Table 1: Relative Masses and Charges of Subatomic
Particles
nucleus
atom
Figure 6
To explain the results of his experiment,
Rutherford suggested that an atom consisted
mostly of empty space, and that most of the
alpha particles passed nearly straight through
the gold foil because these particles did not
pass close to a nucleus.
DID YOU KNOW ?
Tiny but Massive
The word “massive” is used in everyday lan-
guage to mean “very big,” “huge,” “enor-
mous.” In science it has a slightly different
meaning: “having a relatively large mass for
its size.” So, a tiny nucleus can be massive,
but an enormous hot-air balloon cannot!
atomic number (Z): the number of pro-
tons present in the nucleus of an atom of a
given element
26 Chapter 1
Particle Relative mass Relative charge
electron 1 1–
proton 1836.12 1+
neutron 1838.65 0
Practice
Understanding Concepts
1. What is the difference between
(a) a theory and a law?
(b) empirical knowledge and theoretical knowledge?
2. Why is it useful for scientists to develop models of their ideas?
3. When wood is burned in a fireplace, its mass decreases. Does this
observation contradict the law of conservation of mass? Justify your
answer.
4. Draw a series of at least four diagrams to represent changing models
of the atom, from the time of Democritus to 1932.
5. By 1932, Chadwick had modified Rutherford’s model of the atom to
include neutrons. According to this modified model, define each of
the following:
(a) nucleus
(b) proton
(c) electron
(d) neutron
Making Connections
6. Research and describe some current technologies that have devel-
oped from or are related to cathode ray tubes.
1.3 Understanding Atomic Mass
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of an element and
is referred to as that element’s atomic number (Z). The concept of atomic
number was developed by H. G. J. Moseley (1887–1915), an English physicist,
subsequent to the results of Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiments.
Moseley’s research work with X rays showed that the nucleus of each element has
its own, unique positive charge. This positive charge increases by one as we
progress, element by element, through Mendeleev’s periodic table. Moseley was
the first to recognize the relationship between atomic number and nuclear
charge: They are equal. This discovery provided new insight into the periodic
table and a rationale for listing the elements in order of the number of protons
in the nucleus. Since atoms are electrically neutral, the atomic number also rep-
resents the number of electrons in an atom of an element.
By 1932, scientists had determined that the nucleus consists of protons
(which are positively charged) and neutrons (which are neutral). Since both neu-
trons and protons are much more massive than electrons, and both reside in the
nucleus, the mass of the atom is related to the number of nuclear particles (pro-
 1.3

tons and neutrons). The sum of the number of nuclear particles in an atom is mass number (A): the sum of the
known as the mass number (A) of the atom. The number of neutrons in an atom number of protons and neutrons present in
(neutron number, N) of a given element can be calculated as follows: the nucleus of an atom

number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

N=A–Z
mass number, number of
According to Figure 1, an atom of fluorine may be represented as 199F. While protons and neutrons
the value for Z can be read directly from the periodic table, A (the mass number) (Z + N)
is a whole-number approximation of the average atomic mass as given by the
periodic table. Using this information, we can easily find the number of protons,
A
electrons, and neutrons in an atom of any given element. In the case of fluorine,
the average atom contains 9 protons and 9 electrons. Subtracting 9 from 19, we
find that the atom of fluorine also contains 10 neutrons. Similarly, an atom of Z
X
sodium could be represented as 23 11Na and would consist of 11 protons, 11 elec-
trons, and 12 neutrons. atomic number,
23Na can also be written as Na-23 or sodium-23, where 23 is the mass
11 number of protons
number. This is acceptable and unambiguous because sodium always has 11 pro-
Figure 1
tons, so we understand that its atomic number is 11. You should be familiar with Symbolism representing an individual atom of
all three methods of notation. an element

Sample Problem 1
The nucleus of an atom of potassium contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons.
(a) Determine the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) of this potassium
atom.
(b) Write the symbol for this potassium atom three different ways.

