CementUsersGuide

Cement
Users
Guide

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 CementUsersGuide

MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Cement
Portland cement is a hydraulic binder and a finely ground inorganic material. When mixed with water,
it forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydraulic reactions. India has made great strides
in producing world class cement.

Types
There are various types of cement in use and the latest revised edition of IS 456:2000, Indian
Standard code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete permits the use of 10 different types of
cement. These are described below.

Ordinary portland cement

Ordinary portland cement (OPC) is a product obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous
(limestone, chalk, marl, etc) and argillaceous (clay, shale, etc) materials, with or without other
materials containing silica, alumina or iron oxide, burning them at a high temperature, and grinding
the resulting intermediate product, clinker with gypsum. After burning, no material other than gypsum
is added.

Grades of OPC
The Bureau of Indian Standards has classified OPC into three grades for producing different grades
of concrete to meet the demands of the construction industry. The classification is made on the basis
of compressive strength at 28 days as:
33 grade - ordinary portland cement, IS 269:1989
43 grade - ordinary portland cement, IS 8112:1989
53 grade - ordinary portland cement, IS 12269 : 1987.

The grade indicates compressive strength of the cement in N/mm2 at 28 days. The basic physical and
chemical properties of the three grades of OPC are given in Table 1.

Since higher grades of concrete necessitate the use of higher strengths of cement at 28 days, use of
33-grade cement has dropped during the last decade.

Both 43 grade and 53 grade cement can be used for producing higher grades of concrete.

Low alkali portland cement

There is no separate standard for low alkali portland cement. But in regions where the aggregates have
reactive silica or carbonates, alkalies in the cement are restricted to 0.6 percent of soda equivalent
(Na2O + 0.658 K2O) with a view to avoid the occurrence of alkali-aggregate reaction, leading to
possible cracking and destruction of concrete. In such cases, instead of low alkali portland cement,
blended cements can be used with added advantage.

Blended cements
Blended cements or composite cements are those cements in which a mineral additive has been added
to portland cement. Blended cement is a hydraulic cementitious product, similar to ordinary portland
cement, but due to the addition of blending material it has certain improved properties compared to
OPC.
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured either by grinding intimately together portland
cement clinker, gypsum and a pozzolana such as flyash, or by intimately and uniformly blending
portland cement and fine pozzolana. The BIS has differentiated PPC based on the pozzolana added to
the mix. Thus IS 1489 (Part 1) is portland pozzolana cement (flyash based). According to the latest

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amendment in July 2000, the proportion of flyash as a pozzolana used can vary between 15 and 35
percent by weight of cement, as stipulated by IS 1489:(Part I) 1991. The physical requirements of
OPC and PPC are similar. Table 2 gives the physical and chemical requirements of PPC.

Increased impermeability, lower heat of hydration, lower plastic shrinkage, reduced alkali-
aggregate expansion, and improved resistance to aggressive chemical agents and corrosion are some
of the major benefits to be derived from the use of PPC. The use of PPC is, thus desirable for
enhancing durability in different construction jobs, specially for structures subjected to aggressive
environments. In mass concrete construction, PPC concretes have shown rather better behaviour in
respect of cracking than OPC concretes because of lower heat of hydration. The several uses of PPC
cover building construction, reinforced concrete structures, dams, foundations, machine-beds,
floorings, plastering, ornamental and other precast concrete products. Since high strength PPC
equivalent to 43 N/mm2 and 53 N/mm2 strength of 28 days is available in the country, PPC is
preferred to OPC. PPC ensures durability in addition to strength.

Portland blast-furnace slag (PBSC) cement is an intimately ground mixture of portland cement
clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag, either inter-ground or ground separately and blended
together. The granulated blast-furnace slag is a non-metallic product obtained by rapidly chilling or
quenching in water the molten slag tapped from the blast-furnace of a steel plant. As per the latest
amendment to IS 455 in May 2000, the slag constituent should not be less than 35 percent nor more
than 70 percent of the portland cement. PBSC generally has higher fineness, lower heat of hydration,
lower permeability and better resistance to chemical attack and corrosion than OPC. The basic
physical and chemical properties of blended cements are given in Table 2.
Benefits of blended cements
The use of blended cements improves the properties of both, fresh and hardened concrete. These can
be as a result of the extended hydration of the cement-pozzolana mixture, reduced water demand, and
due to the improved cohesion of the paste. Another important benefit, is the improvement in
durability resulting from the lower permeability and improved microstructure of the concrete. This
arises from the reduction in pore size of the cement paste and the refinement of pore structure of the
cement paste as well as improvements in the properties of the "interfacial zone" between the cement
paste and the aggregate/inerts.

Portland slag cement (PSC) can be used for all construction jobs in place of ordinary portland cement,
but its special properties render its adoption highly desirable for marine structures, for municipal
works such as sewers, for structures involving large masses of concrete such as dams, retaining walls,
and bridge abutments, and for structures exposed to sulphate-bearing soils such as foundations and
roads.

PSC is the commonly used cement in the eastern region of the country, including east Madhya
Pradesh and Bihar for the past 70 years as it makes the structure strong and durable. PSC with
strengths higher than 43 grade level are available today.
Sulphate-resisting portland cement
Sulphate-resisting portland cement (SRPC) counters what is commonly known as "sulphate attack".
Soluble sulphate salts like sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), calcium sulphate (CaSO4) when present in
groundwater or in the soil penetrate through the pores of the hardened concrete and chemically react
with the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) constituent of the cement. The reaction product called
"ettringite", occupies a volume which is more than the reacting compounds. This creates internal
pressure resulting in the cracking of the concrete which eventually spalls and disintegrates. This is
called "sulphate attack".

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SRPC has a low C3A content which helps in reducing sulphate attack. The use of SRC is strongly
recommended for structures in marshy lands, creek areas, coastal areas, in seawater, and in all areas
where soluble sulphate salts are present beyond tolerable limits.

In respect of all other chemical and physical properties, SRPC is similar to ordinary portland
cement and hence can be used for all types of construction where OPC/PPC/PBSC is used. SRPC
should conform to IS 12330:1988, Indian Standard Specification for sulphate resisting portland
cement, Table 2. Wherever sulphate concentration measured in terms of SO3 content exceeds 300
ppm in ground water, or 0.2 percent in the soil, the use of SRPC is recommended.

When chlorides are present besides sulphates beyond permissible limits, it would be preferable to
use blended cement instead of SRPC.

Low heat portland cement

Low heat portland cement has its chemical constituents proportioned in such a way that the heat
liberated due to hydration is reduced, making the cement particularly suitable for use in massive
structures, such as dams, bridge abutments, and retaining walls. Its rate of gain of strength is,
however, slower than that of ordinary portland cement, hence it requires a longer curing period. While
using this cement, adequate precautions are necessary with regard to the removal of formwork. LHC
should conform to IS 12600:1989, Indian Standard Specification for low heat portland cement.

Hydrophobic cement
Hydrophobic cement is made by adding water-repellent chemicals to OPC clinker at the grinding
stage. This type of cement can be stored under humid and damp conditions for prolonged periods
without deteriorating or forming lumps. The film formed around the cement grain breaks down when
it is mixed vigorously with aggregates. Except for a slightly longer mixing time, there is no change in
the procedure for making concrete with this type of cement, which should conform to
IS 8043:1991.

Oil well cement

Oil well cement (OWC) is specially manufactured for use while drilling oil wells to fill the space
between the steel castings and the wall of the well. It has controlled setting under high temperature
and pressure conditions in order to give the slurry made from it sufficient time to reach the high
depths normally associated with oil wells. However, once setting takes place it develops strength
rapidly and remains stable at high temperatures.

Oil well cement conforming to the American Petroleum Institute specifications for class G (HSR)
cement is now manufactured in India. This meets the need for a general purpose OWC and can be
modified with suitable additives for application in deep oil wells. OWC has a high resistance to
sulphate attack because of its intrinsic chemical composition.

White cement
White cement is so called because the raw materials are so chosen that the maximum iron oxide
content is strictly limited to 1 percent, Table 2. It is used primarily for decorative purposes but most
white cements, which also fulfill the requirements of IS 269: 1989 can be used as a replacement for
ordinary portland cement for structural work. A variety of colours can be obtained by the addition of
pigments, Table 3.

Storage
Since cement is a very finely ground hygroscopic material; i.e. it readily absorbs moisture every
precaution should be taken to ensure that the cement is kept free from contact with moisture in any
form. The storage shed should have a pucca floor raised at least 150 mm above ground level, and it
should be provided with airtight doors and windows. Cement stored for a long time tends to

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deteriorate and an indicative rate of its deterioration is given in Table 4. A comparison of the rate of
hardening of concrete made with fresh and stored cement is given in Table 5.
It is a good practice that cement is moved in and out of the godowns in the "first-in-first-out" method.
The drainage systems on the roof and around the godown should be well maintained, especially
during the monsoon months.

At site, the cement bags should be kept on a raised platform and covered with a tarpaulin.

Test for adulteration

A sample of doubtful cement should be burnt for about 20 minutes on a steel plate heated on a stove.
An adulterated sample will change in colour; unadulterated cement, on the other hand, will remain
unchanged.

Small pats of about 50 50 20-mm size should be made. If the cement is adulterated, the pats
can be broken easily with the pressure of fingers the next day.

It is, however, always advisable to send a sample to a laboratory for analysis and tests whenever
there is doubt regarding the quality of cement.

Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of various grades of ordinary portland cement
Type of cement Indian Standard 33 Grade 43 Grade 53 Grade
IS 269:1989 IS 8112:1989 IS 12269:1987
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Minimum compressive strength, N/mm2
3 day 16 23 27
7 day 22 33 37
28 day 33 43 53
Fineness
Minimum specific surface
(Blaines air permeability) m2/kg 225 225 225
Setting time, minutes
initial, minimum 30 30 30
final, maximum 600 600 600
Soundness, expansion
(Le Chatelier test, mm), maximum 10.0 10.0 10.0
Autoclave test for MgO, percent, maximum 0.8 0.8 0.8
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Loss on ignition, percent, maximum 5.0 5.0 4.0
Insoluble residue, percent, maximum 4.0 2.0 2.0
Magnesia MgO, percent, maximum 6.0 6.0 6.0
SO3, percent, maximum for
C3A>5 percent 2.5 2.5 2.5
C3A > 5 percent 3.00 3.00 3.00
Lime saturation factor (LSF) 0.66 to 1.02 0.66 to 1.02 0.8 to 1.02
Ratio, AF, minimum 0.66 0.66 0.66

Notes: C3A = 2.65(Al2O3) - 1.69(Fe2O3).

