment and plant ambient
conditions.

Descriptions of these unit processes can be found in Appendix 8; additional

process information can be found in the U.S. Department of Energy study on textile
industry energy use (1).

S-18
DSM Technologies and Process Chanqes

Numerous options h o l d p o t e n t i a l f o r s i g n i f i c a n t p r o d u c t i v i t y improvements, as

w e l l as p o t e n t i a l f o r some f a i r l y l a r g e energy-use changes. The key technologies
i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y appear t o be t h e process h e a t i n g options ( i n f r a r e d ,
radiofrequency, u l t r a v i o l e t , and u l t r a s o n i c s ) , HVAC-related o p t i o n s ( a i r supply
and c h i l l e r system o p t i m i z a t i o n ) , and t h e e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t and environmentally
o r i e n t e d options ( i n d u s t r i a l process heat pumps, h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y motors, process
automation, and membrane processing).

The t h i r d t a b l e (Table 5-3) summarizes t h e DSM technology and process change

o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e t e x t i l e industry. The i n f o r m a t i o n includes l i s t s o f t h e load
shape o b j e c t i v e s , u n i t processes, and i n d u s t r y segments f o r which any o f 30
d i f f e r e n t DSM technologies and process changes are a p p l i c a b l e . Also included are
t h e p o t e n t i a l impacts, competition, and trends associated w i t h t h e technology.

As mentioned b e f o r e , these summary t a b l e s are intended as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t only.

V a r i a t i o n s i n a p p l i c a b i l i t y may r e s u l t due t o unique c o n d i t i o n s a t a customer's
plant. A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n about some o f t h e process heating, energy-
e f f i c i e n t , and environmentally o r i e n t e d options can be found i n Appendix D.
A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e HVAC-related and conservation-related options can
be found i n Appendix E and i n t h e U.S. Department o f Energy study on t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y energy use(').

DSM Market Implementation Methods

Due t o t h e h i g h d i v e r s i t y o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l sector, customer needs and b e n e f i t s

associated w i t h a DSM program may vary by s i z e and type o f customer. This may
requ'ire d i f f e r e n t market implementation methods f o r d i f f e r e n t customer segments.
Applying t h e a p p r o p r i a t e market implementation method t o a s p e c i f i c t e c h n i c a l
a l t e r n a t i v e r e q u i r e s i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e technology and t h e customer's decision-
making process. While i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e implementation methods t h e r e are a few g u i d e l i n e s .

Market implementation methods are v i t a l i n enhancing t h e market p e n e t r a t i o n o f DSM

programs. These methods may be grouped i n t o f i v e major categories: trade a l l y
cooperation, customer i n f o r m a t i o n , d i r e c t customer c o n t a c t , d i r e c t i n c e n t i v e s , and
alternative pricing.

s-19
 T a b l e S-3

T E X T I L E INDUSTRY SUMMARY: DSM TECHNOLOGIES AND PROCESS CHANGES

ApplKable
Load Shew Applinble UnitPIoccsIeI olEndUILI
Objartwrs

s-20
 Table S-3 (Continued)

I
Appli'abl* Industry Segments

s-21
The f o u r t h t a b l e (Table S-4) summarizes how t h e various market implementation
methods can be used t o f o s t e r customer adoption o f t h e DSM technology o r process
change o p p o r t u n i t y . The i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s how u s e f u l each method i s i n
promoting each o f t h e 30 DSM technologies o r process changes. Marketing notes a r e
a l s o i n c l u d e d t o p r o v i d e c o n t e x t f o r such promotional a c t i v i t i e s .

In programs i n v o l v i n g new technologies, customers face considerable u n c e r t a i n t i e s

w i t h regard t o performance and a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l i c a t i o n .Demonstration p r o j e c t s ,
technology a p p l i c a t i o n and t e s t i n g centers, case s t u d i e s , t r a i n i n g seminars,
performance warranties, and t r a d e a l l i e s are a p p r o p r i a t e methods f o r reducing such
uncertainty. Customer a u d i t s are u s e f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g showcase a p p l i c a t i o n s .

For programs i n v o l v i n g proven technologies, u t i l i t i e s can focus t h e i r resources on

q u a l i f y i n g leads and p r o v i d i n g f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s . D e t a i l e d f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s
are needed f o r those proven technologies w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n s and economic
assessments t h a t are p a r t i c u l a r l y s i t e - s p e c i f i c o r are being implemented f o r the
primary purpose o f t a k i n g advantage o f a l t e r n a t i v e p r i c i n g programs o r load
management.

Another f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g implementation methods i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o c o s t . Some

programs focus on a p p l i c a t i o n areas where e l e c t r i c i t y i s i n d i r e c t competition
w i t h o t h e r f u e l s o r n o n - e l e c t r i c processes. Here f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s such as
promotional r a t e s o r rebates a r e appropriate.

F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e degree o f c o n t r o l t h e u t i l i t y has over t h e program

implementation. In some cases a u t i l i t y w i l l have o n l y i n d i r e c t c o n t r o l over
i n d u s t r y o r technology trends. For example, t h e s w i t c h t o a i r - j e t processing i n a
t e x t i l e m i l l i s i n f l u e n c e d by many f a c t o r s o u t s i d e t h e sphere o f i n f l u e n c e o f a
utility. However, u t i l i t i e s may i n f l u e n c e technology choices i n d i r e c t l y through
j o i n t a d v e r t i s i n g programs o r by working w i t h engineering f i r m s o r t r a d e
associations.

Special s i t u a t i o n s w i t h regard t o t h e customer o r t h e program may warrant

d e v i a t i o n from these general g u i d e l i n e s . B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e f i v e major
categories o f market implementation methods are provided i n Section 4. A l i s t of
equipment vendors f o r several o f t h e key DSM technologies i s provided i n
Appendix C.

s-22
 T a b l e S-4

T E X T I L E INDUSTRY SUMMARY: DSM MARKET IMPLEMENTATION METHODS

ApplVable Marketlmplt

Technologies

Changer

Ulilviolet Cvring

Open.End Spinning

Air.leIPiO~esting
Foam Prortrfing

T a i l Lighting

High-Ellicirnry Lightin!
Electric utilities need to work closely with their textile customers to take
advantage of DSM opportunities. Lack of convincing and demonstrable information
is a major barrier. Several factors argue for an increased utility focus on
textile customers to help overcome this barrier:
Underestimated impact of electricity. The potential impact of
electricitv on textile manufacturina is considerablv underestimated bv
most textiie firms. Many textile companies do not consider either energy ~

or electricity to be important inputs to their production process. -~

Greater consideration is given to raw materials (such as fiber and
chemicals) and labor, yet energy cost per dollar of value added to the
textile industry is 9 . 3 percent; significantly higher than t h e 6 percent
value for all manufacturing. Similarly, electricity costs per dollar of
value added exceeds that for all manufacturing.
Lack of widespread information about electrotechnologies and DSM
. . . ..... . New. efficient electrotechnolooies are not beina aoolied in
nroorams. ~~ ~~~ ~

~ ~d

iexzile mills as often as they could be. These technologies iipically

will not sell on their inherent advantages (faster speeds, energy and
space savings) alone because the textile industry is not as energy-
conscious as many other industry sectors. In addition, cost-cutting
opportunities resulting from other DSM programs await action by the
industry.
Lack of information about electricity consumption. Few firms monitor
mill enerav consumotion at the level where energy characteristics for
each process are known with certainty. Without-this information, setting
energy standards to facilitate energy cost reduction is hampered.

The electric utility industry can play a significant role in informing its textile
customers of the benefits of existing and emerging technologies and DSM programs.
This can assist utilities in competing with fossil-fuel technologies, in retaining
customers, and in achieving their DSM objectives. The DSM efforts of many
utilities (especially those in the Southeast) could be hindered without a
strategic plan designed to include textile customers.

REFERENCE

1. Badin, Joseph S . and Lowitt, Howard E., Energetics, Incorporated, The U.S.
Textile Industry: An Energy Perspective, U.S. Department of Energy through its
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Report DOE/RL/D1830--T56, Washington, D.C.,
January 1988. -

s-24
 Section 1
OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Electric utilities are vital allies of their textile customers. The textile
industry relies heavily on electricity. It is used far more than natural gas, fuel
oil, or any other single energy source. Electricity powers and controls most
textile manufacturing processes and faces little competition in many applications.

Electricity is more than just another energy source for textile manufacturers; it is
a unique and invaluable resource for improving their troubled competitive position.
Automation and emerging electric-based textile processing technologies promise to
increase the efficiency and productivity of the U.S. textile industry. As the
impacts of electrotechnologies grow, electricity will increase even more in
importance to textile producers.

PURPOSE OF THE GUIDEBOOK

This Textile Industry Guidebook is designed to provide utility planning, marketing,

and customer service staff with practical information to explore and implement
demand-side management (DSM) programs. DSM focuses on planning and implementing
utility activities designed to influence customer electricity use in ways that
benefit both the utility and the customer. Activities falling under the industrial
DSM umbrella include load shaping programs, electrotechnology marketing, rate
programs, conservation and productivity audits, rebate and trade ally programs,
economic development, standby generation programs, and other customer-oriented
programs. In particular, the Guidebook is designed to aid utility marketing
representatives, field sales staff, and strategic planners to:
0 Understand the textile industry and the challenges it faces
0 Understand energy use and the different processes and technologies found
within the industry
0 Identify and characterize opportunities for improving energy efficiency,
enhancing productivity, and promoting load management as ways to benefit
both the customer and the utility
0 Develop a demand-side management (DSM) plan to realize such opportunities.

1-1
The Guidebook e x p l a i n s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t impacts o f e l e c t r i c i t y on t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y
p r o d u c t i v i t y and describes t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s and b e n e f i t s o f e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s
and DSM programs i n t e x t i l e processing. The Guidebook provides d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n
about t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y needs and t h e r o l e o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n meeting these
requirements. ,It a l s o provides an easy-to-use s e t of g u i d e l i n e s t h a t a l l o w u t i l i t y
s t a f f t o i d e n t i f y and work w i t h t h e i r customers' p l a n t managers, energy d e c i s i o n
makers, and equipment s u p p l i e r s t o implement decisions f o r t h e m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l
use o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t e x t i l e m i l l s . Factors and approaches t h a t can enhance t h e
t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y ' s acceptance o f u t i l i t y OSM s t r a t e g i e s and steps t o design and
implement a marketing p l a n t a r g e t e d a t t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y customers are a l s o examined.

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y produces spun yarns, thread, woven and k n i t f a b r i c s , and f l o o r

coverings such as rugs and carpets. I t a l s o produces nonwoven f a b r i c s and
miscellaneous t e x t i l e products such as t i r e cord, cordage, and twine. Standard
I n d u s t r i a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n (SIC) 22 c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g 3 - d i g i t S I C sectors:

S I C 221 - Cotton weaving m i l l s

S I C 222 - Manmade f i b e r weaving m i l l s

S I C 223 - Wool weaving and f i n i s h i n g m i l l s

S I C 224 - Narrow f a b r i c m i l l s

S I C 225 - Knitting mills

S I C 226 - Textile finishing (except wool)

S I C 227 - F l o o r covering m i l l s

S I C 228 - Yarn and thread m i l l s

S I C 229 - Miscellaneous t e x t i l e m i l l s .

There are over 7,000 t e x t i l e m i l l s i n t h e United States. The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i s

highly-concentrated, w i t h about 80 percent o f t h e i n d u s t r y ' s products o r i g i n a t i n g
from t h e Southeast. The m a j o r i t y o f t h e m i l l s are l o c a t e d i n North and South
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and V i r g i n i a . I n 1985, t e x t i l e shipments
from these s i x s t a t e s represented approximately 75 percent o f t h e t o t a l shipments
f o r S I C 22. Apparel f a b r i c s , home f u r n i s h i n g s , and i n d u s t r i a l f a b r i c s , such as
f i b e r - r e i n f o r c e d components and f i b e r s used i n t h e medical, m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c ,
pharmaceutical, defense, and aerospace sectors, are t h e l a r g e s t end users of

1-2
manufactured t e x t i l e goods. These t h r e e major end-use sectors accounted f o r 35, 33,
and 3 1 percent, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f a l l t e x t i l e m i l l shipments i n 1985.

BUSINESS AND PRODUCT TRENDS

In t h i s , t h e o l d e s t o f American manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s , many o f t h e basic

manufacturing methods have n o t changed f o r decades o r longer. The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y
i s conservative and has been slow t o accept technological change. Recently,
however, cheaply produced f o r e i g n t e x t i l e products have gained a f o o t h o l d i n many
domestic markets f o r c i n g well-established manufacturers t o reexamine t h e i r
competitiveness. R i s i n g l a b o r c o s t s , a r a p i d l y growing a r r a y o f new chemical
f i b e r s , and s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e x t i l e machinery must now be accommodated. Domestic and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n and technology have combined t o f o r c e changes i n t e x t i l e
manufacturing methods.

R i s i n g imports o f t e x t i l e products now present a formidable economic t h r e a t despite

steady increases i n shipments, m i l l consumption o f f i b e r , and capacity u t i l i z a t i o n .
I n 1975, 14 percent o f a l l t e x t i l e goods s o l d i n t h i s country were imported; over 37
percent were imported i n 1986. In t h e apparel f a b r i c s s e c t o r , imports captured over
50 percent o f t h e market i n 1986. Four major f a c t o r s account f o r t h i s sharp r i s e i n
imports. F i r s t , a s t r o n g U.S. d o l l a r d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1980s made imports r e l a t i v e l y
inexpensive compared t o domestic goods. Second, t h e U.S. Government's p o s i t i o n
f a v o r i n g f r e e t r a d e meant t h a t t h e r e were no b a r r i e r s f o r t e x t i l e producers in newly
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and developing nations. T h i r d , many o f these c o u n t r i e s invested i n
t h e same modern t e x t i l e machinery t h a t has improved t h e U.S. t e x t i l e manufacturing.
F i n a l l y , l a b o r costs overseas a r e o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f those i n t h e United States.

This competition has f o r c e d t h e U.S. t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o reexamine marketing

s t r a t e g i e s and t o seek ways t o improve performance by working toward several
important goals:

Improvins Labor P r o d u c t i v i t y

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y has been h i g h l y l a b o r i n t e n s i v e . The i n d u s t r y

ranks s i x t e e n t h i n value o f shipments when compared t o a l l o t h e r manufacturing
i n d u s t r i e s ; however, i t i s t h e t e n t h l a r g e s t i n d u s t r i a l employer, and over 80
percent o f i t s l a b o r f o r c e i s employed i n production. In response t o increased

1-3
foreign competition, the industry is now attempting to reduce the labor content of
its products. Between 1980 and 1985, textile industry employment declined 15
percent while shipments increased by 13 percent. Wages were also cut, and constant
dollar value-added per full time equivalent employee in the textile industry grew
faster than the average for all manufacturing. As textile firms cut labor costs,
they increased capital expenditures. As a result, the industry's capital ~

expenditure increased from $2,110 per production worker in 1980 to nearly $3,300 per -~
production worker in 1985.

Improving Process Efficiency

Textile manufacturing involves multiple, repetitive batch processing. This

generally requires considerable manual inspection and intervention because most
technologies do not perform optimally or lend themselves to automation. In the
past, workers had to be employed to detect and repair breakages resulting from poor
fiber quality and to avoid over- or under-processing of fabric in the finishing
processes. Now, automation is made possible by the increased use of synthetics,
more-uniform quality in natural fibers, and advanced spinning and weaving
technologies. Synthetic fibers and improved natural fibers eliminate the need for
constant manual inspection. New technologies offer faster fiber and fabric
processing speeds and diminish the risk of expensive and time-consuming breakage
repairs. Today, some textile producers are experimenting with faster-drying dyes
and technologies designed to eliminate many intermediate process steps. Textile
companies are also moving toward computerized monitoring and control of production
processes and automated inspection procedures to ensure fiber, yarn, and fabric
quality at all production stages.

Improving Product Quality

With the development of durable synthetic fibers and higher agricultural standards
for natural fibers, yarn strength, uniformity, and cleanliness have been improved.
These advances in fiber quality lead to higher fabric quality, much of which can be -
attributed to technology advances: improved fiber blends can be achieved by opening
and picking equipment; new carding technology achieves better integration of fibers
which results in fewer breakages; new loom designs process yarns at faster speeds; -
and state-of-the-art spinning machines produce first-quality fabric in a shorter
period than conventional equipment.

1-4
Reducing Production Costs

Price competition is a major driving force in the textile industry. Worldwide,

producers seek competitive advantages by maintaining tight controls over labor, raw
material, and other production costs. Producers in developing countries, especially
Asia, have an edge over their American counterparts because their productivity
levels have grown faster since the late 1970s. Thus, while the U . S . textile
industry's productivity level grew at a faster rate than the average for all
manufacturing between 1976 and 1986 (5.2 percent annually compared,to 2.8 percent),
additional productivity improvements must be realized to maintain a presence in
today's competitive market.

Textile companies can lower production costs through a number of methods.

Simplifying and accelerating production processes by, for example, combining
processes or using faster-drying dyes, would allow products to get to market more
quickly. Today's rapid developments in fiber and fabric types require that newly-
developed production processes be carefully researched to ensure applicability to
all fibers and fabrics.

ELECTRICITY'S ROLE IN IMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS

The textile industry consumed 25.9 billion kWh of electricity in 1985. This
consumption level represents 31 percent of the industry's total energy requirements.
Thus it should not be surprising that changes in the use of electricity through DSM
programs can be of vital importance to the industry. More specifically, textile
companies can improve their competitive position by sharpening their capabilities in
the following areas:
0 PricefCost Control - Producing at reduced raw material, labor, or other
production costs
0 Production Speed - Applying faster, efficient production methods with
minimum waste while simultaneously maintaining product quality
0 Process Control - Monitoring and controlling all stages of the lengthy
production process to avoid costly mistakes, maintain product quality, and
optimize complex operations
0 Reliability - Ensuring that equipment and processes will operate without
over- or under-processing, while maintaining color, yarn, and fabric
quality.

1-5
The newer, more versatile, and powerful electric-driven machines have faster
processing speeds which can increase flexibility and productivity in yarn and fabric
formation. Computerized monitoring and cbntrol of processes and automated
inspection procedures at various production stages can ensure yarn and fabric
quality. Robotics, for example, are an effective means of efficient yarn quality
inspection. Finally, streamlined and accelerated dyeing, drying, and finishing
processes can cut down on overall production time and thereby lower costs.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE ELECTRIC UTILITY INDUSTRY

Electric utilities have many opportunities to help the textile industry improve its
competitive position, while at the same time advancing utility DSM objectives.
These opportunities range from overall energy conservation, to load management, to
the application of specific electrotechnologies. This Guidebook will help utility
staff to understand these DSM opportunities.

Regardless of the types of programs being considered, electric utilities need to

work closely with their textile customers to take advantage of DSM opportunities.
Lack o f convincing and demonstrable information is a major barrier. Several factors
argue for an increased utility focus on textile customers to help overcome this
barrier:
0 Underestimated impact of electricity. The potential impact of electricity
on textile manufacturinq is considerably underestimated by most textile
firms. Many textile companies do not cbnsider either energy or electricity
to be important inputs to their production process. Greater consideration
is given to raw materials (such as fiber and chemicals) and labor, yet
energy cost per dollar of value added for the textile industry is 9.3
percent;'significantly higher than the 6 percent value for all
manufacturing. Similarly, electricity cost per dollar of value added
exceeds that for all manufacturing.
0 Lack of widespread information about electrotechnologies and DSM programs.
New, efficient electrotechnologies are not being applied in textile mills
as often as they could be. These technologies typically will not sell on
their inherent advantages (faster speeds and energy and space savings)
alone because the textile industry is not as energy-conscious as many other
industry sectors. In addition, cost-cutting opportunities resulting from
other DSM programs await action by the industry.
0 Lack of information about electricity consumption. Few firms monitor mill
enerov consumotion at the level where enerav characteristics for each
proc& are khown with certainty. Without"ihis information, setting energy
standards to facilitate energy cost reduction is hampered.

1-6
The e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y can p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n informing i t s t e x t i l e
customers o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f e x i s t i n g and emerging technologies and DSM programs.
This can a s s i s t u t i l i t i e s i n competing w i t h f o s s i l - f u e l technologies, i n r e t a i n i n g
customers, and i n achieving t h e i r DSM objectives. The DSM e f f o r t s o f many u t i l i t i e s
( e s p e c i a l l y those i n t h e Southeast) could be hindered w i t h o u t a s t r a t e g i c p l a n
designed t o i n c l u d e t e x t i l e customers.

To a i d t h e planner i n i d e n t i f y i n g and q u a n t i f y i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l impact o f DSM

o p p o r t u n i t i e s , Table 1-1 summarizes key a p p l i c a t i o n , market, and energy
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 30 DSM technologies and process changes.

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDEBOOK

This Guidebook i s designed f o r planning and marketing personnel o f e l e c t r i c

utilities. The Guidebook allows u t i l i t y planners and f i e l d representatives t o keep
abreast o f developments i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t h a t may a f f e c t t h e i r energy
decisions. Appendices A and B p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e i n d u s t r y and
i t s manufacturing methods and energy use. This Guidebook may be used t o i d e n t i f y
which technologies and DSM programs a r e a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , t o
determine how c r u c i a l they a r e i n t h e manufacturing process, and t o evaluate t h e
impact o f t h e i r adoption. DSM r e q u i r e s a unique coupling o f u t i l i t y o b j e c t i v e s ,
needs, and s t r a t e g i e s w i t h those o f i t s customers. For t h e s t r a t e g i c marketing
personnel developing DSM p l a n s , t h i s Guidebook l i s t s DSM o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e
t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y and contains information about how t o l i n k t h e u t i l i t y ' s o v e r a l l
DSM e f f o r t s w i t h t h e t e x t i l e customers' production processes and a p p l i c a t i o n s . A t
t h e same time, i t provides a l i s t o f problems and c o n s t r a i n t s associated w i t h t h e
planning o f DSM programs f o r t e x t i l e customers.

For t h e f i e l d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e who i n t e r a c t s w i t h t e x t i l e customers, t h i s Guidebook

provides important background i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e t e x t i l e customers' business
environment and manufacturing methods. This Guidebook can a l s o h e l p marketing s t a f f
determine t h e DSM o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t are a p p l i c a b l e i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s , t h e
technologies t h a t a r e p o t e n t i a l l y applicable, and t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f adoption.
F i n a l l y , f i e l d representatives can r e f e r customers t o equipment s u p p l i e r s by using
Appendix C, which provides a l i s t i n g o f t e x t i l e - i n d u s t r y equipment suppliers.

1-7
Table 1-1 (Continued)

1-9
ORGANIZATION OF T H I S GUIDEBOOK

Section 2 discusses how e l e c t r i c i t y can be used t o meet t e x t i l e customers' needs.

It e x p l a i n s t h e r o l e o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t e x t i l e manufacturing, and examines how t h e
t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y makes energy- and technology-choice decisions. This i n f o r m a t i o n
can be used t o assess t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y p a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l modify
t h e i r e l e c t r i c i t y use. The l i k e l y impacts o f changes i n e l e c t r i c i t y use are a l s o
examined, as are DSM o p p o r t u n i t i e s , problems, and c o n s t r a i n t s .

Section 3 focuses on DSM o b j e c t i v e s and impacts. This s e c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s t h e

e v o l u t i o n o f t h e DSM e f f o r t , from t h e generic t o t h e s p e c i f i c . It a l s o discusses
changes and b e n e f i t s l i k e l y t o r e s u l t from adoption o f DSM plans.

Section 4 provides d e t a i l s o f DSM s t r a t e g y development f o r t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . It

l i s t s t h e f a c t o r s and considerations f o r designing a d e t a i l e d DSM s t r a t e g y f o r t h e
t e x t i l e industry.

Four appendices are provided w i t h t h i s Guidebook. Appendix A provides an overview

of t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . Appendix B describes t h e technologies used i n t e x t i l e
p r o d u c t i o n and g i v e s an energy-use p r o f i l e o f t h e i n d u s t r y . Appendix C l i s t s
vendors which supply t h e e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t may be t a r g e t e d t o t h e t e x t i l e -
i n d u s t r y DSM e f f o r t s . Appendix D describes some o f these electrotechnologies.

1-10
 Section 2

MEETING TEXTILE-CUSTOMER NEEDS THROUGH ELECTRICITY

T e x t i l e manufacturing c o n s i s t s o f f i v e b a s i c processes as i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Figure 2-1. The manufacturing process s t a r t s w i t h t h e conversion o f raw f i b e r s
i n t o yarn. Yarn formation equipment such as p i c k i n g , carding, and combing machines
gather f i b e r s l o o s e l y i n t o a c o r d - l i k e form known as a s l i v e r . These s l i v e r s are
passed through drawing frames t o increase alignment, then through a moving frame t o
apply t w i s t .

Knitted
Fabric
Formation

Yarn
I

Formation
- Floor
Covering
Formation
I

I
Finishing/
Dyeing

I Dry Processing
(Greige Mills)
Wet Processing
(Finishing Mills) 4
F i g u r e 2-1. Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing

The second b a s i c p r o d u c t i o n step i s t h e conversion o f yarn i n t o f a b r i c . A warping

machine winds numerous separate strands o f y a r n onto a beam. A s l a s h i n g machine
t r e a t s t h e y a r n w i t h a s i z e , which i s a h o t s o l u t i o n o f starch, wax, o i l s , and
water, t o coat and strengthen t h e yarn i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r processing. The
yarn i s then woven o r k n i t t e d i n t o grey, o r u n f i n i s h e d , f a b r i c .

2-1
The t h i r d and f o u r t h processes i n v o l v e t h e manufacture o f f l o o r coverings and t h e
production o f nonwovens. Web bonding, heat s e t t i n g , and t u f t i n g are p e c u l i a r t o
these two processes.

The f i f t h process i s f i n i s h i n g , which v a r i e s w i t h t h e f a b r i c and use. Finishing

processes i n c l u d e bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, Sanforizing, and heat s e t t i n g .
These processes are designed t o impart q u a l i t i e s such as c o l o r fastness, f e e l , and
p r o t e c t i o n from shrinkage. (A discussion o f these f i v e b a s i c processes i s given i n
Appendix B.)

The b a s i c processes i n v o l v e numerous and sometimes r e p e t i t i v e batch operations.

These operations can be placed i n t o two broad categories--dry and wet--depending on
whether o r n o t a l i q u i d i s involved. Dry processes o f t e n take p l a c e i n g r e i g e m i l l s
and wet processes i n f i n i s h i n g m i l l s , although some m i l l s are now i n t e g r a t e d .

Energy i s used i n a l l stages o f t e x t i l e manufacturing, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e opening,

p i c k i n g , and b l e n d i n g o f f i b e r s and ending w i t h t h e dyeing, d r y i n g , and f i n i s h i n g o f
yarns and f a b r i c . The main end uses o f energy i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l i n d u s t r y are:

Motor d r i v e
--Pumps, fans, and compressors
- - M a t e r i a l s handling
- - M a t e r i a l s processing

Process Heating
--Process steam
--Drying
--Curing, heat s e t t i n g , and f i n i s h i n g

Lighting

Space Heating and Cooling (HVAC).

O f these end uses, motor d r i v e , l i g h t i n g , and space c o o l i n g are completely

e l e c t r i c - b a s e d , w h i l e process- and space-heating technologies r e l y mainly on f o s s i l
f u e l s . Thus t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f these end uses t o s p e c i f i c t e x t i l e processes and
technologies depends on t h e i r thermal energy requirements. Dyeing, d r y i n g , and
f i n i s h i n g , t h e major consumers o f energy i n t h e t e x t i l e manufacturing process,
r e q u i r e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of thermal energy. This energy i s o f t e n supplied by
b o i l e r s f i r e d by gas, coal, o r o i l . In 1985, t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y consumed 286.1
t r i l l i o n Btu o f energy i n c l u d i n g 197.8 t r i l l i o n Btu supplied by f o s s i l f u e l s and
88.3 t r i l l i o n Btu ( o r 25.9 b i l l i o n kWh) o f e l e c t r i c i t y .

2-2
TEXTILE ELECTRICITY USE BY INDUSTRY SEGMENT AND PROCESS

A large portion of the 25.9 billion kWh of electricity consumed in 1985 was used by
greige mills, i.e., in the production of unfinished woven and knit goods. SICs 221
(cotton weaving), 222 (manmade fiber weaving), 223 (wool weaving), and 228 (yarn and
thread mills) are included in the greige mill category. These mills, with
electricity supplying over 50 percent of their total energy requires, are the most
electricity intensive of the textile industry. Together, SICs 221, 222, 223, and
228 consumed over 65 percent of the electricity in the entire textile industry in
1985. The spinning, twisting, and weaving processes performed in these mills
require considerable amounts of motive power which is supplied by electricity.
Table 2-1 presents a breakdown of electricity use by specific textile process.
Descriptions of these processes are given in Appendix B.

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRICITY

The importance of electricity in the textile mill depends on the type of processing
that is done at the mill--dry or wet. Dry processing typically takes place in
greige mills, while wet processing takes place in finishing mills. The
manufacturing steps that take place in dry and wet processing are highlighted below:

Greige Mills (Dry Processing) Finishing Mills (Wet Processing)

Yarn formation 0 Yarn dyeing
0 Texturizing (manmade 0 Fabric dyeing and finishing
fibers) --Wovens
0 Fabric formation --Knit goods
--Weaving --Floor coverings
--Knitting Printing
--Nonwovens 0 Finishing
0 Tufting (floor coverings) --Drying
--Heat setting

Electricity is the largest single energy source used by the textile industry,
providing 31 percent of the total energy used in 1985 (Figure 2-2). It supplies
almost all of the motive power, powering pumps, fans, and compressors for HVAC
systems in textile mills, regardless of whether the production involves dry or wet
processing. Electric-based materials-handling equipment moves the goods through the
numerous processing steps. Starting with the initial fiber-processing steps in dry
processing mills, electric-based materials-processing equipment plucks, separates,
combs, twists, and spins fiber into yarn which is then woven into fabric. Opening
and blending machines rely on electric-based fans.

2-3
 Table 2 - 1
1985 ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION BY SPECIFIC TEXTILE PROCESSES
(Million kWh)

I C.idi4 1
.
X
f Finish:
I 'I.m IRWIma I I*LPc.* Iu.rpima Iwarima Ioy.imaInaatsrtfl ltighfingl I
S I C 1ndrtr)r I Pmp. (Drawlma Ilpimimallriit I S l . l h i m a l K ~ l t f l ~ 1 O ~ ~ i mCur.
a~ (Tutlinsl W A C I 1maL I
221 cotton u..ring 138 179 821 359 143 7U9 IM 36 610 3.587

222 *.mad. rite V.."iIP 136 M 1,362 1.222 67p 1.630 I n 163 1.15' 6.791

223 wol wwinglFlnishins 17 21 52 IO I4 1% I7 2L 12 364

2' Y.IIOl U b l i C *ill. 27 I7 M SI 27 66 20 IO SI 361

221 Knitting M i l l . 246 183 611 122 113 611 306 306 It9 1.015

226 T e x t i l e finishima 1.m 193 296 1.975

227 f i o e i CoverIra M i l l s 22 11 SI 1W 22 33 1W 15 113 164 1.W1

228 7.m k l h r d H i i i s 397 331 2.311 1,813 132 331 265 W1 6.619

229 *i.S. T.Xtil. 42 125 20(1 729 417 121 42 2.084

............................................................................................ - - - - - - - - - - - ....-.-...................
Total 1.P2 810 1.531 1.852 1.379 3.9982.570 1.WI SI3 S,MI 25.M7

* Texturizing
+ Mercerizing
=e: U . S . Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f the Census, Annual Survey-of

Coal
19%

Figure 2-2. Importance o f Electricity as an Energy Source

1985 Energy Use - 286.1 Trillion Btu

2-4
Only about 20 percent o f t h e energy used i n f i n i s h i n g m i l l s i s e l e c t r i c i t y .
However, t h e e l e c t r i c - b a s e d end uses are v i t a l t o t h e dyeing processes because t h e
many small motors used i n f i n i s h i n g m i l l s pump r i n s e water and dyes i n t o and out o f
dye becks. E l e c t r i c process heating methods such as microwave (MW), radiofrequency
(RF), and i n f r a r e d (IR) d r y i n g o f f a b r i c s and f l o o r coverings show p o t e n t i a l f o r
wider a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n 1985, these technologies consumed 20 percent more
e l e c t r i c i t y than i n 1980.

These e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g y heating methods o f f e r production advantages such as f a s t e r

d r y i n g speeds and h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c i e s . These e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s are c u r r e n t l y
commercially v i a b l e o n l y i n selected a p p l i c a t i o n s , f o r example t h e RF d r y i n g o f
carpets. T e x t i l e i n d u s t r y experts agree, t h a t t e c h n i c a l l y , process h e a t i n g
technologies such as RF, MW, UV, and I R can be a p p l i e d t o more f i b e r s and f a b r i c
types than those t o which they are c u r r e n t l y being applied; however, some f u r t h e r
research and development i s required. Therefore, i f these methods are a c t i v e l y
promoted, i f they are developed f o r widespread a p p l i c a t i o n t o f i b e r s and f a b r i c
types, and i f t e x t i l e manufacturers are provided d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e
b e n e f i t s o f these technologies o r shown demonstrations o f t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n ,
e l e c t r i c i t y can assume an even g r e a t e r r o l e than i t c u r r e n t l y plays.

COMPETING TECHNOLOGIES AND ENERGY SOURCES

I n t e x t i l e processing, t h e q u a n t i t y and temperature o f heat, and t h e method o f

a p p l i c a t i o n v a r y widely. E l e c t r i c i t y and f o s s i l f u e l s compete t o p r o v i d e m i l l s w i t h
t h e heat necessary t o r u n process operations. Cost savings are achieved by
equipment and technologies which guarantee r a p i d and e f f i c i e n t thermal processing
w h i l e ensuring t h e steady a p p l i c a t i o n and maintenance o f c e r t a i n temperatures t h a t
can avoid u n s a t i s f a c t o r y processing. F o s s i l f u e l s dominate processes r e q u i r i n g
e i t h e r d i r e c t - f i r i n g (such as s i n g e i n g ) , o r i n d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f heat ( l i k e
dyeing, d r y i n g , and f i n i s h i n g ) . Coal, n a t u r a l gas, f u e l o i l , o r some combination o f
these a r e used t o f i r e b o i l e r s , which i n t u r n produce h o t water f o r dyeing o r
r i n s i n g and steam f o r d r y i n g and f i n i s h i n g . Table 2-2 shows t h e end uses o f f o s s i l
f u e l s by 3 - d i g i t S I C i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i n 1985.

Some o f these processes a r e being replaced by, o r supplemented w i t h ,

e l e c t r o t e c h n o l ogies such as microwave, i n f r a r e d , r a d i o f requency , membrane separation
processes, i n d u s t r i a l process heat pumps, and heat recovery equipment. However,

2-5
 Table 2 - 2
1985 NON-ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY SPECIFIC TEXTILE PROCESSES
(Trillion Btu)

221 "al ua.vinp 3.0 0.7 0.7 1.8 0.4 7.6 0.6 16.9

222 b m d r F l k r Yewing 4.0 2.6 7.4 5.2 0.8 20.1

223 yo01 UearimlFinishinp 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 1.4 0.2 1.4 0.1 L.5

224 U a r r a fobcis Mi1111 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.1 2.5

225 K n i t t i n g M i l l . 2.0 3.3 16.3 9.6 8.1 1.6 40.7

226 T e x t i l e Finishing 2.1 2.6 4.8 3.216.411.1 11.1 1.6 52.8

227 limp c o v ~ i l n pM i l l s 0.6 0.3 1.4 8.3 8.9 2.8 4.4 1.1 27.7

228 *em i 1hre.d M i l l s 0.8 2.3 1.1 5.9 4.7 0.8 15.6

M Mi.5.Text111 0.4 6.6 b.7 5.7 1.5 18.9

........................................... ~ ...............................................................................
1Ot.l 8.0 7.r h.2 11.4 4.0 16.1 56.6 X.8 4.4 8.2 197.8

=e: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Annual Survey of Manufactures,

1985; U'.S. Dept. of Energy, The U.S. Textile Industry: An Energy
Perspective, March 1988; American Consulting Engineers Counci 1 , Industrial
Market and Energy Manaqement Guide: SIC 22 - Textile Mill Products
Industry; Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

existing fossil-fuel-based method$ have been perfected over the years and have
proven their ability to process textile products satisfactorily, albeit with
considerable amounts of energy use and some heat losses. Textile manufacturers are
accustomed to these production processes and must have some very compelling reasons
to switch production processes.