Solution
(a) Z = 19
N = 20
A=Z+N
= 19 + 20
A = 39
(b) 39K; K-39; potassium-39
19

Isotopes
Frederick Soddy (1877–1956), a colleague of Rutherford’s, proposed that the
number of neutrons can vary from atom to atom within the same element. Soddy
called these variations isotopes. An isotope is a form of an element in which the isotope: Atoms of an element that have
atoms have the same number of protons as all other forms of that element, but a the same number of protons and neutrons;
different number of neutrons. In other words, isotopes will have the same atomic there may be several isotopes of the same
number (Z) but different neutron numbers (N) and so different mass numbers element that differ from each other only in
35Cl and 37Cl. the number of neutrons in their nuclei
(A). The two most abundant isotopes of chlorine are found to be 17 17 (theoretical definition).
Atoms of each isotope contain 17 protons and 17 electrons. However, an atom of
chlorine-35 has 18 neutrons while an atom of chlorine-37 has 20.
Hydrogen has three different isotopes. More than 99% of all hydrogen atoms
contain a single proton and no neutrons. The rest of the atoms represent the iso-
topes deuterium and tritium. An atom of deuterium contains one proton and

The Nature of Matter 27


DID YOU KNOW ?
Exceptional Hydrogen
Hydrogen seems to be an exception to every
rule in chemistry. Normally, the chemical
symbol of an element does not vary, even for
different isotopes. Once again, hydrogen is
the exception: Deuterium is represented by
the symbol D and tritium is represented by
the symbol T. D is actually 21H or H–2, and T
is actually 31H or H–3.
atomic mass (Ar): the relative mass of
an atom on a scale on which the mass of one
atom of carbon-12 is exactly 12 u
unified atomic mass unit (u): a unit
of mass for atoms; 1/12 of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom (theoretical definition)
mass spectrometer: a sophisticated
instrument used for studying the structures of
elements and compounds. One application is
to determine precisely the mass and abun-
dance of isotopes.
mass number
12 14
6C 6C
atomic number
Figure 2
Two isotopes of carbon. Carbon-12 is stable,
but carbon-14 is radioactive.
Figure 3
Mass spectrometers are used to compare the
masses of atoms in a sample.
28 Chapter 1
one neutron while an atom of tritium contains a proton and two neutrons in its
nucleus.
It is the protons and electrons in atoms that are largely responsible for
determining the element’s chemical behaviour. Consequently, isotopes of the
same element share chemical properties despite their slight difference in mass.
However, their physical properties can vary considerably. For example, water
containing hydrogen in the form of deuterium is known as heavy water and is
represented by the chemical formula D2O. Its use in CANDU nuclear reactors
will be discussed later.
Since atoms are so small, their masses are very low. It is therefore very diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to measure the mass of an atom by conventional means.
Instead, we compare atomic masses to a standard in order to determine a relative
scale. At one time hydrogen, being the smallest and lightest of the elements, was
used as the standard. However, since the 1960s, scientists have compared the rel-
ative atomic mass (Ar) of the elements to that of an isotope of carbon, carbon-
12 (Figure 2). By convention, an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12 atomic mass
units. Therefore, we define the unified atomic mass unit (u) as 1/12 of the mass
of a carbon-12 atom. On this scale the proton and the neutron both have a mass
close to 1 u while the electron has a mass of 0.000 55 u.
While some elements have only one isotopic form, most elements exist nat-
urally as a mixture of several isotopes. A mass spectrometer (Figure 3) is a
device that can be used to determine the atomic mass as well as the relative
abundance of each isotope present in an element. In a mass spectrometer,
gaseous atoms or molecules are accelerated by an electric field and bombarded
by high-energy electrons. These speeding electrons knock electrons away from
some of the particles being tested, leaving them as positively charged ions. The
ions pass through a magnetic or electric field, which bends (deflects) the path
they follow. The degree of deflection depends on their mass-to-charge ratio. The
lower the mass of the ion, the more it is deflected. By this means, scientists have
found that the average sample of the element chlorine consists of 75.77% chlo-
rine-35 and 24.23% chlorine-37. According to the periodic table, the atomic
mass of chlorine is 35.45 u. This value represents a weighted average of the
atomic masses of each of the isotopes of the element. Understandably, given the
greater abundance of the chlorine-35 isotope, this value is much closer to 35 u
than to 37 u.
 1.3

Practice DID YOU KNOW ?