C3S = 4.07(CaO) - 7.6(SiO2) - 6.72(Al2O3) - 1.43(Fe2O3) - 2.85 (SO3), where CaO is the combined lime

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Table 2: Physical and chemical properties of blended cements (PPC and PBSC), SRC and white cement
Type of cement PPC PBSC SRC White cement
Indian Standard IS 1489:91 IS 455:89 Rev:4th IS 12330:88 IS 8042:89 ,Rev
(part 1) Amnd No 5 2nd, Amnd no 6
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Fineness 300 225 225 225
Minimum specific surface, m2/kg
(Blaines air permeability)
Setting time, minutes
initial, minimum 30 30 30 30
final, maximum 600 600 600 600
Minimum compressive strength, N/mm2
3 day 16 16 10 14.4
7 day 22 22 16 19.8
28 day 33 33 33 29.7
Soundness, expansion, mm
(Le Chatelier test) 10 10 10 10
Autoclave test, percent 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Additives, percent by weight of cement
Flyash 15-35
GGBS 35-70
Degree of whiteness, percent, minimum - - - 70
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Loss on ignition, percent, maximum 5.0 5.0 5.0 -
Iron oxide, percent, maximum - - - 1.0
Insoluble residue, percent, by mass, # 4.0 4.0 2.0
maximum
Magnesia, MgO, percent, maximum 6.0 10.0 6.0 6.0
Sulphur, percent, maximum as sulphuric 3.0 3.0 2.5 >3.50.66 to 1.02
anhydride (SO3) -
Lime saturation factor (LSF) - - 0.66 to 1.02 25.0
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A), maximum 5.0
- - -
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
+ 2 tricalcium aluminate
(C4AF + 2C3A), maximum
Note: PPC = Portand pozzolana cement, PBSC = Portland blastfurnace slag cement, SRC = Sulphate resisting cement, GGBS = Ground
granulated blast furnace slag

4.0(100 x)
#x+ where, x is the declared percentage of pozzolana in PPC
x

Table 3: Production of coloured finishes with white cement

Colours desired Commercial names of colours Approximate quantities required, kg per bag of cement
Light shade Medium shade
Greys, Lampblack* 0.25 0.50
blue-black or carbon black* or 0.25 0.50
and black black oxide of manganese* 0.50 1.00
or mineral black 0.50 1.00
Blue Ultramarine blue 2.30 4.10
Brownish red to dull brick red Red oxide of iron 2.30 4.10
Bright red to vermilion Mineral turkey red 2.30 4.10
Red sandstone to purplish red Indian red 2.30 4.10
Brown to reddish-brown Metallic brown (oxide) 2.30 4.10
Buff, colonial tint Yellow ochre 2.30 2.00
and yellow or yellow oxide 1.00 2.00
Green Chromium oxide or 2.30 4.10
greenish blue ultramarine 2.70 -
* Only first-quality lampblack should be used. Carbon black is light in weight and requires very thorough mixing. Black oxide or mineral
black is probably most advantageous for general use. For black, use 5 kg of oxide for each bag of cement.

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Table 4: Possible reduction in strength of concrete made with stored cement

Period of storage of cement Minimum expected reductions in strength at 28 days, percent
Fresh 0
3 months 20
6 months 30
1 year 40
2 year 50
Note: The above values are indicative. If cement is likely to have deteriorated during storage, it should be sent to a laboratory for testing.

Table 5: Rate of hardening of concrete made with fresh and stored cement
Test age 1:5 concrete made with cement stored 1:5 concrete made within fresh cement,
bags under normal conditions for 6 percent
months, percent
7 days 73 100
28 days 75 100
6 months 84 100
Note: The above values are indicative. If cement is likely to have deteriorated during storage, it should be sent to a laboratory for testing.

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Mineral admixtures
Mineral admixtures are finely divided siliceous materials which are added to cement in relatively
large amounts. They can be broadly divided into two groups, namely,

reactive mineral admixtures, which could be either pozzolonic (for example, low calcium
flyash, silica fume), or cementitious (for example, ground granulated blast-furnace slag), or
both cementitiuos and pozzolonic (for example, high calcium fly ash)

inert mineral admixtures, which have no cementitious or pozzolonic value and are generally
added as a filler material (for example, silica flour, limestone powder, etc).

When the materials from the first group comprising of reactive mineral admixtures are used to
partially replace cement, they react with the calcium hydroxide in the hydrated cement paste to form
complex compounds which result in a reduction in permeability, improvement in the ultimate
strength, watertightness and durability, besides imparting economy to the mix. However, these
admixtures need to be uniformly blended while mixing the concrete. Incidentally, blended cements
such as PPC and PBSC contain mineral admixtures as per relevant Indian standards. They are
manufactured under controlled conditions in a factory and contain these admixtures uniformly. These
cements are most suitable for site as well as ready-mixed concrete.

The IS 456:2000 permits the use of the following mineral admixtures, provided uniform blending
with cement is ensured:

fly ash

silica fume

rice husk ash

metakaolin

ground granulated blast-furnace slag.

The use of mineral admixtures directly at site in concrete is still in its infancy in India and is mainly
restricted to the ready-mixed concrete. Now most of these admixtures are readily available
commercially in the market. While the specifications of, rice husk ash and metakaolin are yet to be
formulated by the Bureau of Indian Standards, fly ash and silica fume conforming to Grade I of IS
3812:1991 (Table 6) and IS 15388: 2003 respectively shall be used. The revised standard on fly ash
lays stress on the uniformity requirement see Note below Table 6.

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Table 6(a): Requirements of flyash for use as pozzolana and admixture

Characteristic Requirement of fly ash

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

Fineness specific surface by Blaine's permeability method, m2/kg, 320

minimum

Particles retained on 45 micron IS sieve (wet sieving), percent, 34

maximum (optional test)

Lime reactivity average compressive strength, N/mm2, minimum 4.5

Minimum compressive strength, at 28 days, N/mm2, minimum Not less than 80 percent of the
strength of corresponding plain
cement mortar cubes

Soundness, Autoclave expansion, percent, maximum 0.8

Note: Fly ash of fineness 250 m2/kg (minimum) is also permitted to be used in the manufacture of portland
pozzolana cement by intergrinding it with the portland cement clinker if the fly ash when ground to fineness of
320 m2/kg or to the fineness of the resultant portland pozzolana cement whichever is lower, meets all the
requirements.

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS Siliceous PFA Calcareous PFA

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus alumimium oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide 70.0 50.0
(Fe30,), percent by mass, minimum

Silicon dioxide (SiO2,), percent by mass, minimum 35 25

Reactive silica percent by mass, minimum** 20 20

Magnesium oxide (MgO), percent by mass, maximum 5 5

Total sulphur as sulphur trioxide (SO3), percent by mass, maximum 3 3

Available alkalis as sodium oxide (Na2O), percent by mass, maximum 1.5 1.5

Total chlorides, percent by mass 0.05 0.05

Loss on ignition, percent by mass, maximum 5 5

PFA denotes pulverised fuel ash; **For the purpose of this test wherever reference to cement has been made, it
may be read as pulverised fuel ash

Uniformity requirements: In tests on individual samples, the specific surface, particles retained on 45 micron IS
Sieve (wet sieving) and lime reactivity value shall not vary more than IS percent from the average established
from the tests on the 10 preceding samples or of all preceding samples if less than 10.

Source: IS 3812 : 2003 (Part I).

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Table 6(b): Requirements of silica fume

Sr no Characteristic Requirements

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS 15

1. Specific surface, m2/g, minimum (see Note 1) 10

2. Oversize percent retained on 45 micron IS sieve maximum, (see 5

Note 1)

3. Oversize percent retained on 45 micron IS sieve, variation from 85.0

average percent, maximum (see Notes 1, 2)

4. Compressive strength 7 days as percent of control sample, 85.0

maximum (see Note 3)

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS

5. SiO2, percent by mass, minimum 85.0

6. Moisture content, percent by mass, maximum (see Note 4) 3.0

7. Loss on ignition, percent by mass, maximum 4.0

8. Alkalies as Na2O, percent, maximum (see Notes 5, 6) 1.5

Notes:
1. Anyone of the tests specified in (i) or (ii) or (iii) indicated may be adopted.
2. For (iii) the average shall consist of the ten preceding tests or all of the preceding tests if the number is less
than ten.
3. In the test method for determination of compressive strength of silica fume cement mortar in accordance with
IS 1727, the value of factor N may be taken as one.
4. For determination of moisture content, dry a weighed sample as received to constant mass in an oven at
150oC to 110oC. Express in percentage, the loss in mass and record as moisture content.
5. Requirement of limiting alkali shall be applicable in case silica fume is to be used in concrete containing
reactive aggregate.
6. For determination of alkalies, method of test used for determination of this in cement may be adopted.
Source: IS 15388 : 2003

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Aggregates
Aggregates constitute nearly 70 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete and are essentially inert
in nature. A large number of properties of concrete are governed by them. Aggregates have two
prime functions; namely, to provide concrete with a rigid skeletal structure and reduce the void space
to be filled by the cement paste.
The characteristics of aggregates are dependent upon three main features, namely, the
mineralogical composition of the parent rock, exposure conditions to which the rock has been
subjected to and the type of equipment and processes used in producing aggregates. Most natural
rocks, whether massive or broken down by nature, are suitable for making concrete. In India, the rock
types that are most generally used in concrete include: basalt, limestone, sandstone, granite, quartzite,
etc. Crushed rock is the commonly-used coarse aggregate in the country, although gravel is also used
wherever available economically. For fine aggregate, natural sand, crushed stone sand and crushed
gravel sand are permitted to be used. With the natural sources of fine aggregates getting scarce, sand
produced in crusher plants or manufactured sand, is increasingly being used in concrete making.
Manufactured Sand is an environmentally friendly option of obtaining fine aggregates as the sources
of natural sands such as marine streams, river estuary, dunes and alluvila deposits are not disturbed. .
IS 456:2000 specifies that aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. Preference
shall be given to natural aggregates.

Classification
Aggregates are commonly classified into two sizes, fine and coarse, the dividing line being the 4.75-
mm IS sieve. Where, however, the aggregate is a mixture of fine and coarse particles as it comes from
the pit, riverbed, foreshore, quarry or crushing plant it is termed as all-in aggregate.
Aggregates can also be classified in two more ways. Depending on the source, they could either
be naturally occurring (gravel, pebbles, sand, etc) or synthetically manufactured (bloated clay
aggregates, sintered flyash aggregate, etc). Further, depending on the bulk density, aggregates can
either be normal weight (1520 to 1680 kg/m3), lightweight (less than 1220 kg/m3), or heavyweight
(above 2000 kg/m3).
Grading
The distribution of the sizes of aggregate particles is called grading. Grading is an important property
of aggregate for concrete in view of its effect on the packing, and thus voidage, which will in turn
influence the water demand and cement content of concrete. Uniformity of grading within and
between consignments is most vital.
Grading is usually described in terms of cumulative percentage by mass of aggregate passing
particular IS sieves. As mentioned earlier, aggregates are classified into two sizes, fine and coarse, the
dividing line being the 4.75-mm IS sieve. Typical grading limits for coarse and fine aggregates as
given in IS 383:1970 ( Reaffirmed 2002) , are reproduced in Tables 7 and 8, respectively.
Coarse aggregates are either graded ( that is, having more than one size of particles), or single-
sized, that is mainly retained between two adjacent sieves in the upper part of the list. Fine aggregate,
depending on its fineness modulus (FM), is divided into three categories, namely, fine (FM between
2.2 to 2.6), medium (FM between 2.6 to 2.9), and coarse (FM between 2.9 to 3.2).
If the aggregates are not properly graded, they should be screened by hand or by mechanical
methods and the various sizes proportioned to get the required grading.
Quality
The aggregates used to make concrete must be clean, dense, hard, durable, structurally sound, capable
of developing good bond with cement, weather-resisting, and unaffected by water. Most of the
aggregates available in the country have adequate strength and other properties for using in concrete.
The properties of the concrete depend upon the quality of the aggregates their strength, water
absorption, shape and texture, the maximum size of aggregate, etc. Typical bulk density, specific

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gravity and voids in aggregates are given in Table 9 (a) and the limiting values of its mechanical
properties are given in Table 9 (b). The approximate water absorption of different types of aggregates
is given in Table 10.

