Chapter 2

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Review on Related Literature and Studies

The present state of building construction is complex. There is a wide range of building

products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types or markets. The

design process for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research establishments that

study material properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safety

standards, and design professionals who determine user needs and design a building to meet

those needs. The construction process is also highly organized; it includes the manufacturers of

building products and systems, the craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the

contractors who employ and coordinate the work of the craftsmen, and consultants who

specialize in such aspects as construction management, quality control, and insurance.

Building construction today is a significant part of industrial culture, a manifestation of

its diversity and complexity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces, which can produce a

widely varied built environment to serve the diverse needs of society. This article first traces the

history of building construction, and then surveys its development at the present time.

Throughout the years the technology of building construction has changed rapidly, and this

continues with constant innovations in materials and methods.

The utilization of the natural resources has been introduced to produce useful products

using materials that for years have been wasted. For example, in the wood industry, major

progress has been made. Structural members are made by bonding wood chips with waterproof
adhesives are now using waste products to produce products equal to or better than those made

from solid wood.

Waste are everywhere because of lack of alternate uses and a low percentage in recycling

the waste generated daily. The continuing increase in the volume of generated waste has resulted

in air, water, and soil pollution due to the absence of effective environmental management.

The Philippines generates about 10,000 million tons of solid waste per year and only 12

percent of the waste is recycled and re-used. The single most dominant issue for solid waste

management (SWM) is the inadequacy of disposal facilities. Presently, open dumping is still the

most common waste disposal method as controlled dumpsites and sanitary landfills (SLFs) are

very limited.

Composite Panels

Composite panels are factory engineered panels used mainly for exterior cladding,

partitioning, and load bearing walls and roofing elements in a wide range of non-residential

buildings. An engineered wood composite panel is typically made up of pressed wood fibers or

sawdust and integrated with resin. The wood was then shredded or ground and dried. After the

fiber was dried it was then mixed with the desired type of resin and formed into sheets under a

high level of heat and pressure. Composite wood panels are used in much different construction

application to reduce the demand of plywood.

The types of panels are generally classified according to size and raw materials used in

manufacturing the composite panel. Also, it can be categorized by a term that designates the end
use of the product. Some examples of composite products are the Fiber Board, Particle Board,

and Plywood.

Wood composite panels are a type of construction material used extensively as a raw

material in furniture, shelving, cabinetmaking and other non-load-bearing construction

applications. Two types of composite panels, particleboard and fiberboard, though often

classified together, are typically made using different techniques and materials and are utilized in

different situations. In general, medium-density fiberboard is considered to be of higher quality

than particleboard.

Most differences between particleboard and fiberboard are introduced through the

manufacturing process. To create particleboard, the raw material is cleaned, sized and dried

before resin is applied. The fibers are formed into a mat and pressed while being subjected to

heat until the resin cures. Once the resin cures, the panel is moved through a cooler and stacked

until it is cut to size and sanded. To generate fiberboard, the raw materials are softened by being

cooked in pressurized steam. The material is then processed through refiner plates that rub the

material apart to create uniformly sized fiber. Resin is generally applied as the fiber exits the

refiner. This mixture is then dried to have uniform moisture content, formed into a mat and hot-

pressed.

Particle Board

Particle board, also known as particleboard and chipboard, is an engineered wood product

manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust, and a synthetic resin or other

suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Particleboard is a composite material.

 Particle board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood

and is substituted for them when appearance and strength are less important than cost. However,

particleboard can be made more attractive by painting or the use of wood veneers onto surfaces

that will be visible. Though it is denser than conventional wood, it is the lightest and weakest

type of fiberboard, except for insulation board. Medium-density fiberboard and hardboard, also

called high-density fiberboard, are stronger and denser than particleboard. Different grades of

particleboard have different densities, with higher density connoting greater strength and greater

resistance to failure of screw fasteners.

A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion and

discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another sealer.

Therefore, it is rarely used outdoors or in places where there are high levels of moisture, with the

exception of some bathrooms, kitchens and laundries, where it is commonly used as an

underlayment - in its moisture resistant variant - beneath a continuous sheet of vinyl flooring. It

does, however, have some advantages when it comes to constructing the cabinet box and shelves.

For example, it is well suited for attaching cabinet door hinges to the sides of frameless cabinets.

Plywood has the potential to feather off in sheaves when extreme weight is placed on the hinges.

In contrast, particle board holds the screws in place under similar weight.