Understanding Concepts Weighted Averages
1. Create a table with four columns. At the top of the columns, write the A good example of a weighted average is the
following headings: Subatomic particle; Relative atomic mass (u); calculation of your final mark in a course. If
Charge; Location. In the first column, write the names of the three you did really well in the majority of your
subatomic particles, and complete the table. assessed work, but very poorly in one assign-
ment, your overall mark would still be fairly
2. What two particles are responsible for most of the mass of an atom?
high.
3. Compare the mass number of an atom to its relative atomic mass.
Why might they be different?
Abundance of Magnesium Isotopes
4. An atom has 14 protons and 13 neutrons. What is its mass number?
100
5. An atom has 15 protons and has a mass number of 31.
(a) What is its atomic number? 90
(b) How many neutrons does it have? 80
(c) What element is it? 70

Abundance (%)
6. How many neutrons can be found in the nucleus of an atom of 60
chlorine-37?
50
7. Two atoms respectively have Z = 15, A = 30 and Z = 14, A = 30. Are
40
they isotopes of each other? Explain.
8. Figure 4 shows a graph produced by a mass spectrometer. 30
(a) What are the atomic masses of the three isotopes of magnesium? 20
(b) How many neutrons would each isotope possess? 10
(c) What is the relative abundance (as a percentage) of each of the
three isotopes? 0 24 25 26 27
Mass Number
Radioisotopes Figure 4
Many elements have one or more isotopes that are unstable. Atoms of unstable Mass spectrum of magnesium showing the
isotopes decay, emitting radiation as their nucleus changes. Depending on the relative abundance of its isotopes in a natu-
rally occurring sample
isotope, these nuclear changes might happen very quickly or extremely slowly.
And the radiation they emit could be fairly harmless or very dangerous to living
cells. Isotopes that can decay in this way are known as radioisotopes and are said radioisotope: a radioactive isotope of an
to be radioactive. Numerous experiments have shown that radioisotopes give off element, occurring naturally or produced
three types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays (Table 1). artificially

Table 1: Characteristics of Nuclear Radiation radioactive: capable of spontaneously

emitting radiation in the form of particles
Radiation Approximate speed Penetration in air Effective barrier and/or gamma rays
alpha (, 24He2+, 24He) variable, but relatively a few centimetres a sheet of paper
slow
beta (, e–, –10e) variable, but relatively a few metres 1-2 mm of metal
fast
gamma () very fast (speed of light) unlimited 1 m of lead or
concrete

An alpha particle is composed of two protons and two neutrons, which is

equivalent to a 42He nucleus. (Because it carries no electrons it has a charge of 2+.
Its charge is usually omitted in nuclear equations.) The radioactive decay of
uranium-238, which results in the production of an alpha particle, alters the
composition of its nucleus, producing thorium-234:
238U
92 → 234 4
90 Th + 2He