Impurities in aggregates are undesirable as they may hinder the hydration of cement and prevent
adhesion of the aggregates with the cement paste, reducing strength and lowering durability. The
limits of allowable deleterious materials as given in IS 383:1970 are given in Table 11. Sand
containing an excess amount of silt or organic matter should be washed.

Bulking of sand
Sand as delivered sometimes contains moisture which causes a film of water on the surface of the
particles, fluffing them apart. This is called bulking which will have to be taken into account while
batching the mix. Table 12 shows the bulking of sand for various moisture contents. Table 13 shows
the approximate quantity of surface water in a kilolitre of average aggregates. The values given in the
table are applicable to nominal mixes only, particularly when no data about the surface water is
available.

Storage
Storing on dusty, muddy, and grassy spots should be avoided. Dumps must be protected from
exposure to dust. Aggregates should be placed in stockpiles in individual units not larger than a
truckload and in suitable layers to prevent segregation. They should not be allowed to run down
slopes.

Table 7: Grading limits for single-sized coarse aggregates

(Clause 4.1 and 4.2 of IS 383:1970)
IS sieve Percentage passing for single-sized aggregate of nominal size
63-mm 40-mm 20-mm 16-mm 12.5-mm 10-mm
80-mm 100 - - - - -
63-mm 85-100 100 - - - -
40-mm 0-30 85-100 100 - - -
20-mm 0-5 0-20 85-100 100 - -
16-mm - - - 85-100 100 -
12.5-mm - - - - 85-100 100
10-mm 0-5 0-5 0-20 0-30 0-45 85-100
4.75-mm - - 0-5 0-5 0-10 0-20
2.36-mm - - - - - 0-5

Table 8: Grading limits for fine aggregates

(Clause 4.3 of IS 383:1970)
IS sieve designation Percentage passing
grading grading grading grading
zone I zone II zone III zone IV
10-mm 100 100 100 100
4.75-mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36-mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18-mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600-micron 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300-micron 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50
150-micron 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

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Table 9(a): Aggregates: Bulk density, specific gravity and voids

BULK DENSITY, kg/1
River sand
fine 1.44
medium 1.52
coarse 1.60
Beach or river shingle 1.60
Broken stone 1.60
Stone screenings 1.44
Broken granite 1.68
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Trap 2.9
Granite 2.8
Gravel 2.66
Sand 2.65
VOIDS, PERCENT, AVERAGE
River sand
fine 43
coarse 35
mixed and moist 38
mixed and dry 30
Broken stone, graded
25-mm maximum size 46
50-mm maximum size 45
63-mm maximum size 41
Stone screenings 48
Note: The above values are indicative only

Table 9(b): Aggregates : Limiting values of mechanical properties

Properties Limiting values, percent
for wearing surfaces other than for wearing surfaces
Crushing value 30 45
Impact value 30 45
Abrasion value (Los Angeles) 30 50
Soundness (Average loss of weight after 5 When tested with Na2SO4 When tested with MgSO4
cycles)
Fine aggregates 10 15
Coarse aggregates 12 18
Source: IS 383:1970

Table 10: Approximate water absorption of aggregates, by weight

Average sand 1.0 percent
Pebbles and crushed limestone 1.0 percent
Trap rock and granite 0.5 percent
Porous sandstone 7.0 percent
Very light and porous aggregates may absorb as much as 25 percent by weight
* The coarser the aggregate, the less the free water it carries.

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Table 11: Limits of deleterious materials*

(Clause 3.2.1 of IS 383 : 1970)
Deleterious substances Fine aggregates* Coarse aggregates*
uncrushed crushed uncrushed crushed
Coal and lignite 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Clay lumps 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Material finer than 75-
3.00 15.00 3.00 3.00
IS sieve
Shale 1.0 - - -
Total of percentages of
all deleterious 5.0 2.00 5.00 5.00
materials**
* Percentage by weight, maximum
** Mica is excluded

Table 12: Bulking of sands for various moisture contents

Moisture, percent Percentage bulking in
fine sand medium sand coarse sand
1 16 8 6
2 26 16 12
3 32 22 15
4 36 27 17
5 38 29 18
6 37 28 18
8 35 26 16
10 32 22 12
12 28 19 8
15 22 12 2
17 18 7 0
20 9 0 0
27 0 0 0

Table 13: Surface water carried by aggregate

Aggregate Approximate quantity of surface water
Percent by mass l/m3
Very wet sand 7.5 120
Moderately wet sand 5.0 80
Moist sand 2.5 40
Moist gravel or crushed rock 1.24-25 20-40
Note: Coarser the aggregate, less the water it will carry.
Source: Table 10 of 1S 456:2000

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Water
The purpose of water in concrete is three-fold. Water distributes the cement evenly, so that every
particle of the aggregates is coated with it and brought into intimate contact with it and brought into
intimate contact with its neighbour. It reacts chemically with cement, the reaction being called
hydration of cement, and brings about the setting and hardening of cement. Water also lubricates the
mix and gives it the workability required to place and compact it properly. Ponding of the freshly
hardened concrete with water is a widely prevalent practise in the country.

Water used for mixing concrete should be free from oil, acids and alkalis, salts, sugars, organic
materials, or any other substances that may be deleterious to concrete. Generally, it should be of
potable quality.

The pH value of water shall not be less than 6. Sea water is not recommended for reinforced and
prestressed concrete, but can be used only under unavoidable circumstances for plain concrete.

It is well known that the chloride and sulphate contents of water have a major influence on the
durability of concrete. In the latest revision of IS 456:2000, the permissible limits of these harmful
agents have been made stringent.

The permissible limits for solids in water are given in Table 14.
In case of doubt regarding the development of strength the following tests are specified in IS
456:2000.
(i) Average 28-day compressive strength of at least three cubes (150 mm) prepared with the
water proposed to be used shall not be less than 90 percent of the average strength of cubes prepared
with distilled water as per IS 516.
(ii) The initial setting time shall not be less than 30 min and shall not differ 30 min from that of
the cubes cast with distilled water as per IS 4031 (Part V).

Table 14: Typical limits for solids in water

Solids Permissible limits, max, mg/l
Organic 200
Inorganic 3000
Sulphates (as SO3) 400
Chlorides (as Cl)
for plain concrete 2000
for reinforced concrete 500
Suspended matter 2000
Source: IS 456:2000 (clause 5.4)

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Chemical admixtures
Chemical admixtures are sometimes called the fifth ingredient of concrete, other than cement, coarse
and fine aggregates and water. They are inorganic or organic materials solid or liquid which
when added to the normal components of a mix (either concrete, mortar or paste), interact with the
cementitious system through chemical, physical or physico-chemical means, modifying one or more
properties of the mix in the fresh, setting, hardening or hardened state.

A number of advantages can be derived with the use of admixtures. For example, in the fresh state
of concrete, depending on the type of admixture used, they can increase the workability without
increasing the water content, reduce or prevent settlement, modify the rate and/or capacity of
bleeding, reduce segregation and reduce slump loss, retard or accelerate the time of initial/final
setting.

Aside from altering the properties of the fresh mix, they can retard or reduce heat evolution during
early hardening, accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages, increase the
compressive/flexural/tensile strength of concrete, improve durability, control alkali-aggregate
reactivity, produce aerated concrete, improve bond between old and new concrete, inhibit corrosion of
reinforcement, produce coloured concrete/mortar, etc.

Chemical admixtures can be classified according to the purpose they are used, or according to the
type of materials constituting them. Commonly-used admixtures are:
water-reducing/plasticising admixtures

set controlling admixtures, or retarders

air-entraining admixtures

accelerating admixture

high-range water reducing, or superplasticising admixtures

Besides the above, other types of admixture are also used. These include: grouting admixtures,
pumping aids, bonding admixtures, expansion-producing admixtures, fungicidal, germicidal and
insecticidal admixtures, etc.

Commercially available admixtures may contain materials that separately belong to one or more
groups. For example, a water-reducing admixture may be combined with a retarding admixture, and
so on. The effectiveness of an admixture depends upon such factors as type, brand and amount of
cement; water content; aggregate shape, grading and proportions; mixing time; slump; and
temperatures of concrete and air.
The physical requirements for the main types of admixtures extracted from i IS 9103:1999 are
given in Tables 15 and 16.

Trial mixes should be made with the admixture and the job materials at temperatures and humidity
anticipated on the job. In this way the compatibility of the admixture with other job materials, as well
as the effects of admixtures on the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete, can be observed. The
amount of admixture recommended by the manufacturer, or the optimum amount determined by
laboratory tests should be used.

Since admixtures are generally supplied in bulk it is necessary to carry out uniformity tests on the
lot of admixtures, as per requirements of IS 9103:1999, Table 17.
Despite the variety and combination of admixture used, it should be borne in mind that no admixture
at any time or amount can be considered a substitute for good concreting practice.

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Table 15: Physical requirements for accelerating, retarding, water-reducing, and air-entraining
admixtures
Requirement AA RA WRA AEA NSA RSA
Water content, percent of control sample, maximum - - 95 - 80 80
Slump - - - - * *
Time of setting, allowable deviation from control sample,
hours:
Initial
maximum -3 +3 1 - 1.5 +4
minimum -1 +1 - - - +1
final
maximum -2 +3 1 - +1.5 +3
minimum -1 +1 - - - -
Compressive strength, percent of control sample, minimum:
1-day - - - - 140 -
3-day 125 90 110 90 125 125
7-day 100 90 110 90 125 125
28-day 100 90 110 90 115 115
6-month 90 90 100 90 100 100
1-year 90 90 100 90 100 100
Flexural strength, percent of control sample, minimum:
3-day 110 90 100 90 110 110
7-day 100 90 100 90 100 100
28-day 90 90 100 90 100 100
Length change, percent increase over control sample,
maximum:
28-day 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
6-month 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
1-year 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
Bleeding, percent increase over control sample, maximum 5 5 5 5 5 5
Air content, percent, maximum, over control - - - - 1.5 1.5
Source: IS 9103:1999
Notes:
AA: Accelerating admixture; RA: Retarding admixture; WRA: Water-reducing admixture; AEA: Air entraining admixture; NSA:
superplasticising admixture (normal); RSA: superplasticising admixture (retarding).
* Not more than 15 mm below that of the control mix concrete
** At 45 min the slump shall not be less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min
***At 2 hour, the slump shall not be less than that of control mix concrete at 15 min

Table 16: Requirements for high workability mix

Sr.no. Requirements Type of superplasticising admixture
normal retarding type
1. Flow, mm 510620 510620
2. Loss of workability on standing At 45 min the slump shall be not less At 2 hr the slump shall be not less than
than that of control mix concrete at 15 that of control mix concrete at 15 min
min
3. Minimum compressive strength,
percent of control mix concrete
7-day 90 90
28-day 90 90
6-month 90 90
1-year 90 90
Source: IS 9103:1999

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Table 17: Uniformity tests and requirements

Uniformity test Requirements
Dry material content(DMC)
liquid admixture 0.95TDMC<1.05T
solid admixture where T is the manufacturers stated value in percent by mass and DMC is test result in
percent by mass.