Particleboard or chipboard is manufactured by mixing wood particles or flakes together

with a resin and forming the mixture into a sheet. The raw material to be used for the particles is

fed into a disc chipper with between four and sixteen radially arranged blades (the chips from

disk chippers are more uniform in shape and size than from other types of wood chipper). The

particles are then dried, after which any oversized or undersized particles are screened out.
 Resin is then sprayed through nozzles onto the particles. There are several types of resins

that are commonly used. Amino-formaldehyde based resins are the best performing when

considering cost and ease of use. Urea Melamine resins are used to offer water resistance with

increased melamine offering enhanced resistance. It is typically used where the panel is used in

external applications due to the increased water resistance offered by phenolic resins and also the

color of the resin resulting in a darker panel. Melamine Urea phenolic formaldehyde resins exist

as a compromise. To enhance the panel properties even further the use of resorcinol resins

typically mixed with phenolic resins are used, but this is usually used with plywood for marine

applications and a rare occasion in panel production.

Panel production involves various other chemicalsincluding wax, dyes, wetting agents,

release agentsto make the final product water resistant, fireproof, insect proof, or to give it

some other quality.

Once the resin has been mixed with the particles, the liquid mixture is made into a sheet.

A weighing device notes the weight of flakes, and they are distributed into position by rotating

rakes. In graded-density particleboard, the flakes are spread by an air jet that throws finer

particles further than coarse ones. Two such jets, reversed, allow the particles to build up from

fine to coarse and back to fine.

The sheets formed are then cold-compressed to reduce their thickness and make them

easier to transport. Later, they are compressed again, under pressures between 2 and 3

megapascals (290 and 440 psi) and temperatures between 140 and 220 C (284 and 428 F). This

process sets and hardens the glue. All aspects of this entire process must be carefully controlled

to ensure the correct size, density and consistency of the board.

 The boards are then cooled, trimmed and sanded. They can then be sold as raw board or

surface improved through the addition of a wood veneer or laminate surface.

Synthetic Resin

Resin is a naturally occurring substance that is produced by certain trees. This viscous

fluid has been replicated by scientists and is called synthetic resin. Synthetic resins have

properties that are extremely similar to their naturally occurring counterparts, most important of

which is the ability to harden with the application of heat or pressure, or a combination of both.

Products that are created by using synthetic resin include automotive parts, food containers, and

pipes.

Synthetic resins are materials with a property of interest that is similar to natural plant

resins: they are viscous liquids that are capable of hardening permanently. Otherwise, chemically

they are very different from the various resinous compounds secreted by plants (see resin for

discussion of the natural products).

The synthetics are of several classes. Some are manufactured by esterification or soaping

of organic compounds. Some are thermosetting plastics in which the term "resin" is loosely

applied to the reactant or product, or both. "Resin" may be applied to one of two monomers in a

copolymer (the other being called a "hardener", as in epoxy resins).

Synthetic resin is typically manufactured using a chemical polymerization process. This

process then results in the creation of polymers that are more stable and homogeneous than

naturally occurring resin. Since they are more stable and are cheaper, various forms of synthetic

resin are used in a variety of products, such as plastics, paints, varnishes, and textiles.
 Generally, synthetic resins are broadly categorized into two areas: thermoplastic synthetic

resins and thermosetting synthetic resins. Thermoplastic resins are those that can be softened and

reformed through application of heat and pressure, even after being set in a particular shape. The

process can be repeated unless the polymeric bonds within the resin are broken. This type of

synthetic resin includes polyethylene resin, polypropylene resin, and polyvinyl Chlorine (PVC).

Thermosetting synthetic resins are typically softened during the forming stage and are set

into their final shape. They then are cured by means of introducing a curing chemical or heat

treatment. Once cured into their final shape, thermosetting resins cannot be melted and reformed

into a new shape.

Polyethylene Resin

Polyethylene (abbreviated PE) or polythene (IUPAC name polyethene or poly

(methylene)) is the most common plastic. The annual global production is approximately 80

million tones. Its primary use is in packaging (plastic bag, plastic films, geomembranes,

containers including bottles, etc.). Many kinds of polyethylene are known, with most having the

chemical formula (C2H4)n. Thus PE is usually a mixture of similar organic compounds that differ

in terms of the value of n.

Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer consisting of long hydrocarbon chains.

Depending on the crystallinity and molecular weight, a melting point and glass transition may or

may not be observable. The temperature at which these occur varies strongly with the type of

polyethylene. For common commercial grades of medium- and high-density polyethylene the
melting point is typically in the range 120 to 180 C (248 to 356 F). The melting point for

average, commercial, low-density polyethylene is typically 105 to 115 C (221 to 239 F).

Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on its density and

branching. Its mechanical properties depend significantly on variables such as the extent and

type of branching, the crystal structure and the molecular weight.

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is polyethylene with a molecular

weight numbering in the millions, usually between 3.1 and 5.67 million. The high molecular

weight makes it a very tough material, but results in less efficient packing of the chains into the

crystal structure as evidenced by densities of less than high density polyethylene (for example,

0.9300.935 g/cm3).