The Nature of Matter 29


half-life: the time it takes for one-half the
nuclei in a radioactive sample to decay
30 Chapter 1
The alpha particle emitted in this radioactive decay travels at a fairly high
speed (approximately 1.6 × 104 km/s).
Beta particles are high-energy electrons (and therefore carry a charge of 1–)
travelling at much higher speeds than an alpha particle (approximately
1.3 × 105 km/s). When tritium (31H) decays, a beta particle is produced:
3H
1 → 32He  10 e
Evidence suggests that the beta particle, or high-energy electron, results from
the conversion of a neutron into a proton and an electron. Therefore, helium-3
is produced as the number of neutrons in the tritium nucleus decreases by 1 and
the number of protons increases.
Gamma radiation refers to high-energy electromagnetic waves. The emis-
sion of a gamma ray alone does not result in any changes to the mass number or
atomic number of an isotope. However, other types of radiation (which do result
in a change in either the atomic number or the mass number) often occur along
with gamma radiation.
The discovery of radioactive decay, in a series of investigations by Harriet
Brooks (1876–1933), a Canadian scientist, was a real breakthrough in developing
atomic theory: Here was evidence that an atom of one element could sponta-
neously change into another element. Dalton’s atomic theory of “tiny indivisible
particles” that were unchanging was completely put to rest.
Every radioisotope has a characteristic property called its half-life. The half-
life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the original number of
radioactive atoms to decay. The half-lives of radioisotopes vary considerably. For
example, cesium-142 has a half-life of 5 × 1015 a (a means years; the SI symbol is
based on “annum”—Latin for “year”), while polonium-216 has a half-life of only
0.16 s. Consider the example of a 1000-g sample of radium-226. This radioiso-
tope has a half-life of 1590 a. After 1590 a, only 500 g of the original sample
would be radium-226. The other 500 g would have decayed to form other ele-
ments. After an additional 1590 a, 250 g of the remaining 500 g of radium-226
would have decayed, leaving only 250 g of of the original radium-226.
Sample Problem 2
The half-life of cesium-137 is 30 a. What mass of cesium-137 would remain from
a 12-g sample after 30 a? After 60 a?
Solution
After 30 a (one half-life), 6.0 g of cesium-137 would remain.
After 60 a (two half-lives), 3.0 g of cesium-137 would remain.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 a. It emits a beta particle as it decays. Small
amounts of this isotope occur naturally in the atmosphere, where it reacts with
oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. Carbon-14 is absorbed by plants
when a mixture of radioactive and nonradioactive carbon dioxide is taken in
during photosynthesis. Carbon-14 then finds its way into other living organisms
through the food chain. When a living organism dies, it stops taking in material,
including carbon. Radioactive decay will gradually reduce the amount of carbon-
14 present in its tissues. As a result, the ratio of radioactive carbon to nonra-
dioactive carbon present in the organism will gradually decrease. Comparing this
ratio to the normal ratio present in a living organism provides a measure of the
 1.3

time elapsed since the organism’s death. The practice of measuring the
carbon-14:carbon-12 ratio is known as carbon-14 dating. carbon-14 dating: a technique that uses
Nonliving materials, such as rocks, can be dated using potasssium-40. radioactive carbon-14 to identify the date of
Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 × 109 a, which allows it to be used to date objects death of once-living material
too old to be dated by the carbon-14 method. (As the amount of carbon-14 left in
a sample becomes very small, the accuracy of the dating becomes increasingly less
reliable.) Potassium-40 dating allows the investigator to set the date when the rock
solidified and stopped exchanging chemicals with its surroundings.
As you can see by these examples, naturally occuring radiation is all around
us. It comes from space, soil, and even food.
The radiation produced by radioactive elements can be harnessed for a wide
variety of uses. In foods, radiation can be used to kill bacteria and prevent
spoilage. Radioisotopes are also widely used in medicine: Cancer patients are
treated with cancer-killing radiation from cobalt-60 and radium-226.
The ability of radiation to destroy cells, however, is not always an advantage.
It can pose great danger, causing normal cells to mutate or even die. Acute expo-
sure to radiation can cause severe skin burns; long-term, chronic exposure can
result in various forms of cancer, birth defects, and sterility in all animals. While
radiation adds immensely to our standard of living, many risks are associated
with it. We must constantly evaluate the balance between risk and benefit in our
application of radioisotopes.

Activity 1.3.1
Modelling Half-Life
In this activity you will use a model of a sample of radioactive material. By
removing the “decayed nuclei” from the sample after each “half-life,” and
counting the remaining nuclei, you will collect quantitative data that can be used
to plot a graph of half-life. This graph can then be used for prediction purposes.