Ash content (AC) 0.95TAC<1.05T where T is the manufacturers stated value in percent by mass and AC is test
result in percent by mass.
Relative density Within 0.02 of the value stated by the manufacturer
Chloride ion content Within 10 percent of the value or within 0.2 percent, whichever is greater as stated by the
manufacturer
pH 6 min, within 1 of the value stated by the manufacturer
Source: IS 9103:1999(Reaffirmed 2004) including Amendments nos 1 Jan 2003) and 2( Aug 2007).

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Durability
During the recent past the problem of early deterioration of concrete structures has assumed serious
proportion all over the world. In India too, this problem is being witnessed in past few years,
especially in coastal and industrial belts and other aggressive environments. The revised IS 456 lays
emphasis on different aspects of durability.

Durable concrete can be defined as one that is designed, constructed and maintained to perform
satisfactorily in the expected environment for the specified life of the structure without undue
maintenance. The materials and mix proportions chosen should be such as to maintain the integrity of
the concrete and to protect the embedded reinforcement.

The principal causes of deterioration of concrete have been identified as: carbonation, corrosion of
reinforcement, sulphate attack and alkali-aggregate reaction. Generally, the concrete suffers from
more than one cause of deterioration, which is generally seen in the form of cracking, spalling, loss of
strength, etc. It is now accepted that the main factors influencing the durability of concrete is its
impermeability to the ingress of oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, chlorides, sulphates, etc.
Impermeability is dependent on the constituents and workmanship used in making the concrete.

IS 456:2000 identifies various factors influencing durability as:

environment
cover to the embedded steel
- type and quality of constituent materials
- cement content and water-cement ratio
- workmanship to obtain full compaction and efficient curing
- shape and size of members.

IS 456:2000 classifies the general environment in which the concrete will be exposed into five
levels of severity mild, moderate, severe, very severe, and extreme, Table 18. The code has also
specified the values of minimum and maximum cement content, maximum free water-cement ratio
and the grades of concrete for different exposure conditions, Table 19. These values are applicable for
those mixes having 20-mm nominal size aggregate. For other sizes of aggregates, the values need to
be changed as given in Table 20.

It is to be noted that the minimum specified grade for reinforced concrete is M 20. Incidentally, the
grades of concrete have been classified into three different categories in IS 456, namely, ordinary
concrete (M 10, M 15 and M 20), standard concrete (M 25, M30, M 35, M 40, M 45, M 50, M 55) and
high strength concrete (M 60, M 65, M 70, M 75, M 80), Table 21.

Carbonation and chlorides in concrete

Generally, impermeable concrete provides adequate protection to reinforcing steel. However, the
atmospheric carbon dioxide can react with the products of hydration resulting in the process of
carbonation, which on reaching the reinforcing steel makes it vulnerable to corrosion. This process
may take a few years, or even decades, depending on a host of factors, such as depth of cover, its
permeability, level of CO2, type of cement and/or additive used, etc.

Another major source of corrosion is the presence of chlorides in the concrete. The chlorides may get
introduced into the concrete through the chlorides present in any of the ingredients, such as cement,
aggregates, water, admixtures, etc, or through an external source into the hardened concrete. IS 456:
2000 lays down the limits of the chloride content ( as Cl ) in concrete at the time of placing, Table 22.

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Sulphates in concrete
Sulphate attack can originate from ground water, soils, sea water or industrial effluents. The reaction
depends on the concentration of sulphate ions present in sulphate solutions (that is, sodium, potassium
ammonium, or magnesium), C3A content of the cement and the quality of the concrete. Sulphates
convert the free lime in the hardened concrete to calcium sulphate, and the hydrates of calcium
aluminates and ferrites to calcium sulphoaluminates or sulphoferrites. These conversion occupy more
than double the solid volume, which results in disruption, expansion and cracking of the concrete. IS
456:2000 stipulates that the total water-soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix, expressed as SO3
should not exceed 4 percent of the mass of cement in the mix. The standard also gives
recommendations for the type of cement, maximum free water-cement ratio, minimum cement
content required at different sulphate concentrations in near neutral ground water having a pH of 6 to
9, Table 23.

Alkali-aggregate reaction
Certain aggregates contain reactive varieties of silica which may be susceptible to attack by alkalies
originating from cement or other sources. The reaction is essentially expansive, resulting in alkali-
aggregate reaction (AAR), of which the most common is alkali-silicate reaction (ASR). For AAR to
occur the following attributes should be present: sufficient alkalies in concrete; a critical amount of
reactive silica in the aggregate; and sufficient moisture.

Relative humidity has an important influence on AAR, and high temperature with adequate
moisture generally accelerates ASR, whereas low temperature slows it down. IS 456-2000 suggests
that the following precautions be taken:

choose an alternate supply of aggregates

use low alkali cement cement having an alkali content not more than 0.6 percent as Na2O
equivalent
use mineral admixtures such as flyash (at least 20 percent), or ground granulated blast-furnace
slag (not less than 50 percent); this implies use of blended cements with flyash or ground
granulated blast-furnace slag
limiting cement content in the mix
measures to reduce the degree of saturation of the concrete during service.

Cover to reinforcement
It is observed that inadequate cover to the reinforcement is one of the major factors leading to early
deterioration of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. Provision of appropriate cover to all
reinforcements and ensuring that the quality of the cover concrete including that of the cover blocks is
same as that of the core concrete go a long way in mitigating the problem of early deterioration. IS
456 : 2000 gives detailed guidelines on provision of cover.

The code defines nominal cover as the design depth of concrete cover to all reinforcement,
including links. In order to meet durability requirements, the cover for normal weight concrete,
including links as specified by the code is given in Table 24. Incidentally, the cover should not be
less than the diameter of the bar.

The code specifies that for longitudinal bar in a column nominal cover shall not be less than 40
mm, or less than the diameter of the bar. In those columns of minimum dimension of 200 mm or less,
where the reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm diameter, a nominal cover of 25 mm may be used.
For footings minimum cover shall be 50 mm.

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Cover for fire resistance : For the first time, IS 456 has specified cover for fire resistance. The
nominal cover of normal-weight aggregate concrete shall be provided to all reinforcement, including
links to meet fire resistance as specified in Table 25.

Table 18: Environmental exposure conditions

Sr No Environment Exposure conditions
Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions, except those situated in
(i) Mild coastal areas
Concrete surface sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet; concrete exposed to
condensation and rain concrete continuously under water; concrete in contact or buried
(ii) Moderate
under non-aggressive soil/ground water; concrete surfaces sheltered from saturated salt air
in coastal area
Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting and drying or occasional freezing
(iii) Severe whilst wet or severe condensation; concrete completely immersed in sea water; concrete
exposed to coastal environment
Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes or severe freezing conditions
(iv) Very severe
whilst wet; concrete in contact with or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water
Surface of members in tidal zone; members in direct contact with liquid/solid aggressive
(v) Extreme
chemicals
Source: Table 3 of IS 456:2000

Table 19: Minimum cement content, maximum water-cement ratio and minimum grade of concrete for different
exposures with normal weight aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size
Plain concrete Reinforced concrete
Minimum Minimum
Exposure cement Maximum free Minimum cement Maximum free Minimum
conditions content, water cement grade of content, water cement grade of
ratio concrete ratio concrete
kg/m3 kg/m3
Mild 220 0.60 - 300 0.55 M 20
Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25
Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30
Very severe 260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40
Source: Table 5 of IS 456 : 2000
Note: (i)Cement content prescribed in this table is irrespective of the grades of cement and it is inclusive of additions mentioned in clause
5.2 of IS 456. The additions such as fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag may be taken into account in the concrete
composition with respect to the cement content and w-c ratio if the suitability is established and as long as the maximum
amounts taken into account do not exceed the limit of pozzolana and slag specified in IS 1489 (Part I) and
IS 455, respectively.
(ii) Minimum grade for plain concrete under mild exposure condition is not specified.

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Table 20: Adjustments to minimum cement contents for aggregates other than 20-mm nominal maximum size

Sr. No. Nominal maximum aggregate size, Adjustment to minimum cement

mm in Table 19*, contents. kg/m3

(i) 10 +40

(ii) 20 0

(iii) 40 -30

Source: Table 6 of IS 456: 2000, *(Table 5 of IS 456: 2000)

Table 21: Grades of concrete

Group Grade designation Specified characteristic compressive
strength of 150 mm cube at 28 days,
N/mm2
Ordinary concrete M10 10
M15 15
M20 20
Standard concrete M25 25
M30 30
M35 35
M40 40
M45 45
M50 50
M55 55
High strength concrete M60 60
M65 65
M70 70
M75 75
M80 80
Source: Table 2 of IS 456 : 2000
Notes: (i) In the designation of concrete mix, M refers to the mix and the number to the specified compressive strength of 150-mm size
2
cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm .
(ii) For concrete of compressive strength greater than M 55, design parameters given in the standard may not be applicable and
the values may be obtained from specialised literature and experimental results.