2-6
I n comparison w i t h e x i s t i n g f o s s i l - f u e l - f i r e d equipment, e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s must
p r o v i d e manufacturers w i t h one o r more o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e n e f i t s :

0 Improved product q u a l i t y

0 Improved manufacturing c o o r d i n a t i o n
0 S i m p l i f i e d o r consolidated process operations

0 Decreased work-in-process time

0 Reduced p o l l u t i o n emissions and waste water treatment requirements

0 Reduced energy c o s t

0 Enhanced p o t e n t i a l f o r new product development

0 Demonstrated wide a p p l i c a b i l i t y (across f i b e r , f a b r i c types, and

processes).
T e x t i l e p r o d u c t i o n processes i n which e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s face competing
technologies are shown i n Table 2-3.

TECHNOLOGY ACQUISITION AND DECISION MAKING

T e x t i l e manufacturers are conservative i n t h e technologies they employ f o r a v a r i e t y

o f reasons. F i r s t , most t e x t i l e manufacturers view t h e i r production methods more as
an a r t than as a science t h a t can be automated. These f i r m s would be more l i k e l y
t o i n v e s t i n computerized systems f o r p r e c i s e c o l o r matching and f a b r i c design than,
f o r example, i n an automated system t o s t r e a m l i n e a f i b e r opening room. Second,
most manufacturing operations r e q u i r e long runs--the process t i m e from t h e f i b e r
formation stage t o f i n a l woven f a b r i c t h a t meets a s p e c i f i c design can be up t o 3
months. Yet, most f i r m s produce against u n c e r t a i n and seasonal sales i n t h e apparel
industry. Many f i r m s r e a c t t o t h i s c y c l i c a l and r e l a t i v e l y unstable nature o f t h e
i n d u s t r y and t h e markets they serve by being very conservative i n production methods
and i n c o s t c o n t r o l . T h i r d , t h i s i n d u s t r y has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been h i g h l y l a b o r
intensive. The n a t u r e o f employee r e l a t i o n s i n t h e i n d u s t r y means t h a t any n o t i o n
o f automation c a r r i e s w i t h i t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e l a b o r content and t h e p o t e n t i a l
o f layoffs. Firms a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e i r employees and are o f t e n
u n w i l l i n g t o openly discuss automation o r any n o t i o n o f r e p l a c i n g t r a i n e d l a b o r w i t h
machinery. Fourth, companies are r e l u c t a n t t o change production methods t o employ
emerging technologies because o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r i s k s associated w i t h w h a t they
consider t o be unproven equipment. For most companies, technologies are proven
through i n - p l a n t i n s t a l l a t i o n s demonstrating success. Few companies w i l l pioneer
what they consider t o be unproven technologies. I n n o v a t i v e companies t h a t do

2-7
i n s t a l l t e s t equipment have h i g h l y p r o p r i e t a r y a t t i t u d e s which hamper t h e i n d u s t r y -
wide adoption o f new technologies.

Table 2-3

SELECTED COMPETING ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

~

PROCESS ELECTRIC TECHNOLOGY COMPETING TECHNOLOGY ~

S1ash ing Radio f requencyl I n frared F o s s i l -Fuel -Fired B o i l e r s

Resistance Heat Gas I n f r a r e d
Electric Boilers Hot Water Heaters

Scouring Heat Pump/Heat Recovery Fossil-Fuel-Fired B o i l e r s

Heat Pump/Thermal Storage Hot Water Heaters
E l e c t r i c Boilers

Washing Heat Pump/Heat Recovery Fossil-Fuel-Fired B o i l e r s

Immersion Heaters Hot Water Heaters

Dyeing Membrane Separation F o s s i l -Fuel -Fired B o i l e r s

Heat Pump/Heat Recovery Hot Water Heaters
Heat Pump/Thermal Storage
U1t r a s o n i c s

Drying Microwave Fossil-Fuel-Fired Ovens

Infrared Gas I n f r a r e d
Radiofrequency Conduction v i a Steam Cans
Resistance Heat
Heat Pump/Thermal Storage

Curing/ U1 t r a v i o l e t Gas Curers (Impinged)

Printing ,Resistance Heat D i r e c t Fossil-Fuel-Fired
Heater

Space Heating Heat Pumps Fossil-Fuel-Fired B o i l e r s

Resistance Heating D i r e c t Fossi 1-Fuel - F i red Heaters
Heat Pump/Heat Recovery Gas I n f r a r e d
Electric Infrared

Note: Thermal storage systems may u t i l i z e f o s s i l f u e l o r e l e c t r i c energy sources o r

may use a combination o f them.

Risk aversion and reluctance t o i n v e s t i s r e i n f o r c e d by t h e c y c l i c a l and u n c e r t a i n -

nature o f t h e t e x t i l e industry. Capital costs associated w i t h new equipment a l s o
hamper technology a c q u i s i t i o n . Most major machines are produced overseas so f o r e i g n
exchange r a t e s can f o r c e U. S. f i r m s purchasing equipment abroad t o pay more f o r
~

equipment than do some f o r e i g n competitors. Today, i t i s mainly l a r g e companies

operating i n t e g r a t e d m i l l s t h a t are able t o finance t h e l a r g e c a p i t a l expenditures

2-a
r e q u i r e d t o modernize p l a n t s w i t h new technologies. For example, Dan R i v e r Inc. has
spent more than $150 m i l l i o n on new equipment s i n c e 1980, and T u l t e x Corp. budgeted
$100 m i l l i o n f o r a 3-year modernization program beginning i n 1988. Such
expenditures a r e beyond t h e resources o f smaller, independent companies s p e c i a l i z i n g
i n c o n t r a c t work f o r l a r g e r m i l l s . Many t e x t i l e m i l l s f a l l i n t o t h e l a t t e r category
and cannot a f f o r d l a r g e investment expenditures.

I n c r e a s i n g emphasis i s now being placed on new technology o p t i o n s as a way t o face

t h e competition from f o r e i g n producers. T e x t i l e production i n v o l v e s a s e r i e s o f
m u l t i p l e , r e p e t i t i v e steps. Raw m a t e r i a l and work-in-process are f r e q u e n t l y
t r a n s p o r t e d manually from one u n i t operation t o another. There i s an unmet need t o
coordinate t h e manufacturing processes; t h e r e f o r e , d e s p i t e i t s conservatism, t h e
i n d u s t r y has shown i t s e l f t o be amenable t o proven technologies such as those
designed t o s t r e a m l i n e and speed up operations and d i f f e r e n t i a t e products. Newer,
f a s t e r s p i n n i n g and weaving machines such as s h u t t l e l e s s looms, and open-end
s p i n n i n g equipment can now process yarn a t speeds up t o 600 f e e t p e r minute, more
than double t h e speed o f conventional equipment. I n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , success
depends on t h e a b i l i t y t o g e t h i g h - q u a l i t y products t o market e a r l i e r and a t a lower
c o s t than one's competitor so technologies proven t o increase product q u a l i t y and
reduce c o s t w i l l always be a t t r a c t i v e . Furthermore, U.S. producers a b l e t o reduce
t h e l a b o r content o f operations by i n c r e a s i n g automation could r e a l i z e cost savings.

The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e foregoing t o e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s i s t h a t w h i l e t e x t i l e
customers may be r e l u c t a n t t o purchase unproven equipment and equipment r e q u i r i n g
l a r g e expenditures, they may be r e c e p t i v e t o electrotechnology and DSM options
o f f e r i n g b e n e f i t s such as c o s t s savings, product d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , streamlined
operations, speed and e f f i c i e n c y , improved q u a l i t y , and l a b o r reductions. Textile
companies may a l s o f a v o r modernization s o l u t i o n s i n t h e form o f moderate c a p i t a l
investments i n equipment t h a t can be spread over extended p e r i o d s o f time. I n f r a r e d
dryers, f o r example, f a l l i n t o t h i s category. The challenge f a c i n g e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t i e s i s t o develop DSM programs f o r t e x t i l e customers t h a t w i l l accommodate
u t i l i t y goals and customer needs and c o n s t r a i n t s .

ABILITY TO MODIFY ELECTRICITY USE

A t e x t i l e m i l l ' s a b i l i t y t o modify e l e c t r i c i t y use depends on t h e process category

involved. T y p i c a l l y , wet processing o f f e r s more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r modifying
e l e c t r i c i t y consumption than d r y processing.

2-9
Dry Processing

Dry processing activities take place in the greige mill and involve fiber
processing, and yarn and fabric formation. With the exception of slashing, all dry
processing activities rely on electricity. The ability of firms to switch to
electricity in these processes is limited because most are already electric driven.
Some of the options for modifying electricity use come from increased applications

Adjustable speed drives

High-efficiency motors
HVAC optimization
Automation
Efficient lighting systems
Energy management systems
Process re-scheduling (off-peak production)
Infrared and radiofrequency heating and drying
Industrial heat pumps.
A typical greige mill will have many motors running during a normal work day. High-
efficiency electric motors with adjustable speed drives can help this equipment run
more efficiently, reducing overall electricity costs. HVAC systems are also very
important in greige mills because they must work with the machinery to filter out
the large amounts of debris, lint, and other material generated during production.
Impaired air quality from the collection of cotton dust, for example, may create a
hazard to operators as well as a risk of potentially fouling the machinery.
Opportunities for heat recovery exist for HVAC systems designed to capture waste
heat from machinery and redirect it into the ventilation system, thus eliminating
hot spots.

Increased automation in dry processing may also increase electricity use by applying
computerized systems that move and process materials. The large flow of material
through textile mills make them ideal candidates for automation. Numerous processes
may be linked by the addition of a simple robot or automated carriage. For example,
instead of manually replacing a bobbin from a spinning frame, a computerized
carriage or robot can be programmed to perform this process much more quickly and
cost-effectively. In addition, automation can help reduce labor intensity and
streamline and accelerate operations.

2-10
Wet Processing

The textile firm's ability to modify electricity use is more pronounced in wet
processing applications than in dry. The majority of wet processes dye or finish
spun yarn and woven or knit greige fabric. Also included in this category is a
process called slashing, which takes place prior to fabric or yarn dyeing and/or
finishing and involves the application of liquid chemicals to the yarn to improve
weaving efficiency by strengthening the yarn. As shown in Table 2-3, a variety of
electrotechnologies now compete with conventional fossil-fuel-fired technologies for
slashing, drying, dyeing, and curing. In addition to the alternatives listed under
dry processing, some of the opportunities offered by wet processing include:
0 Increased applications of process heating technologies
--Radiofrequency
--Infrared
--Ultraviolet
0 Increased application of other electrotechnologies
--Membrane separation /filtration techniques
--Industrial process heat pumps/heat recovery systems
--Thermal energy storage
--U1 trasonics
--Process automation.

Installations could include, for example, using industrial process heat pumps and
filtration techniques to recover waste chemicals, and replacing conventional dyeing
and drying processes with electric heating technologies. HVAC opportunities also
exist. Finishing plants require large ventilating systems for the removal o f
vapors, odors, fumes, and other contaminants.

The electrotechnologies that are potentially applicable in both wet and dry
processing can be expensive. A decision to install an RF slasher, for example,
would require a capital investment o f hundreds of thousands of dollars. It could
even run well into millions of dollars, depending on the size of the installed u n i t .
Technically, textile firms are often able to switch to electric-based technologies,
but capital expenditures must be justified by the benefits.

DSM PROGRAM OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

In general, energy costs for the textile industry are relatively low when compared
with the industry's two largest cost components: labor and raw material. However,
electricity accounts for approximately 63 percent of the industry's total energy
bill. Moreover, electricity accounts for 5.9 percent of the total value added in

2-11
the industry compared to 3.2 percent for all manufacturing industries. Additional
comparisons o f the importance of electricity are given in Table 2-4.

Table 2 - 4
1985 TEXTILE INDUSTRY ELECTRICITY COSTS AND INTENSITY

Total Energy Electricity

........................................................................
Total Costs costs Per Total Costs Costs Per
Cost Per Value Dollar of Cost Per value Dollar of
Sector ($Mils) O f Shipnentr Value Added (mils) O f Shipnts Value Added
........................................................................................
Textile
Industry 1,925 3.6% 9.3% 1,214 2.3% 5.m
Process
Icdustries 29,061 3.4% 10.0% 13,176 1.6% 4.6%

A1 1
Manufacturing 59,707 2.6% 6.02 31,595 1.4% 3.2%

=e: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Survey of

Manufactures, 1985.

Opportunities, problems, and constraints for DSM in the textile industry also depend
on the DSM options under consideration and the utility's desired load shape.
Utility load shape objectives vary among regions. In the heavy textile producing
Southeast, utilities have tended to stress load growth and favor DSM plans that
encourage their customers to use more electricity. This emphasis is changing,
however. Conservation and load management are attracting increasing interest in the
.
Southeast. In the Northeast, utilities have generally been more interested in
reducing future capacity requirements. DSM objectives to reduce peak demand and to
conserve energy have therefore been common in the Northeast. A variety of other ,
utility characteristics shape the DSM objectives that utility planners set.
Generally, however, objectives common to utilities with high concentrations o f
textile manufacturing mills can be classified into the four broad categories
described below.

2-12
Load Manaqement

This DSM o p p o r t u n i t y i n v o l v e s achieving load shape changes by reducing peak load

(peak c l i p p i n g ) , b u i l d i n g o f f peak-loads ( v a l l e y f i l l i n g ) , o r moving loads from on-
peak t o o f f - p e a k ( l o a d s h i f t i n g ) . A l l t h r e e methods are t i e d t o t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e
customer t o modify i t s e l e c t r i c i t y consumption l e v e l s , t i m i n g , o r both. The t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y has embraced t h e concept o f load management o n l y i n i t s simplest form. The
i n d u s t r y has m o d i f i e d i t s l i g h t i n g systems, employed t h e use o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y
motor d r i v e s , and made s t r i d e s i n heat recovery systems. Work w i t h e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t i e s has provided t h e i n d u s t r y w i t h p r o f i l e s o f energy usages so t h a t demand
c o n t r o l can be e f f e c t i v e . Where low off-peak r a t e s are o f f e r e d , a s m a l l percentage
o f t h e i n d u s t r y has s h i f t e d load by i n s t a l l i n g thermal storage systems and by
o p e r a t i n g waste treatment f a c i l i t i e s , b a t t e r y chargers, and h i g h l y energy-intensive
operations d u r i n g off-peak hours. During t h e periods where on-peak charges apply,
m i l l s w i l l employ thermal storage systems, maintain p r o d u c t i o n equipment, stop
b a t t e r y charging operations, reduce waste treatment operations, c y c l e loads t h a t do
n o t r e q u i r e constant operation, and slow down a d j u s t a b l e speed motors where
possible. Load reductions r e s u l t i n g from these a c t i o n s may amount t o as much as 20
percent o f t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d p l a n t demand. Automated l o a d c o n t r o l systems are used
t o schedule on-peak l o a d reductions i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h maintenance and p r o d u c t i o n
schedules.

The i n d u s t r y has n o t e l e c t e d t o use a l l o f t h e l o a d management p o t e n t i a l a v a i l a b l e

t o i t f o r optimum energy use. One o f t h e reasons i s t h a t u t i l i t y r a t e s t r u c t u r e s
o f t e n do n o t warrant t h e c a p i t a l expenditures necessary t o make use o f some o f t h e
technologies a v a i l a b l e .

S t r a t e q i c Conservation

This DSM o p t i o n i n v o l v e s reducing t h e t e x t i l e customer's e l e c t r i c i t y use through

conservation measures. L i g h t i n g , weatherization, c o n t r o l s , and t h e use o f h i g h -
e f f i c i e n c y motors a r e examples o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t can achieve t h i s goal. Many
o p p o r t u n i t i e s e x i s t f o r these conservation methods t o be implemented i n t h e t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y . To f u l l y understand a company's operations and t h e energy savings
p o t e n t i a l t h a t e x i s t s , u t i l i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s must work c l o s e l y w i t h t h e i r t e x t i l e
customers, perform thorough a u d i t s , recommend energy saving ideas, help implement
t h e recommendations, and m o n i t o r any changes i n equipment o r p l a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
t h a t a r e brought about as a r e s u l t o f t h e a u d i t .

2-13
Strateqic Load Growth

This DSM strategy involves an increase in electricity sales, mainly through

electrification or the substitution of electricity for end uses previously served by
competing fuels. Increased application of e l e c t r o t e c h n o l o g i e s - - i n f r a r e d , microwave,
ultraviolet, membrane separation, industrial process heat pumps, and automation--
that can be applied in textile manufacturing could result in strategic load growth.
Automation would likely produce moderate increases in electricity use. A fully
automated plant could provide significant new load to utilities if textile plants
are run at high capacity around the clock. Problems and constraints relate to a
lack o f information about the applicability and benefits of these technologies and
the reluctance on the part of many textile companies to try what they consider to be
unproven technologies. Capital constraints may also be a problem.

Flexible Load Shape

This objective involves offering customers options as to the variations in the

quality or reliability of service in exchange for incentives. Programs involved can
be variations of interruptible or curtailable load; concepts of pooled, integrated
energy management systems; or individual customer load control devices offering
service constraints. Special rates or rate discounts for interruptible or
curtailable service are widely available programs.

The textile industry can only be competitive if it operates at maximum utilization

of its capital investment. The most desirable operation would be to operate 24
hours per day and 365 days per year. While this is not possible due to maintenance
requirements, changes in product runs, and labor constraints, the modern textile
plant designs have reduced labor needs and new equipment has reduced the time
required for maintenance. The industry's production load shape is not very flexible
due to its need to run as continuously as possible. However, portions of the plant
loads are flexible; these include the plant's waste treatment, battery charging, air
conditioning and other support facilities.

Interruptible rates are often not acceptable to the textile industry because of the
need for continuous operation. Shut downs and start ups result in costly labor and
maintenance expenses. Moreover, this type of rate is not attractive because the
industry does not have large single loads that may be interrupted. Load reduction
that can be achieved is realized from making selective reductions from support
faci 1 ities.

2-14
 Section 3
DSM PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION

Numerous factors shape a utility's DSM programs, including the economic environment
of the utility and its customers, the utility's generation options and current
capacity, and the industrial sector's technologies and electricity end uses.
Utility demand-side planning and implementation is, of necessity, a highly
integrated process. Designing and implementing a DSM program for the textile
industry should be an integral part of a utility's overall DSM efforts. A DSM
planning framework can be summarized in the following steps:
0 Setting DSM objectives
0 Identifying alternatives for achieving given objectives
0 Evaluation and selection o f suitable programs
0 Program implementation
0 Program monitoring.

The general DSM planning process, industrial sector technologies, and energy end
uses are discussed fully in a number of EPRI publications and summarized here as
they apply to the textile industry. EPRI DSM publications and this Guidebook can be
used together to help utilities design their own textile DSM programs. Among the
relevant EPRI publications are:
0 Battelle Columbus Division. Resource Dvnamics Corooration. Svneraic
Resources Corporation, Env;ro-Managem&t and Reseerch Inc:, bemaid-Side
Management Volume 5: Industrial Markets and Proqrams, Electric Power
Research Institute, Report EPRI EA/EM-3597, Palo Alto, CA, 1988.
0 Resource Dynamics Corporation, Electrotechnology Reference Guide, Revision
-1, Electric Power Research Institute, Report EPRI EM-4527, Palo Alto, CA,
1988.
0 Resource Dynamics Corporation, Battelle Columbus Division, Technical
Assessment Guide, Volume 2 Electricity End-Use: Part 3: Industrial
Electricity Use, EPRI P-4463-SR, 1988.

3-1
Much of the following discussion is based on the first reference (EA/EM-3597 Demand-
Side Management Volume 5: Industrial Markets and Programs). Thus, the reader should
refer to this report if more detailed information is desired.

SETTING DSM OBJECTIVES

The first step in a utility's formal planning process is to establish overall

organizational objectives. These objectives are quite broad and generally include
items such as:
0 Improving financial performance
0 Promoting economic development
0 Meeting customers' need for economical and reliable service
0 Improving customer relations
0 Increasing utility load factor.

While overall organizational objectives are important guidelines for utility long-
range planning, there is a need for a second level of the formal utility planning
process in which a utility's objectives are operationalized to guide utility
management in taking specific actions. It is at this operational or tactical level
that DSM alternatives should be examined and evaluated. For example, an examination
of capital investment requirements may show periods of high investment needs.
Postponing the need for new construction through a DSM program may reduce investment
needs and stabilize the financial future of the utility. Operational objectives are
subsequently translated into desired load shape objectives for the utility.
Although there is an infinite combination of load shape modifications, the six
generic load shape objectives (peak clipping, valley filling, load shifting,
strategic conservation, strategic load growth, and flexible load shape) described at
the end of Section 2 are often used to illustrate the range of possibilities.

IDENTIFICATION OF APPROPRIATE DSM PROGRAMS

Historically, industrial DSM programs have consisted of alternative rates (namely,

time-of-use and interruptible/curtai lable rates) and direct customer contact
programs, including audits and routine plant visits. In recent years, however,
utilities have begun to expand the range of industrial DSM options. Programs such
as engineering assistance, techno1ogy training, vendor assistance, demonstrati on

3-2
p r o j e c t s , s p e c i a l r a t e s , and o t h e r p r o a c t i v e customer programs are becoming more
commonplace.

The i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n i n d u s t r i a l DSM i s b r i n g i n g about changes i n t h e marketing

approaches used by u t i l i t i e s ; t h i s i s t r u e regardless o f whether t h e DSM programs
are d i r e c t e d toward conservation, toward s t r a t e g i c load growth, o r toward one o f t h e
o t h e r load shape o b j e c t i v e s . A t t h e core o f these changes i s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t
u t i l i t i e s must g a i n s i g n i f i c a n t understanding o f t h e i r customers i n o r d e r t o
e f f e c t i v e l y design programs t h a t b e n e f i t both t h e u t i l i t y and t h e customer. Meeting
customer needs i s becoming t h e standard by which u t i l i t y a c t i v i t i e s are measured.
Thus, i d e n t i f y i n g DSM programs f o r t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s an understanding o f
t h e r o l e o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e manufacturing process.

A DSM program can be described i n terms o f f o u r dimensions: (1) a l o a d shape

o b j e c t i v e , (2) an u n d e r l y i n g DSM technology o r process change, (3) a u n i t process o r
end use t o which t h i s technology o r change w i l l apply, and (4) one o r more market
implementation methods t o promote t h e DSM technology o r process change. For
example, a DSM program t o encourage s t r a t e g i c conservation w i t h i n t h e t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y might c o n s i s t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y motors and a d j u s t a b l e
speed d r i v e s t o m a t e r i a l s processing. Market implementation methods f o r such a
program might i n c l u d e an i n c e n t i v e (such as a rebate) and cooperation w i t h t r a d e
a l l i e s (such as equipment vendors).

Section 4 o f t h i s r e p o r t provides d e t a i l s on these f o u r dimensions as they r e l a t e t o

t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . I t i d e n t i f i e s t h e r e l e v a n t load shape o b j e c t i v e s , DSM
technologies/process changes, end uses/unit processes, and market implementation
methods and demonstrates how these f o u r dimensions r e l a t e t o one another.

EVALUATION AND
SELECTION OF DSM PROGRAMS

U t i l i t y DSM programs a r e d e r i v e d from various f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e u t i l i t y and i t s

customers. These f a c t o r s h e l p t h e u t i l i t y s e t c e r t a i n goals f o r which programs are
then formulated. For example, a f t e r examining t h e economic c l i m a t e o f i t s s e r v i c e
t e r r i t o r y and t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r enhanced i n d u s t r i a l development, an e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t y aiming a t s t r a t e g i c l o a d growth o r f l e x i b l e load shape may want t o increase
t h e use o f e l e c t r i c i t y by i n d u s t r i a l customers o r a t t r a c t new i n d u s t r i a l customers
t o t h e region. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e u t i l i t y ' s planners may evaluate i n t e r n a l
generating and o p e r a t i n g f a c t o r s and decide t o s t a b i l i z e e l e c t r i c i t y sales

3-3
o r improve load f a c t o r . Further, a u t i l i t y may look f o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o provide
services t h a t might y i e l d mutual b e n e f i t s t o t h e u t i l i t y and a p a r t i c u l a r group o f
customers. For example, t h e r e may be untapped o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the a p p l i c a t i o n o f
e l e c t r i c heating technologies i n t e x t i l e drying. Promoting electrotechnology
a p p l i c a t i o n s would be appropriate i n t h i s instance.

I n formulating t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l DSM plans, u t i l i t y planners o f t e n proceed through

several steps. These steps can include market segmentation, program assessment, and
plan development. As t h e process unfolds, customer and u t i l i t y considerations are
c o n t i n u a l l y assessed a t an increasing l e v e l o f d e t a i l f o r a decreasing number o f DSM
a l t e r n a t i v e s and customer segments.

Market Segmentation

Market segmentation simply means i d e n t i f y i n g i n d u s t r i a l customer groups t h a t have

similar, distinguishable characteristics. Proper segmentation provides guidance i n
developing c o s t - e f f e c t i v e DSM a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t match program c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o
customer needs.

One approach segments customers based on a s e t o f common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t are

i d e n t i f i a b l e and accessible--e.g., customer S I C code, size, o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n .
This approach i s easy t o implement and makes use o f data o f t e n a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n the
utility. A second approach segments customers based on a set o f common needs o r
benefits--e.g., i n t e r e s t l e v e l i n working w i t h leading edge technology, treatment o f
uncertainty, o r payback c r i t e r i a . This approach i s more d i f f i c u l t t o implement,
because i t r e q u i r e s o f t e n subjective, y e t d e t a i l e d customer information.

I n d u s t r i a l customer needs and b e n e f i t s are o f t e n a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

factors:

0 Customer type (e.g., S I C , f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n , company o r i n d u s t r y growth

r a t e , and age o f process equipment)

0 Customer s i z e (e.g., demand l e v e l , energy consumption, and employment)

0. Technology (e.g., type o f processing equipment used, type o f motor load,

and equipment)

0 End uses (e.g., HVAC, l i g h t i n g , process heating, and m a t e r i a l s handling).

Thus, these f a c t o r s may serve as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n market segmentation.

3-4
The degree of segmentation a utility planner should employ in developing a DSM plan
for the textile industry depends to a large extent on the importance of the industry
to the utility. If the textile industry represents only a small contribution to
total industrial sales, segmenting the industry further may not be prudent.

Proqram Assessment

One of the most critical parts of the DSM program evaluation and selection process
is the assessment of alternative strategies. It is important for utility planners
to determine which DSM alternatives represent the greatest benefits for the utility
and its customers. These benefits are based on the DSM program's market potential,
energy and demand impacts, regulatory acceptance, and cost-effectiveness
considerations.

The overall impact of a DSM program depends to a large extent upon the acceptance of
the program by the customers and the change in the customers' load shapes resulting
from program participation. Customer acceptance is directly influenced by the
magnitude of benefits the program yields to the customers. Programs involving
electrotechnologies, for example, may benefit customers by increasing productivity,
meeting environmental regulations, and reducing production costs.

Increased Productivity. The wide variations in the quantity of thermal energy and
in the temperatures and methods of application in textile processing have a direct
impact on the efficiency of the production process and, therefore, on a firm's
productivity. Textile processes (for example, dyeing and drying) can be time-
consuming and labor intensive. Fabric or floor coverings being dyed or dried have
to be constantly monitored because under-processing is a frequent problem resulting
in dyes that do not adhere properly and over-drying is a problem that causes
shrinkage. Conventional thermal equipment cannot be as precisely controlled as
electric-based equipment. Higher production outputs are possible with reduced
production times and with lower labor inputs.

Meetinq Environmental Regulations. Electrotechnologies can be used, directly and

indirectly, to meet federal, state, and local environmental restrictions placed on
the textile industry. Direct environmental benefits from electrotechnologies appear
to be promising. For example, membrane separation processes allow for recycling and
recovery of useful thermal energy and chemicals used in textile drying and
finishing; thus reducing the amount of hazardous chemicals disposed of by mills.

3-5
Heat exchangers and heat recovery systems perform the same recycling task with
similar advantages. Electricity used in lieu of conventional thermal processes
eliminates or reduces point-source emissions. This indirect benefit can be
substantial if large numbers of conventional thermal energy process are replaced
with electric-based technologies.

Reduction in Production Cost. The reduction in a textile mill's production cost due ~

to an electrotechnology-oriented DSM program is bound to be site-specific and ~~ ~

generalizations can be misleading. Therefore, a starting point in the evaluation

should be to list all the cost items associated with a process under consideration
for electrification. Cost categories for labor, energy, and raw material should be
disaggregated on a before-and-after basis so the impact of an electrotechnology on
cost can be clearly assessed. Thermal energy storage systems may be recommended as
a way of increasing off-peak consumption, thereby reducing demand charges and
overall electricity costs. Heat pumps and high-efficiency electric equipment could
lower electricity demand. RF slashing, for example, reduces the amount o f sizing
wax required and reduces production cost.

In addition to the cost-effectiveness question, utility planners must ask

themselves: how receptive is the textile industry to change, how amenable are
textile manufacturing processes to modification, and what are individual customer
attitudes toward technological change and innovation? In deriving customer
acceptance estimates, planners should factor the conservatism of the industry into
their estimates.

Factors that influence the acceptance of DSM programs include:

Plant size. This indicates the firm's size, ability to afford investment
expenditures, and likelihood of installing advanced equipment.
Plant ownership. Is the plant independently operated or part of a large
company? Autonomy affects the company's decision-making process. In many
cases, independently operated plants determine their own investments. This
can avoid long lead times for decisions to be approved by headquarters. On
the other hand, subsidiaries may have access to more capital through a
parent company.
Investment criteria. This information will help utility planners determine __
whether the financial performance of proposed equipment meets the
customer's criteria.
Age of equipment. This is a good indication of how soon repairs,
retrofits, or plant remodeling may be needed and may affect capital
expenditures for new technologies.

3-6
 Equipment type. Plants already automated and using r e l a t i v e l y modern
equipment may be more w i l l i n g t o t r y new technologies. The l e v e l o f e f f o r t
required t o convince an innovative f i r m t o switch o r modify e l e c t r i c i t y use
may n o t be as high as f o r a more conservative f i r m .

Production processes. These determine e l e c t r i c i t y i n t e n s i t y and w i l l

o
f- t e x t i l e companies t o adopt DSM approaches.

O f equal importance t o customer acceptance, i s the change i n the customer's load

shape r e s u l t i n g from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the DSM program. This change i s t h e r e s u l t o f
changes i n t h e customer's equipment stock and/or changes i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e
equipment. While load shape changes f o r an e n t i r e 24-hour p e r i o d by day type are
d e s i r a b l e f o r more d e t a i l e d program analyses, impacts on peak demand and energy
g e n e r a l l y are s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e more aggregate analysis techniques.

Impacts on peak demand and energy may be developed from engineering estimates o f the
equipment and i t s proposed u t i l i z a t i o n , informed judgment using customer i n s i g h t s ,
and t r a n s f e r o f r e s u l t s from other customers w i t h s i m i l a r equipment o r processes.

Plan Development

The development o f a program plan document i s the f i n a l a c t i v i t y i n t h e DSM

evaluation and s e l e c t i o n step. The program p l a n serves as an o f f i c i a l , w r i t t e n
record o f t h e market segmentation and program assessment work completed by t h e
utility. The p l a n a l s o i d e n t i f i e s the i n d i v i d u a l DSM programs selected and
describes t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t have t o be c a r r i e d out.

The actual s t r u c t u r e and content o f a u t i l i t y ' s DSM plan can vary widely depending
upon t h e complexity o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , l e v e l o f c r e a t i v i t y desired, and t h e general
requirements o f both t h e i n t e r n a l and external environment. As a minimum, the
program plan should include:

Clear statement o f t h e u t i l i t y ' s mission

Specification o f strategic objectives

S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f DSM program goals

Program descriptions, i n c l u d i n g implementation s t r a t e g i e s and a c t i o n items

Program milestones

Proposed monitoring program

Program budget.

3-7
/

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

Program implementation involves bringing a DSM program into the field. Program
implementation includes the many detailed day-to-day decisions that must be made to
realize the goals of the program.
~

Developing, installing, and operating a generating plant takes years of planning, ~

scheduling, analytical modeling, reliability assessment, and strict construction

scheduling. In a similar fashion, the implementation of a DSM program intended to
replace the need for all or part of a generating plant requires an equally rigorous
series of steps. Lack of data, inadequate experience in market assessment and
customer acceptance analyses, interdepartmental coordination, and problem complexity
are among the challenges that must be faced in DSM implementation.

Careful coordination in the implementation of DSM programs is essential. Numerous

utility and non-utility participants must be involved in the successful
implementation of a DSM program.

The implementation phase usually occurs in distinct stages. Due to logistics and
uncertainty over customer acceptance and response, a DSM program can be introduced
gradually. If results from the pilot programs look promising, the utility may
proceed with full-scale implementation and operation.

PROGRAM MONITORING

Supply-side alternatives require extensive performance monitoring, and so do demand-

side alternatives. The ultimate goal of the monitoring program is to identify
deviations from expected performance and to improve both existing and planned
demand-side programs.

While monitoring the installation costs and implementation schedule may, in itself,
be straightforward, measuring the resulting changes in the load shape is
considerably more difficult. Numerous factors outside the demand-side program
affect the customer's energy use level and pattern of use. In the short run,
weather conditions, level of plant output, major equipment changes, and changes in
utilization can have significant impacts on the load shape. With a demand-side
program still in its infancy, these confounding influences may outweigh the impacts
resulting from the program. Nevertheless, it is important to design and carry out
an effective monitoring program.

3-a
 Section 4

DEVELOPING A DSM PLAN FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

This s e c t i o n des ibes how t o develop a t e x t i l e - i n d u s t r y DSM p l a n f o r a u i l i t y

given i t s o v e r a l l DSM o b j e c t i v e s and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i t s t e x t i l e customer
base.

ORGANIZING FOR DSM

Developing a DSM program f o r t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s i n p u t s from u t i l i t y s t a f f

experienced i n engineering, economics, marketing, and o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . The f i r s t
step toward developing a t e x t i l e - i n d u s t r y DSM p l a n might be t h e c r e a t i o n o f a
working group r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n s :

0 S t r a t e g i c planning

0 Commerci a1 I i n d u s t r i a1 marketing

0 Customer s e r v i c e s
0 Market research

0 Load research

0 Load management

0 Finance

0 Communications

0 Rates.

This group, or another one l i k e i t , may already e x i s t t o support ongoing DSM

activities. I n p u t s from s t a f f w i t h experience from on-going a c t i v i t i e s are
i n v a l u a b l e i n designing a DSM p l a n responsive t o t h e u t i l i t y ' s o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s
and a v a i l a b l e resources, and t h e needs o f i t s t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y customers.

The development o f a DSM p l a n may be organized i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s i x steps:

1. I d e n t i f y and c h a r a c t e r i z e t e x t i l e customers

2. Analyze t e x t i l e e l e c t r i c loads and end uses

4-1
 3. Identify applicable DSM technologies and process changes
4. Identify market implementation methods
5. Evaluate and select DSM programs
6. Develop textile-industry DSM program plan.

STEP 1. IDENTIFY AND CHARACTERIZE TEXTILE CUSTOMERS

The size and characteristics of a utility's textile sector are important inputs to
an effective textile-industry DSM plan. Information about textile customers is
available from both internal (within the utility) and external sources. A
systematic approach to collecting information about textile customers ensures that
all sources of information are fully utilized. Utility billing records and call
reports can provide the initial information on textile customers and their
electricity utilization. This information indicates the overall importance of the
textile industry's load in a particular service territory. It can also help in
identifying industry segments (at the 3- or 4-digit SIC level) which are likely to
be of greatest importance to a DSM plan. Hourly demand data, if available, can be
very useful, particularly for utilities pursuing load management objectives.

External sources can be used to supplement internal sources. The focus of external
collection efforts should be on business trends and production processes in those
segments of the textile industry that the utility serves and that are of importance
to the utility.

To the extent possible, the textile sector should be characterized at the 3- or 4 -

digit SIC level. In general, the more detailed the disaggregation the easier it is
to identify and understand individual processes and electricity end uses. However,
information at high levels of detail (e.g., 4-digit SIC) is often hard to obtain and
unreliable. Accordingly, the level of disaggregation selected by a utility will
depend on the types and quality of available data and the importance of the industry
to the utility.

Business Trends

Reviewing regional and national business trends in the textile industry ensures a
broader approach to strategy development and provides a good indication as to the

4-2
competitive status of most of the utility's textile customers. Useful sources of
information on the textile industry include publications such as Southern Textile
News, Textile HiLites, the U.S. Industrial Outlook, and Standard and Poors' Industry
Surveys. Reports in local news media are also useful information sources.
Information on competitive trends can be obtained from economic publications on the
industry such as those issued by the Department of Commerce and by the American
Textile Manufacturers Institute. Examples include: U.S. Global Competitiveness:
The U . S . Textile Mill Industry, Report to the Senate Committee on Finance, December
1987; and the Office of Technology Assessment, The U . S . Textile and Apparel
Industry: A Revolution in Proqress, Washington, D.C., April 1987. The Federal
Reserve Board also produces monthly statistical releases including production
indices for all manufacturing industries. These industrial production indices
provide accurate information about production levels and capacities in the textile
.
i ndustry

Production Processes

Textile production methods determine the end uses and technologies on which DSM
programs should focus. More reliance will necessarily be placed on external
information sources for these types of data. These sources include EPRI
publications, equipment vendors' literature, and most importantly, the textile
companies themselves. Information from the textile companies themselves can be
gathered through telephone or personal interviews of a representative sample o f
customers. Enough about the production processes must be learned to assess the
potential for the adoption of DSM programs. Information that needs to be gathered
includes: process steps used, types of equipment, capacities and utilization,
typical operating schedules, non-electric energy use, and operating problems,
constraints, and trends.