Materials
at least 30 disks that have different faces (e.g., Othello disks, coins, or cardboard
disks with a mark on one side)
a box with a lid (e.g., a shoebox)

Procedure
1. Create a table like Table 2 to record your observations.
Table 2
2. Decide which face of the disks will represent the original radioactive iso-
tope (e.g., white, or heads). Half-life Number of disks remaining
3. Place all the disks in the box, “original” side up. 0 30
1 ?
4. Put the lid on securely, and shake the box.
2 ?
5. Open the box and remove all the disks that do not show the “original” side
3 ?
up. Record in your table the number of disks that remain after one half-life.
…
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for at least 5 more half-lives.

Analysis
(a) Create a graph with the number of disks remaining on the y-axis and the
number of half-lives on the x-axis.

The Nature of Matter 31

 (b) Draw a best-fit curve. Describe the shape of your graph.
(c) If the units on the y-axis were “mass of radioactive sample (g)” and each
half-life represented 2 a, predict the mass of radioactive material that
would remain after 7 a.
(d) Does the curve of your graph ever reach the x-axis? If it doesn’t, do you
think it would if you had taken the activity through another few half-lives?
(e) What do the removed disks represent? Compare this model of radioactive
decay with what you know of the real situation. In what ways is this a good
model? How is it less than perfect?

Practice
Understanding Concepts
Answers 9. Distinguish between an isotope and a radioisotope.
12. (a) 1.7 g 10. Copy and complete Table 3 in your notebook.
(b) 0.62 g 11. Write a paragraph defining the term half-life, including the terms iso-
(c) 0.026 g tope, radioisotope, radiation, and decay.
12. Radon-222 has a half-life of 4.0 d (abbreviation for “diem”—Latin for
“day”). If the initial mass of the sample of this isotope is 6.8 g, calcu-
late the mass of radon-222 remaining in the sample after
(a) 8.0 d
(b) 16.0 d
(c) 32.0 d
13. Iodine-131 has a medical application: It is used to treat disorders of
Table 3: Emission Particles the thyroid gland. It has a half-life of 8.0 d. Plot a graph showing
mass of iodine-131 against time over a period of 64 d, starting with a
Alpha Beta
2.0-kg sample of the radioisotope.
particle particle
14. Does radioactive decay support or contradict the law of conservation
(a) Another name for ? ?
of mass? Justify your answer.
this particle
(b) The symbol for ? ? Making Connections
this particle 15. Use the Internet to find a project where scientists are using or have
(c) How the nucleus of ? ? used carbon-14 dating to find the age of artifacts. Report on the sci-
a radioisotope is entists’ work and its implications.
altered by emission Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
of this particle GO TO www.science.nelson.com
(d) The penetrating ? ?
ability of this type 16. Each of the following radioisotopes is used for beneficial purposes:
of radiation chromium-51, iron-59, arsenic-74, iodine-131, phosphorus-32,
sodium-24, and irridium-192. Choose one of the radioisotopes and
research and report on its properties and applications. Include at least
one argument in support of its use, and one argument against.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

17. A Geiger counter is a device used to detect the presence of radiation

from radioisotopes. Suggest some circumstances in which a Geiger
counter would be useful.
18. Tritium is a radioisotope of hydrogen. Use the Internet to research the
production, storage, and practical uses of tritium. What precautions
must be taken when working with this radioactive substance?
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

32 Chapter 1
Careers in Nuclear Science
The branch of physics that involves the study or use of changes within atomic nuclei
is called nuclear physics. There are many careers in this field, involving many dif-
ferent applications of radioisotopes.
Diagnostic Radiographer
Radiographers operate computer-assisted imaging
equipment to create X-ray or other images of a
patient’s body to diagnose injury and disease. These
technologists prepare patients for diagnostic proce-
dures, calculate an appropriate exposure time, process
the results, and keep patients’ records. Radiographers
work under the supervision of a physician.

Radiologist
A radiologist is a medical professional who uses
radioisotopes either for diagnosing health problems
or for treating them. There have been many
advances in medical radiology. There are now new,
high-tech diagnostic devices and techniques, and
the use of radioisotopes is becoming increasingly
refined. They are now used to treat illnesses such
as cancer and those caused by the overproduction
of various enzymes.