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Table 22: Limits of chloride content of concrete

Maximum total acid soluble chloride content expressed as
Type or use of concrete 3
kg/m of concrete
Concrete containing metal and steam cured at elevated temperature, and
pre-stressed concrete 0.4
Reinforced concrete or plain concrete containing embedded metal 0.6
Concrete not containing embedded metal or any material requiring
protection from chloride 3.0
Source: Table 7 of IS 456:2000

Table 23: Requirements for concrete exposed to sulphate attack

Dense fully compact with 20-mm
nominal maximum size
Class Concentration of sulphates, expressed as SO3 Type of cement aggregates complying with IS
383
Minimum Maximum free
in soil in ground water cement water- cement
content, kg/m
3
ratio
SO3, in
total SO3 percent 2:1water:soil g/l
extract g/l
Ordinary portland cement,
(i) Traces (<0.2) Less than 1.0 Less than 0.3 or portland slag cement, or 280 0.55
portland pozzolana cement
Ordinary portland cement,
(ii) 0.2 to 0.5 1.0 to 1.9 0.3 to 1.2 or portland slag cement, or 330 0.50
portland pozzolana cement
Supersulphated cement, or
(iii) 0.5 to 1.0 1.9 to 3.1 1.2 to 2.5 sulphate resisting portland 330 0.50
cement.
Portland possolana cement
350 0.45
or portland slag cement
Supersulphated, or sulphate
(iv) 1.0 to 2.0 3.1 to 5.0 2.5 to 5.0 370 0.45
resisting portland cement
Sulphate resisting portland
cement, or supersulphated
(v) More than 2.0 More than 5.0 More than 5.0 400 0.40
cement with protective
coatings
Source: IS 456 : 2000 (Clauses 8.2.2.4 and 9.1.2)
Notes:(i) Cement content given in this table is irrespective of grades of cement.
(ii) Use of supersulphated cement is generally restricted where the prevailing temperature is above 40oC.
(iii) Supersulphated cement gives an acceptable life provided that the concrete is dense and prepared with a water-
cement ratio of 0.4 or less, in mineral acids, down to pH 3.5
(iv) The cement contents given are the minimum recommended. For SO3 contents near the upper limit of any class, cement
contents above these minimum are advised.
(v) For severe conditions, such as thin sections under hydrostatic pressure on one side only and sections partly immersed,
considerations should be given to a further reduction of water-cement ratio.
(vi) Portland slag cement conforming to IS: 455 with slag content more than 50 percent exhibits better sulphate resisting properties.
(vii) Where chloride is encountered along with sulphates in soil or ground water, ordinary portland cement with C3A content from 5 to
8 percent shall be desirable to be used in concrete, instead of sulphate resisting cement. Alternatively, portland slag cement
conforming to IS: 455 having more than 50 percent slag, or a blend of ordinary portland cement and slag may be used, provided
sufficient information is available on performance of such blended cements in these conditions.

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Table 24: Nominal cover to meet durability requirements

Exposure Nominal cover, not less than, mm
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very severe 50
Extreme 75

Source: Table 16, IS 456:2000

Notes: (i) For main reinforcement up to 12-mm diameter bar for mild exposure conditions, nominal cover may be reduced by
5 mm
(ii) For exposure conditions of severe and very severe, cover may be reduced by 5 mm, where concrete grade is
M35 and above.
(iii) Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate from the required nominal cover by + 10 mm

Table 25: Nominal cover to meet specified period of fire resistance

Fire
resistance, Nominal Cover
hr
Beams Slabs Ribs Columns
Simply Simply Simply
Continuous Continuous Continuous
supported supported supported
0.5 20 20 20 20 20 20 40
1.0 20 20 20 20 20 20 40
1.5 20 20 25 20 35 20 40
2.0 40 30 35 25 45 35 40
3.0 60 40 45 35 55 45 40
4.0 70 50 55 45 65 55 40

Source: Table 16A of IS 456:2000

Note: (i) The nominal covers given relate specifically to the minimum member dimensions given in Fig 1 of IS 456: 2000
(page 34).
(ii) Cases that lie below the bold line require additional measures necessary to reduce risk of spalling.

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Concrete mix proportioning

Proportioning of concrete mixes can be regarded as procedure set to proportion the most economical
concrete mix for specific durability and grade for required site condition. The revised IS 10262 :2009
provides the concrete mix proportioning guidelines. In the revised version, the requirements of
selection of water-cement ratio, water content and estimation of coarse aggregate content and fine
aggregate content have been modified. A new illustrative example using fly ash as one of the
ingredients has been included in the guidelines.

Different ingredients of concrete need to be mixed in appropriate proportions during the production of
concrete. This can be done either by volume or by weight, the latter being more precise and scientific.
It is essential that concrete mixes be proportioned for a particular set of given ingredients to
produce specific properties of concrete in the most economical ways. This is a must for large-scale
jobs, where quality is an important yardstick.

Rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete, generally referred as mix proportioning or

mix designing is a process by which one can arrive at the right combination of cement, aggregates,
water, and admixtures (if any) for producing concrete to satisfy given specifications. The purpose of
mix proportioning is to obtain a product that will perform to certain predetermined requirements. The
objective of mix design is to ensure that the concrete:

(i) complies with the compressive strength as laid down in the specifications

(ii) conforms to the specified durability requirements to resist the environment in which the structure
will be serviceable during its design life

(iii) has adequate workability

(iv) is capable of being mixed, transported, laid down and compacted as efficiently as possible

(v) and last but not least, be as economical as possible.

To achieve an optimum mix proportion to fulfil the above parameters is a challenging task. The
work of mix designing is a trial and error exercise, which need to be carried out by an experienced
person in a laboratory.

The concrete mix needs to be designed to produce the grade of concrete having characteristic
strength not less than the appropriate values given in Table 21. The mix also needs to be designed for
adequate workability so that it could be being mixed, transported, laid down and compacted as
efficiently as possible. Depending upon the placing conditions, IS 456 has recommended different
ranges of workability and these are given in Table 26. In addition, the concrete has to satisfy the
durability requirements. Some of these requirements, namely the minimum cement content, maximum
water-cement ratio and minimum grade of concrete, as specified by IS 456 are already given in Table
19. It may be noted that the code has specified the minimum grade of concrete to be not less than M
20 for reinforced concrete constructions.

The responsibility of carrying out the mix design rests with the contractor or an expert agency
employed by the contractor. The mix so designed needs to be approved by the employer/client. The
contractor/expert agency can use any mix design method in designing the mix.

It would be appropriate to obtain standard deviation based on the test strength of samples at a
project site. In case such test results are not available, assumed values of standard deviation as given
in Table 27 may be used for the design of the mix in the first instance. As soon as the results of
sample are available, actual calculated standard deviation shall be used and the mix designed
properly.

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Nominal mixes
If mix design concrete cannot be used for any reason on the work of grades of M 20 or lower, IS 456
permits the use of nominal mixes. The proportion of materials for nominal mix concrete shall be as
given in Table 28.

Table 26: Degree of workability for different placing conditions

Placing conditions Degree of workability Slump, mm
Blinding concrete; shallow sections; use compacting factor test as per
very low
pavement using pavers IS:1199
Mass concrete; lightly reinforced
sections in slabs, beams, walls,
Columns; floors; hand- placed low 25-75
pavements; canal linings; strip
footings
Heavily reinforced sections in slabs,
columns, beams, walls; columns 50-100
medium

sSipform work; pumped concrete medium 75-100

Trench fill; in-situ piling high 100-150
use determination of flow test as per IS
Tremie concrete very high
: 9103
Source : IS 456 : 2000

Table 27: Assumed standard deviation

2
Grade of concrete Assumed standard deviation, N/mm
M 10 3.5
M 15 3.5
M 20 4.0
M 25 4.0
M 30 5.0
M 35 5.0
M 40 5.0
M 45 5.0
M 50 5.0
Source: Table 8 of IS 456 : 2000
Note: The above values correspond to the site control having proper storage of cement; weigh batching of all materials; controlled addition
of water; regular checking of all materials, aggregate gradings and moisture content; and periodical checking of workability and strength.
2
Where there is deviation from the above, the values given in the above table shall be increased by 1 N/mm .

Table 28: Proportions for nominal mix concrete

Total quantity of dry
Proportion of fine
aggregate (coarse + fine Water per 50-kg cement,
Grade of concrete aggregate to coarse
aggregate) per 50-kg maximum, lit
aggregate, by vol
cement
M 5 800 60
M 7.5 625 1:2, subject to upper limit of 45
M 10 480 1:1.5 and lower limit of 34
M 15 330 1:2.5 32
M 20 250 30
Note: 1. The proportions of fine to coarse aggregates should be adjusted from the upper limit to the lower limit
progressively as the grading of fine aggregates becomes finer and the maximum size of coarse aggregates becomes larger.
Graded coarse aggregate should be used.
2. Quanity of water required from durability poit of view may be less than the value given above (Ref Amend No 3 to IS
456:2000)

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Acceptance criteria
The IS 456:2000 specifies that in all cases the 28-day compressive strength given in Table 21 shall
alone be the criteria for acceptance or rejection of the concrete. However, in order to get a relatively
quicker idea of the quality of concrete, testing may be carried out 7 days or even earlier, depending on
requirements.

According to the code, the concrete shall be deemed to comply with the strength requirements
when both the following conditions are met:

Compressive strength
(i) the mean strength determined from any group of four consecutive tests complies with the
appropriate limits of col 2 in Table 29

(ii) any individual test result complies with the appropiate limits in col 3 of Table 29.

Flexural strength
(i) the mean strength determined from any group of four consecutive test results exceeds
the specified characteristic strength by at least 0.3 N/mm2

(ii) the strength determined from any test result is not less than the specified characteristic
strength less 0.3 N/mm2.

For individual test result requirements given in column 3 of Table 29 or at (ii) above under title
"flexural strength" only the particular batch from which the sample was taken shall be at risk.

If the concrete does not comply with the above requirements, the code advises that the structural
adequacy of the parts affected shall be investigated. Incidentally, concrete of each grade shall be
assessed separately.

The code suggests that concrete will be liable to be rejected if it is porous or honeycombed, its
placing has been interrupted without providing a proper construction joint, the reinforcement has been
displaced beyond tolerances specified, or construction tolerances have not been met. However, the
code also states that the hardened concrete may be accepted after carrying out remedial measures to
the satisfaction of the engineer-in-charge.

Table 29: Characteristic compressive strength compliance requirement

Man of the group of 4 non-overlapping 2
Specified grade 2 Individual test results, N/mm
consecutive test results, N/mm
fck + 0.825 established standard
deviation (rounded off to nearest 0.5
fck 3 N/mm
2
M 15 2 2
N/mm ) or fck + 3 N/mm , whichever is
greater
fck + 0.825 established standard
deviation (rounded off to nearest 0.5
fck 3 N/mm
2
M 20 or above 2 2
N/mm ) or fck + 3N/mm , whichever is
greater
Source: Table 11 of IS 456 : 2000
Note: In the absence of established value of standard deviation, the values given in Table 8 of IS 456 may be assumed, and attempt should
be made to obtain results of 30 samples as early as possible to establish the value of standard deviation

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Batching and mixing

Batching
While traditionally batching has been done by volume and still continues to be done even today, it is
more accurate to batch the concrete ingredients by weight. IS 456:2000 insists on batching by weight.
The method is absolutely straightforward the cement, sand and coarse aggregates are weighed
directly in kg, and the water in litres (or in kg), and the chemical admixture(s) in lit.

Weigh batching
Cement comes in 50-kg bags. The aggregate and sand can be weighed by a variety of weighing
devices, the simplest being a spring dial scale, to more accurate portable weigh batchers.

A spring dial scale is hooked from a fixed support or frame which is easily rigged up. A metal scoop
is hung from the hook of the scale, into which the materials are weighed. The metal scoop can then be
emptied directly into the skip or drum of the mixer, or if mixing is done by hand, on to the mixing
platform. The weight of the empty scoop has to be taken into account while weighing, and this can
normally be done by adjusting the dial to zero weight, thereby permitting direct reading of the loads.