To illustrate the type of information to be collected in this step, Table 4-1

provides a characterization of the textile industry at the national level. It
should be noted that while national data can provide important insights, local data
should be used whenever possible in the design of DSM programs. In many cases
sufficient differences exist within industry segments that make transfers of data
inappropriate.

4-3
 T a b l e 4-1

T E X T I L E INDUSTRY SUMMARY: INDUSTRY SEGMENTS

-
mary Indic

' s 0"x
Indust r y D L _
Segment
Industry
Products
P a
(%Digit SIC) .E
.Y
.E
.Y
i e
E iz-
p g p$ 64
E E c c

21 - cotton r e s . upholstery, and rurgiral

--
2.D
25 2 :
22

Weaving Ibrici
3.9 56

__
2 2 . Manmade Fibe rerr. drapery. upholstery Growth in automotiveand
Weaving berglarl. and automotive indurtrial markets
ibnu More continuous production
3.5 59
More frequent air changes for
product quality
__ Domination byair.jet loam5

23 - Wool Weaving, ianketrand overcoat material Decline in apparel markets

Finishing nd other woolen fabrics Espe~iallyllrongcompetition
1.9 25 '.' from imports
some rpareapacityfor DIM
Small part of textile industry

24- Narrow Fabric ibbonr and bindings

__ .
Growth in woven labei.eiaitic
Mills
2.1 20
.tape. and zipper markets
Decline in other markets
Small part of textile industry

i h ' , bays'. women's. and men's

_-
2 5 - Knitting Mills
ogiery. bathing suits. neckties.
at%knitted underwear and 1.4 16
ightwear,jerieyfabri~r.lace
00dI. glover. mittens. and Numerous m a i l OperatoR
edrpreadr
-
2 6 - Textile
Finishing
nd dyed finished narrow fabrics
1.7 35

-
21 - Floor Covering ugr. carpets. bathmatr. and Growth .ntufted nylon carpet
Mills therfioorcoveringr I a n o o H .a r . e s -
markets
0.7 23
Growth in the use Of open-end
and siviet spinning
__
I.
28. Yarn and arms. rpooied yarnr.and thread Growth in sewing thread and
f ailfibertypes textured nylon markets
Thread Mills
3.8 64
. Most dants have already

29 - Miscellaneous nitation leather. oiitloth, tire

___ 'I modernized
Growthof open-endspinning
Decline of rina rDinninq
Growth in synthetic nonwoven
ord, bonded llber fabrics, braidei felts far automotive. carpet.
Textiles
3rd. feitr, piiiow fillings. pipe andfurniture markets
2.0 39 14
Decline in lace and upholstery
overing. burlap. and other
onwoven fabrics
-
4-4
STEP 2. ANALYZE TEXTILE ELECTRIC LOADS AND END USES

Having generated a general picture of the textile industry through national and
local information, the next step involves generating information on the customer's
electricity uses and end-use processes.

Electricity Use and Load Shape

Information about electricity use at the plant or the 3- or 4-digit SIC level helps
in identifying DSM opportunities. The starting point for this information is the
utility's own records of electricity consumption and billing demand.

The major end use of electricity in textile mills is motor drives used in continuous
operations for materials handling and processing. Numerous (often small) motors are
run at constant speed in most textile applications. Within a specific mill, changes
in production requirements are generally accomplished through adding or subtracting
the number of motor-driven textile machines on-line, adding overtime if necessary,
and varying the number of shifts worked.

In some cases, load profiles may be available at the plant level. This type of
information can be very useful in uncovering DSM opportunities by providing insight
into plant operating practices, such as the number and length of the shifts worked.
In general, historical profiles show that textile loads tend to be relatively flat
during hours of operation. (See Figure 4-1 which shows typical daily load profiles
for all the major textile customers in three different service areas.) Most smaller
mills operate one shift, extending to overtime or two shifts to accommodate
production surges. Large integrated mills tend to be operated continuously,
employing three shifts per day.

Electricity End-Uses

Information on how electricity and fossil energy is used by the textile industry i s
required to target potential DSM programs. For example, certain processes such as
drying or dyeing are quite amenable to the introduction of electrotechnologies while
others such as spinning and weaving/knitting are more amenable to conservation
measures.

4-5
 1.0
Y
m _ _ - - - - _ _ _---
'.
0)
p. -..-.._
0.6 .I;
p - .,,.'"'
,,,.*'

.i ;
-%.
,\. ,
Q
-. .-. : *....*....
./'
-...._
v)
a
U
c 0.6
,-. .d'
...*
M

LC
0

0.4 .3

.r
Q
u
m
.................... .. .I

k 0.2

0.0

Simple Average of - Houston --Georgia ----Consumerr

the Three Utility L&P Power Power
Load Shapes

Figure 4-1. Load Profiles for Textile Mills

In addition, it is essential to have approximate electricity usage by these

processes to derive an estimate of the magnitude of the load that may be influenced
by a DSM program. For example, if the textile industry in the service territory
utilizes primarily dry processes, the opportunities for electricity-based drying
technologies are limited.

Obtaining electricity use by process and end use is typically a difficult task.
To provide the planner with a starting point for these data, Table 4-2 lists
processes/end uses for the textile industry, as well as their percentages of
electricity and fossil energy consumption. Thus, to obtain energy consumption

4-6
estimates by process/end use, t h e planner must m u l t i p l y t h e e n t r i e s i n Table 4 - 2 by
t h e i n d u s t r y segment's e i e c t r i c i t y and f o s s i l energy use. The e l e c t r i c i t y use i s
a v a i l a b l e from customer b i l l i n g data, w h i l e t h e f o s s i l use may be obtained froin t h e
customers o r secondary sources.

It should be noted t h a t Table 4-2 i s based upon t y p i c a l p l a n t s . Because s i g n i f i c a n t

~

v a r i a t i o n s i n p l a n t design and processing equipment e x i s t , c a u t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n

using t h i s information. A d d i t i o n a l information about energy use by u n i t process f o r ~

various t e x t i l e p l a n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s can be obtained from t h e U.S. Department o f

Energy study on t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y energy use(').

STEP 3. IDENTIFY APPLICABLE DSM

TECHNOLOGIES AND PROCESS CHANGES

I d e n t i f y i n g a p p l i c a b l e DSM technologies and process changes t o achieve given load

shape o b j e c t i v e s i s t h e next step. This i d e n t i f i c a t i o n may be approached i n two
d i s t i n c t phases: (1) i d e n t i f y those u n i t processes t h a t a r e most amenable t o given
load shape o b j e c t i v e s , and (2) f o r those u n i t processes i d e n t i f y technology options
a b l e t o achieve t h e desired o b j e c t i v e .

The o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s t r a t e g i c l o a d growth are p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of

processes p r e v i o u s l y served by competing f u e l s . The most opportune processes
i n c l u d e warping/slashing, washing, dyeing, d r y i n g , and f i n i s h i n g . N a t u r a l l y , inost
o f these processes f a l l i n t o t h e wet processing category.

S t r a t e g i c conservation o p p o r t u n i t i e s e x i s t i n wet as w e l l as d r y processing. Solid

o p p o r t u n i t i e s a l s o e x i s t i n p l a n t s e r v i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i g h t i n g and space
conditioning.

Load management o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e t i e d t o t h e a b i l i t y o f customers t o modify

e x i s t i n g loads and/or t i m i n g o f e l e c t r i c i t y consumption. Most o f t h e load
management o p p o r t u n i t i e s e x i s t i n p l a n t services.

F l e x i b l e l o a d shape programs have o n l y l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y .

The major a p p l i c a t i o n areas a r e HVAC, o p e n i n g / b l e n d i n g / p i c k i n g , d r y i n g , and
finishing.

4-8
To provide the planner with a starting point, processes and applicable load shape
objectives and end uses of electricity are listed in Table 4-3. At a glance, this
table highlights the production processes that are generally most amenable to
achieving a stated load shape objective. Descriptions of the unit processes can be
found in Appendix 6; additional process information can be found in the U.S.
Department of Energy study on textile industry energy use(').

Before proceeding to the technology identification step, it is useful to determine

the extent to which the processes are used by the textile industry in the service
territory and the amount of energy involved. Clearly, processes that are used very
little and are not expected to grow should be deleted from further consideration.

The final step i s the identification of technology options to achieve the stated
load shape objectives. Table 4-4 lists the major DSM technologies and process
changes for the textile industry and their general applicability to production
processes. As mentioned before, this table is intended as a starting point only.
Variations in applicability may result due to unique conditions at a customer's
plant.

Additional information about the conservation-related technologies can be found i o

Appendix B and the U.S. Department of Energy study on textile industry use(').
Additional information about the strategic load growth-related technologies can be
found in Appendix D .

STEP 4. IDENTIFY MARKET IMPLEMENTATION METHODS

There are a number of market implementation methods a utility may use to enhance the
market penetration of DSM programs. These methods may be grouped into five inajor
categories:
0 Trade Ally Cooperation
0 Customer Information
0 Direct Customer Contact
0 Direct Incentives
0 Alternative Pricing.

4-9
 4

-
m
x
4

-
r
m

z
0
c
VI
+
W
4
t
m-
VI
c
5
D
P +
< e r
.. 5
m
c
z e
- I
+ w
v
31
0
0
m
VI
VI
m
VI

0
75
m
z
0
c
VI
m
VI

I
Due to the high diversity of the industrial sector, customer needs and benefits
associated with a DSM program may vary by size and type of customer. This may
require different market implementation methods for different customer segments.

Trade Ally Cooperation

A trade ally is defined as any firm, individual, or organization, which has a common
interest with the utility to serve a customer and is in a position to influence the
customer's decision-making process. Trade allies include equipment vendors, trade
associations, and engineering firms. Trade allies can offer utilities
marketing leverage and, potentially, third-party endorsements or program funding.

Customer Information

Customer information through education and advertising provides information about

the DSM option and the benefits it offers. Education-related programs could include
project case studies, technology demonstration projects, technology application and
testing centers, utility or customer staff training seminars, and informational
brochures. An education/advertising program is particularly valuable in generating
interest in and awareness of a technology or a program. As the customer moves
toward a purchase decision, other market implementation methods may become more
appropriate.

Direct Customer Contact

Direct customer contact is the primary market implementation method for industrial
programs. Often an individual customer representative is given direct
responsibility for large industrial accounts. This representative has frequent
contacts with the customer, making him an energy advisor, as well as the contact for
the customer for all utility-related matters. As part of the direct customer
contact effort, utilities often offer audits, engineering assistance, and
feasibility studies.

4-11
 Table 4-4

TEXTILE INDUSTRY SUMMARY: DSM TECHNOLOGIES AND PROCESS CHANGES

Applinbla
Lcad Shape ADDli(ob1e Unit Pro'anar or End Utes
obienivei
 Table 4-4 (Continued)

Il-nnJ
Appllrabls Industry Segments

4-13
Direct Incentives

There are a number of financial incentives available to the utility including l o w

interest loans, no-interest loans, full-interest loans, lease/purchase, rebates,
allowances, and buy-backlshared savings. The purpose of these incentives is to
reduce the purchase cost and thus improve the financial performance of the
investment associated with the DSM alternative. Another form of direct incentive is
~

the use of guarantees or warranties to reduce the customer's perception of risk in ~

making the technology investment.

Alternative Pricing

Rates are becoming increasingly important as an implementation method. Rates have

been credited with producing the largest changes in industrial load shapes for most
utilities. There are a number of rate incentives offered by utilities, including:
time-of-use, interruptib l e/curtai 1 ab1 e, special incentive, stand-by, economic
development, and productivity rates. New rate programs are generally not easily
established, requiring review and approval by the regulatory commission.

Applying Market Implementation Methods

Applying the appropriate market implementation method to a specific technical

alternative requires insights into the technology and the customers'
decision-making process. While it is difficult to generalize the selection of the
appropriate implementation methods, there are a few guidelines.

In programs involving new technologies, customers face considerable uncertainties

with regard to performance and appropriate application. Demonstration projects,
technology application and testing centers, case studies, training seminars,
performance warranties, and trade allies are appropriate methods for reducing such
uncertainty. Customer audits are useful in identifying show case applications.

For programs involving proven technologies, utilities can focus their resources on
qualifying leads and providing financial incentives. Detailed feasibility studies
are needed for those proven technologies with applications and economic assess-
ments that are particularly site-specific or are being implemented for the primary
purpose of taking advantage of alternative pricing programs or load management.

4-14
Another factor influencing implementation methods is sensitivity to cost. Some
programs focus on application areas where electricity is in direct competition with
other fuels or non-electric processes. Here financial incentives such as
promotional rates or rebates are appropriate.

Finally, there is the degree of control the utility has over the program
implementation. In some cases a utility will have only indirect control over
industry or technology trends. For example, the switch to air-jet processing in a
textile mill is influenced by many factors outside the sphere of influence of a
utility. However, utilities may influence technology choices indirectly through
joint advertising programs or by working with engineering firms or trade
associations.

To aid the planner in the selection of appropriate implementation methods,

Table 4-5 lists textile industry DSM alternatives and applicable implementation
methods. Special situations with regard to the customer or the program may warrant
deviation from these general guidelines.

STEP 5 . EVALUATE AND SELECT DSM PROGRAMS

Prior steps in this evaluation process have characterized the textile industry
market segments, the textile industry loads and end-use components, applicable DSM
technology and process changes, and appropriate implementation methods. All of
these elements are necessary dimensions defining a DSM program.

With the above information in hand, it is now possible to combine the elements to
form an appropriate DSM program. This program consists of specific technologies or
actions targeted to specific end uses and implemented through applicable market
implementation techniques. For example, a DSM program could consist of infrared
drying applied to slashing using a performance warranty implementation method. Only
after a program has been sufficiently defined is it possible to perform a meaningful
evaluation.

The assessment of DSM programs may be conducted at various levels of detail starting
with initiative selection, followed by an aggregate analysis, and ending with a
detailed and comprehensive evaluation. Available resources, quality and detail of
available data, and importance of the analysis are factors influencing the detail of
the assessment. In some cases the program benefits to the utility and the customers
are so obvious and clear-cut that little analysis is required to demonstrate this.

4-15
 T a b l e 4-5

T E X T I L E INDUSTRY SUMMARY: DSM MARKET IMPLEMENTATION METHODS

Appli'abie Marb

4-16
In other cases the cost of the program may be sufficiently small as to warrant
incurring program costs without expensive analysis. Finally, there are programs
that require detailed analyses from the customer as well as the utility perspective.
Programs where rebates or special rates are involved typically require sufficient
detail so as to establish the appropriate incentive level.

In conducting the program assessment it is essential that the program be analyzed

from the customers' and the utility perspective. From the customers' perspective
the net benefit of participating in the program is the direct cost associated with
the program less the cost incurred in maintaining status quo. The cost to the
customer generally consists of:
0 Electricity cost
0 Non-electric fuel cost
0 Operating and maintenance cost
0 Investment cost
0 Cost of process inputs
Other costs.

Comparing these costs on a before-and-after-program basis, and adding any direct

incentives or rebates yields the net customer benefit. Programs involving new
technologies may have additional customer benefits that are often difficult to
quantify, such as improved product quality, increased production flexibility, faster
turn-around time, and better manufacturing support and parts availability.

The net benefit to the utility can be calculated in several different ways, but a
common one is use of the utility revenue requirements method. In this method the
utility's costs are the administrative expenses associated with the program. These
include management, marketing, monitoring, analysis, and other similar costs. The
benefits include items such as reductions in investment for generation,
transmission, and distribution equipment and fuel cost savings.

Regardless of the manner in which benefits are calculated or expressed, it is useful

to plot customer benefits against utility benefits as shown in Figure 4-2. Clearly,
programs falling in Quadrant I are the most desirable since they benefit the utility
as well as the customers. However, programs falling into Quadrant I1 may be moved
into the most attractive quadrant if the utility provides incentives such as lower
rates or rebates.

4-17
 TI
Positive
utility
Benefits

I
II

Negative Positive
Customer Benefits

Negative
Utility
Benefits

F i g u r e 4-2. U t i l i t y vs. Customer B e n e f i t s

A p o s i t i v e customer n e t b e n e f i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean customer acceptance.

Knowledge o f a t e x t i l e f i r m ' s decision-making process and d e c i s i o n c r i t e r i a i s
important i n e s t i m a t i n g customer acceptance. T e x t i l e f i r m s have t h e i r own
investment c r i t e r i a such as payback period, n e t present value, o r i n t e r n a l r a t e o f
return. I n some cases investment decisions are made a t t h e p l a n t l e v e l , regardless
o f t h e s i z e o f t h e investment. This s i t u a t i o n i s most l i k e l y i n t h e case o f
smaller, independently-owned m i l l s . I n o t h e r cases, a l l investment proposals and
p l a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s have t o be sent t o a c e n t r a l f i n a n c i a l and engineering
department f o r review and approval. Regardless, DSM programs t h a t do n o t meet
customer investment c r i t e r i a should be e l i m i n a t e d from f u r t h e r consideration.

STEP 6. DEVELOP TEXTILE-INDUSTRY DSM PLAN

The f i n a l s t e p o f t h i s process i s t h e development o f a DSM p l a n f o r t h e t e x t i l e

industry. T h i s p l a n should i n c l u d e a c l e a r statement o f t h e u t i l i t y ' s mission and
s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e s , as w e l l as program-specific i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d i n g general
d e s c r i p t i o n , milestones, monitoring, and budget. To a i d i n p e r i o d i c reviews o f t h e
plan, i t i s u s e f u l t o l i s t major assumptions and data upon which t h e r e s u l t s a r e
predicated.

4-18
Goals f o r t h e DSM programs should be s p e c i f i c and q u a n t i f i e d t o a l l o w m o n i t o r i n g o f
the programs' e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Examples o f w e l l - d e f i n e d goals are:

0 5-percent annual increase i n t e x t i l e e l e c t r i c process h e a t i n g load

0 10-percent r e d u c t i o n p e r u n i t i n e l e c t r i c i t y consumption i n g r e i g e m i l l s
over t h e n e x t 3 years

0 10-percent increase i n t h e number o f i n s t a l l e d radiofrequency u n i t s by

1995

0 Sign up 5 l a r g e s t t e x t i l e m i l l s t o i n t e r r u p t i b l e r a t e schedule.

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e content o f a program plan, a h y p o t h e t i c a l b u t r e a l i s t i c example i s

shown i n F i g u r e 4-3.

REFERENCE

1. Badin, Joseph S. and L o w i t t , Howard E., Energetics, Incorporated, The U.S.

T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An Energy Perspective, U.S. Department o f Energy through i t s
P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Report DOE/RL/01830--T56, Washington, D.C.,
January 1988.

4-19
w: Reduce e l e c t r i c usage through t h e i n s t i l l a t i o n o f adjustable speed d r i v e s i n t h e t e x t i l e industry

Program Objective

S t r a t e g i c Goal: Have 28 UY o f new Adjustable Speed Drives ( M a ) i n s t i l l e d over t h e next f o u r years

T a c t i c a l Goals:

I C o n t a c t l v i s i t t h e EPRI T e x t i l e O f f i c e a t Worth Carolina State U n i v e r s i t y t o o b t a i n l a t e s t sets o f Tech

Commentaries, '28 Questions', case studies, and application, economic, and market reports and t o i d e n t i f y key
industry contacts and equipment w p p l i e r s .

I Acquaint E o ~ ~ e r c i s l l i n d u s t r i customer
al representative3 w i t h t h e operational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ASDs and
t h e i c most appropriate app I i c a t ions.

I Conduct a t l e a s t one saminarlworkshop f o r a r c h i t e c t s and mechanical, e l e c t r i c a l , and i n d u s t r i a l engineers on

appropriate i n s t a l l a t i o n s of MDs.

I Respond t o requests generated by t h e s m i n a r ( s ) f o r possible i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f ASD technology

I Survey and q u a l i f y customers f o r p o t e n t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f ASDs.

I Develop a case study manual o f actual ASD i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e region.

I Develop I mailing l i s t of a r c h i t e c t s and anginears t o receive t h e ASD information i n c l u d i n g case study

l a n u Io.

Program ktiiit i e s

E n l i s t manufacturers o f ASDs t o conduct a workshop f o r u t i l i t y c ~ ~ ~ s r c i r l l i n d u s t rcustomer

isl s e r v i c e representatives an
the use of ASDs. Workshop t o p i c s should include successful applications, performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , advantages and
disadvantages. comparisons w i t h other type3 o f d r i v e s (both AC and DC), and c a r t information, This workshop N i l I serve as
the b a s i s f a r development o f a seminar f o r a r c h i t e c t s and engineers covering t h e use o f ASDs as a source o f conservation.
The r e n i n a r w i l l include lectures, displays o f equipment, and f u n c t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . The emphasis o f the lectures w i l l
be On proper design and econonic f e a s i b i l i t y . E x i s t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s IS we11 I S p o t e n t i a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n the service
area w i l l be h i g h l i g h t e d where possible.

A survey form, t o be conpleted by seminar attendants, w i l l be used t o generate and q u a l i f y leads f o r ASD a p p l i c a t i o n s and
the development o f case s t u d i e s . Leads w i l l be pursued w i t h ASD s u p p l i e r s .

M i Isstoner Time Schedule

-
Month

F i n a l i z e Program 1
Contact MD Manufacturers 2
Conduct In-House Seminar 3
Conduct Ssninar f o r A r c h i t e c t s and Enaineers I
Develop Case Study Manual 6
Develop M a i l i n g L i s t and D i s t r i b u t e Cars Study Manuals 8

Expected Rssults

There are several expected r e s u l t s o f t h i s program. One of these i s an increased knowledge o f AS0 a p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h i n the
a r c h i t e c t and engineering community. This knowledge w i l l increase o p p o r t u n i t i e s for new i n s t a l l a t i o n s of ASDs.

A second r e s u l t f l o w s from t h e follow-up o f t h e seminar survey. This follow-up w i l l promote a closer working r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e attendees and t h e c o ~ i s r c i a I / i n d u P t r i s Icustomer service representatives. With proper follow-up, a d d i t i o n a l
marketing a c t i v i t i e s w i l l have a greater p o t e n t i a l f o r acceptance and success w i t h these t r a d e a l l i e s .

The two r e s u l t s above a m near-term and should lead t o t h e s t r a t e g i c goal. The long-term p o t e n t i a l of t h e program i s t o
increase t h e energy e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t e x t i l e industry.

Monitoring 8nd E n l u r t i o n

I Monitor attendance a t t h e seminar

I Monitor information requests f o r ASDs and case study manual
I Record customer i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f ASDs
I Compare customer energy use and demand before and a f t e r ASDs
I Estimate customer savings 8s a r e s u l t o f ASD i n s t a l l a t i o n s .

Figure 4-3. Illustrative DSM Plan: Strategic Conservation

4-20
 Appendix A
OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section
APPENDIX A
OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY A- 1
The Textile Industry A- 1
Suppliers to the Textile Industry A- 3
Major Markets and End Uses of Textile Mill Products A- 5
Regional Impacts o f Textile Production A- 8
Segmentation and Specialization A-12
Industry Concentration A-13
Competitive Forces and Imports A-14
Cost-Based Competition A-17
Impact o f Competitive Responses A-22
Business and Product Trends A-25

A-iii
 Appendix A

OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The " t e x t i l e complex" i s an i n d u s t r i a l system o f independent e n t e r p r i s e s t i e d

t o g e t h e r by complex business r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s o p h i s t i c a t e d communications
networks. I t c o n s i s t s o f t h e t e x t i l e machinery producers; raw m a t e r i a l producers i n
t h e a g r i c u l t u r e and chemical i n d u s t r i e s ; t e x t i l e m i l l s t h a t produce t e x t i l e yarns,
f a b r i c and f l o o r coverings; apparel and home f u r n i s h i n g s manufacturers; and
i n d u s t r i a l f a b r i c s sectors t h a t use t e x t i l e products.

The f l o w o f i n f o r m a t i o n between t h e f i b e r , t e x t i l e , apparel, and r e t a i l sectors o f

t h e t e x t i l e complex i s c r u c i a l t o t h e e f f i c i e n t operation o f t h e e n t i r e " t e x t i l e
complex" because i t a l l o w s companies t o keep i n v e n t o r i e s low, avoid overstocking o r
stockouts, and ensure t h a t t e x t i l e products are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a t t h e r e t a i l
level.

Figure A - 1 h i g h l i g h t s t h e i n t e r a c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between segments o f t h e " t e x t i l e

complex." As noted p r e v i o u s l y , f o r t h e purpose o f t h i s r e p o r t , t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y
c o n s i s t s o f a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o yarn and f a b r i c formation, as w e l l as dyeing and
f i n i s h i n g o f those yarns and f a b r i c s .

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y ( S I C 22) produces spun yarns, thread, woven and k n i t f a b r i c s ,

and c a r p e t s and rugs. It a l s o produces nonwoven f a b r i c s , t i r e cords, and
miscellaneous t e x t i l e products such as cordage and twine. As shown i n Table A-1,
t h e i n d u s t r y i s d i v i d e d i n t o n i n e 3 - d i g i t S I C code categories, t h e l a r g e s t of
which--in terms o f value o f shipments and employment--are k n i t t i n g , manmade f i b e r ,
f l o o r covering, and y a r n and thread m i l l s .

A-1
 Natural Fiber Manmade Fiber
Producers Producers
SICS 01,02

Furnishings
SICS 26,30,
SICS 22,23.25
31,37.39

Figure A - I . The T e x t i l e Complex

Table A - 1

1985 OVERVIEW OF THE U.S. TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Total Production
SIC Value of Shipments Employees Workers
Code Description (S Millions) (1,000) (1,000)

22 1 Weaving Mills, Cotton 4,025 62 56

222 Weaving Mills, Manmade Fiber 8,402 I IS 100
223 Weaving, Finishing Mills, Wool 932 13 11
224 Narrow Fabric Mills 762 17 14
225 Knitting Mills 11,783 193 165
226 Textile Finishing, Except Wool 5,601 52 43
227 Floor Covering Mills 8,060 48 38
228 Yarn and Thread Mills 8,019 104 94
229 Misc. Textile Goods 5,491 54 43

All SIC 22 53,075 658 565

AII Manufacturing 1,276,013 18,791 12,171
SIC Percentage o f All Manufacturing 4.2 3.5 4.6

=e: U.S. Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, A n n u a l Survey o f

Manufactures, 1985.

A-2
SUPPLIERS TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y uses manmade and n a t u r a l f i b e r s , chemical dyes, and energy

i n p u t s t o manufacture i t s products. Table A-2 shows t h e s u p p l i e r s t o t h e t e x t i l e
industry. F a b r i c , yarn, and thread m i l l s t h a t process wool and c o t t o n f i b e r s have
many manufacturing and a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r s u p p l i e r s . Major s u p p l i e r s t o t h e
h o s i e r y and k n i t goods s e c t o r are dominated by t h e manufacturing s e c t o r because t h i s
t e x t i l e s e c t o r produces goods from s y n t h e t i c f i b e r s made by t h e chemical i n d u s t r y .

Table A-2

1985 SUPPLIERS TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY (PROJECTED)

(Percentage Per D o l l a r o f I n p u t )

Sector

TEXTILE SECTOR Agri. Constr. Mfp. U t i l i t i e s Trde F i n m e Servica Other Total

Fabric. Yarn,
a d thread m i l l s 13 0 R 4 5 2 3 2 100

Flmr coverims 4 0 87 2 2 1 3 1 100

Misc. t e x t i l e
goods 9 0 74 3 3 3 3 4 100

Hosiery and
knit goods 0 0 87 2 2 3 5 1 100

Miss. fabricated
t e x t i l e prod. 0 0 87 2 3 3 3 2 100
. ~~

=e: U . S . Dept. o f Labor, H i s t o r i c a l and Projected Input-Output Tables o f t h e

Economic Growth P r o j e c t : Vol. I,Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s , February
1980.

Table A-3 breaks down s u p p l i e r s from t h e manufacturing sectors i n t o S I C codes. It

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y ' s r e l i a n c e on t h e chemical i n d u s t r y ( S I C 28) f o r
supplies o f raw m a t e r i a l s and shows t h e s u b s t a n t i a l amount o f supplies coming f r o m
within t h e industry. For example, a major i n p u t i n f a b r i c production i s s y n t h e t i c
yarn produced i n , and supplied by, t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y .

A-3
 Table A-3

1985 MANUFACTURING SECTOR SUPPLIERS TO THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY (PROJECTED)

(Percentage Per D o l l a r o f Inputs)

Textile n i l 1 SIC
Industry
category 28 22 23 26 30 Other Total

Fabric, yarn,
and thread m i l l s 44 49 1 1 1 5 loo
Floor coverings 29 65 2 1 2 2 100

Misc. t e x t i l e
goods 61 22 3 2 4 9 100

Hosiery and
k n i t goods 33 60 0 3 0 3 100

Hisc. fabricated
t e x t i l e prod. 2 i 7 6 5 5 6 160

KEY:

SIC 28 . Chemicals a d a l l i e d prcducts

SIC 22 . Textile m i l l prodwts
SIC 23 . Aware1 and other finished t e x t i l e produsts
SIC 26 . P a p r and a l l i e d products
SIC 30 . Rubber and miscellaneous plastics produsts
OTHER:

SIC 20 . Focd and k i d r e d prodwts

SIC 21 . Tobacco preducts
SIC 24 . L h r a d wood p r d u c t s (except furniture)
SIC 25 . Furniture a d fixtures
SIC 27 . Printing, pblishing, a d a l l i e d i d t r i e s
SIC 29 . Petrol- refining a d related products
SIC 31 . Leather and leather products
SIC 32 . Stone, clay, glass, a d c w r e t e produsts
SIC 33 . Prinmry metal industries
SIC 34 . Fabricated m e t a l produsto
SIC 35 . Industrial and c m r c i a l mchinerf
SIC 36 . Electronic a d other e l e c t r i c equipbent
SIC 37 Transportation equipmnt
~

SIC 38 . Measuring, analyzing, and controlling inrtrunnts: photographic,

d i c a l and w c i c a l o h : natchea url clocks
SIC 39 . Miscell- mfacturing i h t r i n

-
Source: U.S. Dept. o f Labor, H i s t o r i c a l and Projected Input-Output Tables o f the
Economic Growth Project: Vol. I,Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s , February
1980.

A-4
MAJOR MARKETS AND END USES OF TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS

T e x t i l e m i l l products are used i n a l l sectors o f t h e U.S. economy. The major buyer

o f t e x t i l e m i l l products i s t h e manufacturing sector, purchasing over 90 percent o f
a l l t e x t i l e m i l l products manufactured i n t h e U.S. W i t h i n t h e manufacturing s e c t o r ,
t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i t s e l f , and t h e apparel, rubber and miscellaneous p l a s t i c s , and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n d u s t r i e s are among t h e l a r g e s t users o f t e x t i l e m i l l products.
About 63 percent o f f l o o r covering products are used i n t e r n a l l y i n t h e f l o o r
covering i n d u s t r y ( S I C 227). Another 29 percent o f f l o o r coverings are used by t h e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n equipment s e c t o r as automotive upholstery. The a g r i c u l t u r e ,
f o r e s t r y , f i s h i n g , and o t h e r sectors o f t h e economy consume o n l y small q u a n t i t i e s o f
t e x t i l e m i l l products. Cordage, twine, f i b e r cable, f i s h i n g n e t s , and rope are
t y p i c a l t e x t i l e products consumed by these sectors. Table A-4 shows major t e x t i l e
product c a t e g o r i e s and t h e main manufacturing sectors f o r which they are produced.

T e x t i l e m i l l products are used domestically i n t h r e e main consumer end uses--home

f u r n i s h i n g s , apparel, and i n d u s t r i a l f a b r i c s . They represent 34, 35, and 3 1
percent, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f a l l t e x t i l e m i l l product end uses. (See F i g u r e A-2.)

Federal and s t a t e laws and consumer preferences p l a c e c e r t a i n requirements on t h e

f i n i s h i n g processes o f t e x t i l e goods manufactured f o r these end-use categories:

Home Furnishings - F i r e Retardant P r o p e r t i e s

Home f u r n i s h i n g s i n c l u d e upholstery, carpets, and draperies. They r e q u i r e

p r o t e c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s such as f i r e r e t a r d a n t s and s t a i n p r o t e c t i o n . Many o f these
q u a l i t i e s are n o t o n l y demanded by consumers b u t are r e q u i r e d t o ensure compliance
w i t h s t a t e laws and l o c a l b u i l d i n g codes.

A-5
 Table A-4
1985 MANUFACTURING SECTOR BUYERS OF TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS (PROJECTED)
(Percentage Per Dollar o f Output)

Textile M i l l SIC
Idustry
Category 20 22 23 25 26 30 31 37 39 Other Total

Fabric, yam,
a d thread m i l l s 0 54 35 3 O 3 1 0 2 2 100

Floor coverings 0 63 2 0 0 0 3 29 0 3 100

Misc. t e x t i l e
goods 0 27 25 7 1 22 6 2 4 6 100

Hosiery and
knit gods 0 44 52 1 0 0 2 0 1 0 100

Hiss. fabricated
t e x t i l e prcd. 5 18 33 7 1 2 7 10 3 13 100

KEY:

S I C 20 . Food and kindred products

SIC 22 . Texfile mill products
S I C 23 . Appsrel and other finished textile p r o h r t s
.
S1C 25 . Furniture and fixtures
SIC 26 . P.PK and a1 1ied produsts
SIC 30 . R u b b s r ard miscellaneous plastics p r o h r t s
SIC 31 . Leather and leather products
SIC 37 . T r a m p r t a t i m quiprent
S I C 39 . Miscellaneous mnufacturing industries

OTHER:
S I C 21 . Tobscco products
SIC 24 . Lunber and u d products (except furniture)
SIC 2 7 . Printing, publishing, and a l l i e d industries
S I C 28 . Chemicals and a l l i e d products
SIC 29 . Petrol- refining and related p r o h r t s
Slt 32 . Stme, clay, glass, and concrete p r o h r t s
S I C 33 . P r i m a r y metal i d u s t r i e s
S I C 34 . Fabricated metal produsts
S I C 35 . I d t r i a l and c n r r r c i a l machinery
SIC 36 . Electronic and other e l e c t r i c q u i
m t
sxc 38 . Measuring, annlyzing, ard controlling instrunents: photographic.
medical and optical seeds: uatchea and clocks

=e: U.S. Dept. o f Labor, Historical and Projected Input-Output Tables o f the
Economic Growth Project: Vol. I, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, February
1980.

A-6
 Figure A-2. End Uses Of Textile Mill Products
-
Source: U.S. Oept. o f Labor, Historical and Projected Input-Output Tables of the
Economic Growth Project: Vol. I , Bureau of Labor Statistics, February
1980.

Industrial Fabrics - Clean Room and Barrier Properties

Textile products are used in the medical, microelectronics, and pharmaceutical

sectors for a variety of purposes. Absorption, electrostatic and fibrous filters,
and fiber-reinforced composites are examples of specialized uses in the industrial
sector. Fabrics with improved particle barriers, low lighting, and antistatic
qualities are especially attractive to the pharmaceutical and microelectronics
sectors. Most specialized uses require a certain level of yarn and fiber chemical
and thermal stability as well as a measure of flame retardancy.

Apparel Fabrics - Protective Qualities

In the apparel sector, the primary emphasis on product quality is aesthetics.

Protective qualities, however, such as weather protection and thermal and chemical
hazard protection for functional clothing (such as uniforms), are also required.
Apparel fabrics also require qualities that offer protection against discoloration
and skin irritation.

A-7
The types of chemical dyes and printing agents, as well as the dyeing and finishing
methods used, can affect the protective qualities required by these three major end
users and significantly impact all aspects of textile manufacturing. Chemical dyes
and treatment have to be applied a t the appropriate stage o f the manufacturing ~

process and i n exact quantities. Manufacturing, production, marketing, and

distribution as well as research and development activities all focus on meeting the
~

requirements of these textile product end uses. Textile manufacturers continually

conduct assessments o f the structure, property, and performance of various fiber and
~

fabric types in order to manufacture products which meet the qualities that their
end users require.