Forensic Anthropologist
This fascinating career is mostly concerned with
discovering when and how a person died, using the
deceased person’s body itself as evidence. Carbon-
14 dating may be used to determine how much
time has passed since death.

Nuclear Reactor Technician

Nuclear reactors provide some of Canada’s electricity.
The reactors must be constantly monitored, checked,
and controlled. Highly trained technicians oversee the
safety and output of the reactors with the assistance
of state-of-the-art sensing and robotic technology.

Practice
Making Connections
19. Use the Internet to research one of the careers listed (or another
related career that interests you). Write a report that
(a) provides a general description of the work and how radioisotopes
are involved;
(b) describes the current working conditions and a typical salary;
(c) describes the education required to work in this field;
(d) forecasts employment trends for this field.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

The Nature of Matter 33


fission: the splitting of a large nucleus into
small nuclei
Nuclear Power and Nuclear Waste
A Canadian-designed nuclear reactor system known as CANDU makes use of a
naturally occurring radioisotope of uranium: uranium-235. The fuel in a
CANDU reactor is in the form of pellets that contain uranium oxide, prepared
from uranium ore. About 0.7% of the uranium in the pellets is U-235. The pel-
lets are assembled into a fuel bundle that is placed into the calandria, or reaction
vessel (Figure 5). A U-235 atom undergoes nuclear fission when a “slow” neutron
collides with its nucleus, resulting in the formation of two lighter nuclei. This
reaction also produces more neutrons and releases a considerable amount of
energy (Figure 6). When these new neutrons are released, they are travelling very
quickly—too quickly to cause further fission reactions. To be useful (continue
the chain reaction by colliding with other U-235 nuclei), the neutrons must be
slowed down. The substance used to slow the neutrons is called the moderator.
In CANDU reactors the moderator is heavy water (water that contains deu-
terium instead of hydrogen). Heavy water is also used to cool the fuel bundles in
a CANDU reactor. The heavy water is pressurized to prevent it from boiling. The
hot heavy water is used to heat ordinary water, producing the steam necessary to
turn turbines connected to electric generators.

reactor building steam in closed system

drives turbine

steam generator turbine building

generator
heavy water in closed
system carries heat
from reactor

turbine

Figure 5
CANDU reactor and electricity generating
station. CANDU is an acronym for Canadian reactor fuel loading water from lake cools steam
deuterium and uranium. machine (not connected to other water systems)

neutron nucleus undergoes neutron

collides fission, releasing collides with
Figure 6
with U-235 neutrons and another U-235
Nuclear fission of a uranium-235 atom nucleus thermal energy nuclei