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is defined by a density of greater or equal to 0.941

g/cm3. HDPE has a low degree of branching. The mostly linear molecules pack together well, so

intermolecular forces are stronger than in highly branched polymers. These catalysts prefer the

formation of free radicals at the ends of the growing polyethylene molecules. They cause new

ethylene monomers to add to the ends of the molecules, rather than along the middle, causing the

growth of a linear chain.

Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) LLDPE is defined by a density range of

0.9150.925 g/cm3. LLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with significant numbers of short

branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for

example, 1-butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher tensile strength than LDPE, it

exhibits higher impact and puncture resistance than LDPE. Lower thickness (gauge) films can be
blown, compared with LDPE, with better environmental stress cracking resistance but is not as

easy to process. LLDPE is used in packaging, particularly film for bags and sheets.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is defined by a density range of 0.9100.940 g/cm3.

LDPE has a high degree of short and long chain branching, which means that the chains do not

pack into the crystal structure as well. It has, therefore, less strong intermolecular forces as the

instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results in a lower tensile strength and

increased ductility. LDPE is created by free radical polymerization. The high degree of

branching with long chains gives molten LDPE unique and desirable flow properties.

Very-low-density polyethylene (VLDPE) is defined by a density range of 0.8800.915

g/cm3. VLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with high levels of short-chain branches,

commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-

butene, 1-hexene and 1-octene). VLDPE is most commonly produced using metallocene

catalysts due to the greater co-monomer incorporation exhibited by these catalysts. VLDPEs are

used for hose and tubing, ice and frozen food bags, food packaging and stretch wrap as well as

impact modifiers when blended with other polymers.

Polyethylene resin refers to gases or liquids made up of a chain of ethylene monomers,

small molecules that combine together in repeating patterns to form a large molecule called a

polymer. Although the actual material is polyethylene resin, it is simply referred as polyethylene

under most circumstances. It is a type of thermoplastic, commonly used for packaging, toys,

plastic shopping bags, gas pipes, hose, tubing, and machine parts.

Polyethylene resin has a number of variations, with names such as high density

polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE), very low density polyethylene
(VLDPE), and so forth, based on density and crystallinity. Due to these different compositions,

this resin has numerous uses in our daily lives and various industries. During the manufacturing

process, the resin is injected into machines with specific pressure and temperature settings. The

hardening property of resin helps to set the raw material as required.

Philippine National Standards (PNS)

Standards for composite panels are necessary for product to be accepted in major markets

to give distributors assurance that the products acquire minimum exact quality level of standards

which first were accepted for their values before mass production into a common use. Three

standard organizations have a major influence on the quality of composite panels in the United

States (U.S.) and other foreign countries namely the American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM) and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards

Organization (ISO) (Youngquist, 1997).

Each country generally has developed standards for the production of panel products. In

the Philippines the Bureau of Standards of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

created a Philippine Standards (PNS) for Particle board.

Cement bonded board was conceptualized as a composite board made up of Agro Forest

Materials and coated with cement. Since the CBB was a new concept developed by the Forest

Product and Research Development Institute, and was categorized as composite boards. In the

absence of a criterion specifically for CBB, the FPRDI adopted the criteria in the Philippine

National Standard for Particle Board. In which the mechanical properties is determined by the

following factors Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Face Screw Holding (FSH) while its Physical
Properties is determined with two factors the Thickness Swelling Test (TS) and Water

Absorption Test (WA). Standard Curing time for 28 days is required for each manufactured

board. Philippine National Standard (PNS) categories the type of board as listed in Table 1.

Classifications are according to the bending strength of the board such as Type 200, Type 150,

and Type 100.

The Type 200 refers to as the high density board; Type 150 represents the medium

density board while the Type 100 belongs to the low density fiber board. Also in the table were

the corresponding Bending Strength, Face Screw Holding, Thickness Swelling and Water

Absorption requirements for the different types of board.

Table 1.

PNS Strength Requirement for Particle Board

Bending Face Screw Thickness Water

Classification Strength Holding Swelling Absorption
kgs/cm2 kgs % %
min mina max max

1. Pressed and
Impregnated
Paper- coated
Particleboards

1.1 Type 200 180 50

1.2 Type150 140 40 20% 40%
1.3 Type 100 80 30

2. Veneered 250
2.1 Longitudinal 90
2.2 Lateral 90
 a
Using screw No.7 and boards not less than 12mm thick
b
For boards not less than 15mm thick
Source: Philippine National Standard

PNS Test Method

Physical Properties

Thickness Swelling and Water Absorption

The Thickness Swelling (TS) and Water Absorption (WA) are the tests conducted to

measure the moisture resistance of the particleboard and determine the moisture content of the

board as a percentage of its dry weight.