REGIONAL IMPACTS OF TEXTILE PRODUCTION

Textile manufacturing is a highly regionalized activity, concentrated mainly in the

Northeast, Southeast, and Mid-Atlantic regions. North and South Carolina, Georgia,
Virginia, Alabama, Pennsylvania, New York, Tennessee, Massachusetts, and New Jersey
are all major producers. Figure A-3 shows the largest textile producing states.
There is a fair amount o f segmentation in the highly concentrated geographic

Billion $

"
NC GA SC VA AL PA N Y MA TN NJ CA R I T X ME OH K Y IL MS CT AR N H MCRRest
State

Figure A-3. 1985 Textile Industry Shipments by State

A -8
distribution of the textile industry. Tables A-5 and A-6 track textile production
across the country. Table A-5 demonstrates that textile manufacturing is the second
most highly concentrated industry in the U.S. Approximately 80 percent of total
U.S. textile mill shipments originate from the Southeast region, while about
9 percent of shipments originate from the Mid-Atlantic states of New Jersey, New
York, and Pennsylvania. Table A-6 further illustrates the extent of this industry
concentration at the 3-digit SIC level. Wool weaving and finishing mills and narrow
fabric mills are concentrated in New England. This region accounts for 77 percent
and 50 percent, respectively, of shipments in these two textile industry sectors.

Cotton weaving mills are primarily located in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama
followed by Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. New York, New Jersey, North and South
Carolina, and Tennessee have the largest concentrations of knitting mills, with
North Carolina the dominant state. The major states producing nonwoven fabrics are
Alabama, Kentucky, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina.

Textile production dominates the economies of North and South Carolina and Georgia.
Over 1,000textile mills are located in North Carolina alone, employing 24 percent
of the state's manufacturing labor force. (See Table A-7.)

There are over 100 floor covering mills in Georgia, most of them in the city of
Dalton. Despite this heavy concentration in one city, the production of floor
coverings is not as heavily concentrated in the Southeast as the production of other
textiles. In addition to Georgia, major carpet and rug mills are found in
California, Texas, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Tufted carpets account for over
95 percent of the U.S. shipments of floor coverings. Due to the bulky nature o f
tufted carpets, transportation costs are high so floor covering mills are more
widely dispersed in the U . S . than textile mills producing other textile products.

A-9
 Table A-5
1986 REGIONAL MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY
(Percentage of Dollar Value of Shipments)

fwth. Iath Hid Yaw E. YOIth Y. SOuth Y. Y O I t h 10r.1 7Ol.L

sic east Aflantlc LtlantlS Emlard Central Cntral VaSitiS Cmtr.1 MMtnin (I) t m i l i l o n I )

20 13 7 13 3 18 11 15 17 4 100 30e.123
21 (UI 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 o 100 19.071
22 M 2 P 6 1 1 0 1 0 100 55,3'9
23 25 5 29 5 IO 9 12 3 1 100 11,919
26
25
21
27
5
4
'
11
4
3
I1
26
16
9
31
12
6
5
6
2
100
io0
58.158
31,m
26 21 5 14 9 22 10 12 6 1 100 9l,853
27 9 8 27 7 20 6 12 8 3 100 114,57!
28 18 9 18 3 19 20 6 5 1 100 197.0P1
29 2 1 9 0 14 51 18 3 3 100 124.378
30 18 I 13 7 30 9 10 7 1 100 73.381
31 12 3 26 22 15 a 0 13 0 100 ?.eov
12 15 8 16 4 11 11 13 e 4 100 11.27:
33 I1 7 18 4 39 7 7 6 3 100 101,6L7
Y 10 5 14 7 36 8 11 7 2 100 137,976
35 P 6 13 10 29 8 12 10 4 100 20LI.529
34 13 7 15 9 20 9 16 5 4 100 196.2'5
37 8 5 6 4 41 6 17 I1 2 IW 311.625
3d 6 3 33 14 12 6 I6 5 6 100 bl,P10
39 9 2 30 16 18 5 11 5 X 100 27,219

ntg. SX~OV
ihipnntr 326,223 131.617 324,039 129.t42 545.436 2@,454 ZW.06P l(u.808 63.026 ''_ 2,260,315
m (..sim
< m i l l i o n I,

=e: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Annual Survey of Manufactures,

1986.

A-10
 Table A-6

1985 TEXTILE INDUSTRY MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY

( D o l l a r Value o f Shipments)

10t.l Shpnts. Wth. W t h Mid In E. North Y. W t h Y. North

SIC mlllim I ) east Atlantic A t l n t i e Ewlnd Cmfr.1 Central P.sifls Cmtr.1 *Mtain 10c.L

221 4.025 3.954 0 57 0 0 0 14 0 0 4.025

222 11.402 7,4119 0 358 400 0 142 13 0 0 8.402
223 933 130 0 83 719 0 0 0 0 0 933
224 962 193 9 250 481 0 0 30 0 0 962
225 11.7113 7,172 113 3,222 529 2% la9 197 77 0 11.783
226 5,601 4,W 12 596 616 23 0 56 0 0 5,601
227 8.061 6,986 0 352 0 0 0 R2 0 0 8,061
228 8,019 7,312 0 263 303 0 0 141 0 0 8,019
229 5,491 2,5& 97 892 1.029 603 37 201 48 0 5,491

IOTAL 53.276 40,119 229 6,073 4.077 910 362 1,374 125 0 53.276

(Percent of d o l l a r value of shi-tr)

221 4.025 98 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100

222 8.402 89 0 4 5 0 2 0 0 0 100
223 933 14 0 9 77 0 0 0 0 0 100
224 962 20 1 26 50 0 0 3 0 0 100
225 11.7113 61 1 27 4 2 2 2 1 0 100
226 5,601 n O 11 11 0 0 1 0 0 100
227 8,061 87 0 4 0 0 0 9 0 0 100
228 8,019 91 0 3 4 0 0 2 0 0 100
229 5.491 47 2 16 19 11 1 4 1 0 100

lWAL 53,276

Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, Annual Survey o f Manufactures,

1985.

Table A-7

1986 REGIONAL IMPACTS OF TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

T E X T I L E M I L L INOUSTRY ALL MNUFACTWllNG TEXTILE M I L L SHARE OF TOTAL IUNUFACNRES

Shi-ts Enploynent Shi-ts Employment Shi-ts EnQlowt

STATE ( m i l l i o n f) (thousands) (million I) (thousards) (X) (X)

sc 8.406 94 36.098 353 23.3 26.7

CA 11,617 95 65,581 543 17.7 17.4
NC 14.770 194 84,935 803 17.4 24.2
AL 2.756 32 34,009 329 8.1 9.7
VA 3.069 35 46,850 407 6.6 8.6
TN 1.635 21 52,717 467 3.1 4.5

T o t a l SE 42.2TJ 471 320,190 2,901 13.2 16.2

Total us 52.629 676 2,218,507 18,370 2.4 3.7

SE as Z
of us 80.3 69.7 14.4 15.8 .. ..

-
Source: U . S . Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, Annual Survey o f Manufactures,
1986.

A-11
SEGMENTATION AN0 SPECIALIZATION

The textile industry is highly segmented on the basis of fiber content,

manufacturing processes, and product end use:

Fiber Content

Weaving and knitting mills are classified according to whether they process cotton,
wool, or manmade fiber. Manmade fiber mills have grown considerably recently,
accounting for approximately 17 percent of the industry's value of shipments. The
U.S. ranks number one worldwide in consumption of manmade fiber (40 lbs. per capita,
compared with the global average of about 20 lbs.). Demand for textile products
made of natural fibers also increased during the 1980s. This growth has caused a
dramatic rise in the production and shipment of cotton woven and knit goods and
woolen fabrics.

Manufacturinq Process

The textile industry is also segmented according to the manufacturing process

employed. Mills are classified by type of fabric formation process: weaving,
knitting, or nonwoven. There is a high degree of vertical integration in the
weaving mill sector, where about 90 percent of spun yarn is produced for its own use
in woven goods. The level of integration is lower in the knitting sector, mainly
because a large share of knitting yarn goes directly to the apparel industry for the
production o f knit goods--apparel, hats, and gloves.

Product End Use

Textile mill products are also classified according to their end uses. Floor
coverings is one such classification where distinctions are made between tufted
carpets, regular carpets, and rugs. Weaving mills produce broad woven fabric (at
least 12 inches wide) and narrow woven fabrics.

The differences in manufacturing processes, especially fabric formation and -

finishing, account for this fairly high degree of specialization in the textile mill
industry. As shown in Table A-8, the tufted carpet and spun yarn mills
i
segments are
the most highly specialized in the textile industry but there is also a considerable

A-12
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n r a t i o " i n d i c a t e s t h e share o f products shipped by establishments
egree o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n the nonwoven f a b r i c s sector. The "primary productwithin
S I C codes. I n d u s t r i e s w i t h s p e c i a l i z a t i o n r a t i o s o f 100 percent produce o n l y
products w i t h i n t h e i r S I C code, whereas a lower r a t i o i m p l i e s t h a t the i n d u s t r y
produces a v a r i e t y o f products.

Table A-8

RATIOS OF PRIMARY PRODUCT SPECIALIZATION I N

SELECTED TEXTILE MILLS
(Percent)

Industry Sector 1977 1982

Weaving H i l l s , C o t c M 84 84
Ueaving M i l l s , narmede e4 89
Tufted C a r p W R u g S 96 97
Spun Yarn M i l l s 92 93
Nonwoven Fabrics e4 90

=e: U.S. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness: The

U.S. T e x t i l e M i l l Industry, December 1987.

INDUSTRY CONCENTRATION

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y c o n s i s t s o f about 5,300 companies operating over 7,000 m i l l s ,

ranging from h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d t o small, independent plants. Many o f these
companies are small establishments performing s i n g l e operations on a c o n t r a c t basis
f o r other m i l l s . The most common type o f t e x t i l e m i l l i s the greige m i l l , i n which
spinning, k n i t t i n g , and weaving operations are combined t o produce greige
goods--unfinished t e x t i l e products. Concentration v a r i e s from segment t o segment.
The highest concentration r a t i o s are i n the c o t t o n and nonwoven f a b r i c s sectors
where t h e 20 l a r g e s t f i r m s accounted f o r 85 and 77 percent o f the 1982 shipments i n
those sectors, r e s p e c t i v e l y (see Table A-9).

A-13
 Table A-9
SHARE OF TEXTILE SHIPMENTS ACCOUNTED FOR BY 20 LARGEST COMPANIES
(Percent)

I n d s t r y Sector 19TI 1982

......................................................................
Weaving M i l l s , Cotton 79 a5
Weaving M i l l s , M a d e 16 69
Tufted Carptslaugs 59 65
s p v l Yarn M i l l s 51 56
Nowoven Fabrfcs 81 TI

=e: U.S. International Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness: The

U.S. Textile Mill Industry, December 1987.

With the recent spate of mergers and acquisitions, these concentration ratios have
changed considerably. The industry segments with the lowest concentration ratios
are the knitting mills, textile finishing, and yarn and thread mills. Many o f these
are independently-owned operations. As a result, industry concentration in these
sectors has traditionally been very low.

COMPETITIVE FORCES AND IMPORTS

The U . S . textile industry is being forced to adjust to intense international

competition that is eroding the U.S. share of the world textile market and resulting
in the importation of vast quantities of inexpensively produced products. In
addition, increasing domestic competition is threatening profit margins and spurring
an unprecedented wave of mergers and acquisitions within the textile industry.

A-14
Foreign Competition

I n t h e domestic U.S. t e x t i l e market as a whole, t h e share o f imports grew from

s l i g h t l y under 15 percent i n 1975 t o over 37 percent i n 1986. I n t h e apparel and
apparel f a b r i c s sector, t h e import share reached almost 54 percent (Table A-10).

Table A - I O

IMPORT SHARE OF TEXTILE MARKETS

(Percent)

i9n 1974 i9n 1976 i 9 n 1978 1 9 ~ 9 1980 1981 1982 1 9 s 1984 1985 1986

Text i les 17.3 15.6 14.2 17.1 16.4 18.5 15.2 16.8 20.0 21.0 25.2 31.7 33.2 37.5

Apparel and
apparel fabric 27.7 25.2 23.3 28.1 26.6 30.6 25.5 27.8 32.3 32.4 37.9 46.8 48.0 53.8

I d u s t r i a l fabrics
and horns furnishims 5.8 5.1 3.8 4.9 4.9 5.3 4.6 4.7 5.9 6.9 10.7 14.6 16.4 17.9

=e: U.S. O f f i c e o f Technology Assessment, The U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : A

Revolution i n Progress, Washington, D.C., A p r i l 1987.

The U.S. p o s i t i o n i n t h e world t e x t i l e market has weakened, w h i l e t h e pace o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i v e f o r c e s from b o t h developed and developing c o u n t r i e s has
increased. Competition from developed c o u n t r i e s such as Germany and I t a l y i s based
on t h e i r s u p e r i o r technology because most o f t h e recent developments i n t e x t i l e
manufacturing technology have o r i g i n a t e d i n Europe. Many o f t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y gains
achieved i n t h e U.S. t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y were d e r i v e d from equipment imported from
German, Swiss, Japanese, and o t h e r f o r e i g n manufacturers. Competition from
developing o r newly i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea
has a l s o i n t e n s i f i e d . These c o u n t r i e s have combined t h e i r l a b o r c o s t advantage w i t h
t h e b e n e f i t s o f modern technology t o make s u b s t a n t i a l inroads i n t o g l o b a l t e x t i l e
markets. The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i s h i g h l y l a b o r i n t e n s i v e and, t h e r e f o r e , t h i s l a b o r
c o s t advantage can have s u b s t a n t i a l impact.

A-15
Production costs have become a vital competitive tool in the textile mill industry.
High U.S. labor, raw material, and other costs have to be offset by increases in
manufacturing productivity for the industry to remain competitive. Between 1975 and
1985, the textile industry's productivity level grew faster than the average for all
manufacturing. Yet, the comparison of the growth in productivity between North
America and its competitors in Asia and other developing regions shows the need for
additional improvement in the U.S. and Canadian textile mill industries'
productivity (see Table A-11).

Table A-11
INDEX OF PRODUCTION FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
(1980 Production Output = 100)

Rwion 1979 1981 1982 l9Bi 19%

N. Am?ica* 105 98 89 102 , 101

Europe 102 96 93 91 94

Developing Countries 98 101 101 105 107

Asia 96 105 104 114 115

* U.S.A. a r d Canada

=e: U.S. International Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness: The

U.S. Textile Mill Industry, December 1987.

By most measures of industrial competitiveness, the U.S. textile mill industry as a

whole has not been entirely successful in keeping pace with competitive forces.
Despite increases in production, the constant dollar value of U.S. shipments did not
rise during the 1983-1987 period as fast as it did during preceding years. The U.S.
share of the world textile exports a l s o declined, and in terms of production costs,
including raw material, labor, and other costs, foreign producers continued to push
their advantage over the U.S.

A-16
Domestic Competition

Competition at the domestic level has also intensified. In an industry with

traditionally low profit margins and little product differentiation, cost
effectiveness and cost reduction are important strategic weapons. The U . S . textile
mill industry has become very volatile as a result of this domestic competition.
Mergers and acquisitions have increased as companies seek to buy out other
profitable companies. Companies wanting to survive have adopted new manufacturing
processes and implemented quick-response marketing and distribution systems in order
to gain rapid access to their consumer markets. However, companies such as
Burlington, who choose to challenge hostile take-over attempts, may become
financially strapped and not able to make large capital investments in new
technologies.

COST-BASED COMPETITION

Textile firms are concentrating their competitive strategies on cost reduction. Raw
materials and labor, the two largest cost components, are the main targets of these
strategies. However, textile firms have also adopted economic and technological
measures to respond to competitive threats.

Raw Material Costs

The largest cost item in textile production is raw material, mainly cotton and man-
made fibers. Mill consumption of fiber increased from 9.36 billion lbs. in 1982 t o
almost 12 billion lbs. in 1986, a 27 percent increase. The relative size of raw
material costs means that textile companies will examine them first in cost
reduction programs. They look to fiber quality to help them achieve cost reduction
goals.

Fiber quality is a major priority for textile producers because higher quality
fibers result in fewer breakages and less waste. The impact of technology on fiber
quality can be significant. Opening, picking, and blending techniques can be
combined with computerized monitoring to detect and eliminate fibers of inferior
quality, thereby ensuring optimal blends. Good quality fiber can also withstand the
rapid processing speeds that are attainable with advanced spinning and weaving
machinery. If fiber of poor quality is used, and many breakages requiring frequent
stops occur, the cost advantages of newer, faster equipment may be negated.

A-17
Labor Costs

The U.S. is at a relative disadvantage when comparing its labor costs to developing
countries and many other international competitors ( s e e Table A-12). Hourly
compensation rates for textile mill workers in the U . S . have exceeded those of its
competitors, with the exception of Italy, throughout the 1980s. U . S . producers must
compensate for this labor cost disadvantage by increasing labor productivity.

Recently, the textile mill industry has become less labor intensive. Total
employment declined from 765,000 in 1974 to 730,000 in 1987. However, with over 80
percent of its workforce employed in production, it still ranks as the 10th largest
industrial employer. The decline in employment has allowed overall industry labor
costs to remain relatively stable, despite hourly wages for textile mill workers
increasing from $6.31 to $8.81 between 1980 and 1986. As the industry becomes more
automated, firms are stepping up capital expenditures and reducing production labor
costs. As a result, the industry's capital expenditure per production worker
increased from $2,110 per production worker in 1980 to $3,300 in 1985.

Table A-12
HOURLY COMPENSATION RATES FOR TEXTILE PRODUCTION WORKERS
( U . S . Dollars)

country 1980 1982 1981 1986

......................................................................
China HA YA 0.26 0.23
Hang K m g 1.53 1.65 1.59 1.W
Italy 6.96 6.57 6.57 9.19
.]*pan 4.22 4.15 4.68 6.77
Korea 0.81 0.9 1.01 1.09
Taiwan 0.05 1.11 1.41 1.62
United $rates 6.31 7.37 8.21 8.81

=e: U.S. International Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness: The

U.S. Textile Mill Industry, December 1987.

A-18
Economic Measures
In an effort to make textile production more efficient and competitive, textile
manufacturers have also adopted economic measures. Unprofitable and inefficient
mills have been shut down causing the number of textile plants in the U.S. to
decline by 10 percent between 1977 and 1982. Over 350 inefficient textile mills
were closed between 1981 and 1987. In place of some of these plants, new, more
efficient mills that operate technologically sophisticated and less labor-intensive
equipment were opened. Although this trend has slowed recently, old, unprofitable,
and unproductive looms and spindles continue to be eliminated. The Southeast
accounted for more than 90 percent of the looms shut down between 1983 and 1985 (see
Table A-13).

Strategic marketing programs have also been initiated by companies discontinuing

unprofitable product lines and starting inventory monitoring programs. Ordering and
shipping procedures have been streamlined with the help of computerized systems. In
addition, companies are capitalizing on proximity to domestic textile markets to
ensure a quick and flexible response to customers using computerized ordering and
inventory management systems. Objectives of these "quick-response''systems are to:
0 Reduce investment in raw materials and inventories
0 Enhance the accuracy of production scheduling
0 Prevent loss of profits due to surplus inventories or stockouts.

Companies have also followed niche strategies--moving into markets with less labor
intensity and greater growth prospects. The industrial and home furnishings markets
are prime examples of markets with high growth prospects. The big names in textile
manufacturing (Burlington Industries, J.P. Stevens, Collins & Aikman, etc.) have all
pursued these strategies by entering into the upholstery, carpeting, and other
industrial fabrics segments of the textile industry.

A-19
 Table A-13
1983-1985 PERMANENT TEXTILE PLANT CLOSINGS IN THE SOUTHEAST

Nvnber of No. of Spindles

Locatim Locus Shut Doun Eliminated
.........................................................................
South C a r o l i M 9.750 3W.564
North C a r o l i ~ 2.188 266,956
Georgia 2.a2 175.012
Virginia 499 77,060
Alabama 0 56,816

Total 15,039 966.401)

=e: Office of Technology Assessment, The U.S. Textile and Apparel Industry: A
Revolution in Progress, April 1987.

Technological Measures

The textile industry has also employed technological measures as a means of

strengthening its competitive position and productivity. New capital expenditures
increased rapidly after 1974, peaking at $1.9 billion in 1984. These investments
went towards purchases of faster, more-efficient looms like the rapier, air jet, and
other types of shuttleless looms.

The adoption of technological methods, however, has not been as widespread as the
adoption of economic measures. Mill modernization expenses can be high, often
beyond the resources of many of the small, independent mill operators around the
country. As a result, most o f the recent investments in mill modernization have
been restricted to the larger companies. For example, Burlington Industries'
capital expenditures since the early 1980's has amounted to $2 billion.

As shown in Table A-14, capital expenditures in the textile industry followed a more
erratic trend than those for all manufacturing. This may reflect the textile
-
industry's piecemeal investment i n technological measures. Expenditures since 1984
have dropped. However, expenditures will have to continue just to maintain modern

A-20
equipment and t o keep pace w i t h advancements i n technology. This i s evidenced by
t h e f a c t t h a t over 60 percent o f t h e looms s t i l l i n place i n t h e U.S. are o f t h e
s h u t t l e type.

Table A-14

NEW CAPITAL EXPENDITURES I N THE TEXTILE MILL INDUSTRY

($ Millions)

Textile Percent A11 Percent

Year Mill Awal Ilfrg. A w l
PrOducts Growth Idtries Growth

1974 1.060 52.480

1975 8.50 -18.9 53,MO 2.2
1976 980 14.0 58,530 9.1
1977 1.1.90 20.4 67,480 15.3
1978 1,310 11.0 78.580 16.4
1979 1,420 8.4 95.920 22.1
1980 1,540 8.5 112,330 17.1
1981 1.W 7.8 126,540 12.7
1982 1.460 -12.0 120,680 -4.6
1983 1.550 6.2 116,200 -3.7
1984 1.920 23.9 138,820 19.5
1985 1,770 -7.8 153,480 10.6
1986 1,670 -5.6 142,690 -7.0

=e: American T e x t i l e Manufacturers I n s t i t u t e , T e x t i l e H i L i t e s , March 1988.

R e a l i z i n g t h i s , companies such as B u r l i n g t o n I n d u s t r i e s , Springs I n d u s t r i e s , J.P.

Stevens, and West P o i n t Pepperell are i n v e s t i n g i n in-house research and development
programs. Most i n d u s t r y experts agree t h a t technology w i l l continue t o be a d r i v i n g
f o r c e i n t h e i n d u s t r y . As developing countries and other competitors continue t o
increase t h e i r investments i n new technology, U.S. producers w i l l be obliged t o
s t r i v e harder toward maintaining a technological advantage over these competitors.

A-21
IMPACT OF COMPETITIVE RESPONSES

The measures adopted by t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o respond t o competitive pressures

have r e s u l t e d i n s t r u c t u r a l changes t o t e x t i l e manufacturing processes and increased
p r o d u c t i v i t y and modernization rates.

Textile M i l l Integration

Increased dependence on technology i s causing the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o emphasize

l a r g e r , more-integrated operations. As a r e s u l t , small, p r o f i t a b l e companies become
a c q u i s i t i o n t a r g e t s o f companies wishing t o d i v e r s i f y operations. Companies l i k e
Dan River and Cone M i l l s reverted t o p r i v a t e ownership t o p r o t e c t themselves from
being acquired.

I n t e g r a t e d operations are necessary t o streamline the i n d u s t r y ' s expensive and

burdensome m a t e r i a l flow. Major companies l i k e M i l l i k e n , Burlington, and
J.P. Stevens have s t a r t e d operating i n t e g r a t e d m i l l s i n which a l l t e x t i l e processes
are performed, from s t a r t t o f i n i s h . Yarn spinning, weaving, f a b r i c formation, and
dyeing and f i n i s h i n g are a l l performed a t i n t e g r a t e d m i l l s .

Major t e x t i l e producers have a l s o followed forward-integration s t r a t e g i e s by

purchasing apparel companies -- f o r example, West Point Pepperell acquired C l u e t t
Peabody. Backward i n t e g r a t i o n has a l s o taken place, w i t h f a b r i c producers acquiring
i n t e r e s t s i n yarn producing f a c i l i t i e s . The increased use o f manmade f i b e r s i n the
1960s and 1970s caused t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l producers t o be replaced by chemical
manufacturers as major s u p p l i e r s o f raw m a t e r i a l t o t h e t e x t i l e m i l l . Many b i g
chemical companies, such as Celanese, DuPont, and Monsanto, have i n t e r e s t s i n
t e x t i l e companies and support industry-sponsored research i n t o t e x t i l e
manufacturing.

Horizontal i n t e g r a t i o n i s a l s o t a k i n g place w i t h increasing frequency. Mergers and

a c q u i s i t i o n s , r e s t r u c t u r e s , and consolidations have become common. J.P. Stevens
acquired B u r l i n g t o n I n d u s t r i e s ' home f u r n i s h i n g s business before being acquired
i t s e l f by an investment group i n c l u d i n g West Point Pepperell, i n e a r l y 1988.
Burlington, t h e l a r g e s t U.S. t e x t i l e firm, embarked on a r e s t r u c t u r i n g p l a n which
involved t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f u n p r o f i t a b l e businesses t o t a l i n g over $600 m i l l i o n i n
sales and t h e c l o s i n g o f over 74 plants. I n 1986 alone, t h e r e were over 20 mergers
and a c q u i s i t i o n s i n t h e t e x t i l e industry, compared w i t h o n l y 5 f o u r years e a r l i e r .

A-22
Textile Industry Productivity

I n t h e m i d - l 9 7 0 ' s , p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y was lower than t h e n a t i o n a l

average f o r a l l m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . However, s i n c e 1979, changes i n s t r a t e g y
have emphasized r u n n i n g m o r e - e f f i c i e n t t e x t i l e m i l l s and e l i m i n a t i n g i n e f f i c i e n t
ones, t h u s a c c e l e r a t i n g t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y p r o d u c t i v i t y . For many t e x t i l e companies,
economic measures (such as s t r a t e g i c marketing programs and stream1 i n e d i n v e n t o r y
and d i s t r i b u t i o n systems) have improved o v e r a l l p r o d u c t i v i t y . Technological
measures, such as s h u t t l e l e s s looms, open-end s p i n n i n g , and automated p r o d u c t i o n and
m o n i t o r i n g systems, have a l s o improved p r o d u c t i v i t y . As shown i n Table A-15,
between 1976 and 1986 p r o d u c t i v i t y indexes grew a t an annual average r a t e o f 5 . 2
p e r c e n t i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l i n d u s t r y , compared w i t h 2.8 p e r c e n t f o r a l l
manufacturing.

Table A-15

TRENDS I N U.S. TEXTILE INDUSTRY PRODUCTIVITY

( P r o d u c t i v i t y * Indexes -
1977 = 100)

7.w lcxci 1.
Mill
Pr&t.
".
All

1rdmtrln

1976 82.1 97.1

1977 100.0 100.0
1978 W.4 101.5
1979 104.9 101.4
1980 110.2 101.4
1981 113.0 1oJ.6
1 902 122.8 105.9
1 98.3 129.1 112.0
1984 131.0 118.1
1985 121.2 124.2
...................................................................
19M 136.2 128.2
P.rcmc A m 1
A'lwaw Orwch

1976-19M 5.21 2.m

* P r o d u c t i v i t y d e f i n e d i n terms o f o u t p u t p e r p a y r o l l hour.

-
Source: American T e x t i l e Manufacturers I n s t i t u t e , T e x t i l e H i L i t e s , March 1988.

Modernization

D e s p i t e a r i s e i n c a p i t a l expenditures and increases i n p r o d u c t i v i t y and

m o d e r n i z a t i o n r a t e s i n some t e x t i l e s e c t o r s , t h e U.S. l a g s behind some o f i t s key
c o m p e t i t o r s i n t h e r a t e o f modernization, as measured b y t h e r a t i o o f d e l i v e r i e s o f

A-23
new equipment t o i n s t a l l e d capacity. Table A-16 compares modernization r a t e s o f
U.S. companies w i t h those o f o t h e r major t e x t i l e producing countries.

Table A-16

COMPARATIVE RATES OF MODERNIZATION I N SPINNING AND WEAVING, 1985*

(Percent)

cDurty Spiming yewing

ChiM 46.0 0.9

Hmg Kmg M.5 19.0
Italy 98.4 25.1
Japan 14.0 11.3
Korea 41.3 19.8
Taiuan 09.0 22.7
United Stater n.7 17.7

* "Comparative Rates" r e f l e c t t h e r a t i o o f d e l i v e r i e s of new equipment t o i n s t a l l e d

capacity a t t h e end o f 1985.

=e: U.S. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness, The

U.S. T e x t i l e M i l l Industry, December 1987.

The r a t e o f modernization i n t h e United States has been adversely a f f e c t e d by i t s

need t o r e l y on expensive f o r e i g n technology. Exchange r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s account
f o r t h e h i g h c o s t o f imported f o r e i g n t e x t i l e machinery, as a devalued d o l l a r on t h e
world market has caused t h e cost o f imported machinery t o increase. Yet, because
most o f t h e equipment i s manufactured abroad, t e x t i l e producers have l i t t l e choice
-
b u t t o r e l y on imports t o replace o r upgrade equipment. Being able t o t e s t new
~

technologies from t h e i r home countries before worldwide marketing a l s o gives t e x t i l e

-
manufacturers i n technology-producing countries a competitive edge over t h e U.S. As
shown i n Table A-17, t h e import share o f t h e U.S. t e x t i l e machinery i n d u s t r y rose
from 6.9 percent i n 1980 t o 57 percent i n 1986.

A-24
 Table A-17
IMPORT SHARE OF TEXTILE MACHINERY MARKET
(Percent)

-
1960 1970 -
1980 1984 g
& 1986
Import Share 6.9 30.6 43.5 52.9 49.6 57.5

=e: U.S. International Trade Administration, U.S. Global Competitiveness, The

U.S. Textile Mill Industry, December 1987.

Another factor for the low rate of modernization is the textile mill industry's
conservatism, with many manufacturers regarding textile production as an art rather
than a science. The fragmented nature of the industry also explains this
conservatism. The numerous small, independent, single producers are less likely t o
adopt aggressive modernization programs unless their existence is threatened by
integrated mills which no longer need their services. Currently, integrated mills
are run only by the largest companies. They are not yet an industry-wide
phenomenon.

BUSINESS AND PRODUCT TRENDS

Textile mills are heavily dependent on technology to produce quality products. New
equipment for opening and picking can lead to better blends of fibers, new carding
technology can lead to better integration of fibers, and new spinning technologies
can result in better quality yarns. To date, textile mill producers who have
invested in new equipment have reduced production costs and reaped other benefits
including:
0 Reduced labor intensity
0 High unit output at lower input cost
0 Faster drying/finishing times
0 Overall productivity increases.

The U.S. textile industry as a whole will benefit as more domestic companies take
advantage of technological advancements. Textile producers want and need to reduce
manufacturing costs to be able to compete with each other and with foreign
producers. New technologies which accelerate production, reduce waste, and cut

A-25
costs can fill this need. Textile manufacturers also want and need to produce a
better quality textile product. Newer fibers, improved fiber blends, and advanced
and efficient sizing, spinning, weaving, and finishing technologies can be
strategically combined to meet this need. Finally, textile producers need to
further automate textile production. High-efficiency looms and other textile
machinery can function effectively and efficiently if yarn quality and consistency
can be assured. The need for and importance of cost-effective, fool-proof
monitoring systems is high. The high cost of labor will continue to encourage
textile producers to examine computerized methods for monitoring not only product
quality but the flow of material through a mill. The large flow of material through
a mill will also boost interest in robotics. The relatively high cost of labor in
the U.S. means that strategies either to reduce the labor content or to improve
labor productivity will have high payoffs.

A-26
 Appendix 8

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND ENERGY USE

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section

APPENDIX B

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND ENERGY USE 6- 1

U n i t Processes i n Dry Processing 6-8

U n i t Processes i n Wet Processing 6-12
T e x t i l e Production Costs 6-14
T e x t i l e Manufacturing Processes and Technologies 6-17
Energy Consumption i n t h e T e x t i l e Industry 6-19
E l e c t r i c i t y Use i n t h e T e x t i l e Industry 6-25
Energy Consumption by S p e c i f i c Processes 6-30

B-iii
 Appendix E

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND ENERGY USE

T e x t i l e manufacturing takes place i n t h a t p a r t of t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i a l complex

t h a t f a l l s under SIC 22 i n which yarns, f a b r i c , carpets, and rugs are formed, dyed,
and f i n i s h e d . It i n v o l v e s the production o f f i n i s h e d t e x t i l e m a t e r i a l from n a t u r a l
o r manmade f i b e r s . Typical t e x t i l e manufacturing c o n s i s t s o f f i v e b a s i c processes:
yarn formation, f a b r i c formation, f l o o r coverings formation, nonwoven f a b r i c
formation, and f i n i s h i n g . These processes can be categorized i n t o two types o f
processing, d r y and wet. F i g u r e E-1 demonstrates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among the
processes and categories.

Woven or I
Knitted
Fabric
Formation
j

Floor I Finishing/
Yarn
Formation --*
Covering t, Dyeing
Formation ;

Nonwoven I
Fabric I

Formation IE
I

I Dry Processing
(Greige Mills)

Figure E-I. Basic Processes i n T e x t i l e Manufacturing

E-1
These f i v e processes are explained below:

Yarn Formation: Natural o r man-made f i b e r s o r blends are spun i n t o yarn

through v a r i o u s p i c k i n g , combing, and t w i s t i n g processes. Yarn formation
equipment such as p i c k i n g , card, and combing machines gather f i b e r s l o o s e l y
i n t o a c o r d - l i k e form known as s l i v e r s . These s l i v e r s are passed through
drawing frames t o increase alignment, then through a r o v i n g frame t o apply
t w i s t . Basic u n i t operations performed i n t h i s process t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r
energy i n p u t s and process outputs are presented i n Figure 8-2. ~

F a b r i c Formation: F a b r i c formation i n v o l v e s t h e conversion o f y a r n i n t o

f a b r i c . A warping machine winds numerous separate strands o f yarn onto a
beam. A s l a s h i n g machine t r e a t s t h e yarn w i t h a s i z e , which i s a h o t
s o l u t i o n o f s t a r c h , wax, o i l s , and water, t o coat and strengthen t h e yarn
i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r processing. The yarn i s then woven o r k n i t t e d
i n t o grey, o r u n f i n i s h e d , f a b r i c . Basic u n i t operations w i t h t h e i r energy
i n p u t s and process outputs are presented i n F i g u r e 8-3.

F l o o r Coverings Formation: F l o o r coverings are produced e i t h e r by weaving

o r by t u f t i n g , a process where yarn i s attached t o t h e carpet backing
d i r e c t l y . U n i t operations together performed i n t h i s process t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e i r energy i n p u t s and process outputs a r e presented i n F i g u r e B-4.

Nonwoven F a b r i c Formation: I n nonwoven f a b r i c formation, yarns o r f i b e r s

are bound t o g e t h e r u s i n g adhesive chemicals o r heat. Nonwoven f a b r i c s are
m a i n l y used i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l and home-furnishing sectors. Web forming and
bonding are p e c u l i a r operations t o t h i s unique process. U n i t operations
performed i n t h i s process together w i t h t h e i r energy i n p u t s and process
o u t p u t s are presented i n Figure 6-5.

F i n i s h i n g : F i n i s h i n g processes vary w i t h t h e f a b r i c and product end-use;

they i n c l u d e bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, S a n f o r i z i n g , and heat s e t t i n g .
These operations are designed t o impart q u a l i t i e s such a s c o l o r fastness,
f e e l , and p r o t e c t i o n from shrinkage. U n i t operations performed i n t h i s
process t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r energy i n p u t s and process outputs are presented
i n F i g u r e 8-6.

These f i v e b a s i c processes i n v o l v e numerous and sometimes r e p e t i t i v e batch

operations, which can be placed i n t o two broad categories--dry and wet, depending on
whether o r n o t a l i q u i d i s involved.
0 Dry processing: Dry processing o f t e n takes p l a c e i n g r e i g e m i l l s and
i n c l u d e s a l l t h e t e x t i l e processing operations t h a t take place up t o t h e
stage where t h e arn i s spun and t h e woven o r k n i t t e d grey f a b r i c i s formed
(except slashingy, as shown i n Figure B-1. They i n c l u d e opening, blending,
carding, spinning, weaving, and k n i t t i n g .