34 Chapter 1
 1.3

Once the fuel rods have been used, they are removed from the calandria. At (a)
the moment, the spent fuel rods are being stored in huge indoor pools of water
at the nuclear power stations. On removal, the fuel rods are much more radioac-
tive than they first were. They now contain U-238 and Pu-239 (formed when
U-238 absorbs a neutron and decays by double beta emissions.) Pu-239 has a
half-life of 2.44 × 104 a.
The use of nuclear energy to supply electricity is not associated with imme-
diate environmental pollution such as acid rain, greenhouse gases, or the emis-
sion of toxic gases, all of which result from the burning of fossil fuels. Because of
this, nuclear energy plants can be built close to where the power is needed. Since
fresh water is required to circulate through the reactors’ condensers, CANDU
reactors must be constructed near a large body of water. The largest CANDU (b)
reactors in Canada are located on the shores of the Great Lakes at Bruce,
Pickering, and Darlington.
Some aquatic organisms are affected by the waste heat carried by the water that
cycles back into the lakes. Ground water contamination from radioactive tailings at
uranium ore mines and the disposal of radioactive wastes are additional problems
associated with the use of nuclear power. Plutonium, a waste material from
CANDU nuclear reactors, can be used in the construction of nuclear weapons.
In April 1986, a partial meltdown of a nuclear reactor core occurred at
Chernobyl in what is now Ukraine (Figure 7). More than 100 000 people were
exposed to high levels of radiation when a steam explosion occurred in a nuclear
Figure 7
power plant. Significant amounts of radioactive materials were released into the
Chernobyl’s nuclear reactor
environment and hundreds of people who lived near the plant were treated for (a) Following a partial meltdown of the
acute radiation sickness. Since the incident at Chernobyl, medical investigators reactor core in 1986
have been tracking an increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer and birth (b) After the accident, the reactor was
defects in the area. The reactor at Chernobyl was not a CANDU reactor, but the encased in concrete to contain the
accident there raised concerns about the safety of all types of reactors. radioactivity. The concrete, which was
What to do with spent nuclear fuel is a thorny issue. Many suggestions have applied in a great hurry and at the cost of
been made. The most popular at the moment is storage: keeping it where it is, in several lives, is now crumbling, threat-
ening to release still more radioactivity.
the pools within the nuclear facilities. This requires constant maintenance, and
the storage sites are necessarily right next to large bodies of water, which are used
for drinking water.
A longer-term alternative is disposal: for example, sealing the spent fuel in a
glasslike compound and placing it in disused mines deep underground in stable
rock. The concern with using underground sites for storage is that rock forma-
tions can shift and become unstable with the normal slow movement of Earth’s
crust. This movement would probably not be significant in our lifetimes, but the
spent fuel will be radioactive for thousands of years. Engineers have identified
some sites they consider to be particularly stable. One underground storage site
being used by U.S. nuclear plants is in salt deposits under the Chihuahuan Desert
of New Mexico. Although disposal sites have been identified in Canada, currently
none has been approved.

Practice
Understanding Concepts
20. Describe at least two advantages and two disadvantages associated
with the use of nuclear power.
21. What isotope of uranium is used as fuel in a CANDU reactor?
22. (a) What is heavy water?
(b) What purposes does heavy water serve in the function of a
CANDU nuclear reactor?

The Nature of Matter 35

 Reflecting
23. There are risks associated with every technology, even simple ones
(you can crush or cut the quick under your nails with a nail clipper).
Do you, personally, feel that the risks associated with the use of
nuclear power are justified by our need for energy? How do you
decide which risks are acceptable, and which are not?

Explore an
Issue
DECISION-MAKING SKILLS Debate: Disposing of Nuclear Waste
Define the Issue Analyze the Issue
In the case of nuclear waste, disposal can be defined as “permanent
Identify Alternatives Defend a Decision
housing, without intention of retrieval.” Storage is best defined as
Research Evaluate
“keeping, unaltered, for an extended period.” Consider these two possi-
bilities. What is the best long-term solution to the problem of spent
nuclear fuel from Ontario’s CANDU reactors?
(a) In a class discussion, agree upon a resolution for your debate.
(b) Separate into small groups and research the various alternatives.
(c) As a group, decide on a position and do further research for evi-
dence to support your position.
(d) Present and defend your group’s position in a debate.
(e) Hold a postmortem on the debate. Could your group have pre-
sented or argued its position more effectively?
(f) Has your own position changed as a result of the debate?
Explain.
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Practice
Making Connections
24. Neutron bombardment is a technique used by forensic scientists. Use
the Internet to research how this technique detects small or trace
amounts of poisons in human tissue. Present your findings to the
class in a way you feel is appropriate.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

25. Many radioisotopes used for medical diagnosis and therapy (such as
cobalt-60 and iodine-131) or for industrial and research work are pro-
duced within the core of a nuclear reactor. Use the Internet to
research and report on the use and handling precautions of one of
these nuclear byproducts.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

26. Harriet Brooks, a Canadian, worked with New Zealander Ernest

Rutherford at McGill University in Montreal. Reasearch and report on
the significance of their contribution to atomic theory.
Follow the links for Nelson Chemistry 11, 1.3.
GO TO www.science.nelson.com

36 Chapter 1