TRAFFIC AND TRAFFIC SAFETY Regardless of the size or cost of the drainage feature the most
important step prior to hydraulic design is estimating the discharge
TRAFFIC
The number of registered vehicles, both private and for-hire, has
increase at an average rate of about 6% per year. The increase in
private utility vehicle, private trailer, and for-hire motorcycles (or
tricycles) was especially high. It is worthy to note that more than 40% of
all vehicles registered vehicles in the Philippines are concentrated in
Metro Manila.
TRAFFIC SAFETY
- Wear a seatbelt.
- Have a valid car registration.
- Have the Original Receipt and (OR-CR) with you.
- Park only in allowed areas.
- Not obstruct traffic
- If a student driver, drive with a licensed driver.
- Drive with a license
Summary
It is important to recognize that there are two types of congestion in
Metro Manila: volume - based and behavior - based. Volume - based
congestion can and should be addressed through capacity -
management measures (reducing the number of vehicles on the
roadway, or constructing additional road space), but it must be
understood that most people on Metro Manila roadways are there
because they need to be there. Volume can be reduced to a certain
extent, but for the most part, the same number of people will need to
travel to the same places, and at the same times, each day.
Terminologies
AADT - Annual Average Daily Traffic
HYDROLOGY AND DRAINAGES
Hydrology is often defined as: "A science dealing with the properties,
distribution, and circulation of water on the surface of the land, in the
soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere."
Relation of Hydrology to Highway Engineering
- The highway engineer is principally concerned with surface
hydrology and controlling surface runoff. Controlling runoff
includes the hydraulic design of drainage features for both cross
highway drainage and removal of runoff from the roadway.
- The runoff of water over land has long been studied and some
rather sophisticated theories and methods have been proposed
and developed for estimating flood flows.
- Although hydrology is not an exact science, it is possible to obtain
solutions which are functionally acceptable to form the basis for
design of highway drainage facilities.
Hydrological Analysis
Runoff
(rate of runoff) or volume of runoff that the drainage facility will be
required to convey or control. While some hydrologic analysis is
necessary in establishing the quantity of surface water that must be
considered in the design of all highway drainage facilities, the extent of
such studies are to be commensurate with the importance of the
highway, the potential for damage to the highway, loss of property, and
hazard to life associated with the facilities.
To make an informed decision, the highway engineer must determine:
What level of hydrologic analysis is justified.
What data are available or must be collected.
What methods of analysis are available including the relative
strengths and weaknesses in terms of cost and accuracy
Peak Discharge or Peak Flow
Peak discharge is the maximum rate of flow of water passing a given
point during or after a rainfall event.
Design discharge, expressed as the quantity (Q) of flow in cubic meters
per second (m3 /s), is the peak discharge that a highway drainage
structure is sized to handle. Peak discharge is different for every storm
and it is the highway engineer's responsibility to size drainage facilities
and structures for the magnitude of the design storm and flood
severity.
Factors affecting Runoff
Meteorological Factors:
Type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.)
Rainfall intensity
Rainfall amount
Rainfall duration
Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin
Direction of storm movement
Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil moisture
Other meteorological and climatic conditions that affect
evapotranspiration, such as temperature, wind, relative
humidity, and season
Physical Factors:
Land use
Vegetation
Soil type
Drainage area
Basin shape
Elevation
Topography, especially the slope of the land
Drainage network patterns
Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, sinks, etc. in the basin, which prevent or
delay runoff from continuing downstream
The process of surface runoff begins when precipitation exceeds the
requirements of:
Vegetal interception.
Infiltration into the soil.
Filling surface depressions (puddles, swamps and ponds). As rain
continues to fall, surface waters flow down slope toward an
established channel or stream.
Overland flow is surface waters which travel over the ground as sheet
flow, in rivulets and in small channels to a watercourse.
Waters which move laterally through the upper soil surface to streams
are called "interflow" or "subsurface flow". For the purpose of highway
drainage hydrology, where peak design discharge (flood peaks) are the
primary interest, subsurface flows are considered to be insignificant.
Subsurface flows travel slower than overland flow.
Water which accumulates and ponds in low points or depressions in the
soil surface with no possibility for escape as runoff is in retention
storage. Where water is moving over the land it is in detention storage.
Detained water, as opposed to retained water, contributes to runoff.
Drainage of highway is important because water damage highway
structure in many ways. The water which are dangerous for highways
are:
Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep downward and
damage pavement (surface drains)
Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage pavement
(sub-surface damage)
Water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may damage
road (cross drainage words)
Cross Drainage Structures and Works
Culvert - encompasses practically all closed conduits employed for
highway drainage with the exception of storm drains (covered
pipes in urban area)
Common culvert types are;
Pipe culvert
Arch pipe culvert
Box culvert
Bridge culvert
Arch culvert
Bridges - are used in runoff drainage systems where stream span
is large, for which special designs are made almost in every case >
6m.
Cut off Walls - extending below the level of expected scour.
Dips - A dip is formed by lowering the roadway grade to the level
of the stream from the bank to bank of the stream
 Intercepting Drains used for control of seepage in cuts or side
hill locations.