0 Wet Processing: Wet processing i n v o l v e s t h e m a j o r i t y o f processes t h a t dye

o r f i n i s h t h e spun y a r n o r wovenlknit g r e i g e f a b r i c o r f l o o r covering.
Also i n c l u d e d i n wet processing i s slashing, which t.akes place p r i o r t o
f a b r i c o r yarn dyeing and/or f i n i s h i n g b u t i n v o l v e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
l i q u i d chemicals t o t h e yarn. Some m i l l s are now i n t e g r a t e d . Table B - 1
shows t h e processes i n v o l v e d i n g r e i g e and f i n i s h i n g m i l l s .
 ENERGY ENERGY USE
INPUT (BTUILB.) PRDCESS STEP PROCESS WYPUT KEY

E ELECTRICITY
FIBER G WATURAL E*$
5 STEW
w WASTE

1,200 WENlHG WASTE FIBERS (W)

E BLENOING U P (P)
PICKING

FIBERS (W)
E WINDING SLIVER (P)
CCWBING

MNMADE
FIBER
163
E ORAWING SLIVER (P)

10.000
I SPINNING *-I YARN (P)

(50 WINDING
E SWOLING YARN (P)

20.500
E TEXTURED YARN (P)

1,300
s.w PROCESS WATER (W)
YARN (P)
BLEACHIWG

TO
MAVINGIKNITTING
FLO(X( COVERINGS
m
FINISHED SPUN YARNS

Figure 8-2. Yarn Formation:

Process Flow, Energy Inputs, and Process Outputs
=e: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. Textile Industry: An Energy
Perspective; American Consulting Engi-1, Industrial Market and
Energy Management Guide - SIC 22, The Textile Mill PFoducts Industry, 1985.

B-3
 ENERGY ENERGY USE
INPUT (BTU/LB.) PROCESS STEP PROCESS CUTPUT KEY

E ELECTRICITY
YARN G NATURAL U S
S STEW
H HOT YATER
P PROCESS UJTPUT
u WSTE P R m u c T s
850
E Yarping Yarn (P)

E
- Uoven Fabric (PI
Knitted Fabric (P)

155 si ngei ne Fabric (P)

Heat Loss (U)

1,200 Fabric (P)

H.G > Yashiw Uater (Y)
Heat LOSS (U)

s,n -I 1.350 scwring

Uashing
Fabric (P)
Yater (U)
Heat Loss CY)

s.0 - 3.455
Drying

I
Grey Goods (P)
Heat LOSS CY)

GREY GQaS

Figure 6-3. Fabric Formation:

Process Flow, Energy Inputs, and Process Outputs
m e : U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. Textile Industry: An Energy
Perspective; American Consulting Engineers Council, Industrial Market and
Energy Manaqement Guide - SIC 22, The Textile Mill Products Industry, 1985.

6-4
 EYERGY ENERGY USE
lNWT (BTUILB.) PROCESS STEP PROCESS M P U T KEY

E ELECTRICITY
G NATURAL U S
S STEM
H HOT WATER
P PROCESS OUTPUT
Y WASTE PRCOUCTS
*.m (P)
neat..OL (W)

1.050 c.rpt (P)

Rups (P)

39.000
8tWsq. Yd. ~rosesewater (w)
C.rpt/Rup. (P)

1,000 ~ H l t LO.. CY)

4.000 Wrinkle R-ing Wait. F l b r n CY)
elndOc Trimming Finishd F h r C a r i m (P)
Fluffing

rINlSHEO FLOOP CGVERIYOS

F i g u r e 8-4. F l o o r Coverings:
Process Flow, Energy I n p u t s , and Process Outputs

=e: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An Enerqy

Perspective; American C o n s u l t i n g Engineers Council, I n d u s t r i a l Market and
Enerqy Management Guide -
SIC 22, The T e x t i l e M i l l Products Industry, 1985.

8-5
 ENERGY ENERGY USE
INPUT (BTU/LB.) PROCESS STEP PROCESS WTPUl KEY

E ELECTRICITY
G NATURAL GAS
S STEAM

1,500 Uets (P)

E Waste F i b e r s (W)

2,000
4,550
- Nomoven Fabric (P)
G.E.f Web B o d i n g Waste F i b e r s CY)

3,000 Finished N m o v m Fabric (P)

E.S Heat Loss (W)

FlNlSHED
NOWWENS

F i g u r e B-5. Nonwovens:
Process Flow, Energy I n p u t s , and Process Outputs

=e: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An Energy

Perspective; American C o n s u l t i n g Engineers C o u n c i l , I n d u s t r i a l Market and
Energy Management Guide -
S I C 22, The T e x t i l e M i l l Products I n d u s t r y , 1985.

B-6
 KEY
ENERGY ENERGY USE
INPUT (BTUILB.) PROCESS STEP PROCESS CUTWT E ELECTRICITY
0 NATURAL CAS
s STEW
H HOT WATER

-3-
GREY t m O S P PROCESS CUTPUT

I Y WASTE PROOUCTS

10.700 water (Y)

Dyeing Dyed Fabric (P)
E Heat Loss ( P I

S,E,H - 3,000
Drying
Dyed Fabric (PI
Heat LOSS ( P I

E
I 9.570
Printing Printed Fabric (P)

0.S.H - 5,000
Drying
Dyed/Printed Fabric (P)
Heat LOSS(Yl

DyedIPrinted Fabric (P)

Curing Heat Loss (UI

D y r d / P r i n t e d Fabric ( P I
Heat LOSS(Ul

530 -
3,000 Drying Finished Yoven/Knitted Fabric ( P I
S,G ----.--------,
curing ----------> Heat LOSS CY)

FINISHED WVEW OR KNITTED FABRIC

Figure 6-6. Textile Finishing:

Process Flow, Energy Inputs, and Process Outputs

=e: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. Textile 1ndustr.y: An Ener

Perspective; American Consulting Engineers Council, IndustriapMarket and
Energy Manaqement Guide - SIC 22, The Textile Mill Products Industry, 1985.

6-7
 Table B-1

DRY AND WET PROCESSING MILLS CATEGORIES

Greige M i l l s (Dry Processing) F i n i s h i n g M i l l s (Wet Processing)

0 Yarn Formation 0 Yarn Dyeing

0 Texturizing 0 Fabric Dyeing

--Woven Fabric
0 Fabric Formation - - K n i t Fabric
--Weaving --Floor Coverings
--Knitting
--Nonwoven 0 Printing

0 Tufting 0 Finishing
( f l o o r coverings --Drying
--Heat S e t t i n g
--Curing

U N I T PROCESSES I N DRY PROCESSING

Each o f t h e f i v e basic processes involves a sequence o f numerous u n i t

operations/processes. Operations and t h e i r sequence are a l t e r e d and modified
depending on t h e s p e c i f i c product l i n e and the desired end product, as described
below.

Yarn Formation

Yarns are formed by l o o s e l y gathering n a t u r a l f i b e r s , manmade f i b e r s , o r a blend o f

both i n t o a s t r i n g - l i k e form, drawing them out t o increase f i b e r alignment and
f i n a l l y t w i s t i n g them t o increase strength. Generally, yarn formation processes
i n v o l v e the f o l l o w i n g u n i t operations:

0 Opening, blending, and p i c k i n g

0 Carding

0 Drawing

0 Lap Winding

B-a
 0 Combing

0 Roving

0 Spinning

0 Texturizing.

Openinq, blendinq, and p i c k i n g . Bales o f f i b e r are opened and blended, then they
are beaten, cleaned, and formed i n t o a loose, uniform sheet i n a p i c k e r . The f i b e r s
then go through a c u r d muchine. This machine contains many long rectangular slabs
and c y l i n d e r s covered w i t h f i n e teeth. The f i b e r s pass between t h e slabs and
c y l i n d e r s f o r f u r t h e r cleaning and alignment. They are passed through r o l l e r s t o
form a r o p e - l i k e strand c a l l e d a sZiver. S l i v e r s pass through t h e drawing frume t o
make them p a r a l l e l , and t o improve u n i f o r m i t y .
Some f i b e r blending may take place
a t t h i s stage, as m u l t i p l e strands are combined i n t o a s i n g l e s l i v e r . A t t h i s
stage, drawn s l i v e r s can go d i r e c t l y t o spinning.

Lap windinq and combing. These are optional and seldom-used processes. I n lap
winding, cans o f s l i v e r s are passed from the drawing frame t o the ribbon l a p
machine, where they are doubled and redoubled t o enhance evenness, t o improve f i b e r
p a r a l l e l i s m , and t o optimize t h e blending. These ribbon laps are then f e d i n t o a
comber which uses a s e r i e s o f s t e e l t e e t h t o comb out s h o r t f i b e r s .

%. Roving imparts strength t o the f i b e r s by passing i n d i v i d u a l s l i v e r s between

a s e r i e s o f r o l l e r s ( u s u a l l y t h r e e ) . During t h i s operation t h e s l i v e r s are
compressed, reduced i n diameter, and given a s l i g h t t w i s t .

Spinning. The next operation i n yarn formation i s spinning. Three basic spinning
systems are a v a i l a b l e today: r i n g , open-end, and a i r j e t . Each draws the s l i v e r o r
r o v i n g through a s e r i e s o f r o l l e r s a t varying speeds, t w i s t i n g i t between 10 and 30
t u r n s p e r inch t o form a f i r m , strong yarn. The spun yarn i s then wound onto
bobbins i n readiness f o r t h e next major process--fabric formation. Open-end
spinning e l i m i n a t e s r o v i n g because the powerful open-end machines perform the r o v i n g
and spinning functions simultaneously. A i r j e t spinning, p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r
man-made f i b e r s , does n o t r e q u i r e lapping, combing, o r roving. Therefore, when
these t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced yarn formation processes are used, t h e number o f
conventional u n i t operations i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced. Open-end spinning also
increases t h e production r a t e by about f o u r o r f i v e times t h a t o f t r a d i t i o n a l r i n g
spinning, processes lower grades o f c o t t o n w i t h few breakages, and reduces the
amount o f c o t t o n dust generated because the process i s enclosed.

B-9
Texturizing. The f i n a l operation i n yarn formation i s t e x t o r i z i n g , which i s
necessary o n l y f o r manmade f i b e r s . This operation provides a t e x t u r e and appearance
t o s y n t h e t i c spun yarns so t h a t they resemble n a t u r a l spun yarns and o b t a i n t h e
a d d i t i o n a l d e s i r a b l e bulk. T e x t u r i z i n g includes t o r s i o n a l , edge, and compressional
crimping.

Fabric Formation

Fabric formation processes the spun yarns i n t o f a b r i c s e i t h e r through weaving o r

knitting. However, p r i o r t o weaving o r k n i t t i n g two preparatory operations m u s t be
performed, warping and slashing (or s i z i n g ) .

Warping. A worping machine winds hundreds o f separate strands onto a l a r g e spool

(beam) t o form t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l yarns i n a piece o f f a b r i c .
These yarns are guided
through a reed t h a t separates t h e yarns t o ensure t h a t they stay p a r a l l e l during
weaving. During weaving, warped yarns go through considerable f r i c t i o n and tension
t h a t can r e s u l t i n breakages. Therefore, a p r o t e c t i v e coating i s applied t o the
yarn by passing these beams through a s l o s h i n g machine. I n sZoshing, the yarns are
consolidated i n t o t h e proper number o f warp yarns by the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a s i z e ,
normally s t a r c h o r p o l y v i n y l - a l c o h o l (PVA). The s i z e coats and strengthens the yarn
t o reduce breakage and damage during weaving. The heated yarn passes over hot
pressurized cams f o r d r y i n g and i s wound onto h o t warp beams.

Weaving. I n weoving, the f i l l i n g (cross-wise) yarn i s passed back and f o r t h between

the warp according t o a pre-determined pattern. I n the past, s h u t t l e looms were the
only type o f weaving loom available. A harness would r a i s e and lower a l t e r n a t e warp
yarns t o a l l o w a s h u t t l e c o n t a i n i n g t h e f i l l i n g yarn t o pass through the opening.
Now a v a r i e t y o f complex machinery can produce i n t r i c a t e f a b r i c patterns using up t o
s i x d i f f e r e n t c o l o r s f o r f i l l i n g and operating a t speeds o f up t o 600 f e e t per
minute. The jacquard loom i s t h e most i n t r i c a t e because i t c o n t r o l s i n d i v i d u a l warp
threads separately. The most advanced weaving machinery, however, i s t h e
s h u t t l e l e s s loom. These looms replace t h e s h u t t l e loom, which can be very
cumbersome and cause many breakages. When a s h u t t l e l e s s loom i s used, the f i l l i n g -
i s i n s e r t e d through the warp threads by a i r , water, a r a p i e r , o r a special metal
p r o j e c t i 1e.

K n i t t i n g . K n i t t i n g i s the i n t e r l o o p i n g o f one o r more yarns. As w i t h weaving, s i z e

must f i r s t be applied t o t h e yarn t o strengthen i t i n order t o increase the speed

B-10
and ease w i t h which yarn can be k n i t t e d . K n i t t i n g s t a r t s w i t h rows o f looped
s t i t c h e s . These rows are converted i n t o d i f f e r e n t types o f f a b r i c s t r u c t u r e s
depending on t h e way i n which t h e yarn i s looped through t h e adjacent rows. Two
types o f k n i t t i n g are a v a i l a b l e . Warp knitting feeds warp threads c o l l e c t i v e l y from
a warp beam t o form f a b r i c . Circular knitting passes i n d i v i d u a l yarns through
p r e v i o u s l y formed loops t o form f a b r i c .

Fabrics formed w i t h weaving and k n i t t i n g operations a r e then t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e

f i n i s h i n g step ( i n t h e case o f i n t e g r a t e d p l a n t s ) o r they are shipped t o f i n i s h i n g
m i l l s where they undergo a s e t o f operations designed t o improve t h e i r q u a l i t y and
appearance.

F l o o r Coverinss Formation

The major d i f f e r e n c e s between woven o r k n i t t e d f a b r i c formation and t h e formation o f

f l o o r coverings a r i s e a f t e r t h e yarn i s spun.

Heat S e t t i n g . The f i r s t o p e r a t i o n i n r u g and carpet manufacture i s beat setting,

which i s s i m i l a r t o t h e same preparatory step i n f a b r i c f i n i s h i n g (discussed below).

Tufting. A f t e r beat setting comes tufting, i n which t h e carpet yarn i s attached t o

t h e primary backing m a t e r i a l , a mesh-like piece o f s y n t h e t i c f a b r i c ( u s u a l l y woven
polypropylene) which adds shape and body t o t h e carpet. I n tufting, a b a r c a r r y i n g
a row o f needles s u p p l i e d w i t h y a r n passes t h e needles through t h e backing m a t e r i a l .
The yarns thus placed i n t o t h e backing m a t e r i a l are then looped a t t h e o t h e r s i d e o f
t h e backing m a t e r i a l . The t u f t e d carpet i s then dyed, p r i n t e d , and f i n i s h e d i n much
t h e same way t h a t f a b r i c i s f i n i s h e d . Some o p t i o n a l u n i t operations are c a r r i e d out
a f t e r t h e c a r p e t i s f i n i s h e d . They may i n c l u d e wrinkle removing and face beating.
Secondary backing may be added, u s u a l l y w i t h t h e h e l p o f a t h i n l a y e r o f l a t e x ,
depending on t h e end use.

A f t e r beat setting and tufting, a number o f mechanical operations such as fzuffing,

steuming, and selvedge trimming are performed t o improve t h e appearance o f t h e
carpet.

B-11
Nonwoven Formation

Nonwoven f a b r i c s c o n s i s t o f a sheet o r web o f f i b e r s which are mechanically,

thermally (self-bonding), o r chemically bonded. The two major steps i n these
processes i n v o l v e web formation and web bonding. A f t e r bonding, the f a b r i c u s u a l l y
goes through a d r y i n g step i d e n t i c a l t o drying processes i n woven f a b r i c .

Web Formation. Web formation takes place d i r e c t l y a f t e r t h e f i b e r opening and

blending operations. Patterns i n web formation can be p a r a l l e l , c r o s s - l a i d , o r
random. Generally, cards are used i n p a r a l l e l web patterns, m u l t i p l e lappers are
used f o r c r o s s - l a i d patterns, and a i r streams depositing f i b e r on a r o t a t i n g screen
( a i r - l a i d - t e c h n i q u e s ) are used f o r random patterns.

Web Bonding. Web bonding techniques generally f a l l i n t o one o f three categories:

mechanical, chemical, o r self-bonding. Mechanical web bonding i s accomplished by
needle punching and uses no chemical additives; however, t h e product has l e s s
strength than a chemically bonded nonwoven. S t i t c h bonding i s another mechanical
technique which y i e l d s a product most l i k e k n i t t e d f a b r i c s . Chemical bonding can be
s p l i t up i n t o wet and d r y chemical bonding. Chemical wet bonding uses adhesives.
Chemical d r y bonding uses thermoplastic bonding and e l i m i n a t e s a d r y i n g step. Self-
bonding techniques g e n e r a l l y use e i t h e r a heat system, heat combined w i t h a
pressure-based system, o r a solvent bonding system.

UNIT PROCESSES I N WET PROCESSING

Wet processing operations are c o l l e c t i v e l y known as f i n i s h i n g . Dyeing and f i n i s h i n g

m i l l s are known as wet processing m i l l s because they i n v o l v e many liquid-based
operations. The basic types o f operations i n any f i n i s h i n g process are scouring,
bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, washing, p r i n t i n g , curing, heat s e t t i n g , and
finishing. Many o f these u n i t processes are followed by a d r y i n g step.

Finishing
-
finishing transforms k n i t o r woven greige goods i n t o a f i n i s h e d f a b r i c , o r spun yarn
i n t o dyed yarn. Process flows vary w i t h t h e type and q u a l i t y o f end product ~

desired. As a r e s u l t , t h e r e are many d i f f e r e n t f i n i s h i n g operations. Finer f a b r i c s

may go through numerous sequential operations. The f i n i s h i n g operations are c a r r i e d
out i n f i n i s h i n g m i l l s .

6-12
Scourinq, Bleachinq, and Mercerizing. P r i o r t o dyeing, t h e greige f a b r i c must be
scoured, bleached, and/or mercerized. Scouring and bleoching use enzyme baths which
improve whiteness and absorbency. These operations enhance subsequent dye f i x a t i o n .
Mercerizing s l o w l y t r e a t s t h e yarn under tension w i t h c a u s t i c soda t o improve
strength, l u s t e r , and d y e a b i l i t y .

Heat S e t t i n g , Singeing, and Sizinq. Optional f i n i s h i n g processes i n c l u d e heat-

s e t t i n g , t o preserve t h e dimensional s t a b i l i t y o f the f a b r i c so t h a t the numerous
thermal processes t o f o l l o w do n o t cause shrinkage. Some f a b r i c s may have a few
p r o t r u d i n g h a i r s on the surface, t h e r e f o r e singeing may be required. Desizing
removes t h e chemicals applied during slashing.

Dyeina. I n dyeing, the bleached f a b r i c o r yarn i s passed through a chemical

s o l u t i o n t o absorb a desired c o l o r . Variations a r i s e n o t o n l y i n t h e number and
sequences o f processes followed b u t a l s o i n the techniques applied. Dyeing
processes and washing may be continuous, semicontinuous, o r batch. Batch dyeing can
take place i n atmospheric o r pressure-jet machines. Continuous dyeing i s done on a
continuous dye range using a pad/squeeze machine. Squeeze r o l l e r s squeeze out the
moisture. Continuous dyeing permits d y e s t u f f and hot water conservation as w e l l a5
reduction i n d r y i n g time.

Printing. P r i n t i n g techniques are s i m i l a r t o those i n paper p r i n t i n g , and i n v o l v e

e i t h e r f l a t screen processes, continuous r o t a r y screen processes, o r r o l l e r
printing. The type o f p r i n t i n g agent used determines t h e energy r e q u i r e d t o
complete t h e process.

Drying and Curing. F i n a l f i n i s h i n g operations mainly i n v o l v e drying and curing. At

t h i s stage also, chemicals t h a t impart c e r t a i n desired q u a l i t i e s are added. These
i n c l u d e a n t i s t a t i c s , softeners, s t a i n protectors, and f i r e retardants. Mechanical
f i n i s h i n g methods may a l s o be applied. These methods improve f a b r i c hand ( f e e l ) or
a l t e r the surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . For example, sonforizing shrinks t h e f a b r i c ,
napping r a i s e s h a i r y o r downy surfaces, and creosing adds f o l d s t o the f a b r i c
according t o a predetermined pattern.

The f i n i s h i n g operations apply f o r woven f a b r i c s .

Variations o f these f i n i s h i n g
operations are used i n k n i t t i n g , f l o o r covering, and nonwoven f a b r i c s .

B-13
TEXTILE PRODUCTION COSTS

Production c o s t s i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , as i n a l l o t h e r manufacturing s e c t o r s ,
c o n s i s t o f l a b o r , raw m a t e r i a l , energy, and o t h e r c o s t s such as t h e c o s t o f
f i n a n c i a l and insurance s e r v i c e s , c a p i t a l charges, and non-production supplies. The
aspects o f p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s t h a t are unique t o t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y r e l a t e t o t h e
breakdown between these costs. Across a l l 3 - d i g i t t e x t i l e S I C c a t e g o r i e s , r a w
m a t e r i a l costs account f o r 40-70 percent o f t h e average c o s t p e r d o l l a r o f output,
averaging about 60 percent, as shown i n Table 8-2.

Table 8-2
TEXTILE INDUSTRY AVERAGE COSTS PER DOLLAR OF OUTPUT BY
COST CATEGORY AND 3-DIGIT S I C , 1985

221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 22

Lator Costs 27.3 25.8 26.6 29.7 26.3 18.7 11.9 21.6 21.3 22.2
Material 57.7 58.7 56.8 39.5 51.8 62.3 69.0 65.3 58.3 59.6
Electricity 3.9 3.5 1.9 2.1 1.4 1.7 0.7 3.8 2.0 2.3
Fossil Fuel 1.3 0.9 1.7 0.9 1.2 3.4 1.2 0.7 1.2 1.3
Ocher 9.7 11.1 12.9 27.8 19.3 13.9 17.1 8.6 17.2 14.6
...... ...... ....._...... .....-..._--.-
...... ...... ...... ...._.
........._.........
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

valve of Shipments 4,025 8.402 933 962 11,783 5,M)l 8,061 8,019 5.L91 53,276
( M i l l i o n DoLlars)

-
Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, Annual Survey o f Manufactures,
1985.

Raw m a t e r i a l s c o n s i s t mostly o f f i b e r o r y a r n s t a p l e . I n f i n i s h i n g p l a n t s , chemical

dyes are a l s o a major raw m a t e r i a l . The f l o o r coverings i n d u s t r y i s the t e x t i l e
s e c t o r whose raw m a t e r i a l s c o s t captures t h e l a r g e s t share (69 percent) o f a d o l l a r
o f output. Labor c o s t s average about 22 percent per d o l l a r o f output i n t h e t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y , b u t i s as h i g h as 29.7 percent i n narrow f a b r i c m i l l s (where considerable

B-14
detailed work is required to produce specialty items such as laces, beltings,
ribbons, and bindings) and as low as 11.9 percent in SIC 227. Fossil energy cost
averages about 1.3 percent but, as is to be expected, is higher in the textile
finishing sector (SIC 226) than in the others. Spinning and weaving mills are the
most electricity intensive. In these mills (SICS 221, 222, and 228) electricity
costs are 3.9 percent, 3.5 percent, and 3.8 percent, respectively. Electricity
costs per dollar of output in the textile industry as a whole averages about 2.3
percent.

Textile mill competitive strategies now rely heavily on the reduction of production
costs. The ability to control each cost element is crucial to cost reduction
efforts. The textile industry tries hard to reduce both its labor intensity and its
labor costs. Table B-3 shows the high labor content of textile production.
Production labor costs are about 14 cents per dollar of textile industry output,
exceeding the non-production labor costs by about 10 cents per dollar of output.
The textile industry sectors with the highest production costs per dollar of output
are the cotton weaving (SIC 221) and narrow woven fabric (SIC 224) industries. This
labor intensity is due mainly to the extensive fiber preparation work required prior
to weaving. Table B-3 shows that production workers put in 27 and 28 hours per
$1,000 of output in these two industries, compared with the average of 20.7 hours
for the textile industry as a whole. Tables 8-2 and 8-3 highlight the need to
reduce the labor intensity and to automate some of the fiber opening room processes
so vital to ensuring fiber and product quality.

B-15
 Table E-3

TEXTILE INDUSTRY U N I T LABOR COST BY TYPE, 1985

SIC 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 22? 22

Employees Per M i l l i o n D o l l a r s Outpt

Production 13.9 11.9 12.0 15.0 14.0 7.7 4.7 11.7 7.9 10.6
Nom-Production 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.6 2.3 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.9 1.7
Total 15.4 13.7 14.0 17.6 16.4 9.3 6.0 13.0 9.9 12.4

Labor Costs Per I O u t p t

Payroll
Production 19.7 17.3 16.6 18.0 16.6 11.6 6.9 15.1 12.0 14.3
Non-Production 3.3 4.5 5.3 7.1 5.7 4.2 3.3 3.2 5.4 4.4
ratat 23.0 21.8 21.9 25.2 22.3 15.8 10.3 18.3 17.3 18.7
social S e c u r i t y b P a y r o l l Taxes 2.2 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.1 1.5 0.9 1.7 1.7 1.8
Benefits 2.2 1.9 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.4 0.8 1.6 2.3 1.7
r o t a l Labor Costs 27.3 25.8 26.6 29.7 26.3 18.7 11.9 21.6 21.3 22.2

Production Labor
HoursllOOO I Output 27.0 23.5 24.5 28.3 26.6 15.6 9.7 22.6 15.5 20.7
CosttHWr 8.7s 8.80 8.35 7.58 7.41 8.89 0.33 7.92 9.58 8.25
COStlS cutpt 23.6 20.7 20.4 21.4 19.7 13.8 8.1 17.9 14.9 17.1

-
Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, Annual Survey o f Manufactures,
1985.
O f a l l cost items i n t e x t i l e production, e l e c t r i c i t y costs are o f t e n perceived as
t h e l e a s t c o n t r o l l a b l e . Raw m a t e r i a l costs can be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
r e l i a b l e s u p p l i e r s and good q u a l i t y f i b e r s . Poor q u a l i t y f i b e r s reduce weaving and
other t e x t i l e production e f f i c i e n c i e s . F o s s i l energy costs can a l s o be c o n t r o l l e d
by c a r e f u l planning, such as spot market purchases and cost. E l e c t r i c r a t e s , by
c o n t r a s t , are s e t by t h e u t i l i t y and.customers cannot switch between u t i l i t i e s . I n
addition, since e l e c t r i c i t y costs account f o r a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f the average t e x t i l e
m i l l ' s energy costs (generally over 60 percent), t e x t i l e m i l l s have i n c e n t i v e s t o
improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f electric-based processes and technologies.

TEXTILE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Basic t e x t i l e manufacturing methods have been used f o r decades. Textile mills s t i l l

use t h e same basic process t o convert f i b e r s t o yarn, weave o r k n i t t h e yarn i n t o
f a b r i c , and f i n i s h these f a b r i c s i n preparation f o r market. However, recent
challenges posed by f o r e i g n manufacturers coupled w i t h the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s t a t e -
o f - t h e - a r t equipment have l e d an increasing number o f t e x t i l e manufacturers t o adopt
new technologies. Generally, i n i t s modernization move, t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i s
r e l y i n g on equipment manufacturers f o r technological advances, w h i l e p l a y i n g a
passive r o l e i n production-oriented research and development.

Many technologies have demonstrated t h e i r t e c h n i c a l f l e x i b i l i t y i n actual m i l l

environments, such as commercial o r l a r g e p i l o t plants. These new technologies,
which we d e f i n e as " s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t " technologies and processes, reduce the number
o f process steps, promote energy and resource conservation, and improve t h e o v e r a l l
e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e production process. An o v e r r i d i n g goal o f these technologies,
however, i s t o improve product q u a l i t y and accelerate t h e manufacturing process i n
both d r y and wet processing.

Dry Processinq

I n d r y processes t h e new technologies are d i r e c t e d toward product q u a l i t y

improvement and t h e reduction o f production time. Energy conservation e f f o r t s are
l i m i t e d and have u s u a l l y concentrated on improving the design and s i z i n g o f e l e c t r i c
motors, u t i l i z i n g v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l l e r s and adjustable speed d r i v e s , and
reducing heating and a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g loads. Table 8-4 presents a summary o f s t a t e -
o f - t h e - a r t technologies a p p l i c a b l e t o the d r y processing u n i t operations described
e a r l i e r , t h e i r energy sources, and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l impacts on energy consumption.

6-17
The assessment o f t h e i r impact on energy consumption i s performed from t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r energy savings, since improving energy e f f i c i e n c y
i s a major concern i n a l l manufacturing now.

Table 8-4

STATE-OF-THE-ART TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGIES--DRY PROCESSING

OPERATION TECHNOLOGY

General New i n s t a l t a t i o n of high-ef f i c i ency E Moderate

mDt0rs
Inproving pauer f a c t o r E Lou
U t i l i z i n g v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l s E Moderate
Synthetic lubricants E Low
I ~ automation ~ ~ ~ Es Lou ~
comprter m n i t o r i n g E Lou

Spinning Opn.erd r p i n n i g E Moderate

A i w j e t spinning E LOW

Texturizing Air-texturizing E Low

Slashing High pressure squeeze E LOU

Size recovery E LOU
Foam slashing E High
solvent slashing G.E High

warping cmbina warping and slashing i n t o G,E LOU

one operation

Ueaving Rapier E Moderate

Air-jet E LOU
uater-jar E High
Projectile E Moderate

Knitting m e m a t i c k n i t t i n g u i t h o u t needles E LOU

Tufting Comprterized Yarn Placement (CYP) E LOW

loam using a hollow needle concept

KEY KEY
._.. .._.
E = ELECTRICITY LOW : below 25% savings
G = GIs noderate: 25.50% savings
High : above 50% w v i n g s

"Savings" refers to the decrease in

energy use asbociateu with
substituting [ h e new technology
or manufacturing approach for
the competing conventional
technology or approach.

m e : U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e Industry: An Enerqy

Perspective, March 1985; and Resource Dynamics Corporation.

8-18
Wet Processing

Wet processes i n v o l v e l a r g e amounts o f thermal energy ( u s u a l l y supplied by f o s s i l

f u e l s ) consumed mainly i n d r y i n g operations. Thermal energy losses are very common
i n wet processing, which i s very energy intensive. S t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t technologies
developed f o r these processes o f t e n i n v o l v e t h e r e d u c t i o n o f energy consumption and
t h e replacement o f fossil-energy-based technologies w i t h electric-based technologies
(electrotechnologies). Table E-5 presents a summary o f the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t
technologies, t h e i r energy sources, and t h e i r impacts on energy consumption.

Advanced Technoloqies

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e established s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t technologies a p p l i c a b l e t o both dry

and wet processing, some promising advanced technologies (used i n other i n d u s t r i e s )
are a t o r near t h e commercialization stage i n t h e manufacture o f t e x t i l e s . Others
are being developed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t e x t i l e manufacturing i n l a b s e t t i n g s and
research centers around t h e country. An example o f these technologies i s t h e e f f o r t
t o design an i n t e g r a t e d system where the f a b r i c i s d r i e d o n l y once, r a t h e r than t h e
three t o f o u r times c u r r e n t l y used. This w i l l r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l energy, space,
and m a t e r i a l savings. Table E-6 presents a summary o f these advanced technologies,
t h e i r energy sources, and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l impacts on energy consumption.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION I N THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y consumed 286.1 t r i l l i o n Btu o f energy i n 1985, making i t t h e

eleventh l a r g e s t i n d u s t r i a l energy consumer i n the U.S. This f i g u r e represents a
s l i g h t d e c l i n e over t h e 1980 consumption l e v e l o f 295 t r i l l i o n E t u , mainly as a
r e s u l t o f energy conservation measures adopted by the i n d u s t r y during t h e e a r l y
1980s. As shown i n Table E-7, t h i s reduction i n consumption i s mainly a t t r i b u t e d t o
t h e 4.3 percent (from 207 t r i l l i o n Btu i n 1980 t o 198 t r i l l i o n Btu i n 1985) d e c l i n e
i n consumption o f purchased f u e l s . T h i s i s compared w i t h a less than one percent
d e c l i n e i n e l e c t r i c i t y consumption.

Energy i n t e n s i t y i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , as measured by the r a t i o o f energy costs

t o value o f shipments o r value added, i s r e l a t i v e l y high when compared w i t h the
average f o r a l l manufacturing. Table E-8 compares energy i n t e n s i t y i n the t e x t i l e

B-19
 Table 6-5

STATE-OF-THE-ART TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGIES--WET PROCESSING

I nigh
t Wish
E "ish

L a : tela zsz .."ins*

m&r.te: zs.m w i n o s
nib : .bonsm-iwi
"Savings" refers to the decrease in
e w r g y US. aaaociatd with
substituting the new technolow
or manufacturing approach for
the c-tinq conventional
technology or approach.

-
Source: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An Energy
Perspective, March 1985; and Resource Dynamics Corporation.

6-20
 Table 6-6

ADVANCED TEXTILE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES

OIERAIIDY IECWYOLDGT ENERGY I*PLcI 01 C N U C I

fMcE my-1101

YE? PROCESSIWO

G.E H l g h
G nigh

6.E l!zdor.t.

c wnt.
1106.1.t.

E nfsh

L Mder.1.

E Md.r.te

E Hlgh
E nigh
E nigh
e
E High

E Wlgh
E nlgh

LOU

E LW
C.E Hlgh

.... ....
El
E * LLEClRICiTI Lw : k l w ZSX ~ ~ 1 4 .
e = us *odK.t,: 2 5 - M I 3.W
i .
MI* : , w e sox wiw.

~swingsrefer^ to tbc decreecc in

energy uae MSociAtd with
aubatituting the new technolopy
or unufacturing approach for
the ccarmtina conventional
technoligy oi Approach.

=e: U.S. Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e Industry: An Energy

Perspective, March 1985; and Resource Dynamics Corporation.

8-21
 Table B-7

TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION I N THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

1980 26,123 89.1 207.1 94.9 112.2 294.9

1981 25,921 88.4 205.0 95.4 109.6 292.3
1982 2 4 240
~ 82.7 179.1 82.2 97.5 262.4
1983 26,786 91.4 197.2 80.4 116.8 288.6
1984 27,039 92.3 190.9 80.4 110.5 283.2
1985 25,887 88.3 197.8 67.7 130.1 286.1

-
Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f Census, Annual Survey o f Manufactures;
American Gas Association, Future Gas Consumption i n t h e U n i t e d States,
v a r i o u s volumes; Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

Table 8-8

1985 TEXTILE INDUSTRY ENERGY COSTS AND ENERGY INTENSITY

Total E n e r w
__________________.____________
.._---___________.___._
Electricity

rota1 cats Costs Per Total costs costs Per

Cost Per Value D o l l a r of Cost Per vaLw D o l l a r of
Sector ($Mils> O f Shipments Value A&ed ($Mils) Of Shipnents Value Added
_______.__._..__..__--.------------...------------
Textile
Industry 1,925 3.6% 9.3% 1,214 2.3% 5.9%

Process
Industries 29,061 3.4% 10.0% 13,176 1.6% 4.6%

All
Manufacturing 59,M7 2.6% 6.0% 31,595 1.1% 3.2%

-
Source: U.S. Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, Annual Survey o f
Manufactures, 1985.

8-22
i n d u s t r y t o t h e energy i n t e n s i t y i n t h e process and a l l manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s .
The t a b l e shows t h a t a t 9.3 percent, 1985 energy costs p e r d o l l a r o f value added i s
higher than t h e n a t i o n a l average o f 6 percent f o r a l l manufacturing b u t s l i g h t l y
lower than t h e average f o r t h e process i n d u s t r i e s (10 percent).

I n 1985, t h e c o s t o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y was 5.9 percent o f t h e

i n d u s t r y ' s value added by manufacture, almost t w i c e t h e n a t i o n a l average o f t h e
manufacturing sector. E l e c t r i c i t y i n t e n s i t y i s higher than t h e average f o r t h e
process i n d u s t r i e s , perhaps a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y ' s lower r e l i a n c e on
self-generated e l e c t r i c i t y t h a t i s so common t o process i n d u s t r i e s l i k e t h e
petroleum, p u l p and paper, and chemical i n d u s t r i e s . The i n t e n s i t y a l s o demonstrates
t h e importance o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n most t e x t i l e manufacturing processes.

When examining t h e t r e n d i n t o t a l energy i n t e n s i t y ( f o r both purchased f u e l s and

e l e c t r i c i t y ) between 1980 and 1985, i t can be seen from Table E-9 t h a t t o t a l energy
i n t e n s i t y increased from 3.2 percent o f value o f shipments i n 1980 t o 3.6 percent i n
1985. This change i n t o t a l energy i n t e n s i t y i s a t t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e almost 30
percent r i s e i n t h e e l e c t r i c i t y i n t e n s i t y compared w i t h t h e 7 percent d e c l i n e i n
f o s s i l energy i n t e n s i t y . During t h e same period, t h e c o s t o f e l e c t r i c i t y increased
a t a much f a s t e r r a t e (45 percent) than t h e c o s t o f purchased f u e l s (10 percent).
This f u r t h e r e x p l a i n s t h e d e c i s i v e impact o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t e n s i t y on t o t a l energy
intensity .
Despite t h e increase i n energy i n t e n s i t y , energy p r o d u c t i v i t y trends improved
between 1975 and 1985 (as shown i n Table E-10). I n t h a t ten-year period, energy
consumption per pound o f f i b e r went from 29,930 Etu t o 25,739 Etu. This t r e n d
i n d i c a t e s t h a t widespread energy conservation e f f o r t s i n t h i s i n d u s t r y are achieving
t h e i r goal o f processing more f i b e r w i t h reduced energy i n p u t .