Another device is a platform scale. This is placed in the route from the stockpiles to the mixer and
the materials weighed in containers. It is preferable that all the containers are of a similar weight; if
not bring all the empty containers to the weight of the heaviest one by tying pieces of iron or weights
onto them.

A more efficient and accurate method is to use portable weigh batchers available in the market.
This equipment consists of weigh buckets connected through a system of levers to a spring loaded dial
which indicates weight. The weigh batcher can be so positioned such that the weighed material is
discharged directly into the mixer positioned adjacent to it. Some weigh batchers come with two
weigh buckets which can revolve around each other, each with its own dial, allowing the material in
one bucket to be weighed while the other bucket is emptying its material into the mixer.

IS 456 specifies the accuracy of the measuring equipment shall be within 2 percent of the
quantity of the cement being measured, and within 3 percent of the quantity of aggregate,
admixtures and water being measured.

Volume batching
IS 456 allows batching by volume, only where weigh batching is not practical and accurate bulk
densities of materials to be actually used in the concrete have been established earlier. When volume
batching is practised, use of measuring boxes, control on water-cement ratio, measuring bulking of
sand and accounting for surface water of aggregates need to be strictly adhered to.

To ensure a certain degree of consistency, farmas (wooden/steel batch boxes) should be used. The
dimension of the farma should be in multiples of one bag of cement, or 35 lit, since the batching is
always related to a single bag of cement. A convenient size of farma would be 350 250 400 mm.
Farmas should not be made too large and unwieldy; it would be preferable to have a farma which can
contain, say half the required quantity of aggregate, and to fill this twice over for each batch of
concrete. Before concreting operations are started, the supervisor should check the farma volumes
against specified quantities. While filling the farma the material should be loosely filled in and struck
off level without compacting it.

Water can be measured either in lt or kg. For example, if the water-cement ratio is specified as 0.45,
the quantity of mixing water required per 50-kg bag of cement is 0.45 50 = 22.5 kg, or lt. This is of
course, inclusive of any surface moisture present in the aggregates. The amount of surface water
present in aggregates can be estimated as given earlier in Table 13.

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Mixing
Mixing by machine is more efficient than mixing by hand, and IS 456:2000 recommends that mixing
should be done in a mechanical mixer. The mixing should be continued till all the materials are
uniformly distributed in the mixer and the end product is of a consistent colour. Mixing time should
be at least 2 min, or the recommendations of the manufacturer should be followed.

IS 456:2000 recommends that mixers should be fitted with water measuring devices. If there is
segregation after loading the concrete should be remixed.

Though mixing by machine is now commonly adopted, a considerable amount of concrete is still
mixed by hand, particularly on small jobs. Concrete should never be mixed just on the ground;
otherwise, dirt will also get mixed in. Mixing must be done on a clean hard surface such as a concrete
floor, a wooden platform, or in a sheet metal trough.

While mixing the raw materials, cement and sand should be intimately mixed first, then the coarse
aggregates. Water is added last and the mixture should be turned over until a uniform colour is
obtained all around.

At civil construction sites where considerable quantity of concrete is required, central batching
plants or batching and mixing plants are deployed. Concrete mixed in a stationary mixer in a centrally
batching and mixing plant or in a truck mixer and supplied in the fresh condition to the purchaser or
into the purchares vehicle is called ready-mixed concrete.

The Indian code for ready-mixed concretre was first published in 1968. In the first revision in 1976,
the major modification included increasing the time for supplying by half an hour and permitting use
of fly ash. The second revision published in 2003 introduces 13 major modifications based on
experience of using the earlier versions of the standard and other developments in the concrete
industry. For more details see Indian Standard IS 4926:2003, Ready-Mixed Concrete Code of
Practice.

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Making good concrete

The following points pertaining to materials and workmanship are important.

1. Cement: Select the appropriate type of cement. Use fresh cement of approved quality. Store
it properly to prevent deterioration.

2. Aggregates: Use well-graded aggregates, free from silt, organic matter, and other undesirable
impurities. Store aggregates properly and don't allow different fractions to mix together.

3. Water: Use potable quality of water. It should be free from impurities and harmful ingredients.
It should be within the tolerable limits specified by BIS.

4. Chemical admixtures: Use optional. Use appropriate type of admixture(s) in correct dosages,
as recommended by the manufacturer, and/or confirmed by laboratory tests. Ensure that the
admixture(s) are compatible with the cement and other ingredients. Trial mixes should be
made, if necessary. Ensure that there is no batch-to-batch variation in quality.
5. Durability: Ensure that the durability requirements like minimum cement content, maximum
water-cement ratio, grade of concrete, cover to reinforcement, etc as specified in IS 456:2000
are satisfied for the given exposure conditions.

6. Mix design: Use of a properly designed concrete mix is essential for large jobs. BIS permits
use of nominal mixes for works using concrete grades of M 20 and below.

7. Batching: Batching materials by weight is preferable and the BIS emphasises its use. If
batched on volume basis, use measurement boxes in units of 35 litres, which is the capacity of
one 50-kg bag of cement. In any case the cement should,, be batched only by weight and
preferably by whole bags. Allowance for water because of bulking of sand and surface water
carried by coarse aggregates is essential.

8. Quantity of mixing water: Use the minimum quantity of mixing water, consistent with the
degree of workability required to enable easy placing and compaction of concrete. Ensure that
a water-measuring device is fitted on the mixer and is used.

9. Mixing: Use a mixing machine. There should be uniform distribution of the material until the
mass is uniform in colour and consistency. Avoid hand mixing. Where it is unavoidable,
hand-mixing should be done on an impervious platform. In the case of hand mixing, mix
cement and sand first and then add aggregates.

10. Transporting: Avoid drying out, segregation, setting, loss of any ingredients, ingress of
foreign matter or water during transportation.

11. Placing: Place concrete in its final position before setting starts; avoid segregation of
materials and disturbance of the forms; lay concrete in suitable layers without any break of
continuity; maximum free-fall of concrete should not exceed 1.5 m.

12. Compaction: Ensure thorough compaction, particularly around the reinforcement and
embedded fixtures and into the corners of the formwork. Use internal/external/form
vibrators; avoid under- and over-vibration.
13. Finishing: Finish after a little stiffening.

14. Curing: Keep concrete continuously moist, preferably for a period of seven to 14 days.

15. Formwork: Use formwork, which is rigid and closely fitted, with sufficient strength to
support the wet concrete and to prevent loss of slurry. The face of the formwork should be
treated with form-release agents.

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16. Reinforcement: Make sure that the reinforcement used is free from loose rust, oil, paint, mud,
etc. The reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in position by providing proper cover
blocks, spacers, supporting bars, etc. Reinforcement shall be placed and tied such that
concrete placement is possible without segregation, and compaction possible by an immersion
vibrator.

Table 30: Recommended volumetric mixes for various types of construction

Water for 1-cement bag batch, lt
for aggregates
Approx.
Maximum size of Total for dry condition
Kind of work mix, loose best consistency
aggregates, mm aggregates from moist to
volume
wet
Small precast work, fence posts
poles, garden furniture and other 1:2:2 16 20 15 to 16 Soft
work of very thin sections
Storage tanks, cisterns, sewers,
well kerbs, watertight work, and
1:2:3 20 25 19 to 22 Medium
columns or other structural parts
subjected to high stresses
Reinforced concrete work, floor
slabs, beams, columns, arches, 1:2:3 20 32 23 to 27 Medium or soft
stairs, etc
Ordinary floors, footpaths, drive-
ways, steps, roads, pavements 1:2:3 20 23 20 to 23 Stiff

Building and basement walls,

silos, sills, lintels, machine
foundations subject to vibration,
bridges, dams, piers, etc exposed 1:2:4 40 30 23 to 26 Stiff or medium
to action of water and frost
foundation concrete for masonry
walls
Culverts retaining walls,
compound walls, ordinary 1:3:5 40 34 26 to 30 Stiff or medium
machine bases, etc
Mass concrete for heavy walls,
lean concrete for levelling course 1:3:6 63 36 30 to 32 Medium
of RCC foundations
Notes: When both coarse and fine aggregates are poorly graded the following general rules regarding suitable proportioning
of these will be found helpful:
(i) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 40 mm and over, sand should be half as much as coarse aggregate.
(ii) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 20 mm and over, sand should be two-thirds of the coarse aggregate.
(iii) For maximum size of coarse aggregates as 16 mm, sand and coarse aggregates should be in equal parts.

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Table 31: Estimated quantities of materials required per cubic metre of compacted mortar or concrete
Nominal mix Water- Water, litres per Cement Crushed
Sand,
fine coarse cement 50-kg bag of by number stone,
cement by weight, kg liters
aggregate aggregate ratio cement of bags liters
1 1 - 0.25 12.5 1015 20.3 710 -
1 1.5 - 0.28 14.0 815 16.3 855 -
1 2 - 0.30 15.0 687 13.75 963 -
1 2.5 - 0.35 17.5 585 11.7 1023 -
1 3 - 0.40 20.0 505 10.1 1060 -
1 4 - 0.53 26.5 395 7.9 1106 -
1 6 - 0.70 35.0 285 5.7 1,197 -
1 8 - 0.90 45.0 220 4.4 1,232 -
1 1 2 0.30 15.0 560 11.2 392 784
1 2 2 0.42 21.0 430 8.6 602 602
1 1.5 3 0.42 21.0 395 7.9 414 828
1 1.66 3.33 0.48 24.0 363 7.25 419 838
1 2 3 0.50 25.0 385 7.7 539 808
1 2 3.5 0.53 26.5 330 6.6 462 808
1 2 4 0.55 27.5 310 6.2 434 868
1 2.5 3.5 0.57 28.5 305 6.1 534 748
1 2.5 4 0.60 30.0 285 5.7 499 798
1 3 4 0.65 32.5 265 5.3 556 742
1 2.5 5 0.65 32.5 255 5.1 446 892
1 3 5 0.69 34.5 240 4.8 504 840
1 3 6 0.75 37.5 215 4.3 452 904
1 4 8 0.95 47.5 165 3.3 462 924
Notes: (i) The table is based on the assumptions that the voids in sand and crushed stone are 40 and 45 percent, respectively.
(ii) Air content of 1 percent has been assumed.
(iii) For gravel aggregate decrease cement by 5 percent, increase sand by 2 percent and coarse aggregate in proportion to fine
aggregate in mix.
(iv) No allowance has been made in the table for bulking of sand and wastage.