TROPICAL SOILS AND ROCKS
GEOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS
ROCKS cover units of the earths crust formed by certain geological
processes
SOILS are used to describe materials produced by disintegration of
rocks
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Most roads are constructed on soils or soft rocks.
In mountainous regions, hard rock may occur in cuttings and rock
fragments may be used as embankment fill.
Hard rocks are usually quarried, crushed and graded to make
aggregate for construction of heavy-duty road pavements.
The stability of cuts and fills is dependent on the properties of the
soils and rocks concerned.
The structural design of the pavement is dependent on the
bearing capacity of the subgrade and the strength of the paving
materials.
ROCKS
Can be classified into:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
This classification indicates the mechanism through which the
rocks were formed.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks were formed by cooling and solidification of hot
molten rock material (magma). It can be classified into either
EXTRUSIVE (formed by rapid cooling of magma pouring out
on the surface of the earth), or
INTRUSIVE (formed when magma solidifies within the
earths crust)
In general, igneous rocks make good road aggregates.
Fine-grained types (extrusive) have better abrasion and
impact values but poorer polished stone values than coarse
grained types (intrusive) of the same composition.
Dolerite, basalt and granite are the most common source of
road aggregate among igneous rocks.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks were formed by consolidation and
cementation of sediments that have been accumulated in water
or deposited by wind.
A characteristic feature of many sedimentary rocks, particularly
sandstone and shale, is a layered structure (stratification) which is
a result of variation in the depositional process. Hard sandstone
and hard limestone are frequently used as aggregate in road
pavements, but most sedimentary rocks are soft and only suitable
for embankment construction. Hard limestone is an excellent
aggregate for use in cement concrete because of its low thermal
expansion.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks were formed by the modification of igneous
or sedimentary rocks as a result of pressure, heat and also,
occasionally, as a result of chemical action.
Quartzite usually produces road aggregate with good abrasion
and impact values. The polished stone value may be high, but the
affinity for bitumen varies. Marble has properties similar to those
of hard limestone; gneiss has properties similar to those of
granite. The foliated (have a pronounced laminar structure)
metamorphic rocks have very poor crushing strengths parallel to
the banding and can only be used as a fill material.
SOILS
There are three different soil forming processes
Residual soils are formed in place by weathering of bedrock.
Sediments are formed from parent materials that have been
transported to their location by wind, water or glacial ice.
Organic soils are formed from decomposed plant and animal
materials.
The most widespread groups of tropical soils are the following:
Laterite
Desert soils
Expansive clays
Volcanic ash soils
Tropical alluvial soils
LATERITES
a group of highly weathered soils formed by the concentration of
hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum
occur in all wet tropical regions, including East, West and Central
Africa, Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand and various islands, such as
Hawaii and Cuba.
mainly occurs as:
surface deposits of unhardened, clayey soils
massive rock-like hardpans
gravel consisting of concretionary nodules in a soil matrix
In the tropics, where weathering is often intense and the
availability of suitable rock as a source of crushed aggregate is
often limited, lateritic gravel is a traditional source of road
aggregate. When the grading of lateritic gravel is close to a
mechanically stable particle size distribution, the material
performs satisfactorily on lightly trafficked roads, both as sub-
base and base under thin asphalt surfacings, and as natural gravel
surfacings. But, the significant silt and clay content often renders
the material moisture-sensitive.
DESERT SOILS
are normally called arid and semi-arid soils by geologists
occur mainly in the subtropics, although there is also some
occurrence in dry regions of tropical countries
usually occur at low field densities
when constructing roads on loose sand, it is necessary to compact
the sand thoroughly to avoid uneven settlement of the road;
however, it may be difficult to obtain satisfactory compaction,
because water is scarce and dry compaction is not very effective
with the often single-sized soil material
vibratory compaction can be helpful in obtaining in-depth
compaction, and this can be followed by static compaction to
settle the top layer
EXPANSIVE CLAYS
most well-known example of expansive clay is black cotton soil
swell when moistened and shrink when dried and the swelling
properties are due to a high content of the clay mineral
montmorillonite
the colour is black, dark grey or dark grey-brown which is a result
of a small amount of organic matter being mixed with the clay
clays with a high swelling potential are a persistent problem in
road construction in tropical regions with pronounced dry and
wet seasons
surface evaporation is reduced by the road pavement and, after
the road has been completed, the moisture content of the
subgrade normally rises and causes swelling of the subgrade and
heaving of the pavement which reduces the bearing capacity of
the soil
during the following wet and dry seasons, the surface of the road
will move up and down depending on the moisture changes
in highly expansive clays, the yearly vertical movements of the
pavement edges may be as high as 50100mm, causing severe
edge failures
VOLCANIC ASH SOILS
residual soils formed in tropical regions with current or recent
volcanic activity
highly sensitive to disturbance, so road engineers should avoid
working in their vicinity
roads can be constructed over them, but heavy compaction of the
soil should be avoided since it can break down the soil structure
and render the soil weaker and more susceptible to the effect of
water
TROPICAL ALLUVIAL SOILS
mineral soils that have been transported and deposited by flowing
water
mainly occur in
river plains and deltas
alluvial fans
former lake bottoms
old irrigated areas
coastal plains
good quality road construction materials and aggregates can
usually be extracted from point bar deposits in flood plains and
from alluvial fans