6-23
 Table 6-9

ENERGY INTENSITY I N THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

1980 1985

Cost Cost/$ ship. Cost/$ val. Cost C o s t l t ship. Costlt v a l .

Energy Source (nil. 5) (XI .dded (74 (nil. f ) (X) d e d (7.)

Electrical 840.2 1.8 4.4 1,214.2 2.3 5.9

Purchased Fuels 647.5 1.4 3.4 710.6 1.3 3.4

Total 1.487.7 3.2 7.8 1.924.8 3.6 9.3

-
Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, Annual Survey o f
Manufactures, 1980 and 1985.

Table 6-10

ENERGY PRODUCTIVITY TRENDS I N TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Total Mill Energy

Energy Fiber Use Per
Used Consumption l b of Fiber
Year ( T r i l . Btu) ( M i l . lbs.) (Bt4
___-__---__-____________________________-----------------------
1975 307.1 10,260.6 29.930
1976 328.6 11.189.9 29,366
1977 339.2 11,s15.2 29 457
I

1978 326.6 11,650.8 28,032

1979 314.9 11,891.1 26,482
1980 294.9 11,223.3 26,276
1982 262.4 9,378.8 27,978
1983 288.6 11,122.4 25,948
1984 283.2 10.824.3 26,163
1985 286.1 11.115.5 25,739

=e: U.S. Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, Annual Survey o f

Manufactures; American T e x t i l e Manufacturers I n s t i t u t e , T e x t i l e H i L i t e s ,
March 1988.

6-24
ELECTRICITY USE I N THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

E l e c t r i c i t y consumption represents about 31 percent o f t h e i n d u s t r y ' s t o t a l energy

use, making e l e c t r i c i t y t h e l a r g e s t energy supply source i n t h i s i n d u s t r y (Figure B-
7).

The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y consumed about 28.5 b i l l i o n kWh i n 1987. More than 98 percent

o f the e l e c t r i c i t y consumed was purchased. Only a small share o f e l e c t r i c i t y was
self-generated. Cogeneration i s a t e c h n i c a l l y v i a b l e o p t i o n f o r meeting some o f the
i n d u s t r y ' s e l e c t r i c needs, due t o the l a r g e amounts o f process steam r e q u i r e d f o r
d r y i n g and f i n i s h i n g , the existence o f waste products ( f i b e r s t h a t can be
i n c i n e r a t e d ) , and t h e presence o f waste heat. However, many t e x t i l e p l a n t s are
small establishments which may not be able t o a f f o r d t h e c a p i t a l investment required
t o cogenerdte. Table B-11 shows e l e c t r i c i t y consumption patterns i n t h e t e x t i l e
i n d u s t r y between 1980 and 1987. Both self-generated and purchased e l e c t r i c i t y
consumption increased about 9 percent between 1980 and 1987. Manmade f i b e r weaving
( S I C 222) and yarn and thread m i l l s (SIC 228) are t h e l a r g e s t e l e c t r i c i t y consumers
i n t h e t e x t i l e industry. The combined e l e c t r i c i t y consumption f o r the two
i n d u s t r i e s amounted t o 14.8 b i l l i o n kWh i n 1987, o r 52 percent o f t h e t o t a l
e l e c t r i c i t y use i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . These two i n d u s t r i e s should be targeted by
u t i l i t i e s f o r t h e promotion o f electrotechnologies t h a t improve e f f i c i e n c y ' because
they stand t o g a i n t h e most from e f f i c i e n t use o f e l e c t r i c i t y .

End-Uses o f E l e c t r i c i t y

The main end uses o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l i n d u s t r y are motor d r i v e ,

l i g h t i n g , and process heat. As shown i n Figure 8-8, motor d r i v e accounts f o r 83
percent o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y consumed i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l industry. L i g h t i n g i s the
next l a r g e s t e l e c t r i c i t y consumer, w i t h process heating a p p l i c a t i o n s representing
o n l y about 2 percent.

Motor d r i v e e l e c t r i c i t y use i s broken down i n t o m a t e r i a l s processing (45 percent),

m a t e r i a l s handling (35 percent), and pumps, fans, and compressors (about 20
percent). MuteriuZs-processing equipment performs t h e separating, combing, and
other materials-processing steps t h a t are c a r r i e d out during spinning and weaving.
Opening and card machinery, which use t h e i r s t e e l f i n g e r s f o r plucking and combing,
and spinning machinery, which t w i s t s and separates f i b e r s , are materials-processing
equipment.

8-25
 Coal
10%

Figure 6-7. 1985 T e x t i l e Energy Use (286.1 T r i l l i o n Btu)

-
Source: U.S. Deoartment o f Commerce. Bureau o f t h e Census. 1985 Annual Survev o f
Manufactures; American Gas Association, Future Ga; Consumption i n t h e
United States, Vol. 13, 1986; U.S. Department o f Energy, Energy Information
Administration, Manufacture Energy Consumption Survey: Consumption o f
Energy, 1985, November, 1988; and Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

Table 6-11

ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION I N THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

( M i l l i o n kWh)

SIC ln&strY 1 980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 19% 1-7
.............................. ............................... ..........
..........
...........................
221 cotton uc.vir4 4.758 c.470 3,515 3,796 3.609 3,507 3.bb7 3.794
222 M a m d e r i h r Ycavinp 6.4% 6.671 6.41111 r.wr 7.127 6.791 6.904 7.23L
223 Yo01 UeavinglFlnirhln 323 339 298 298 336 514 350 564
224 Y ~ W W h b d c Niilr 460 b54 317 265 329 341 347 561
225 Knltting M i l k 3.326 3.138 2,918 3,356 3.156 3,055 3.190 3.350
226 Textile Finishing 1.5M 1.649 1.891 2,167 2.055 1.975 2.076 2,201
227 Floor Covering Mills 1.005 1.010 989 9s 1.164 1.091 1.200 1.319
228 Yam C Thread M i l l s 6.275 6.258 5.977 6.800 7.140 6,619 7.156 7.596
229 Wise. lextile 1,898 1,953 1,847 2.012 2,123 2.w 2.165 2.295
.......................................................................................................
TOTAL 26.123 25.922 24.240 2 6. m 27.039 25.11117 27.034 28.562
SELF.GEWERATE0 ELECTR 392 542 553 383 W9 562 406 b28
PURCHASED ELECTRICITY 25,751 25,580 23.887 26.603 26.600 25.525 26.628 28.134

Source: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Ann , various issues;

Board o f Governors o f t h e F serve S t a t i s t i c a l
Releases, 1986 and 1987; Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

6-26
 Total Electricity Use
-
1985 25.9 Billion kwh

......................

2%

Electric Motor D r l w Apdbationt Electrle Process Heat Applcatlonr

-
1985 11.3 BlPbn kWh -
IS86 .6 Blllon LWh

Figure E-8. 1985 Textile Industry Electricity End Uses

(25.9 Billion kWh)

8-27
Muteriols-hundling a c t i v i t i e s take place throughout t e x t i l e manufacturing, s t a r t i n g
from t h e r o t a t i n g fiber-opening machinery t o f i n i s h i n g , where f a b r i c i s p r i n t e d o r
heat set using r o l l e r s and r o l l i n g frames. M a t e r i a l s handling a l s o takes place
during f a b r i c formation where bales o f f i b e r are moved through t h e m i l l .

Pumps, funs, and compressors account f o r a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y used i n

HVAC systems. About 20 percent o f t h e energy used i n f i n i s h i n g m i l l s i s
e l e c t r i c i t y , mostly t o power small motors scattered through t h e m i l l . Pumps are
used f o r f l u i d processing i n dyeing t o pump dyes, r i n s e water, and other l i q u i d s
i n t o and out o f dye becks. Fans are a l s o used i n convection ovens used f o r drying
and f i n i s h i n g and f o r blowers i n opening and blending machines.

About 640 m i l l i o n kWh was used i n t e x t i l e process heat a p p l i c a t i o n s i n 1985. About

67 percent o f e l e c t r i c i t y used i n process heating a p p l i c a t i o n s i s used f o r drying
operations and t h e remainder i s used i n c u r i n g operations.

E l e c t r i c i t y Consumption by Region

The m a j o r i t y o f t e x t i l e m i l l s are concentrated i n a few regions i n the U.S. Figure

6-9 shows e l e c t r i c i t y consumption by region i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y compared t o a l l
other manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s . The Southeast region ranks t h e highest i n t e x t i l e
e l e c t r i c i t y consumption. The 1985, e l e c t r i c i t y consumption i n t h i s region amounted
t o 21.6 b i l l i o n kWh, representing about 84 percent o f the t o t a l energy consumed by
t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y i n t h e e n t i r e U.S. T e x t i l e manufacturers i n South Carolina and
North Carolina consumed over 12 b i l l i o n kWh o f e l e c t r i c i t y . Alabama, Tennessee, and
V i r g i n i a a l s o consume l a r g e amounts o f e l e c t r i c i t y . High concentrations o f t e x t i l e
m i l l s i n High Point, North Carolina; G r e e n v i l l e and Spartanburg, South Carolina; and
F o r t Payne, Alabama account, i n p a r t , f o r these regional trends. As a r e s u l t , the
t e x t i l e loads o f u t i l i t i e s serving these regions are high. While t e x t i l e
e l e c t r i c i t y use represents about 4 percent o f t h e t o t a l manufacturing s e c t o r ' s
e l e c t r i c i t y consumption, i t i s 18 percent o f the manufacturing e l e c t r i c i t y load i n
the Southeast and over 25 percent o f t h e manufacturing load i n t h e t h r e e l a r g e s t
producing s t a t e s as shown i n Table 6-12.

6-28
 Billion kWh
160 1 I
140

120

100

80
60

40

20
"
n
S. E. E.S.Cent.Mld Atl. New Eng.E.N.CentW.S.Cent. Paclflc W.N.Cent. Mount.
Region
Other Mfrg. Textlles

F i g u r e 8-9. 1985 Manufacturing E l e c t r i c i t y Use By Region

Table 8-12

1985 TEXTILE INDUSTRY ELECTRICITY USE I N THE SOUTHEAST

Total Textile
Indu+trisl Textile E l e c . Use Textile
El=. Use Elec. Use Percentage Shi-ts
State ( M i l . kUh) ( M i l . kUh) Of T o t a l ( M i l l i o n f)

South C a r o l i n a 20.994 6,037 29 7.776

North C a r o l i n e 25,795 b,877 27 14,113
Georgia 17,630 4,902 28 10,997
Alabama 18,642 1,912 10 2,560
Virginia 11 .am 95c 8 2,956
Tennessee

T o t a l S.E.
__________ ---___ -_._._-.__
25,568
-.__-.-_.___
120,433
934

21,617
4

18
1.476

39.874
T o t a l U.S. 728.004 25,887 4 53,277
-_-_---__-_.._----__~~~.~-.-.~~~.~
S.E. X of T o t a l U.S. 16.5 85.5 74.8

=e: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Annual Survey o f Manufactures, 1985; Resource

Dynamics Corporation estimates.

8-29
ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY S P E C I F I C PROCESSES

The importance o f energy i n t h e t e x t i l e m i l l depends on t h e t y p e o f processing t h a t

i s done a t t h e m i l l - - w e t o r dry. I n general, d r y processes are e l e c t r i c i t y
i n t e n s i v e w h i l e wet processes are f o s s i l energy i n t e n s i v e .

Dry Processing

The spinning, t w i s t i n g , and weaving processes performed i n these m i l l s r e q u i r e

considerable amounts o f motive power. Except f o r slashing, a l l operations performed
i n t h e d r y processing m i l l use e l e c t r i c i t y as t h e primary energy source. Steam used
i n t h e s l a s h i n g o p e r a t i o n i s u s u a l l y generated by b o i l e r s b u r n i n g n a t u r a l gas, c o a l ,
f u e l o i l , o r o t h e r petroleum products. E l e c t r i c i t y supplies about 80 percent o f t h e
t o t a l energy requirements i n g r e i g e m i l l (dry m i l l s ) . There are few o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o r f u r t h e r e l e c t r i c i t y p e n e t r a t i o n i n dry processing. Most o f t h e increases w i l l
come from automation programs. As more companies automate t h e i r p l a n t s and i n s t a l l
computerized systems f o r process c o n t r o l , t h e i r r e l i a n c e on u n i n t e r r u p t e d e l e c t r i c
power w i l l increase, b u t o n l y s l i g h t l y . Among t h e new technology developments t h a t
might increase e l e c t r i c i t y consumed t o d r i v e motors are mechanical moisture-removal
devices such as vacuum e x t r a c t o r s and r o l l e r squeezers. These might be used i n
g r e i g e m i l l s t o improve s l a s h i n g operations and could be a t t r a c t i v e because o f t h e i r
p o t e n t i a l energy savings.

Table B-13 shows energy i n p u t s , average energy consumption, and outputs f o r each
o p e r a t i o n i n t h e d r y processing m i l l . As can be seen from t h i s t a b l e , t e x t u r i z i n g ,
spinning, and weaving are t h e processes t h a t r e q u i r e t h e l a r g e s t amounts o f
e l e c t r i c i t y t o process a pound o f f i b e r .

Table B-14 presents energy consumption f i g u r e s f o r u n i t operations i n t e x t i l e m i l l s .

Spinning operations i n t h e manmade f i b e r weaving ( S I C 222) and yarn and t h r e a d m i l l s
( S I C 228) s e c t o r s consumed a t o t a l o f 3,879 m i l l i o n kWh--70 percent o f a l l
e l e c t r i c i t y used i n s p i n n i n g i n t h e e n t i r e i n d u s t r y .

B-30
 Table E-13

ENERGY CONSUMPTION I N DRY PROCESSING MILLS

ENERGY INPUTS OPERATIOU AVG. ENERGY CONSfflPTlON CUTWTS

E Y a m preparation 1,200 BTU/lb yarn trash ( w )

lap (P)

E Carding 250 . 1.800 8TUllb short fibers. trash (w)

caw: 754 BTUllb) s l i v e r (p)

E 98 . 323 BTUllb s l i v e r (p)

(avg: 163 BTUllb)

E Roving 677 .
1,219 BTUllb roving s l i v e r s (p)
(avg: 985 BTUNIlb)

E Spinning 1,612 -20,618 yarn (P)

caw: 7.520 B T U l l b (yarn count 18.51)
( 15,965 B T U l l b Warn count 351)

E Texturizing 11,694 -33,400 BTUllb Y a r n (p)

tsynthhetic yarns only1 (avg: 20,500 BTUllb)

E Yarping 850 BTUllb yarn (P)

(a 5.5 Lbslhrlpositim)

S. E Slashing 1.100 .
2,900 BTUllb process water tu)
c a w : tst.eanl 1,523 BTUllb) yam (P)
( telec.1 800 BTUflb)
............
( [total] 2,323 BTUllb)

E Weaving 3,540 -13,850 BTlJ/lb f a b r i c (p)

(avg: 5.440 BTUllb)
MI

E Knitting 3,540 -10.860 BTUllb f a b r i c (PI

KEY: Inputs: outputs:

E .electricity Y .
waste
s - S".t p .
pPocess Wtplt

*Fuel swpces f o r steam prwhction: n a t u r a l gas, coal, fuel o i l , a d other p t r o l n n products

Source: American Consulting Engineers Council, I n d u s t r i a l Market & Energy

Manaqement Guide: S I C 22 -
The T e x t i l e M i l l Products I n d u s t r y , 1985; U.S.
Dept. o f Energy, The U . S . T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An Energy Perspective, March
1988.

8-31
 Table 8-14

1985 ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION BY SPECIFIC TEXTILE OPERATION

( M i l l i o n kWh)

IOf.1 1,382 810 5.531 3.8S2 l.37p 3.W8 2,570 1.971 513 3.881 2S,?d7

=e: U.S. Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, Annual Survey o f

Manufactures, 1985; U.S. Dept. of Energy, The U . S . T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An
Energy Perspective, March 1988; American Consulting Engineers Counci 1,
I n d u s t r i a l Market and Energy Management Guide: S I C 22 Textile M i l l -
Products Industry; Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

8-32
Wet Processing

Wet processing often requires large inputs of thermal energy, mainly to heat liquids
and chemical dyes and to dry and finish textiles. Process heating is dominated by
fossil fuels because they can heat evenly and inexpensively with readily available
technologies. In textile processing, the quantity of heat, temperature, and method
of application varies widely. Some methods (such as singeing) require direct
applications of open flame, eliminating the possibility of electric process heat
applications. Others require steam cans or calendars for the application of heat
and pressure. In all cases the application and maintenance of a certain temperature
is crucial to avoid over- or under-processing. The design and application
flexibility of gas equipment allows ready application of heat in those processes
where heat is required. Table 6-15 presents energy inputs, average energy
consumption, and outputs for individual operations in wet processing mills.

Dyeing, curing, and other finishing processes require large quantities of thermal
energy. As can be seen from Table 8-15, only a few wet processing operations rely
on electricity. Many plants have fuel-switching capabilities to avoid dependence on
one fuel source, enabling costs to be the determining factor in fuel choice. Steam
and natural gas are the two major thermal energy sources for drying and finishing,
with most steam being generated by coal-, oil-, or natural gas-fired boilers. In
addition to steam and hot water supplied by boilers, some drying, curing, and
finishing processes also require direct-fired natural gas. Current natural gas
equipment in textile processes includes natural gas radiant heat, dryers, burners,
cylinder dryers, curers, convection ovens, and gas burners with calendar rolls.

Electrical energy requirements for space conditioning, material handling, and other
systems used in wet processing are low. Figure 6-10 shows that out of the 188
trillion Btu used for process heating in 1985, 30 percent was supplied by natural
gas, 29 percent by coal, 20 percent by fuel oil, and 19 percent by LPG and other
fossil fuels. Electricity accounted for only about one percent. Electric heating
technologies are used mainly for drying and curing. Some mills have installed RF
drying equipment. Electric process heating applications in textiles grew from about
520 million kWh in 1980 to about 640 million kWh in 1985, and there appear to be
opportunities for these processes to become more widely applied in the textile
industry. If electric heating processes can provide the high temperatures required

8-33
 Table B-15

ENERGY CONSUMPTION I N WET PROCESSING MILLS

ENERGY INPUTS OPERATION AVG. ENERGY CONSUUPTIOW CUTPUTS

YARN DYEING
. rawstosk dyein0
ard drying wg: 9,UO BTUllb process $later (W)
. yarn package dyeing dyed yarn (P)
a r d drying 10,mo "
YOMW FABRIC DYElllG AND FIHISHIMG
.heat setting avg: 530 BTUllb heat loss (u)
fabric (p)
. singeing 155 " exhaust, process w a t e r (u)
fabric (p)
. desizing 465 I' process water (w)
fabric (p)
. scwring 1,350
. bleachins 1,200 " process water ( w )
. mercerizing 1,920 " dyed fabric (p)
.. dp yr ienitwl n g 6,225
9,570 'I process uater (u)
printed fabric (p)
. finishing 2,730 " procwr "ate? (U)
fabric (p)
. dryin9 3.455 " exhaust (w)
fabric (P)

. preparation
. dyeiw process water tu)
. finishing fabric (p)
. drying exhaust (w)

FLOOR COVERINGS
. twisting avg: 4,500 BTUlLb y a m (p)
( 0 0.833 Lbslhrlposition)
. heat Setting 3.150 BTUflb heat Loss ( w )
Yarn 1 0 )
. tufting 1.050 " ;roc.;-u.ter (U)
c a r p t (p)
. dyeing 9.800 ne process water ( w )
carpet (p)
. printing 39,000 Blulsq. yard process uater (u)
c a r p t (p)
. finishing 3,500 BTUllb process water (w)
c a r p 1 (p)
. drying 4.350 " exhaust (w)
c a r p t (p)
- web formation/ 4,550 I' (Mat) waste adhesive, p d m r tu)
web b r d i n g 2.010 (dry) c a r p c (p)

Inputs: hltplts:
E . electricity Y .waste
G . natural gas p .process Wtput
S . steam,
Y . water

*Fuel sources for s t e m production: natural gas, coal, fuel a i \ , and other p e t r o l e m prodvcts

-
Source: American Consulting Engineers Council, I n d u s t r i a l Market & Enerq
Manaqement Guide: S I C 22 -
The T e x t i l e M i l l Products I n d u s t r y , 1385; U.S.
Department o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e Industry: An Enerqy Perspective,
March 1985.

8-34
 Coal
29%

Fuel Oil
20%

F i g u r e B-10. 1985 Process Heat Energy Sources

188 T r i l l i o n Btu

=e: U.S. Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, 1985 Annual Survey o f

Manufactures; American Gas A s s o c i a t i o n , Future Gas Consumption i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , Vol. 13, 1986; U.S. Department o f Energy, Energy I n f o r m a t i o n
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Manufacture Energy Consumption Survey: Consumption of
Enerqv, 1985, November, 1988; and Resource Dynamics C o r p o r a t i o n estimates.

8-35
f o r d i r e c t - f i r e d processes, increase production, improve q u a l i t y , and prevent dye
m i g r a t i o n , t h e y may be i n s t a l l e d .

Table 6-16 presents n o n - e l e c t r i c energy consumption by i n d i v i d u a l u n i t operations.

The t a b l e shows t h a t a t o t a l o f 56.1 t r i l l i o n B t u o f f u e l s were purchased i n 1985
f o r dyeing operations, t h e l a r g e s t amount o f n o n - e l e c t r i c energy consumed i n t h e
~

t e x t i l e industry. Almost a l l o f t h i s energy goes t o heat water f o r proper dye

f i x a t i o n and t o heat r i n s e water. K n i t t i n g m i l l s (which dye and f i n i s h k n i t goods),
~

f i n i s h i n g m i l l s , and c a r p e t and r u g m i l l s are among t h e l a r g e s t consumers o f f o s s i l

energy used f o r dyeing. The combined consumption o f these t h r e e m i l l s ( S I C S 225,
226, and 227) amounts t o 73 percent o f t h e t o t a l energy consumed f o r dyeing
operations i n a l l t e x t i l e m i l l s .

Table 6-16

1985 NON-ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY S P E C I F I C TEXTILE PROCESSES

( T r i l l i o n Btu)

5.0 2.6 7.4 5.2 0.11 20.1

0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.1 L.5

13 0.6 0.6 0.1 2.5

2.0 1.s (6.1 9.4 8.1 1.6 10.7

2.1 2.6 1.11 S.216.411.1 11.1 1.6 52.1

0.6 0.3 1.1 8,s a.9 2.a 4.1 1.1 27.7

*.I 2.s 1.1 5.9 5.7 0.8 15.6

0.b 6.6 1.7 5.7 1 .I 1a.q

rot.i 8.0 7.7 6.2 11.1 1.0 56.1 54.6 3b.8 5.1 8.2 197.8

=e: U . S . Dept. o f Commerce, Bureau o f t h e Census, Annual Survey o f

Manufactures, 1985; U . S . Dept. o f Energy, The U.S. T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y : An
Energy Perspective; American Consulting Engineers Council, I n d u s t r i a l
Market and Energy Manaqement Guide: S I C 22 -
T e x t i l e M i l l Products
I n d u s t r y ; Resource Dynamics Corporation estimates.

6-36
 Appendix C
TEXTILE INDUSTRY ELECTROTECHNOLOGY EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPENDIX C

TEXTILE INDUSTRY ELECTROTECHNOLOGY EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

Adjustable Speed D r i v e Equipment Suppliers c-1

Heat Exchangers and Heat Recovery Equipment Suppliers c-3
I n f r a r e d Processing Equipment Suppliers c-4
I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pump Equipment Suppliers C-6
Microwave Heating and Drying Equipment Suppliers c-7
Radiofrequency Heating and Drying Equipment Suppliers C-8
U l t r a v i o l e t Curing Equipment Suppliers c-9
 ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

A l l e n Bradley Magnetek Drives & Systems

Motion Control D i v i s i o n 16555 Ryerson Road
4300 Brown Deer Road New B e d i n , W I 53151
Brown Deer, W I 53223 414-782-0200
ABB I n d u s t r i a l Systems, Inc. Marathon E l e c t r o n i c s
P.O. Box 372 Avtek D r i v e D i v i s i o n
Milwaukee, W I 53201 398 Beach Road
414-785-3358 Burlingame, CA 94010
415-347-3081
Oanfoss E l e c t r o n i c s
2995 Eastrock D r i v e Mitsubishi Electric
Rockford, I L 61109 Sales America
815-398-2770; 800'-432-6367 800 Biermann Court
Mount Prospect, I L 60056
Eaton Corporation 708-298-9223
E l e c r i c Drives D i v i s i o n
3122 14th Avenue Polyspede E l e c t r o n i c s Co.
Kenosha, W I 53141 6770 Twin H i l l s Avenue
414-656-4011 Dallas, TX 75231
214-363-7245
Emerson E l e c t r i c Company
I n d u s t r i a l Controls D i v i s i o n Reliance E l e c t r i c Co.
3036 A l t Boulevard E l e c t r i c a l Drives Group
Grand Island, NY 14072 24703 E u c l i d Avenue
716-773-2321 Cleveland, OH 44117
GE D r i v e Systems Ross H i l l Controls Corp.
1100 Lawrence Parkwav,. 1530 Sam Houston Pkwy North
Erie, PA 16531 Houston, TX 77043
814-875-2663 7 13-467 -9888
Graham Company Southcon
8800 W. Bradley Road 10901 Downs Road
Milwaukee, W I 53223 PO Box 410328
414-355-8800 Charlotte, NC 28241-0328
704-393-1636
H i t a c h i America Ltd.
220 White P l a i n s Road Square D Company
Tarrytown, NY 10591 -
. Box
PO -... 7744h
-. . . -
914-631-0600 Raleigh, NC 27611
919-266-8600
Lovejoy Incorporated
2655 Wisconsin Avenue T. B. Woods' Sons Company
Downers Grove, I L 60515 440 N. F i f t h Avenue
708-852-0500 Chambersburg, PA 17201
717-264-7161

c-1
 ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS (CONTINUED)

Toshiba I n t e r . Corp.
13131 W. L i t l e York Road
Houston, TX 77041
713-466-0277

West inghouse E l e c t r i c Corp.

Control D i v i s i o n
P.O. Box 819
Oldsmar. FL 34677

c-2
 HEAT EXCHANGERS AND HEAT RECOVERY EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

A i r t e c h Systems Corp.
365 Central S t r e e t
PO Box 686
Stoughton, MA 02072
617-344-0467
Morton Machine Works, Inc.
PO Box 2547
300 Jackson Avenue
Columbus, GA 31901
404-322-5541

c-3
 INFRARED PROCESSING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

BBC I n d u s t r i e s , Inc.
1526 Fenpark D r i v e DeVi 1b i s s Company
Fenton, MO 63026 .P.O. BOX 913
.~.
314-343-5600 Toledo, OH 43692
800-628-1200, Ext. 735
BGK F i n i s h i n g Systems, Inc.
4131 Pheasant Ridge Drive, North Dry-Clime Lamp Corporation
Minneapolis, MN 55434 P.O. Box 146
612-784-0466 S t a t e Road 46W
Greensburg, I N 47240
Brink, E.H. Company, Inc. 812-663-4141
476 Grant Terrance
B u f f a l o , NY 14213 Eraser Company, Inc.
716-885-0265 Luxtherm D i v i s i o n
Oliva Drive
Brown Engineering P.O. Box 4961
550 South Monroe S t r e e t Syracuse, NY 13221
S e a t t l e , WA 98108 315-454-3237
206-762-7337
800-426-6384 F o s t o r i a I n d u s t r i e s , Inc.
1200 North Main S t r e e t
Caloritech, Inc. Fostoria, OH 44830
P.O. Box 846 419-435-9201
Glen Burnie, MD 21061
301-766-6333 Glenro, Inc.
39 McBride Avenue
Casso-Solar Corporation Paterson, NJ 07501
P.O. Box 163 800-922-0106;201-274-5900
U.S. Route 202
Pomona, NY 10970 Glo-Quartz E l e c t r i c Heater Company,
914-356-2500 1nc.
7074 Maple S t r e e t
Chroma1ox Mentor, OH 44060
E.L. Wiegand D i v i s i o n 216-255-9701
641 Alpha D r i v e
Pittsburgh, PA 15238 Hix Corporation
412-967-3900 1201 East 27th S t r e e t
P.O. Box 393
Cleveland Process Corporation P i t t s b u r g , KS 66762
127 S.W. F i f t h Avenue 316-231-8568
Homestead, FL 33030
800-241-0412;305-248-4312 I n d u s t r i a l Systems Corporation
1021 Lake Road
Delta T Products, Inc. Medina. OH 44256
22 Park Place 216-725-8500
B u t l e r , NJ 07405
201-492-1533

c-4
 INFRARED PROCESSING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS (CONTINUED)

Infrasource, Inc. Radiation Systems, Inc.

1200-A North Concord S t r e e t 455 West Main S t r e e t
South S t . Paul, MN 55075 Wyckoff, NJ 07481
612-450-9747 201-891-7515
I n t e g r a t e d Technologies, Inc. Research, Inc.
70 M i l l Road Radiant Energy D i v i s i o n
Acushnet, MA 02743 P.O. Box 24064
508-998-3071 Minneapolis, MN 55424
612-941-3300
J.R. Greene, Inc.
710 M y r t l e Avenue Spectrum I n f r a r e d , Inc.
Boonton, NJ 07005 246 East 131st S t r e e t
201-335-1630 Cleveland, OH 44108
216-451-6666
John J. Fannon Company
Thermal Devices D i v i s i o n Tech Systems
16025 23 M i l e Road 1013 West Main S t r e e t
Mount Clemens, M I 48044 P.O. Box 142
313-263-8850 Greensburo. I N 47240
Mahan Oven and Engineering Co. Inc.
P.O. Box 2144 Therma-Tech Corporation
Hiahwav 176E 300 Dakota S t r e e t
Spartanburg, SC 29304
803-585-9433
Oal Associates, Inc.
1175 I n d u s t r i a l Avenue UV I11 Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box J P.O. Box 447
Escondido, CA 92025 M i l l i s , MA 02054
619-743-7143 508-520-1802
Ogden Manufacturing Company Wat 1ow E l e c t r i c Manufacturing Co.
48 West Seeoers Road 12001 Lackland Road
A r l i n g t o n Heights, I L 60005 S t . Louis, MO 63146
708-593-8050 314-878-4600
Process Thermal Dynamics, Inc. Wellman Thermal Systems Corporation
1200 North Concord S t r e e t One Progress Road
South S t . Paul, MN 55075 S h e l b y v i l l e , I N 46176
612-450-4702 317-398-4411
Radiant Heat Enterprises, Inc.
P.O. Box 566
4 0 ~ ~ i eai r West
F a i r f i e l d , NJ 07006
201-227-6633
Radiant Heat, Inc.
I n d u s t r i a l Park
62 Sawyer D r i v e
Coventry, R I 02816
401-822-0360

c-5
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT PUMP EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