Weigh the test specimen to an accuracy of 0.1 g. Measure the thickness in an accuracy of

0.1 mm at four points midway along its side 2.5 cm from the edge of the test specimen and use

the average in computing the thickness swelling. Immerse in water at 28 4 C horizontal to a

depth of 3 cm beneath the water surface, with the smooth surface facing upward.

After 24 hours, remove the specimen and allow draining vertically for 10 minutes. Wipe

off excess water with blotting paper or cloth and weigh the specimen and measure its thickness

immediately. Calculate the water absorption and thickness swelling to the nearest 1.0% by the

following formula:

2 1
= 100
1

2 1
= 100
1

Where:
 WA = Water absorption, % TS = Thickness Swelling, %
W1 =Initial mass, g T1= Initial thickness, mm
W2 = Final mass, g T2 = Final thickness, mm

Mechanical Properties

Face Screw Holding

The Face Screw Holding (FSH) is a test conducted on screws threaded into the board to

measure the resistance to withdrawal in a plane normal to the face.

The specimen shall be at least 2.5 cm thick, otherwise glue two or more pieces together to

achieve at the 2.5 cm minimum thickness. Using a 2.8 mm diameter drill, bore lead holes into the

test specimen 17 mm at midwidth, at least 5 cm from the end of the specimen. Thread 25 cm

n0.10 wood screw into the specimen. Perform the test immediately after the screw has been

embedded.

Attach the specimen holding fixture to the lower plate of the testing machine. Insert the

specimen in the fixture with the head of the screw up. Engage the head of the screws by the load

applying fixture equipped with a slot for easy attachment. Attach this loading fixture to the upper

plate of the testing machine. Apply load to the specimen throughout the test by a uniform motion

of the movable head of the testing machine at a rate of1.5 mm / min. Compute the Face Screw

Holding by the following formula:

1 + 2
=
2

Where:
FSH = Face Screw Holding, kg
 P1 = Load in the left side, kgf
P2 = Load in the right side, kgf

Modulus of Rupture (Static Bending Strength)

The Modulus of Rupture (MOR) is a test conducted that measures the flexural breaking

load (bending strength) of the board.

Using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with apparatus as shown in figure 1, apply

load to the finished or smooth surface of the test specimen. At a uniform rate of about 5 cm/min

and determine the maximum load at a span of 10 cm. Calculate the modulus of rupture by the

formula:

3
= 2 2

Where:

MOR = Modulus of rupture kg/cm2

P = Maximum load, kgf
L = Span, 10 cm
W = width, cm
T = thickness, cm
 P

L1 L2
11
L

Figure 1.Modulus of Rupture Test Attachment

Universal Testing Machine

A universal testing machine, also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine

or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile stress and compressive strength of materials. It

is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on

materials, components, and structures.

Components

Load cell refers to a force transducer or other means of measuring the load is required.

Periodic calibration is usually called for.

Cross head is a movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down.

Usually this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate of extension (CRE) machine.

Some machines can program the crosshead speed or conduct cyclical testing, testing at constant
force, testing at constant deformation, etc. Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive and

resonance drive are used.

Output device refers to the means of providing the test result when needed. Some older

machines have dial or digital displays and chart recorders. Many newer machines have a

computer interface for analysis and printing.

Test fixtures refers to the specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment

is called for in many test methods.

The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often published by a standards

organization. This specifies the sample preparation, fixturing, gauge length (the length which is

under study or observation), analysis, etc.

Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen.

Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software record the load and extension

or compression of the specimen.

Machines range from very small table top systems to ones with over 53 MN (12

million lbf) capacity.

 Cross Head
Load Cell

Test Fixture

Source: www.google.com

Figure 2.Universal Testing Machine

Banana

A banana is an edible fruit, botanically a berry, produced by several kinds of large

herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking

may be called plantains. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is usually elongated

and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red,

purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost

all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come from two wild species Musa

acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa
acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa paradisiaca for the hybrid Musa acuminata

M. balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum

is no longer used.

Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been

first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in at least 107 countries, primarily for

their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and banana beer and as ornamental

plants.

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. All the above-ground parts of

a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm". Plants are normally tall and fairly

sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem"

or pseudo stem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm

deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of banana plants are composed of a

"stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly

packed sheaths make up the pseudo stem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the

sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of

the pseudo stem the edges are forced apart. Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on

the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf

Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more. Leaves are

spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 meters (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide. They are easily

torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.

Banana Hull

A banana hull, known as a banana skin in British English, is the outer covering of the

banana fruit.

Bananas are a popular fruit consumed worldwide with a yearly production of over 145 million

tons in 2011. Once the peel is removed, the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and the peel is

generally discarded. Because of this removal of the banana peel, there is a significant amount of

organic waste being generated.