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Table 32: Materials required per m2 for various thicknesses of concrete screed
Nominal Thickness, mm
Material
mix 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 200 225 250 300
C 20 24 28 32 36 39 49 59 79 89 99 118
1:1:3 FA 21 25 29 33 37 41 52 62 82 93 104 124
CA 41 50 58 66 75 83 104 124 166 187 207 249
C 19 23 7 31 35 38 48 58 77 87 96 115
1:2:3 FA 27 32 38 43 49 54 67 81 108 122 135 162
CA 40 49 57 65 73 81 101 121 162 182 202 242
C 18 22 26 29 33 36 45 55 73 82 91 109
1:1.5:3.33 FA 21 25 29 34 38 42 52 63 84 95 105 126
CA 42 50 59 67 75 84 105 126 168 189 210 251
1:2:4 C 16 19 22 25 28 31 39 47 62 70 78 93
FA 22 26 30 35 39 43 54 65 87 98 109 130
CA 43 52 61 70 78 87 109 130 174 196 217 260
1:2.5:5 C 13 15 18 20 23 26 32 38 51 57 64 77
FA 22 27 31 36 40 45 56 67 89 100 112 134
CA 45 54 63 71 80 89 112 134 178 200 223 268
1:3:5 C 12 14 17 19 22 24 30 36 48 54 60 72
FA 25 30 35 40 45 50 63 76 101 114 126 151
CA 42 50 59 67 76 84 105 126 168 189 210 252
1:3:6 C 11 13 15 17 19 22 27 32 43 48 54 64
FA 23 27 32 36 41 45 57 68 90 101 113 136
CA 45 54 63 72 81 90 113 136 181 203 226 271
1:4:8 C 8 10 11 13 15 17 21 25 33 37 41 49
FA 23 28 32 37 42 46 58 69 92 104 116 139
CA 46 55 65 74 83 92 116 139 185 208 231 277
Notes: (i) C = Cement, kg; FA= Fine aggregate, saturated surface-dry, litres; CA = Coarse aggregate, litres
(iii) No allowance made for bulking and wastage

Table 33: Materials required per m2 for various thicknesses of plaster

Thickness, mm
Mix Material
5 10 20 30 40 50
C 5.1 10.1 20.3 30.5 40.6 50.8
1:1
FA 3.5 7.1 14.2 21.3 28.4 35.5
C 4.1 8.2 16.3 24.5 32.6 40.8
1:1.5
FA 4.3 8.6 17.1 25.6 34.2 42.7
C 3.4 6.9 13.7 20.6 27.5 34.4
1:2
FA 4.8 9.6 19.3 28.9 38.5 48.1
C 2.9 5.9 11.7 17.5 23.4 29.2
1:2.5
FA 5.1 10.2 20.5 30.7 41.0 51.2
C 2.5 5.1 10.1 15.2 20.2 25.3
1:3
FA 5.3 10.6 21.2 31.8 42.4 53.0
C 2.0 4.0 7.9 11.9 15.8 19.7
1:4
FA 5.5 11.1 22.1 33.2 44.2 55.3
C 1.4 2.9 5.7 8.6 11.4 14.3
1.6
FA 6.0 12.0 23.9 35.9 47.9 59.9
C 1.1 2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0
1.8
FA 6.2 12.3 24.6 37.0 49.3 61.6
Notes: (i) C = cement, kg FA = fine aggregate (sand), litres
(ii) No allowance has been made in table for bulking and wastage

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Table 34: Approximate materials required for plastering 100 m2 area using different proportions of
cement mortar
3 3
Cement mortar Cement, m (no of bags) Sand, m
1:2 0.7 (21) 1.4
1:3 0.5 (15) 1.5
1:4 0.4 (12) 1.6
1:6 0.3 (9) 1.8
3 2
Note: Thickness of plaster is 12 mm and 2 m of mortar is used for 100 m area

Table 35: Approximate materials required for whitewashing, distempering and painting 100 m2 area
Job Quantity
Lime for whitewashing (1 coat) 10.0 kg
Dry distemper for 1st coat 6.5 kg
Dry distemper for 2nd coat 5.0 kg
Snowcem for 1st coat 30.0 kg
Snowcem for 2nd coat 20.0 kg
Paint, ready mixed for one coat 10.0 lt
Paint, stiff for one coat 10.0 kg

Table 36: Coefficients to be applied over area of different surfaces to get equivalent
plain area in painting jobs
Description of work Measurement Multiply by coefficient
Measured flat including chowkat or
Panelled framed and braced doors, windows, etc 1.30 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Measured flat including chowkat or
Ledged and battened doors, windows, etc 1.30 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Measured flat including chowkat or
Flush doors, etc 1.20 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Measured flat including chowkat or
Part panelled and part gauzed doors, etc 1.00 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Measured flat including chowkat or
Fully glazed or gauzed doors, windows, etc 0.80 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Measured flat including chowkat or
Fully lowered doors, windows, etc 1.80 each side
frame, edges cleats, etc
Trellis work, one way or two way Measured flat 2.00 for all over
Carved or enriched work Measured flat 2.00 for each side
Weather boarding Measured flat 1.20
Wooded single roofing Measured flat 1.10 for each side
Boarding with cover tillets and match boarding Measured flat 1.05 for each side
Tile and slate battening Measured flat 0.80 for all over
STEEL DOORS, WINDOWS, ETC
Plain sheeted steel doors or windows Measured flat 1.10 for each side
Fully glazed steel doors or windows Measured flat 0.50 for each side
Party panelled and glazed doors and windows Measured flat 0.80 for each side
Corrugated sheeted steel doors and windows Measured flat 1.25 for each side
Collapsible gates Measured flat 1.50 for all over
Rolling shutters of interlocked lathes Measured flat 1.10 for all over
GENERAL
Expanded metal, hard drawn steel, wire fabric grill
works and gratings in guard bars, railings, etc Measured flat 1 (for painting all over)
Open palisade fencing and gates including standards,
braces, rails, etc Measured flat 1 (for painting all over)
Corrugated iron sheetings in roofs, etc Measured flat 1.14 for each side
AC corrugated sheetings in roofs Measured flat 1.20 for each side
AC semicorrugated sheetings in roofs, etc Measured flat 1.10 for each side
Wire gauze shutters including painting of wire gauze Measured flat 1.00 for each side

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Reinforcement

Table 37: Mechanical properties of cold steel bars for reinforced concrete (clause 8.1 of IS:432 (part I) -
1982)
Ultimate tensile Yield stress, Elongation,*
Type and nominal size of bar
stress, minimum minimum, N/mm2 percent, N/mm2
MILD STEEL GRADE I
For bars upto and including 20 mm 410 250 23
For bars over 20 mm, upto and including 50 410 240 23
mm
MILD STEEL GRADE II
For bars upto and including 20 mm 370 225 23
For bars over 20 mm, upto and including 50 370 215 23
mm
MEDIUM TENSILE STEEL
For bars upto and including 16 mm 540 350 20
For bars over 16 mm, upto and including 32 540 340 20
mm
For bars over 32 mm, upto and including 50 510 330 20
mm
*Elongation on a gauge length 5.65 So where So is the cross-sectional area of the test piece

Table 38: Mechanical properties of cold worked high strength steel deformed bars for concrete
reinforcement (IS:1786-2008)
0.2 percent proof stress Elongation percent minimum, Tensile strength minimum,
Type of bar 2 2
minimum, N/mm on gauge length of 5.65 A* N/mm
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
10 /12percent more than actual
0.2 percent proof stress/yield
Grade Fe 415/415D 415/415 14.5/18.0
stress but not less than 485.0 /
500N/mm2
8/10 percent more than actual
0.2 percent proof stress/yield
Grade Fe 500//500d 500/500 12.0/16
stress but not less than
545.0/565.0N/mm2
6/8 percent more than actual 0.2
percent proof stress/yiled stress
Grade Fe550/550D 550/550 10.0/14.5
but not less than
585.0/600.0N/mm2
6/percent more than actual 0.2
Grade Fe600 600 10.0 percent proof stress/ yield stress
but not less than 660.0N/mm2
*where A = cross-sectional area of the test piece

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Table 39: Weight, perimeter, and area of steel bars

Bar Area, cm2 for various numbers of bars
Weight
dia Peri -
per
mete meter,
meter, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
r, cm
kg
mm
5 0.154 1.57 0.20 0.39 0.59 0.78 0.98 1.18 1.37 1.57 1.77 1.96 2.16 2.35
6 0.222 1.89 0.28 0.56 0.85 1.13 1.41 1.70 1.98 2.26 2.54 2.83 3.11 3.40
8 0.395 2.51 0.50 1.00 1.51 2.01 2.51 3.01 3.52 4.02 4.52 5.03 5.53 6.04
10 0.617 3.14 0.79 1.57 2.36 3.14 3.93 4.71 5.50 6.28 7.07 7.85 8.64 9.42
12 0.888 3.77 1.13 2.26 3.39 4.52 5.65 6.78 7.91 9.05 10.18 11.31 12.44 13.57
14 1.21 4.40 1.54 3.08 4.62 6.16 7.70 9.24 10.77 12.32 13.86 15.39 16.94 18.48
16 1.58 5.03 2.01 4.02 6.03 8.04 10.05 12.06 14.07 16.08 18.09 20.11 22.12 24.13
18 2.00 5.65 2.54 5.09 7.63 10.18 12.72 15.26 17.81 20.36 22.90 25.45 27.99 30.54
20 2.47 6.28 3.14 6.28 9.42 12.57 15.71 18.84 21.99 25.14 28.28 31.42 34.56 37.70
22 2.98 6.91 3.80 7.60 11.40 15.21 19.01 22.81 26.61 30.41 34.21 38.01 41.81 45.62
25 3.85 7.85 4.91 9.82 14.73 19.63 24.54 29.45 34.36 39.27 44.18 49.09 54.00 58.91
28 4.83 8.80 6.16 12.31 18.47 24.63 30.79 36.94 43.10 49.26 55.42 61.58 67.73 73.89
32 6.31 10.05 8.04 16.08 24.13 32.17 40.21 48.26 56.30 64.34 72.38 80.42 88.47 96.51
36 7.99 11.31 10.18 20.36 30.54 40.72 50.90 61.07 71.26 81.43 91.61 101.79 111.97 122.15
40 9.86 12.57 12.57 25.13 37.70 50.26 62.83 75.40 87.96 100.53 113.09 125.66 138.23 150.80
45 12.50 14.14 15.90 31.81 47.71 63.62 79.52 95.42 111.33 127.32 143.14 159.04 174.94 190.85
50 15.40 15.71 19.63 39.27 58.91 78.54 98.18 117.81 137.45 157.08 176.72 196.35 215.99 235.62