A p p l i c a t i o n Engineering Corporation
801 AEC D r .
~~~ ~~

Wood Dale, IL 60191

708-595-1060

C r i s p a i r e Corp.
E-Tech D i v i s i o n
3570 American D r i v e
A t l a n t a , GA 30341
404-458-6643

Dantherm Systems D i v i s i o n
Patterson I n t e r n a t i o n a l
208 E. Adam S t r e e t
Cambridge, W I 53523
608-423-4101;800-368-4376
Heat Exchangers, I n c .
8131 N.Monticel10 Avenue
PO Box 790
Skokie, IL 60076
708-679-0300

H i t a c h i Zosen U.S.A. Ltd.

150 E. 52nd S t r e e t
20th F l o o r
New York, NY 10022
212-355-5650

McQuaylSnyderGeneral Corp.
PO Box 1551
Minneapolis, MN 55440
612-553-5330

Tecogen, Inc.
Thermo E l e c t r o n Corp.
45 F i r s t Avenue
Waltham, MA 02254
617-622-1000

C-6
 MICROWAVE HEATING AN0 DRYING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

Associated Science Research Foundation

126 Water S t r e e t
Marlboro NH 03455
914-335-6270

Econco Broadcast Service

1318 Commerce Avenue
Woodland, CA 95695
916-662-7553; 800-0532-6626

502-241-8933

Raytheon Company
190 Willow S t r e e t
Waltham, MA 02254
617-642-4244

Radio Frequency Co. Inc.

152 Dover Road
PO Box 158
M i l l i s , MA 02054
617-762-4900
Watlow E l e c t r i c Mfg. Co
12001 Lackland Road
S t . Louis, MO 63146
314-878-4600

c-7
 RADIOFREQUENCY HEATING AND DRYING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

Ameritherm, Inc. Radio Frequency Company, Inc.

39 Main S t r e e t 152 Dover Road
S c o t t s v i l l e , NY 14546 P.O. Box 158
800-456-HEAT M i l l i s , MA 02054
617-762-4900
Cal lanan
5679 Northwest Highway Radvne Corporation
Chicago, I L 60646 12819 West' S i l v e r Spring Road
312-792-3344 B
- -u.
t .l e..r . W..I- 53007
...
414-mi-8360
Econco
1318 Commerce Avenue Thermex
Woodland, CA 95695 Thermatron
916-662-7553;800-532-6626 60 Spence S t r e e t
Bay Shore, NY 11706
Glenro, Inc. 516-231-7800
39 McBride Avenue Extension
Paterson, NJ 07501
800-922-0106;201-274-5900

IHS-INOUCTOHEAT
5009 Rondo D r i v e
F o r t Worth, TX 76106
817-625-5577
Inductoheat, Inc.
32251 North Avis D r i v e
Madison Heights, M I 48071
800-624-6297;313-585-9393
Kabar Manufacturing Corp
140 Schmit Blvd.
Farmingdale, NY 11735
516-694-6857

Nemeth Engineering Associates, Inc.

5901 West Highway 22
Crestwood, KY 40014
502-241-1502

P i l l a r I n d u s t r i e s , Inc.
N92 W15800 Mega1 D r i v e
Menomonee F a l l s , WE 53051
414-255-6470
PSC, Inc.
21761 Tungsten Road
Cleveland, OH 44117
216-531-3375

c-8
 ULTRAVIOLET CURING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

American U l t r a v i o l e t Co.
562 Central Avenue
Murray H i l l , NJ 07974
201-665-2211

Col i g h t
820 Decatur Avenue North
Minneapolis, MN 55427
612-544-9100

F u l l e r U l t r a v i o l e t Corp.
PO Box 279
F r a n k f o r t , I L 60423
815-469-3301
Fusion UV Curing Systems Corp.
7600 Standish Place
Rockville,MD 20855
301-251-0300

Glenro, Inc.
10 South 11th Avenue
Paterson, NJ 07501
800-922-0106;201-274S5900

Hanovia, Inc.
100 Chestnut S t r e e t
Newark,NJ 07105
201-589-4300
I n t e g r a t e d Technologies, Inc.
70 M i l l Road
Acushnet, MA 02743
508-998-3071

Spectronics Corp.
956 Brush Hollow Road
Westbury, NY 11590
516-333-4840

UV I11 Systems, Inc.

P.O. Box 447
M i l l i s , MA 02054
508-520-1802

c-9
 Appendix D
L

DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED
ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 7
!
7

!
I

!
!

!
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section

APPENDIX D
DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY D- 1

R a d i o f r e q u e n c y D r y i n g and H e a t i n g 0-1
I n d u s t r i a l Process H e a t Pumps 0-6
Membrane Processes D-17
U l t r a v i o l e t Curing D-32
Microwave P r o c e s s i n g 0-42

D-iii
 Appendix D

DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED
ELECTROTECHNOLOGIES FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

RAOIOFREQUENCY DRYING AND HEATING

B A S I C PRINCIPLES

Radiofrequency (RF) i s the name given t o the p o r t i o n o f t h e electromagnetic spectrum

between 2 and 100 MHZ because these frequencies are used f o r r a d i o communications.
The most commonly used RF frequencies are 13.56 and 27.12 MHZ. RF heating and
drying use radio-frequency waves t o heat e l e c t r i c a l l y non-conducting m a t e r i a l s
( d i e l e c t r i c s ) composed o f p o l a r molecules. The most common d i e l e c t r i c w i t h p o l a r
molecules i s water, and many RF a p p l i c a t i o n s are used t o d r y moist m a t e r i a l s . Polar
molecules have an asymmetric e l e c t r i c a l structure--much l i k e m i n i a t u r e magnets--and
tend t o a l i g n themselves i n an imposed e l e c t r i c f i e l d . When the d i r e c t i o n o f the
e l e c t r i c f i e l d i s a l t e r n a t e d r a p i d l y ( a t high frequencies) these p o l a r molecules
tend t o move i n synchronization w i t h the f i e l d , c r e a t i n g f r i c t i o n between molecules
and thus producing heat from w i t h i n t h e material. This p r i n c i p l e i s r e f e r r e d t o as
d i e l e c t r i c heating, and i s a l s o e x p l o i t e d by microwaves.

TEXTILE APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL STATUS

RF d r y i n g i s used i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o dry yarn and f a b r i c s . Specific t e x t i l e

i n d u s t r y a p p l i c a t i o n s o f RF i n c l u d e the d r y i n g o f yarn, thread tows, and f a b r i c
webs. Most t e x t i l e d r y i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s have involved b u l k yarns, i n c l u d i n g rayon
cakes and dye bobbins. RF d r y i n g o f t h i n webs o f f a b r i c has n o t y e t been done i n a
commercial s e t t i n g . RF d r y i n g o f warped yarns during slashing and s i z i n g operations
i s c u r r e n t l y a t t h e l a b o r a t o r y stage. Since RF i s a non-contact d r y i n g method,
t h e r e are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e common problem o f s i z e m a t e r i a l s t i c k i n g t o drying
c y l i n d e r s can be eliminated. An added b e n e f i t may be a reduction o f requirements
f o r s i z i n g wax. Other RF d r y i n g b e n e f i t s i n t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s include:

0 Absence o f thermal l a g and i n e r t i a

0 Nonheating o f nonpolar f i b e r s such as p o l y e s t e r i n RF f i e l d

D- 1
 Rapid drying rates
Smaller drying sections of sizing machines
Little or no heat radiation into the room
Simple process control.

By selectively heating the dielectric medium (most often water), RF produces more
uniform drying in the product, while improving product quality by heating moisture
and not the surface of the product. RF can be used to dry compacted materials, such
as bulk yarns, which could not be dried using conventional methods. As a result,
textile manufacturers can increase production volume by producing higher density
yarn (more yarnlspool).

EQUIPMENT

A typical RF system consists of the following four major components:

A generator. Includes the power supply, voltage controls and oscillator.
The power supply and voltage controls provide high-voltage power to the
oscillator, which generates high-frequency power for the application.
An applicator. Houses the electrode system, provides shielding and may
include such auxiliaries as hot air and moisture extraction systems. The
electrode system, often consisting of simple parallel plates or rods,
converts the high-frequency power from the oscillator to RF waves. The
applicator also contains shielding to avoid transmission of RF radiation.
The materials-handling system. Positions the product under the RF
applicator. In continuous-type systems, such as conveyors, the material
is guided through the exposure area. Batch-type processing systems
(similar to home ovens) have no materials-handling system, and depend on
an operator to remove the product from the exposure area when processing
is complete.
The system controls. Contains the necessary controls (automatic, digital,
or manual) to regulate the processing duration, intensity, and speed of
the materials-handling system. The controls may be complex for special
applications or may be simple on-off push buttons.

Figure D-1 illustrates a textile spool-drying RF system, showing the generator,

electrodes, conveyors, and extraction system.

D-2
 Figure D-1. Drying of Textile Spools
=e: Reference (2)

PERFORMANCE AND COST DATA

Power Requirements

In drying applications, a rule-of-thumb is that the power requirements are

calculated at 1 kW for each kg of water removed in an hour. Thus for a bobbin of
yarn weighing 1.3 kg and initially holding 26-percent moisture, an RF system
removing all but 3 percent moisture (or 0.3 kg water removed) would require

03k x
d 1kW = 0.3kW
bobbin/hr
.
At a production rate of 700 bobbins dried per hour, the power rating would be

x 700 bobbins = 210 kW.

hr

Capital Costs

One major disadvantage of RF is its high capital costs. The cost of an RF

heater or dryer may range from $1,000 to $3,500 per kW, with smaller systems

D-3
(1 - 200 kw) ranging from $2,500 t o $3,500 p e r kW and l a r g e r systems (300 -
1,000 kW) ranging from $1,000 t o $2,500 per kW. The high end would be
represented by a sophisticated process r e q u i r i n g complex c o n t r o l s and
a p p l i c a t o r , whereas t h e low end would be t h e cost o f a simple a p p l i c a t o r . For
t h e 210 kW bobbin-drying system, t h e c a p i t a l cost i s $570,000.

Operating Costs

I n s p i t e o f RF's h i g h c a p i t a l cost, a number o f t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s have

proven t o be economical. However, operating costs can vary, and an
examination o f c u r r e n t operating costs i s required t o evaluate t h e p o t e n t i a l
benefits.

Labor Costs. Labor costs are o f t e n lower w i t h RF than w i t h o t h e r forms o f

heat. Some i n s t a l l a t i o n s are equipped t o operate completely unattended. Some
i n s t a l l a t i o n s share t h e operator costs w i t h other machines o r o t h e r p a r t s o f
t h e process. I n many a p p l i c a t i o n s o n l y one operator i s required t o load and
unload.

Operating l a b o r savings may be o f f s e t by increased maintenance requirements.

Because o f t h e l i m i t e d l i f e o f vacuum tubes, the c r i t i c a l component o f t h e RF
generator, t h e l a b o r and p a r t s required t o maintain an RF system could be
significant.

Enerav Costs. Approximately 60 percent o f the power i n p u t t o the generator

a c t u a l l y reaches the product. As a r e s u l t , t h e power r e q u i r e d i s about 1.7
times t h e power reaching t h e product, o r generator output. Thus a generator
w i t h a 210 kW output would r e q u i r e about 350 kW power input. The energy costs
o f a 210 kW RF system would be about $87,500 annually (based on 350 kW power
i n p u t , 5,000 hours p e r year operation, and $0.05 per kWh).

M a t e r i a l Costs. I n d r y i n g t e x t i l e s , t h e d r y i n g p e r i o d i s reduced from hours

t o minutes. This n o t o n l y reduces heat d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e product due t o
t h e s h o r t e r time exposure, b u t a l s o reduces work i n process inventory. Also,
t h e oven temperature need o n l y reach t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t t o remove moisture,
thus t h e product i s never exposed t o h i g h heat. As a r e s u l t o f decreased
exposure t o h i g h temperature, t h e amount o f product l o s s due t o overheating
can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced w i t h RF d r y i n g and heating.

0-4
REFERENCES:

1. Auburn U n i v e r s i t y , Dept. o f T e x t i l e Engineering, Radio Frequency Drying

o f T e x t i l e Yarns i n Sizinq, November 1987.

2. O r f e u i l , Maurice, E l e c t r i c Process Heatinq, EPRI Report EM-5105-SR,

B a t t e l l e Press, Columbus, OH 1987.

3. Schmidt, P.S., E l e c t r i c i t y and I n d u s t r i a l P r o d u c t i v i t y , E l e c t r i c Power

Research I n s t i t u t e , Report EM-3640, New York, NY, 1984.

4. Thermo Energy Corporation, Radio-Frequency D i e l e c t r i c Heating i n

Industr E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e , E P R I EM-4949, Palo A l t o , CA,
imidb.

D-5
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT PUMPS

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Industrial process heat pumps receive process heat from low-temperature

sources, elevate its temperature, and return it for process use. Heat pumps
offer industries the ability to upgrade low-temperature heat and to recycle
this heat back into the processes. The net effect of a well-chosen
application is to reduce external energy requirements, thereby reducing costs.

Heat pump cycles may be open, semi-open, or closed, depending upon the heat
transfer configuration used in the process.

-
Figure D-2 is a schematic of a closed-cycle heat pump. Closed-cycle heat
pumps use a working fluid, separate from the process, to transfer heat from a
low-temperature source to a higher-temperature sink. The working fluid
circulates through an evaporator where it is vaporized by absorbing heat from
the source. A compressor is used to increase the pressure and thus the
temperature of the working fluid. This fluid then passes through a condenser,
where heat is transferred to the process fluid. To complete the cycle, the
working fluid is then expanded to lower its pressure.

Inlet
I
-Process
Sink
- ounet
I
I t

Evaporator

t-
outlet
Heat
Source-
t
Inlet

Figure D-2. Closed-Cycle Heat Pump System

=e: Reference (2)
D-6
An open-cycle system, o f t e n c a l l e d mechanical vapor recompression (MVR), uses
t h e m a t e r i a l being processed (steam o r other process vapors) d i r e c t l y as the
working f l u i d , r a t h e r than t r a n s f e r r i n g heat through t h e medium o f a separate
refrigerant. The c y c l e t h e r e f o r e eliminates heat exchangers and t h e i r
associated heat t r a n s f e r i n e f f i c i e n c i e s . A schematic o f an MVR system i s
shown i n Figure D-3. The process vapor (e.g., waste water) i s d e l i v e r e d
through an expansion device t o a f l a s h chamber where p a r t o f t h e stream i s
vaporized and flows t o a compressor, which raises i t s temperature and
pressure. The heated vapor d e l i v e r s i t s heat back t o t h e process, i n t h i s
case as steam.

Compressed

7-
&=
rz;cs
:

Campressor

' -r
Expansion
Device
bquidiCondensate
Stream :n

Vaporizer rJ-"?
Flam Chamber Heat Source

Discharge

Figure D-3. Open-Cycle Heat Pump

=e: Reference (2)

A v a r i a t i o n o f t h e open-cycle system i s the semi-open system, i n which the

process f l u i d i s vaporized by absorbing heat from a waste stream i n a
conventional heat exchanger, then compressed t o d e l i v e r heat a t an elevated
temperature. These systems t y p i c a l l y recover heat from contaminated waste
streams.

D-7
TEXTILE APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL STATUS

Closed-cycle heat pumps are used in industries with relatively low temperature
requirements, such as the textile industry, in applications where hot-
water-driven absorption chillers are used. The textile mill industry requires
large quantities of hot water for washing, dyeing, rinsing, bleaching, and
scouring. A closed-cycle heat pump can recover the heat from waste water that
has been used in one of these wet processing applications to heat the incoming
water.

Most industrial process heat pumps now in use are open-cycle systems.
Open-cycle systems are finding application in industries where large
quantities of water vapor are produced in evaporation, distillation, and
drying processes. The textile industry uses large quantities of caustic,
sodium hydroxide, and other process chemicals. Traditional steam-fired
evaporators used in textile applications can be replaced with industrial
process heat pumps. An open-cycle heat pump combined with an evaporative and
concentrating process can recover some of these chemicals. One example is the
use of a heat pump to increase the pressure of low-quality steam from a
caustic soda evaporator.

Semi-open-cycle systems are mostly used to recover heat from contaminated

streams. Many textile drying processes rely on steam that is generated in
boilers and many of the dyeing processes performed prior to drying generate
large quantities of effluent. A semi-open system can recover the excess heat
from waste streams and heat them for use as boiler make-up water.

The main advantage of industrial process heat recovery is the reduction in

energy costs. If properly placed in the industrial plant, electric heat pumps
can lower operating costs by decreasing process energy requirements and
reducing cooling requirements. However, their economics are highly sensitive
to site-specific conditions, including relative fuel and electricity costs.
Moreover, the evaluation of heat pumps should include consideration of the
relative costs and benefits o f other energy conservation measures, such as
increased heat integration.

Heat pumps may also have other advantages. For example, compared to multiple-
effect evaporators heat pump evaporators require less space and permit
processing at lower temperatures, an important consideration for

D-8
heat-sensitive materials, especially in those mills that process synthetic
fibers or blends.

EQUIPMENT

Industrial process heat recovery systems consist o f a variety o f waste

recovery devices, depending on the type o f system that is being designed.
Each type operates slightly differently but the end result is the same.

All industrial process heat pumps are custom designed to meet site-specific
and process-specific conditions. System designs are typically prepared by
architect/engineering firms or by equipment manufacturers such as evaporator
suppliers. These systems may be supplied on a "turn-key" basis. As a result,
it is difficult to describe a generic industrial process heat pump
installation.

Closed-cycle systems are typically packaged units which recover 50 to 14OoF

heat and amplify it to useable temperature levels (e.g., 110 to ZOOOF). The
main components o f these systems are a compressor, pressure reducing valve,
and two heat exchangers (condenser and evaporator). The choice of a
refrigerant (working fluid) in a closed-cycle system can be the key t o
successful heat pump application.

In open-cycle systems, the compressor (and the heat exchanger in a semi-open

cycle) must be compatible with the process fluids and be protected from
corrosive and erosive fluids. Centrifugal compressors require that the inlet
vapor be dry (superheated). Rotary screw machines can handle wet vapors and
are also less sensitive to contaminated vapors. Figure D-4 is a typical
system configuration for an open-cycle industrial process heat pump. The
overhead vapor from a distillation vessel is compressed, raising its
temperature and pressure. The high-temperature compressed gas is condensed in
a heat exchanger with the bottoms product being vaporized to return the heat
to the process. In an electric system the driver of the compressor is an
electric motor, and in a natural gas-fired system the driver is an internal
combustion engine.

D-9
 Feed --#

Compressor

nottoms
Product

Figure D-4. Open-Cycle Industrial Heat Pump

=e: -
Reference (5)

PERFORMANCE AND COST DATA

An investment by a textile firm in an industrial process heat recovery system

will be determined by the technical and economic viability of the system.

From the technical standpoint, the opportunities for process heat recovery
need to be assessed. The identification of industrial process heat pump
utilization opportunities is complicated by the dozens of hot and cold streams
that typify a wet processing operation in a textile mill. While the
industrial process has been viewed as a multitude of sources and sinks
offering many heat pumping possibilities, attention has typically been focused
on the design of the individual unit operation at the expense of the
integration of those units into an overall optimized heat flowsheet. A new
analytical methodology called Pinch Analysis based on "process synthesis"
techniques can be used to optimize the matching of hot and cold process
streams with each other or with external utilities in a heat exchange network
to reduce overall capital and operating (mainly energy) costs. Various
process synthesis techniques can be applied to identify optimal heat pump

D-10
placement within the industrial plant. Only by evaluating an application in
the context of overall process heat and power flows, can heat pump use be
properly justified. Methodologies for achieving process integration are
described in References 11, 12, 15, 17, and 18.

The effectiveness of an open-cycle heat pump system is strongly dependent upon

the performance of its vapor compression equipment. Generally, the desired
characteristics i n a compressor include reliability, low maintenance, and high
efficiency. The nature of the compression equipment varies significantly with
the heat pump size and pressure ratio. Low volumetric flow rates and high
pressure ratios suggest the use of positive displacement equipment such as
reciprocating-piston and screw compressors. Intermediate flows and moderate
pressure ratios can be accommodated by centrifugal equipment, while high flows
and low pressure ratios may be best provided by axial compressors. Some
process situations may require a combination of any two or all three types of
compressors in order to accomplish special cycle performance.

The efficiency of a heat pump i s measured by the coefficient of performance

(COP), defined as the ratio of heating output to compressor work. The COP of
a heat pump system should be used only as a measure of efficiency and not as a
decision variable for the selection of a heat pump. The COP is dependent on:
0 Temperature difference between the heat sink and the heat source
0 Working fluid properties
0 Compressor efficiency
0 Heat exchanger effectiveness.

Capital and Operating Costs

Industrial process heat pump systems are custom designed to fit specific
process requirements. The economic viability of heat recovery systems is
largely determined by the capital costs and operating costs (including fuel
cost savings). The capital cost of a heat pump system is dependent upon many
factors including system type and capacity (MBtu/hr), required temperature
lift, compressor size and type, working fluid specifications, and heat
exchanger(s) type and area (in closed-cycle and semi-open systems).
Additional factors that directly or indirectly influence the cost o f a heat

D-11
pump system i n c l u d e t o t a l engineering time, c o s t o f c a p i t a l , p i p i n g ,
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , i n s u l a t i o n , a u x i l i a r y equipment, and i n s t a l l a t i o n .

The economic r e t u r n o f a heat pump system i s very s e n s i t i v e t o s i t e - s p e c i f i c

c o n d i t i o n s (i.e., pressure, temperature, u t i l i t y costs, and p r o d u c t i o n
technology). For example, reducing steam pressure requirements o r i n c r e a s i n g
source temperature can have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e o v e r a l l system
economics.

In a r e c e n t study prepared f o r t h e Department o f Energy (DOE), b o t h closed-

and open-cycle heat pump systems, used i n several e x i s t i n g operations, were
s t u d i e d and evaluated. Most closed-cycle heat pumps s t u d i e d used
e l e c t r i c - d r i v e systems and were moderate i n s i z e ( t y p i c a l l y l e s s than 1 t o 2
m i l l i o n Btus p e r hour). The open-cycle heat pumps ( p r i m a r i l y used i n chemical
process a p p l i c a t i o n s ) were much l a r g e r systems, and used a v a r i e t y o f prime
movers, i n c l u d i n g gas and steam t u r b i n e s , and e l e c t r i c motor d r i v e . Table 0-1
shows a summary o f c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g costs f o r t h e closed-cycle systems.
The t a b l e a l s o includes payback c r i t e r i a used t o evaluate t h e p r o j e c t s . Table
D-2 i s a summary o f t h e p r o j e c t e d c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g costs f o r new and
r e t r o f i t MVR systems. In general, MVR systems are more expensive and r e q u i r e
more engineering and design than t h e closed-cycle heat pump systems. A DOE-
sponsored study found t h a t a t e x t i l e company which i n s t a l l e d an MVR system i n
p l a c e o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s was expected t o save up t o 60 percent
o f t h e p l a n t ' s f u e l costs, w i t h payback i n j u s t over one year (Reference 6).

D-12
 Table D - 1

SUMMARY OF CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS FOR CLOSED-CYCLE HEAT PUMPS*

LOW
-
C a p i t a l Costs:
Heat Pumps $30,000 $ 650,000
Other Equipment 10,000 2,050,000
I n s t a l 1a t ion 10,000 500,000
Design 0 480,000

T o t a l Investment $50,000 $3,680,000

Annual Operating and

Maintenance Costs: None Budgeted $ 82,000

Annual Energy Cost Savings: $20,000 $1,100,000

Payback Required: 2-3 years 5-10 years

Payback Projected: 2.5 years 3.3 years

* System Capacity: Range o f 100 Thousand B t u / h r t o 25 M i l l i o n B t u / h r . The

s e t o f f i g u r e s r e l a t e d t o t h e "Low" end o f t h e cost range r e f l e c t s
s m a l l e r system c a p a c i t i e s . The s e t o f f i g u r e s r e l a t e d t o "High" end o f
t h e cost range r e f l e c t s l a r g e r system c a p a c i t i e s .

Source: (5)

0-13
 Table 0-2

SUMMARY OF PROJECTED CAPITAL COSTS FOR NEW AND RETROFIT MVR SYSTEMS*
(Dollars i n Millions)

New
- Retrofit
C a p i t a l Costs:

Compression and
D r i v e System $0.75-2.3 $0.7-1.2

R e b o i l e r Condenser $0.5-1.0 $0.9-1.1

O t h e r Equipment $0.2-1 .o $0.1-0.2

Installation,
Engineering, and Design $0.5-1.0 $1.3-2.0

T o t a l C a p i t a l Investment $2.0-5.3 $3 .O-4.5

Operating and Maintenance Costs:

Electricity $0.4-1.4 $0.6-1.4

Steam $0.8-1.5 _-
C o o l i n g Water $0.05-0.2 $0.06-0.2

Other Expenses $0.1-0.5 $0.30-0.5

T o t a l 0 & M Expenses $0.5-2 .O $1.0-2.1

P r o j e c t e d Energy Savings vs
Conventional D i s t i l l a t i o n : $0.75-2.2 $1.0-1.5

P r o j e c t e d Paybacks: 2-2.5 y e a r s 2.7-3.5 years

Note: T o t a l s may n o t add due t o rounding and due t o t h e f a c t t h a t these

c o s t s r e p r e s e n t ranges f o r t h e systems surveyed; a l s o each system
may n o t have i n c o r p o r a t e d each c o s t i t e m (e.g., steam and
electricity)

* System c a p a c i t y : 20 t o 100 m i l l i o n B t u / h r . The c o s t ranges r e p o r t e d

above t e n d t o r e f l e c t a t l e a s t a p o r t i o n o f t h e l i s t e d ranges of system
capacities.

Source: (5)

D-14
REFERENCES

1. A r t h u r D. L i t t l e , Inc., Heat Pumps as E f f i c i e n t I n d u s t r i a l Technoloqy,

New York S t a t e Energy Research and Development A u t h o r i t y , Albany, NY,
1984.

2. E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e , I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pumps,

Technical B r i e f , Palo A l t o , CA.

3. E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e , Heat Pump Manual, Report EM-4100-SRt

Palo A l t o , CA, E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e and National Rural
E l e c t r i c Cooperative Association, Washington, D.C., August 1985.
4. Gas Research I n s t i t u t e , An Assessment o f Vapor Compression Heat Pumps
Technology and Applications f o r I n d u s t r i a l Processes, F i n a l Report
?,November 1980-February 1982), Chicago, I L .

5. Hagler, B a i l l y , & Co., I n d u s t r i a l Heat Pump I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and Case

Studies, U.S. Department o f Energy, F i n a l Report, Washington, DC, J u l y
1987.

6. Hagler, B a i l l y Co., Opportunities f o r P r o d u c t i v i t y Improvements and

Enerqy Savings i n U.S. Industry: Heat Pump Applications, U.S. Dept. o f
Energy, Washington, D.C., June 1987.

7. H a r r i s , G. E., Heat Pumps i n D i s t i l l a t i o n Processes, EPRI EM-3656,

Palo A l t o , CA, August 1984.

8. Karp, Alan, " I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pumps:

Some Unconventional Wisdom,"
paper presented t o t h e IETCE, Houston, TX, Sept. 1987.

9. O r f e u i l , Maurice, E l e c t r i c Process Heating, EPRI Report EM-5105-SR,

B a t t e l l e Press, Columbus, OH, 1987.

10. Ranade, S.M., E. Hindmarsh, and D. Boland, " I n d u s t r i a l Heat Pumps:

Appropriate Placement and S i z i n g Using the Grand Composite," paper
presented t o t h e 8 t h I n d u s t r i a l Energy Technology Conference and
E x h i b i t i o n , Houston, TX, 1986.

11. Ranade, S.M., e t . a l , " I n d u s t r i a l Heat Pumps: A Novel Approach t o Their

Placement, Sizing, and Selection," paper presented t o t h e 21st IECEC, San
Oiego, CA, 1986.

12. Resource Dynamics Corporation, I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Pumps:

State-of-the-Art Review and Research and Development Needs, McLean, VA,
1984.

13. Resource Dynamics Corporation, I n d u s t r i a l Process Heat Recovery, Edison

E l e c t r i c I n s t i t u t e , E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e , September 1988.

14. Schmidt, P h i l i p S . , E l e c t r i c i t y and I n d u s t r i a l P r o d u c t i v i t y , E l e c t r i c

Power Research I n s t i t u t e , Report EM-3640, Palo A l t o , CA, 1984.

15. Spriggs, H.D., and G. Ashton, "Diverse Applications o f Pinch Technology

Within t h e Process I n d u s t r i e s , " paper presented t o t h e 8 t h I n d u s t r i a l
Energy Technology Conference and E x h i b i t i o n , Houston, T X , 1986.

D-15
16. Tensa Technology, An Assessment o f t h e Future A p p l i c a b i l i t y o f Some Heat
Engines and Heat Pumps i n t h e Process I n d u s t r i e s , Technical Papers,
Middlesbrough Cleveland, England, 1981.

17. Tjoe, T.N., and B. L i n n h o f f , "Using Pinch Technology f o r Process

R e t r o f i t , " Chemical Engineering, A p r i l 28, 1986.

18. Townsend, D.W., and B. Linnhoff, "Heat and Power Networks i n Process
Design," AICHE Journal, Vol. 29, No. 5, 1983.

19. Union Carbide Corp., Heat Pumps i n Evaporation Processes, E l e c t r i c Power

Research I n s t i t u t e , Report EM-4693, Palo A l t o , CA, November 1986.

D-16
 MEMBRANE PROCESSES

BAS I C PRINCIPLES

Membrane processes use a semipermeable b a r r i e r ( t y p i c a l l y made o f an organic

polymer, metal, o r ceramic) t o s e l e c t i v e l y t r a n s p o r t components from one f l u i d
t o another. The d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r the t r a n s p o r t may be pressure,
concentration, o r electromagnetic gradient. Some o f the membrane processes
have been known f o r 200 years. The f i r s t p r a c t i c a l use o f a membrane process
was developed i n t h e e a r l y 1960's f o r seawater desalting. By t h e e a r l y
1970's, membrane processes were commercialized and used i n waste water
treatment, seawater desalting, and cheese whey separation. Q u i t e often,
membrane separation i s overlooked although t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r energy savings i s
enormous compared w i t h o t h e r separation techniques, p a r t i c u l a r l y evaporation.

In general, membrane processes do n o t i n v o l v e phase change and they are l e s s

energy i n t e n s i v e than o t h e r separation processes. In phase-change separation
processes, such as evaporation, d i s t i l l a t i o n , and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , heat i s
applied o r removed from t h e s o l u t i o n t o change i t s phase t o vapor o r s o l i d
crystals. On t h e o t h e r hand, membrane separation processes i n v o l v e no such
phase change; t h e product e x i t s t h e membrane i n i t s o r i g i n a l phase. A
combination o f conventional phase-change and membrane u n i t s are used i n h y b r i d
systems capable o f operations t h a t are n o t f e a s i b l e w i t h e i t h e r process alone.

Four p r i n c i p a l types o f membrane processes are used i n the i n d u s t r y , depending

upon t h e physical and electrochemical p r o p e r t i e s o f the p a r t i c l e s being
separated:

0 Reverse osmosis
0 U1t r a f i l t r a t i o n

0 Gas separation

0 Electrodialysis.

For t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , reverse osmosis and u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n have

proven t o be valuable and c o s t e f f e c t i v e and o n l y these two types w i l l be

0-17
discussed i n t h i s document. The thermodynamic p r i n c i p l e s o f membrane
t r a n s p o r t are e s s e n t i a l l y the same f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t membrane processes.

Reverse osmosis (RO) i s a process t h a t uses a semipermeable membrane which

allows s o l u t i o n permeation, b u t acts as a b a r r i e r t o the passage, o r
t r a n s p o r t , o f dissolved and suspended substances (i.e. s a l t s , ions, and
organic compounds). The s o l u t i o n t r a n s p o r t i n RO i s accomplished by using
pressure h i g h enough t o overcome t h e n a t u r a l osmotic pressure i n t h e s o l u t i o n .
The p a r t i c l e s i z e o f species separated i s t y p i c a l l y between 1 t o 10 angstroms
w i t h d r i v i n g pressure o f 200 t o 1000 pounds per square inch ( p s i ) .
U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n (UF) i s s i m i l a r t o RO, b u t w i t h lower pressure (10-100 p s i )
and l a r g e r p a r t i c l e sizes (10 t o 299 angstroms). S o l u t i o n components r e t a i n e d
(not allowed t o pass t h e membrane) depend on t h e i r molecular weight (MW); RO
membranes r e t a i n species w i t h MWs up t o 300, w h i l e UF membranes r e t a i n species
with MW between 300 and 300,000. Figure D-5 i s a schematic o f t h e RO and UF
processes. It shows how s a l t i s r e j e c t e d by t h e RO membrane w h i l e i t passes
through t h e UF membrane.

TEXTILE APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL STATUS

T e x t i l e processes r e q u i r e and produce considerable q u a n t i t i e s o f hot and c o l d

streams f o r various operations, as shown i n Figure D-6. Membrane processes
are i n c r e a s i n g l y p l a y i n g an important r o l e i n t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r the
recovery and reuse o f valuable chemicals, organics, and process water.
T e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f membrane processes f a l l i n t o two broad categories:

0 Water p u r i f i c a t i o n

0 Waste water treatment and recovery.

0-18
 Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Water Salts Macromolecules

-.-.
5
.*.
:*e
.:! ~
Permeate

Ultrafiltration (UF)

Water Salts Macromolecules

2
.:;. * Permeatetf
Figure D-5. Permselectivity of RO and UF Membranes
=e: Reference (8)

Water Purification

Purified water or water of a certain quality is required in many wet

processing textile applications, mainly for product quality benefits. Waters
used to rinse fabrics and fibers after dyeing must be of a certain quality to
yield desired results, as must the boiler feed waters. Waters used in climate
control systems can be pre- or post-treated using membrane systems.

Textile industry process waters that can be purified with membrane separation
processes include:
Dye bath make-up water
0 Rinse water for higher product quality
0 Boiler feed water
0 Climate control systems.

D-19
 Raw
-
Filter
Carding,
Combing.
Drawing Out,
Roving,
Spinning
Yarn
-L
Slashing
(siring),
Weaving
Fabric -

Hot. Xoist Exhaust Hot. Moist Exhaust

Wet-End Processing
tI
Clean Fabric Bleaching "Grev" FabrLc

Hoc, Desire
I
HOC, Scouring Hot. Bleaching
Waste Scream Wash Wacer Wash Water

not, m i s t Exhaust Hot. Xoist Exhaust

"Grey"
t Screams
t
Fabric Drying,
Dyeing Washes
Fixing

Dropped Hoc-Dye not Finished

Batches Wash Water Fabric

Figure D-6. Generalized Schematic of Textile Treatment Processes

=e: Reference (2)

D-20
Waste Water Treatment and Recovery

T e x t i l e wet f i n i s h i n g processes generate considerable streams c o n t a i n i n g

chemical dyes, other chemicals, and heat. Many o f these have high b i o l o g i c a l
oxygen demand (BOD), r e q u i r i n g treatment p r i o r t o discharge. T h e i r reuse can
r e s u l t i n cost savings. Membranes have been used i n t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o
remove t h e c o l o r from waste water, separate t h e b r i n e from dyes t o be reused
i n dye s e t t i n g , and recover concentrates, t e x t i l e l u b r i c a n t s , and sizes f o r
reuse. Examples o f waste water recovery and treatment a p p l i c a t i o n s include:
0 Continuous recovery (up t o 2-percent concentrations o f t e x t i l e
l u b r i c a n t s w i t h high BOD f o r reuse)
0 Concentration and recovery o f dyes
0 P u r i f i c a t i o n and reuse o f i n d i g o dye
0 Recovery o f c a u s t i c wash water

0 Concentration o f p o l y v i n y l alcohol (PVA), carboxyl methyl c e l l u l o s e

(CMC), and o t h e r sizes used i n slashing.

Membrane separations are normally much less energy-intensive than are

conventional separations, which o f t e n i n v o l v e energy-intensive phase-change
u n i t operations. I n general, they r e q u i r e o n l y e l e c t r i c a l energy t o run pumps
o r compressors. The advantages o f membrane separation systems i n dyeing
operations i n c l u d e consistent q u a l i t y i n t h e c o l o r o f dyes and reduced
feedwater requirements. One problem many t e x t i l e f i n i s h e r s face i s the
degradation o f dye q u a l i t y during a given production run. Because o f the
v a r i a t i o n s i n feedwater q u a l i t y during a t y p i c a l day ( t h i s may a r i s e from
overpumping, inadequately t r e a t e d feedwater, o r other reasons), dye s e t t i n g i s
n o t always uniform. This l a c k o f u n i f o r m i t y can r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t shades o r
hues o f f a b r i c intended t o have t h e same c o l o r . I n some m i l l s t h e r e can be a
sharp d i s t i n c t i o n between a f a b r i c dyed i n the beginning o f t h e production run
and t h a t dyed a t t h e end, although t h e same c o l o r dye was used. When a
reverse osmosis system i s used, dye water can be t r e a t e d t o separate t h e c o l o r
and p u r i f y t h e water t o i t s o r i g i n a l q u a l i t y p r i o r t o the o r i g i n a l dye
setting. Thus, no new feedwater i s required, o r what new feedwater i s
r e q u i r e d as a r e s u l t o f wastage due t o slashing would be so minimal as n o t t o
a l t e r feedwater q u a l i t y .

D-21
Not all dye recovery applications of membrane processes produce these
benefits, however, because some dyes may act as foulants for the membranes.
When such fouling occurs on a regular basis the cost of cleaning or
replacement may negate the cost effectiveness of membrane systems. In those
textile processes, such as scouring, where high temperatures and waste streams
containing high pH levels are produced, successful applications of membrane
processes depend on the availability of high-temperature and pH-resistant
membranes.

The optimal separation process for many applications of membrane processes is

a "hybrid" process. These processes combine a conventional separation unit
operation, such as evaporation, with a membrane process, such as reverse
osmosis. In some cases, separations that are not possible with either process
alone may be achievable with a hybrid process.

Since membrane processes are generally electric-driven, replacement of a

conventional phase-change separation process with a membrane-based hybrid
process usually results in the replacement of some or all thermal energy
requirements by electrical energy requirements. And, due t o the relatively
low energy requirements o f most membrane processes, the overall energy
requirements of a membrane-based hybrid process will be lower than those of a
conventional phase-change process alone. The economic benefits of membrane
systems are:
0 Lower energy costs
0 Lower floor space due to compact size of membrane equipment
0 Lower design/maintenance costs due to modular design of membrane
units
0 Increased productivity due to improved system reliability.

EQUIPMEN1

The basic components of a typical membrane process consist of the following

components:
0 Membranes
0 Membrane modules
0 Electric liquid pump.

D-22
 IIF

scour

Pump

Wasre
ace= f o r

a25 W C X

F i g u r e D-7. Membrane-Based Hybrid L i q u i d Separation Process

=e: Reference (2)

The membranes and membrane modules are t h e keys t o these systems. The type o f
membrane and t h e membrane module d i f f e r among a p p l i c a t i o n s . Membranes are
made from a wide v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d i n g c e l l u l o s e esters, p o l y v i n y l
c h l o r i d e (PVC), c e l l u l o s e acetate, polycarbonate, polyamides, polysulfone,
p o l y o l e f i n s , and v i n y l c h l o r i d e .

The most w i d e l y used RO membrane module c o n f i g u r a t i o n s today are: t h e

spiral-wound f l a t - s h e e t membrane; t h e s h e l l - s i d e - f e e d hol l o w - f i n e - f i b e r
membrane; and t h e f l a t - e l e m e n t membrane arrangements as shown i n Figure D-8.
These c o n f i g u r a t i o n s have r e l a t i v e l y h i g h packing d e n s i t i e s and a r e r e l a t i v e l y
inexpensive t o i n s t a l l .

D-23
membrane; and the flat-element membrane arrangements as shown in Figure D-8.
These configurations have relatively high packing densities and are relatively
inexpensive to install.

Figure D-8. Spiral-Wound, Hollow-Fine-Fiber, and

Flat-Element Membrane
=e: References (8)

D-24
A module design that is less prone to fouling than are the shell-side-feed
hollow-fine-fiber or spiral-wound modules i s the tubular-membrane module,
illustrated in Figure D-9. A typical tubular membrane module consists of a
number o f perforated stainless steel tubes in the form o f a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. Each tube is lined with a tubular membrane. Feed is
introduced on the tube side. Turbulent flow is maintained down the length of
the tubes, thereby minimizing fouling; there are no "dead spots" within the
membrane module. The cost per square foot of tubular membranes, however, is
typically about three times that for hollow-fiber membranes.

n Pemeate

U Parseace

Permeate
stainless
InieclOutlec Collection ?lembraae
Ports
Shroud Support Tubes

I I /

Pcrseace Uembrane Insert

Otfcake Tubes

Figure D-9. Cross Section of a Tubular RO Membrane (A)

and Schematic of a Tubular RO Membrane Module (B)

=e: Reference (2)

D-25
Since most UF processes treat fouling-prone streams, UF membranes are
typically modularized in tube-side-feed hollow-fiber and tubular
configurations (although spiral-wound is sometimes used when
less-foul ing-prone streams are treated). Module configuration also affects
the ease with which the membranes can be cleaned. UF membranes can withstand
solutions with high chlorine concentration, higher temperatures (close to
boiling), and a wide pH range, while RO membranes have little tolerance for
chlorine concentration and high temperatures (higher than 100 degrees
Fahrenheit). Also, RO membranes are much more fragile than the UF ones.

PERFORMANCE AND COST DATA

The selection of membrane systems depends on application requirements such as

chemical and physical properties of the feed stream (i .e., feed composition,
pressure, and temperature), material being separated (i .e., molecular weight
and size), desired composition of the permeate and/or the concentrate, and the
desired production rate (i.e., gallons per day or cubic feet per minute).
While there is no standard specification for membrane equipment, it can be
described in terms of pore size, rejection capability, and permeability.

Pore Size: The pore structure of the membrane acts as a filter; passing small
solutes while retaining larger emulsified and suspended matters. The pore
size of a specific membrane should be much smaller than the size of particles
rejected such that the particles cannot enter the membrane structure and plug
it. Figure D-10 shows the membrane separation processes in relation t o
commonly known particle sizes.

Rejection: Molecular weight cut-off (defined as: the molecular weight below
which a species passes through the membrane) is used as a measure of
rejection. Particle rejection is influenced by many factors including
pressure, pH, temperature, and solute characteristics (i.e., shape, size, and
flexibility). For example, for a given molecular weight, more-rigid molecules
are better rejected than flexible ones.

Permeability: Permeability is defined as the volume of water permeated per

unit area, time, thickness, and pressure driving force. The standard units of
permeability are gallons per day (or hour) per unit area or cubic meters per
day per square meter. Because both capital and operating costs for a membrane

D-26
system increase w i t h i n c r e a s i n g membrane area, i t i s important t o minimize
membrane area by choosing membranes w i t h h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y .

Membrane l i f e depends on t h e operating c o n d i t i o n s such as process temperature,

pH l e v e l , stream c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and c l e a n i n g and s t e r i l i z i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
Generally, membrane l i f e times are two years o r more f o r t r e a t i n g clean
streams (water processing), b u t are d r a s t i c a l l y reduced when t r e a t i n g
comparatively d i r t y streams (i.e., waste water). Some types o f membrane
module c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r c e r t a i n k i n d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n s than
others. Table 0-3 compares features f o r t h e most common membrane modules:
f l a t , t u b u l a r , spiral-wound, and h o l l o w - f i b e r membrane modules.

Typical Reverse oimoiis Mi<toiiitration

range Of
reparation
PloCell Ultraiiltration Macroiillration
I I I

Obrenation
method

F i g u r e D-10. The Separation Spectrum

=e: Reference (9)

D-27
 Table D-3
COMPARISON OF TYPES OF MEMBRANE PERMEATORS

Adwanlagm Disadvantages statu*

holdup per "nil membrane area
LOW Can plug a i points of solution stagnation
Much operating experience May be hard to clean acceptably for food usel
L~WfloDrrpscePerrq.ft. Expensive 81 present lea. $100hq. f1.1 Commercial

LOW floor rpace per 19. fl. Meager lsrgecaie operating experiencea t
Very good for highly v i f ~ w i present large%aI*
SOlYfi0"l CB" Plvg equipment
Very low holdup per mil membrane Can be hard 10 clean accepfably jYSt now on
area Expensive SI present market
High conversion per wss achievable Membranes i n some designs hard to replace

Tubular Earily cleaned: accepted for prmesing High holdup per unit membrane area
bowentionall food products Relatively expeenrive b.$lO-$ZOhq. ft.
Mwh operating experience Requires moderately large floor space per sq. Commercial
Individual tuber replaceable ft.slthough tube module can be placed
separately i n and around existing equip-
ment in special cases

Moderately low floor spice required Meager operating experience at Prerenf

per sq. n. High holdup per Unit membrane area Commercial
Easily cleaned "EWO"
market

Spiralwound Low i n cost ( E a . Bhq.ft.1 Easily plugged

Compact: low floor space per sq. ft. Hard to clean acceptably for pmcesring Commercial
Low holdup per "nil membrane area food products
Long Operating experience

Hollowfiber very low in cost Plugs eerily

(shellside feed) very compacf Verv hard to clean
Low holdup

Hollow-fiber very low i n COW Just now on market-eager operating

lfeed inside fibem) very compact experience
Low holdup
May beamenableto cleaning membranes

=e: Reference (3)

Power Requirements

Electrical energy required in a membrane system depends on many factors

including: the type of application; membrane type; area and permeability;
process parameters (i .e., pressure and temperature) ; permeate/brine
concentration; and feed flow rate. Because membrane processes involve no
phase change, substantial amounts o f energy can be saved by replacing thermal
energy with electrical energy required only to operate the membrane system.
Furthermore, membrane separation processes have the potential of conserving
additional energy by recovering and recycling process components from waste
streams at process temperatures. For example, in seawater plants, the
discharged brine stream from the RO devices is at pressures o f 705 to 950 psi.

D-28
When the brine stream is passed through a hydro or impulse turbine, additional
amounts of energy are recovered.

Capital Costs

The capital costs of membrane systems depend on the type and size o f membrane
modules, feed stream properties, process requirements (i .e., temperature,
pressure, permeate/brine concentration, and composition), and system capacity.
As a result, there is a wide variation in capital costs. Generalizations can
be misleading. In general, however, a membrane system can cost from several
million dollars for a heavy industrial application (i.e., chemical plant) to
about $10,000 for a water purification system. A water purification system
that processes 5,000 gallons a day could cost between $10,000 and $50,000,
depending on the instrumentation and the type of membrane used. Installation
costs include motors, piping, and wiring. Most plants do their own
installation but as the system gets bigger companies need the help of membrane
companies to install equipment. For a water purification unit producing
100,000 gallons per day, capital costs would range between $2.00-$2.50 per
gallon per day, for a maximum of about $250,000. These capital cost estimates
are affected by such factors as the quality of the feedwater, the temperature
limitations, the instrumentation, and the type of membrane.

In most systems, the cost o f RO devices makes up 10 to 30 percent o f capital

costs, and the balance is for site development, installation, building, pipes,
pumps, storage, etc. The economics of UF are so dependent on the process
specification that it is not practical to develop a rule of thumb for capital
and operating costs.

Operating Costs

Operating costs are influenced by energy, material, labor, and maintenance

costs. The operating cost for membrane systems consist of the following:
0 Membrane replacement

D-29
 0 Spare parts
0 Labor
0 Raw water usage
0 Chemical usage.

The labor content consists of aking OF ratic al data, cleaning membrane ' I

adding chemicals, and flushing out the system. For a water purification
system, operating costs amount to between 80 cents and $1.10 per 1,000 gallons
of purified water. Costs for a wastewater treatment system would be higher,
between $2.50 - $4.00 per 1,000 gallons because of the higher membrane
requirements. Also, power costs are higher, more chemicals are used, and
frequent membrane cleaning i s required.

0-30
REFERENCES

1. Applegate, Lynn E., "Membrane Separation Processes," Chemical

Enqineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, June 11, 1984.
2. Bend Research, Inc., The Use of Membrane-Based Hybrid Systems in
Industrial Separations, Report No. EM-5231, Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
3. Lacey, Robert E., "Membrane Separation Processes," Chemical Enqineering,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, September 4, 1972.
4. Mans, Jack, ed., "Membrane Processing -- Cost, Efficiency Sparks Interest
in New Technology," Processed Prepared Foods, Gorman Publishing, 1981.
5. McGraw-Hill, ed., "New Chlor-Alkali Methods Boost a Sagging Industry,"
Chemical Enqineering, New York, NY, April 30, 1984.
6. McGraw-Hill, ed., "Separations are Key to Biotech Scale-up," Chemical
Enqineering, New York, NY, January 19, 1987.
7. Osmonics, Inc., Company brochures on OSMO Membrane Systems, Minetonka,
MN, 1985.
8. EPRI, "Membrane Processes," Techcomnentary, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1988.
9. Battelle, "Advances in Membrane Technology", B-TIP Report No. 50,
December 1986.

D-31
 ULTRAVIOLET CURING

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum having

wavelengths from 4 to 400 nanometers. UV wavelengths are selected for
specific applications to match the wavelength at which the substrates absorb
the most energy to induce chemical change. UV lamps of specific wavelengths
are used for curing compounds because those compounds selectively absorb
energy of those wavelengths and, in doing so, undergo a chemical change. The
basic energy source for initiating reactions of UV responsive materials is the
mercury vapor lamp. Typically the material that is processed passes through a
drying area or oven for irradiation.

Applying electromagnetic radiation to certain polymeric materials leads to the

formation of three-dimensional network structures, in effect transforming a
liquid on a substrate t o a solid coating. This process is termed
radiation-processing or radiation-curing. Radiation processing of polymeric
materials requires that electrical energy be converted to some form of
electromagnetic radiation energy with sufficient power or intensity to be
commercially feasible. Figure D-11 shows the UV curing process.

TEXTILE APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL STATUS

Although UV processing of polymeric materials has found widespread commercial

use in coatings, printing, adhesives, electronics, and communications
applications, textile applications have been limited for one major reason:
the use of UV-curable coatings on apparel fibers and fabrics, while
technically feasible, may lead to undesirable side effects. Because of the
natural absorbency of textile fibers and fabrics, UV curable inks or other
coatings will penetrate the fibers, acting as a blocking device to the
ultraviolet radiation. The untreated UV-curable coating will act as a skin
shsitizer, rendering the fabric unsuitable for use as clothing. However,

D-32
 I [,,,I Photoinitiator

Polymerization
Solid

Figure 0-11. UV Curing Process

=e: -
Reference (3)
non-apparel related fabrics and fibers such as tire cords, can be treated with
UV-curable coatings. Commercial uses of UV processing in the textile industry
are limited to the coating of non-apparel fibers and fabrics. The main
reasons textile manufacturers coat fibers with various coating materials are
to enhance lubricity, to impart greater strength to fibers, and t o improve
adhesibility when fibers are being resinated.

As with many applications of new or emerging technologies in the textile

industry, secrecy is a major barrier to obtaining information about the
commercial status of the technology. Some manufacturers of UV equipment admit
to having worked with textile customers but will not divulge the nature of the
applications. Some textile companies are working on UV processing in the
textile industry but the information is proprietary. In many instances these
textile companies enter into secrecy agreements with equipment manufacturers.

Research, development, and testing remain to be done before ultraviolet

processing in textile applications can reach the stage of commercial maturity.
Textile companies, UV equipment manufacturers, and, to a large extent,
research institutions need to collaborate on expanding the potential
applications in the textile industry because the benefits of such applications

D-33
could be considerable. Ultraviolet radiation can induce the rapid
transformation of a liquid on a substrate to a solid coating. In contrast to
simple drying (in which pigments or other coating materials originally in
suspension or solution in a solvent are left on the surface when the solvent
is evaporated), curing involves a change in the molecular structure of the
coating to render it solid. UV curing offers a number of advantages over
conventional curing methods. These advantages include:
0 Rapid drying and curing speeds (seconds compared to minutes)
0 Reduction or elimination of organic solvents, thus eliminating air
pollution and incineration problems
0 Reduction or elimination of conventional drying ovens and
incinerators
0 Increased production rates
0 More efficient use o f coating materials due to reduced penetration
into substrates
0 Savings in space of application equipment
0 Applicability to products that cannot be manufactured by any other
processing technique (for example, products and materials that are
sensitive to heating such as synthetic fibers).

EQUIPMENT

The major lamp systems in commercial use today are as follows (see Figure
D42):

0 Low-pressure mercury vapor lamps

0 Medium-pressure (1 to 2 atmospheres) electrode-activated mercury
vapor lamps
0 Medium-pressure mercury vapor lamps activated by microwave energy
radiation, thus not requiring electrodes
Pulsed or flash xenon gas arcs
0 Hybrid xenon/mercury vapor lamp systems.

The most common industrial UV lamp source i s the medium-pressure mercury lamp.
In this lamp, ionization is produced by a high-voltage discharge through a
gas-filled tube. The discharge is produced either by positioning an arc
between electrodes or by placing the gas in a microwave field for
electrodeless operation.

D-34
 IR
t ,-PLASMA
f '1

ELECTRODE ARC ELECTRODELESS MICROWAVE L M P

LPJ4P

Figure 0-12. Types of UV Sources

=e: Reference (5)

Each UV lamp system is housed in a reflector and must be cooled with air or
water to promote efficient lamp operation and a reasonable life expectancy. A
typical linear array of electrode lamps, an electrodeless lamp system,
reflectors, and methods of cooling are shown in Figure D-13.

PERFORMANCE AND COST DATA

Lamp characteristics are chosen to match the requirements o f the application.

In most cases, coating thickness, rate of production, and processing
temperature are the primary characteristics which influence the selection of
the equipment specification. In general, two important factors should be
considered when selecting UV lamp sources. First, the wavelength of the lamp
source must match the absorption spectra o f the material undergoing the
photochemical reactions. Second, the intensity of the source must be powerful
enough to initiate the photochemical reaction in the given time span.

Four types of UV lamp sources are commercially available for UV curing

applications. Table D-4 compares their operational characteristics. The
radiation intensity and the wavelength spectrum produced by the UV lamp source
are functions of the pressure of the mercury vapor and the applied power; as

D-35
t h e power and temperature increase so does the vapor pressure. Lamp
e f f i c i e n c y (defined as t h e r a t i o o f t o t a l r a d i a t i o n t o t h e power i n p u t ) a l s o
increases w i t h t h e power input. Cure r a t e s may be more than doubled from the
exposure o f one lamp operating a t 200 watts per i n c h versus two lamps
operating a t 100 watts p e r inch.
Air
Air (5) H2O H20 (5)

(I) UV Source: Linear Eleclmde Lamp (200/300 w/ln)

Main (2) Power Supply: 1.5 KV AC > 90% Eflicienw
(3) Reflector (pamboiic or Elliptical)
- (4) Energy Profile
(5) Cooling (Air, HIO)
(6) Housing: Radialion Containment
(7) ConWOr Bed

I I Filter
t t Blower
J
t t
00- -00

Substrate

Negative Positive
Air Cooling Air Cooling

Radiator
(10" long
16" tall
9" wide)
Reflector
Controller -Exhaust

Eiectrodeiess lamp Curing System

(Fusion Systems)

Figure 0-13. Commercial UV Processor U n i t s

=e: Reference (2)
D-36
 Table 0-4
UV LAMP OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

El ectrode-Act ivated Mi cruwave

Low-Pressure Medium-Pressure Energized
Mercury Hercurv Mercury Flash Xenon
Lamp Temp. Cool High High Moderate
(Water Cooled)
Lamp Power 1 - 10 Watts/In. 100 - 400 Watts/In. 300 Watts/In. .1 to 10 Kilo-
Watts Peak
Power
Arc Lengths 10 - 75 Inches 1-1/2 - 77 Inches 10 Inches .6 - 30 Inches
Bulb Shapes Linear, Linear, Curved Linear Linear.
Ci rcu 1 ar Circular,
Hclica1
Relative LOW Moderate High High
System Costs
Input Power 1 - 10 Watts/In. 110 - 440 Watts/In. 550 Watts/In. --
Lamp Warranty 17,500 Hours 1.000 Hours 3,000 Hours 1.000 Hours
Major Output
Wavelengths 254 365. 436, 546. 365, 636. 450
(m) 580 546, 580

Spectral none Moderate Extensive Limited

Variations
Spectral Excellent Good Very Good Poor
Efficiency
Radiant Very Good Good Fair Poor
Efficiency
Overall Fair Good Good Poor
Efficienty
Practical Low Intensity None Limited Sizes Low Efficiency
Limits

=e: Reference (2)

D-37
I n mercury lamps, t h e plasma which produces t h e UV energy i s enclosed i n a
quartz envelope. This quartz envelope acts as a f i l t e r , absorbing unwanted
wavelengths, e s p e c i a l l y the i n f r a r e d (IR) p o r t i o n o f t h e spectrum contained i n
the lamp. F i l t e r i n g o f I R wavelengths i s important because some c u r i n g
a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t substrate temperature should be maintained a t a
given l e v e l .

For special a p p l i c a t i o n s , e.g., where a high degree o f r a d i a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n

i s required, pulsed x e n o n - f i l l e d lamps are used. The UV s p e c t r a l output o f
the xenon lamp can be s h i f t e d by varying t h e capacitance and t h e lamp voltage.
Pulsed xenon lamps can be s t a r t e d , stopped, and r e s t a r t e d i n s t a n t l y without
warm up time.

Curing Speed

The main advantage o f UV c u r i n g i s t h e r a p i d c u r i n g t h a t UV can e f f e c t . Cure

speed, determined by t h e number o f UV lamps required t o cure a product a t a
given l i n e speed, i s an extremely complex c a l c u l a t i o n . Q u a n t i t a t i v e t e s t s are
o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o design. Generally, c u r i n g speed depends on the f o l l o w i n g
factors:

0 The chemical compound. Each monomer w i l l cure a t a d i f f e r e n t r a t e ,

depending on i t s composition, t h e type and amount o f s e n s i t i z e r
pigment, and a d d i t i v e s used. A l l o f these are determined by the
manufacturer o f t h e compound.

0 The thickness o f coating. The amount o f UV energy i n s i d e a l a y e r o f

c o a t i n g decreases exponentially w i t h t h e depth.

0 The i n t e n s i t y o f UV energy. Up t o a c e r t a i n s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t , t h e
c u r i n g r a t e increases w i t h the UV energy p e r u n i t surface area. UV
cure lamps should have the highest power-to-size r a t i o a t t a i n a b l e
w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g t h e i r l i f e t i m e o r r e l i a b i l i t y . The shape o f a
lamp's r e f l e c t o r and i t s h e i g h t above the product a f f e c t the
i n t e n s i t y o f the UV energy. A r e f l e c t o r f o r which UV energy i s
concentrated on a small area can a f f o r d f a s t e r c u r i n g than a
r e f l e c t o r t h a t f l o o d s an area w i t h a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n o f energy.

0 A d d i t i o n a l Factors. The method o f coat a p p l i c a t i o n , chemical

f o r m u l a t i o n and substrate c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as type and c o l o r o f
m a t e r i a l , temperature, pretreatment, and thermal capacity ( s p e c i f i c
heat), can a l s o i n f l u e n c e the c u r i n g speed.

D-38
Capital Costs

Complete UV system costs include the lamp system, shielding, shutters, cooling
system, and installation cost. Typically, these costs are amortized over five
years and represent about 25 percent of the hourly operating costs.
Generally, capital cost for conventional gas curing systems are nearly four
times higher than equivalent UV systems, and one-fourth of this expenditure is
for the incinerator required to dispose of the solvent vapor.

Since most of the UV curing systems are custom made, their prices are
influenced by many factors such as type, number, and length of lamps; type of
shielding; cooling method (water versus air); and type of power supply and
safety interlocks. For example, water-cooled UV systems are more expensive
than air cooled ones. In general, the capital cost for each type of UV lamp
system i s as follows:
Low-pressure mercury lamp systems have selective markets for surface
curing and in some cases total curing of temperature-sensitive and
troublesome substrates. A typical one-lamp low-pressure mercury
system costs $215.
Typical multiple-lamp systems cost anywhere between $2,700and
$19,400 depending on number and lamp length.
Electrodeless systems have two standard size modules (6" or lo"),
and cost approximately $3,200 for the 6-inch compared to $7,500 for
the 10-inch lamp module.
An Xenon system complete with lamp, power supply, water cooling
system, and reflector costs approximately $4,300depending upon lamp
length and additional options.

Operating Costs

The most significant operating costs in any curing application are material,
maintenance and labor, and energy costs.

Material Cost. The coating material is the most critical cost element in the
UV curing applications. Coating material for UV curing applications is 1.1 to
1.75 times as expensive per pound as conventional solvent-based coatings. On
the other hand, UV coating materials are entirely convertible to solids with
no wasted solvent to evaporate from the coating film. This results in less
coating material used per unit stock and offsets the higher price for the UV
coating material. Also, since the UV-curing process is very well controlled,

D-39
material loss due to the rejection of poor quality output is less than
conventional curing processes.

Maintenance and Labor Costs. Burned out lamps and electrical components
(i.e., ballasts, magnetrons, etc.) must be periodically replaced or cleaned.
Lamp replacement costs generally represent 10 to 25 percent of the total
operating costs for UV systems. The normal life expectancy for most UV lamps
is 1,500 hours based on one shift per day of operation. Usually, the
electrodeless UV lamps have about 100 percent greater operating life than
conventional electrode lamps (1,500vs. 3,000 hours for electrodeless lamps).
The cost of replacement lamps varies considerably, depending on their length
and type. Electrodeless lamps require the replacement of the magnetron power
tubes in the 4,000- to 6,000-hour range, and cost approximately $75, whereas
in conventional (electrode) lamps, ballasts are replaced and usually cost
approximately $100 each.

The operating labor cost for UV systems is roughly 33 percent less than that
o f similar gas systems because UV systems are mechanically less complex and
skilled labor is not required.

Enerqy Cost. Typically, UV curing units use approximately 25 percent of the

energy required by equivalent conventional gas units. Gas systems are less
efficient than the UV systems. Typically, electricity represents 30-40
percent of the total operating costs.

Power Requirements

Many factors influence the power requirements, such as type of substrate, lamp
source, coating material, and cooling and ventilation rates. Generally, the
total power required is determined by multiplying the lamp intensity
(expressed in watts per inch), times the lamp length, times the total number
of lamps in the system. The power required for air blowers and/or heat
exchangers as well as ballast inefficiencies can generally be accounted for by
including a safety factor, usually from 20-40 percent of the required power.
For most ultraviolet drying applications, energy use is about 0.5 to 1 kW per
inch width of substrate for each drying position in the press.

0-40
REFERENCES

1. Baer, G.F.,"UV Curing - An Overview," SME Technical Paper FC83-248,

Dearborn, M I , 1983.
2. Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Radiation Curing: State-of-the-Art
Assessment, Electric Power Research Institute, Report EM-4570, Palo
K l t o , J u n e 1986.
3. Fusion Systems, "Fusion Systems Ultraviolet Curing, Advanced Technology
for Tomorrow's Benefits Today," Rockville, MD.
4. Schmidt, Philip S . , Electricity and Industrial Productivity, Electric
Power Research Institute, Report EM-4630, Palo Alto, CA, May 1983.
5. Spero, D.M., "Choosing UV Hardware--Promises, Performances, Prices," ASM
Technical Paper FC78-545, Dearborn, M I , 1978.

0-41
 MICROWAVE PROCESSING

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Microwave is the name given to the radio-frequency portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum between 300 and 300,000 MHZ. In an effort to avoid
conflict with communication applications using microwave frequencies, the
Federal Communication Commission (FCC) has set aside several frequency bands
for microwave heating. Of the allowed frequencies, 915 and 2,450 MHZ are used
almost exclusively .
Microwave processing uses microwaves to heat electrically non-conducting
materials (dielectrics) composed of polar molecules. The most common
dielectric with polar molecules is water, and many microwave applications are
used to heat or dry moist materials. Polar molecules have an asymmetric
electrical structure--much like miniature magnets--and tend to a1 ign
themselves in an imposed electric field, as shown in Figure D-14. When the
direction of the electric field is alternated rapidly (at high frequencies)
these polar molecules tend to move in synchronization with the field, creating
friction between molecules and thus producing heat from within the material.
This principle is referred to as dielectric heating, and is also performed by
radiofrequency equipment.

t.
Alternating
Dipolar molecules

Figure D-14.
+
electric field

Schematic Representation of Dielectric Hysteresis Heating

D-42
Microwaves are produced by magnetron tubes, which are comprised of a
rod-shaped cathode within a cylindrical anode. When power is supplied to the
magnetron, electrons flow from the cathode to the anode, setting up an
electromagnetic field (both electric and magnetic fields). The frequency of
the field is determined by the dimensions of the slots and cavities which line
the walls of the anode. When power is supplied to the magnetron, oscillations
i n the slots and cavities form microwaves.

TEXTILE APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL BENEFITS

Textile industry applications of microwaves fall into two categories: the

removal of moisture from fibers and the heating of solids and liquids used to
coat, dye, or otherwise process fibers, fabrics, and floor coverings.
Microwaves have been used for finished drying of carpets and to dry different
samples of textile fibers (polyester and cotton fibers) and lubricants.
Application of microwaves for sample testing can provide a fast and effective
method of determining the moisture content of particular fabric and fiber
types and their response to drying. While conventional heating provides
efficient drying of products with high moisture content (microwaves can cause
undesirable boil-up), microwave drying is more efficient when used to dry
products with lower moisture contents. Figure D-15 illustrates how microwaves
can be used to speed up drying after moisture levels drop. Microwaves have
been used to reduce all the moisture from pillow stuffing to flatten these
pillows for packaging. These pillows are later puffed to their original shape
without any wrinkling.

Microwave heating can effectively

augment conventional heating in some
antmi applications. For example, microwave
heat can pump moisture to the surlaoe 04
a product where it can be evaporated mole
efficiently byaconventional hot air
system. But when a product has a
moisture content of 50% or more.
n.rm microwave heating might cause
I I undesirable boilina

Figure D-15. Comparison of Microwaves and Conventional Drying

D-43
The t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , driven almost e n t i r e l y by economics, has been slow t o
respond t o microwave technology applications. One o f the major problems w i t h
applying microwaves i n t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s i s t h e l a c k o f a d e t a i l e d
assessment o f t h e economics. Microwave equipment i s expensive from a c a p i t a l
cost standpoint. E l e c t r i c i t y i s more expensive than the o t h e r energy sources
used i n t e x t i l e heating, drying, and c u r i n g applications. Microwave use i n
o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t e x t i l e drying, f o r example,
d r y i n g o f i n k s i n t h e p r i n t i n g i n d u s t r y , has demonstrated t h e convenience and
speed o f microwaves. I n a d d i t i o n t o convenience and speed, microwave
processing has been shown t o enhance p r o d u c t i v i t y because i t can heat t h i c k
sections o f m a t e r i a l and heat m a t e r i a l s t h a t are s e n s i t i v e t o h i g h
temperatures such as s y n t h e t i c f i b e r s and heat-sensitive dyes.

Increased competition i s now f o r c i n g the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y t o look f o r ways t o

increase p r o d u c t i v i t y and decrease costs. This has helped t o b u i l d a new
i n t e r e s t i n a v a r i e t y o f i n d u s t r i a l heating applications. I n general,
b e n e f i t s o f microwave processing i n c l u d e increased production, decreased
energy consumption, reduced m a t e r i a l loss, as w e l l as space and l a b o r savings,
provided t h e a p p l i c a t i o n i s s u i t a b l e f o r microwaves. Since the moisture l e v e l
o f f a b r i c s and f i b e r s t h a t have been d r i e d i s c r u c i a l t o t e x t i l e product
q u a l i t y , t h e use o f microwaves t o measure moisture l e v e l s i n t e x t i l e products
i s one valuable a p p l i c a t i o n o f microwaves i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . The
comparison i n Table D-5 shows microwaves have some advantages over
conventional d r y i n g methods. The reduction i n d r y i n g time can lead t o
increased production volume w i t h reduced processing time. P o t e n t i a l l y
successful a p p l i c a t i o n s t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r e any o f the f o l l o w i n g :

0 Heating t h i c k sections o f m a t e r i a l

0 Heating temperature-sensitive m a t e r i a l s

0 Heating expensive m a t e r i a l s w i t h reduced m a t e r i a l loss, leading t o

s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t savings

0 Converting a batch process t o continuous o r semi-continuous.

D-44
 Table D-5

COMPARATIVE MICROWAVE DRYING DATA

MATERIAL MICROYAVE D R Y I N G A I R OVEN DRYING

T X Weight Moisture Drying Tim Moisture Drying Tim

(9) (Z) (Win) (X) (nin)

Polyester Fiber 12 4 4 4 60
Cotton F i k r 4 7 a 7 60
T e x t i l e Lubricant 3 25 10 25 60

-
Source: Reference (2)

Microwaves have a higher power density than radiofrequency (RF) waves, and
thus microwave systems g e n e r a l l y heat f a s t e r than RF systems.
RF systems
achieve a slower, more uniform heat r a t e , which i s i d e a l f o r l a r g e r , t h i c k e r
objects. Although t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l f o r competition between t h e two
electrotechnologies, i n most a p p l i c a t i o n s one i s b e t t e r s u i t e d than the other
and g e n e r a l l y each competes against conventional ovens. I n addition, the
average microwave system i s about 50 kW, i n contrast t o a t y p i c a l RF system,
-
which i s about 100 300 kW. To date, t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f RF are more
v a r i e d and commercialized than those o f microwaves.

Unfortunately, the t e x t i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f microwaves t h a t have reaped

successful r e s u l t s have not been published by the companies. For competitive
reasons t h e r e are many well-kept trade secrets i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y .
Laboratory t e s t s o f microwave processing i n the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y have
i n d i c a t e d some t e c h n i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s (e.g., dye m i g r a t i o n ) , and the high
c a p i t a l costs o f microwave equipment may pose economic b a r r i e r s . But these
l i m i t a t i o n s are n o t insurmountable. A concerted research and development
e f f o r t together w i t h commitments from the t e x t i l e industry, microwave
equipment manufacturers, and u t i l i t i e s can help accelerate the

D-45
commercialization of microwaves. In this way textile firms can realize some
of the inherent benefits of microwave processing for those applications to
which they are suitable.

EQUIPMENT

The microwave processing system is comprised of four basic components:

A generator. Includes the power supply unit and magnetron(s). The
magnetron generates microwaves from electricity produced by the
power supply. Prone to overheating, the magnetron is typically air-
or water-cooled.
An applicator. Receives the microwaves from the generator and
directs them to the product. The applicator consists of one or more
waveguides to direct the microwaves, and can also include one-way
shields that prevent microwaves from reflecting back through the
waveguide, possibly damaging the magnetron.
Materials Handling Equipment. Positions the product under the
applicator. In continuous processing systems, the materials
handling system guides the product through the exposure area. Batch
processing systems (similar to home microwave ovens) have no
materials handling system, and depend on an operator to remove
processed products.
System Controls Monitor and Regulator. To ensure adequate drying
and heating while protecting against overexposure, the controls
should regulate exposure time and/or material-hand1 ing speed.

PERFORMANCE AND COST DATA

Prior to specifying microwave equipment, several characteristics that affect

heating requirements should be known, including:
Production rate (yards or feet per minute if web drying, products
per hour if drying spools)
0 Material being processed
0 Weight of each product
0 Specific heat of the product
0 Desired rise in temperature
0 Dielectric properties (if application is not drying or heating
water).

0-46
Determination o f Heating Requirements

The f i r s t step i n s p e c i f y i n g microwave equipment i s t o determine t h e heating

required by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n . This step i s necessary t o determine the
microwave generator power requirements. I n d r y i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , however, the
power requirement can be estimated by using t h e percentage moisture and
product weight (see next section). There are a t most f o u r types o f heat
requirements:

1) The heat r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e t h e dry m a t e r i a l up t o processing

temperature, c a l c u l a t e d by the product o f t h e weight o f the p a r t ,
the s p e c i f i c heat o f the p a r t , and t h e desired r i s e i n temperature.

2) The heat r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e the v o l a t i l e matter ( f l u i d being d r i v e n

o f f , e.g., water) up t o processing temperature. The q u a n t i t y o f
heat r e q u i r e d t o do so i s c a l c u l a t e d by the product o f the i n i t i a l
moisture percentage, product weight, s p e c i f i c heat o f t h e v o l a t i l e ,
and t h e r i s e i n temperature. I n non-drying a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h i s heat
i s n o t r e q u i r e d since there i s no v o l a t i l e .

3) The heat r e q u i r e d t o vaporize ( d r i v e o f f ) t h e v o l a t i l e matter. This

i s dependent on t h e heat o f vaporization o f t h e v o l a t i l e (970 B t u / l b
f o r water). This q u a n t i t y o f heat i s the product o f t h e product
weight,'percentage moisture, and heat o f vaporization.

4) Heat losses t o t h e surrounding a i r o r machinery. Peak e f f i c i e n c y i s

achieved when t h e product absorbs the f u l l output o f the microwave
system. By c a r e f u l l y c o n f i g u r i n g the a p p l i c a t o r , t h e amount o f
microwaves not absorbed by the product can be minimized.

The t o t a l heat r e q u i r e d t o d r y o r heat the a p p l i c a t i o n i s t h e sum o f these

f o u r components. By m u l t i p l y i n g by t h e production r a t e , i n products per hour,
the h o u r l y BTU requirement can be estimated.

Determination o f Power Requirements

To convert t h e heat requirements i n t o power requirements, the h o u r l y Btu

requirement must be d i v i d e d by 3412 ( t h e Btu per kWh equivalent). T h i s
conversion y i e l d s the generator kW output. For example, 1,000 Btu per l b i s
required t o evaporate 100 l b s o f water per hour. Therefore, 100,000 Btu w i l l
be r e q u i r e d o r about 311 kWh. This must be adjusted because o n l y a c e r t a i n
p o r t i o n o f t h e energy from the MW generator reaches the product. I n microwave
d r y i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , a rule-of-thumb i s t h a t the power requirements are
c a l c u l a t e d a t 1 kW f o r every 2.5 l b s o f water removed per hour. Due t o the
h i g h e r cost o f e l e c t r i c i t y i n comparison w i t h o t h e r energy sources, t e x t i l e

D-47
f i r m s are g e n e r a l l y w i l l i n g t o i n v e s t only i n small-sized e l e c t r i c - b a s e d
equipment, g e n e r a l l y , those w i t h i n the 30-50 kW range unless the b e n e f i t s o f a
l a r g e r u n i t are unequivocally demonstrated.

A p p l i c a t o r Desisn

In microwave a p p l i c a t i o n s , c o n f i g u r i n g the a p p l i c a t o r t o provide high

e f f i c i e n c y , uniform, and r a p i d heating i s c r i t i c a l l y important. A p p l i c a t o r
design i s a tomplex f i e l d , i n v o l v i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f heat t r a n s f e r , mass
t r a n s f e r , and electromagnetics. I n established a p p l i c a t i o n s such as bacon
cooking, pasta drying, and rubber heating, manufacturers have standard
a p p l i c a t o r designs which provide h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t transmission o f t h e
microwaves. However, i n newly developed a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e a p p l i c a t o r may
r e q u i r e a custom design.

Capital Costs

One o f t h e major disadvantages o f microwave systems i s the high c a p i t a l costs.

Most microwave systems cost between $2,000 and $4,000 per kW. Very l a r g e
systems may c o s t l e s s p e r kW capacity. Much o f t h i s variance i s due t o t h e
type o f operation (i.e., batch o r continuous). For a 40-kW u n i t ,
continuous-type systems would t y p i c a l l y cost between $100,000 t o $160,000 ( o r
from $2,500 t o $4,000 per kW). The same sized u n i t may cost o n l y $50,000 f o r
batch-type operation. The continuous-type system requires a m a t e r i a l s
handling system, as w e l l as much more complex c o n t r o l s . A standard s i z e u n i t
i s about 50 kW. Applications r e q u i r i n g 300 kW are g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r s u i t e d t o
conventional ovens due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n c a p i t a l costs.

Operatinq Costs

In s p i t e o f high c a p i t a l cost, t h e r e have been a number o f a p p l i c a t i o n s where

microwave d r y i n g and heating has proved t o be economical. However, operating
cost can vary by p l a n t , and an evaluation o f c u r r e n t operating costs i s
r e q u i r e d to evaluate the p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s o f microwave processing.

Labor Costs. Labor costs are o f t e n lower w i t h a microwave heater than w i t h

conventional methods o f heating. This i s a r e s u l t o f decreased operator
involvement. In many applications only one operator is required to load and
unload. Other applications may share the operator costs among several
microwave heaters or with other machines. Some installations are equipped to
operate completely unattended. These systems may have higher capital costs
due to the automated controls necessary for unattended operation.

However, any operating labor savings may be partially offset by an increase in

maintenance requirements. Magnetrons, the critical component of the
generator, have a limited life (requiring replacement every 6,000 hrs.). A
50-kW magnetron costs about $60,000,bringing additional maintenance charges
to about $1 per hour of operation. As a result, the labor and parts required
for maintenance could decrease the operating labor savings.

Enerqy Costs. Approximately 50 percent of the power input to the generator

actually reaches the product. As a result, the power required is about 2
times the power reaching the product, or generator output. Thus a generator
with a 50-kW output would require about 100-kW power input. The energy costs
o f a 50-kW microwave system would be about $44,000 annually (based on 100 kW
power input, 8,760 hours per year operation--as many textile plants operate
3-shift operations 7 days a week--and $0.05 per kWh). In general, an
application well suited to microwaves can save 30 to 50 percent in energy
costs compared to conventional gas-fired ovens.

Material Costs. One o f the major advantages of microwaves i s the increase in

production or decrease in processing time. This not only reduces heat
deterioration of the product due t o the shorter time exposure, but also
reduces work in process inventory. Also, the oven temperature need only reach
the minimum temperature (in drying applications the boiling point of water),
thus the product is never exposed to high heat. As a result of.decreased
exposure to high temperature, the amount of.product loss due to overheating
can be significantly reduced with microwave processing.

Space Savings. Microwave systems take up much less floor space than
conventional ovens. Reduction in space requirements of up to 75 percent have
resulted by installing microwave systems. Although sometimes difficult to
quantify, the value o f reducing space requirements should be considered when
evaluating microwave systems.

D-49
REFERENCES:

1. O r f e u i l , M., E l e c t r i c Process Heatinq, EPRI Report EM-5105-SR, B a t t e l l e

Press, Columbus, OH, 1987.

2. CEM Corporation, Company brochure on Microwave S o l i d s and Moisture

Analyzer, Mathews, North Carolina.

3. Thermo Energy Corporation, Microwave Power i n Industry, E l e c t r i c Power

Research I n s t i t u t e , E P R I EUM-3645, Palo A l t o , CA, August 1984.

4. Thermo Energy Corporation, Radio-Frequency D i e l e c t r i c Heatinq i n

I n d u s t r y E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e , Report EM-4949, Par0 A l t o ,
CA, Mar& 1987.

D-50