Table 40: Areas of steel bars for various spacings

Area, cm2, per metre width of slab for bar diameter of

Spacings,
cm 14 16 18 20 22
5 mm 6 mm 8 mm 10 mm 12 mm
mm mm mm mm mm
6.0 3.27 4.71 8.38 13.09 18.85 25.66 33.52 42.41 52.36 63.36
6.5 3.02 4.35 7.73 12.08 17.40 23.68 30.95 39.15 48.33 58.48
7.0 2.81 4.04 7.18 11.22 16.16 21.99 28.73 36.36 44.87 54.30
7.5 2.62 3.77 6.70 10.47 15.08 20.52 26.81 33.93 41.88 50.81
8.0 2.46 3.53 6.28 9.82 14.14 19.24 25.14 31.81 39.26 47.51
8.5 2.31 3.33 5.91 9.24 13.31 18.11 23.66 29.94 36.95 44.72
9.0 2.18 3.14 5.59 8.73 12.57 17.10 22.34 28.28 34.90 42.33
9.5 2.07 2.98 5.29 8.27 11.90 16.20 21.17 26.79 33.06 40.01
10.0 1.96 2.83 5.03 7.85 11.31 15.39 20.11 25.45 31.41 38.01
10.5 1.87 2.69 4.79 7.48 10.77 14.66 19.15 24.24 29.91 36.20
11.0 1.78 2.57 4.57 7.14 10.28 13.99 18.28 23.14 28.55 34.55
11.5 1.71 2.46 4.37 6.83 9.84 13.39 17.49 22.13 27.31 33.05
12.0 1.63 2.36 4.19 6.54 9.42 12.83 16.76 21.21 26.17 31.67
12.5 1.57 2.26 4.02 6.28 9.05 12.32 16.09 20.36 25.13 30.41
13.0 1.51 2.17 3.87 6.04 8.70 11.84 15.47 19.58 24.16 29.24
13.5 1.45 2.09 3.72 5.82 8.38 11.40 14.90 18.85 23.27 28.16
14.0 1.40 2.02 3.59 5.61 8.08 11.00 14.36 18.18 22.44 27.15
14.5 1.35 1.95 3.47 5.42 7.80 10.62 13.87 17.55 21.66 26.21
15.0 1.31 1.89 3.35 5.24 7.54 10.26 13.41 16.97 20.94 25.34
15.5 1.27 1.82 3.24 5.07 7.30 9.93 12.97 16.42 20.27 24.52
16.0 1.23 1.77 3.14 4.91 7.07 9.62 12.57 15.90 19.64 23.76
16.5 1.19 1.71 3.05 4.76 6.85 9.33 12.19 15.42 19.04 23.04
17.0 1.16 1.66 2.96 4.62 6.65 9.05 11.83 14.97 18.48 22.36
17.5 1.12 1.62 2.87 4.49 6.46 8.79 11.49 14.54 17.95 21.72
18.0 1.09 1.57 2.79 4.36 6.28 8.55 11.17 14.14 17.46 21.12
18.5 1.06 1.53 2.72 4.25 6.11 8.32 10.87 13.76 16.94 20.55
19.0 1.03 1.49 2.65 4.13 5.95 8.10 10.58 13.39 16.54 20.01
19.5 1.01 1.45 2.58 4.03 5.80 7.89 10.31 13.05 16.11 19.49
20.0 0.98 1.41 2.51 3.93 5.65 7.69 10.05 12.72 15.72 19.01

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Table 41: Weight of reinforcement per m2 of slab

2
Bar Weight, kg/m for bar diameter of
spacing,
cm 5 mm 6 mm 8 mm 10 mm 12 mm 14 mm 16 mm 18 mm 20 mm 22 mm 25 mm
5.0 3.00 4.40 7.80 12.40 17.80 24.20 31.60 40.00 49.20 59.60 77.00
6.0 2.50 3.67 6.50 10.33 14.84 20.17 26.33 33.33 41.00 49.67 64.16
6.5 2.31 3.38 6.00 9.54 13.69 18.61 24.31 30.71 37.85 45.85 59.23
7.0 2.14 3.14 5.57 8.86 12.71 17.28 22.57 28.57 35.14 42.57 55.00
7.5 2.00 2.93 5.20 8.27 11.87 16.13 21.06 26.67 32.80 39.73 51.33
8.0 1.87 2.75 4.88 7.75 11.12 15.12 19.75 25.00 30.75 37.25 48.12
8.5 1.76 2.59 4.59 7.27 10.47 14.24 18.59 23.53 28.90 35.06 45.30
9.0 1.67 2.44 4.33 6.89 9.89 13.44 17.55 22.22 27.34 33.11 42.77
9.5 1.58 2.32 4.11 6.53 9.37 12.72 16.63 21.05 25.90 31.37 40.52
10.0 1.50 2.20 3.90 6.20 8.90 12.10 15.80 20.00 24.60 29.80 38.50
10.5 1.43 2.10 3.71 5.90 8.48 11.50 15.05 19.05 23.43 28.38 36.37
11.0 1.36 2.00 3.55 5.64 8.09 11.00 14.37 18.18 22.46 27.09 35.00
11.5 1.29 1.91 3.39 5.39 7.74 10.52 13.74 17.39 21.40 25.91 33.43
12.0 1.25 1.83 3.25 5.17 7.42 10.08 13.16 16.67 20.50 24.83 32.08
12.5 1.20 1.76 3.12 4.96 7.12 9.68 12.64 16.00 19.64 23.84 30.80
13.0 1.15 1.69 3.00 4.77 6.85 9.31 12.15 15.39 18.92 22.92 29.62
13.5 1.11 1.63 2.89 4.59 6.59 8.96 11.70 14.82 18.22 22.08 28.52
14.0 1.07 1.57 2.79 4.43 6.36 8.64 11.29 14.30 17.57 21.29 27.50
14.5 1.03 1.52 2.69 4.27 6.14 8.35 10.90 13.80 16.97 20.55 26.55
15.0 1.00 1.47 2.60 4.13 5.93 8.07 10.53 13.33 16.40 19.87 25.67
15.5 0.97 1.42 2.52 4.00 5.74 7.81 10.20 12.90 15.88 19.23 24.84
16.0 0.94 1.38 2.44 3.88 5.56 7.56 9.88 12.50 15.38 18.63 24.06
16.5 0.91 1.33 2.37 3.76 5.39 7.34 9.58 12.12 14.91 18.06 23.30
17.0 0.88 1.29 2.29 3.65 5.24 7.12 9.29 11.77 14.47 17.52 22.65
17.5 0.86 1.26 2.23 3.54 5.09 6.92 9.03 11.29 14.06 17.02 22.00
18.0 0.83 1.22 2.17 3.44 4.94 6.72 8.78 11.11 13.67 16.67 21.33
18.5 0.81 1.19 2.11 3.35 4.81 6.54 8.54 10.81 13.30 16.11 20.81
19.0 0.79 1.16 2.05 3.26 4.68 6.37 8.32 10.53 12.95 15.69 20.26
19.5 0.77 1.13 2.00 3.18 4.57 6.21 8.10 10.26 12.62 15.28 19.74
20.0 0.75 1.10 1.95 3.10 4.45 6.05 7.90 10.00 12.30 14.90 19.25

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Loads
Table 42: Dead weights of important building materials (IS:875 (Part I)-1987)
Material Weight/mass,kg Unit
3
Plain concrete (with sand and gravel or crushed natural stone aggregate) 2,240 to 2,400 m
3
Reinforced concrete (1 to 5 percent reinforcement) 2,310 to 2,700 m
3
Ordinary Portland cement 1,440 m
3
Coarse aggregates (from natural stones) 1,600 to 1,870 m
3
Fine aggregates (from natural stones) 1,540 to 1,600 m
2
Mortar screeding, 10 mm thick 21 m
2
Terrazzo paving, 10 mm thick 24 m
3
Common burnt clay bricks 1,760 (average) m
3
Sand-cement bricks 1,600 to 1,920 m
3
Sand-lime bricks 2,080 m
3
Common burnt clay brick masonry 1,920 m
3
Pressed brick masonry 2,240 m
3
Rubble masonry (granite) 2,400 m
3
Sandstone masonry 2,240 m
3
Dry earth 1,410 to 1,840 m
3
Cement plaster 2,080 m
3
Lime plaster 1,760 m
3
Bitumen 10.40 m
3
Mild steel 7,850 m
2
Mastic asphalt, 10-mm thick 22 m
2
Galvanised steel sheets, 1.25-mm thick 10.35 m
2
Asbestos cement sheets (corrugated) average, 6 mm thick 12 to 13 m
2
Asbestos sheets (plain) 5 mm thick 9.16 m
Mangalore tiles 2 to 3 per tile
2
Bitumen macadam roof finish, 10 mm thick 22 m
2
Felt roofing, 10 mm thick 0.8 m
3
Teak wood 640 m
3
Hollow concrete blocks 144 m
2
Lead sheet per mm thickness 9 m
3
Solid basalt 2,850 to 2,960 m
3
Solid limestone 2,400 to 2,560 m
3
Solid granite 2,640 m
3
Solid sandstone 2,240 m

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Table 43: Imposed floor loads for different occupancies (IS : 875 (Part 2)-1987)
Uniformly distributed Concentrated load,
Type of floor
load, kN/m2 kN
All rooms of residential buildings and kitchens; living rooms, bedrooms
and dormitories of hostels; hospital wards; dormitories, dressing rooms and 2.0 1.8
lounges of institutional buildings
Toilet and bathrooms of residential buildings 2.0 -
Office rooms; lounges; staff rooms; OPD rooms; general use rooms; work
2.5 2.7
areas without machinery
Work areas without machinery equipment 2.5 4.5
Habitable rooms, kitchen, toilet and bathrooms, corridors, passages and
staircases of dwelling units planned and executed in accordance with 1.5 1.4
IS:8888-1979*
2.4 kN/m2 per m of
Storage buildings (other than cold storage buildings) to be calculated on the storage height with a
7.0
bulk density of the materials stored minimum of 7.5
kN/m2
Garage floors for vehicles not exceeding 2.5 t gross weight 2.5 9.0
Corridors, passages, staircases, including fire escapes and store rooms,
kitchens and laundries, reading rooms (with separate storage), laboratories,
3.0 4.5
X-ray rooms, operating rooms, office rooms, kitchen and laundries of
mercantile, industrial, and institutional buildings
1.5 per m run
Balconies of residential buildings 3.0 concentrated at the
outer edge
Classrooms, lecture rooms, dining rooms, cafeterias, restaurants, kitchens,
3.0 2.7
banking halls
Dormitories, lounges, billiard rooms 2.0 2.7
Assembly areas with fixed seats 4.0 -
Dining rooms, cafeterias and restaurants of hotels and hostels 4.0 2.7
Retail shops 4.0 3.6
Reading rooms without separate storage; corridors, passages, lobbies;
staircases including fire services (without storage rooms); boiler and plant 4.0 4.5
rooms; restaurants, museums, gymnasia and art galleries
4.0 for each metre of
Stationary stores 9.0
storage height
Store rooms of hotels, hostels; boiler rooms, plant rooms; stages; corridors,
passages subject to loads greater than from crowds; staircases in
grandstands; store rooms, vault and record rooms; corridors, passages & 5.0 4.5
staircases subject to loads greater than from crowds; record rooms; vaults;
work areas with light duty machinery
Assembly areas without fixed seats 5.0 3.6
Boiler rooms and plant rooms of hostels, hotels, industrial buildings 5.0 6.7
5.0 per m of storage
Cold storage buildings height with a 9.0
minimum of 15
Wholesale shops 6.0 4.5
6.0 for a minimum
height of 2.2 m + 2.0
Stack room for libraries 4.5
per metre height
beyond 2.2 m
Projection rooms 5.0 -
Boiler and plant rooms, including weight of machinery 7.5 4.5
Work areas with medium duty machinery 7.0 4.5
Work areas with heavy duty machinery 10.0 4.5
*Guide for requirements for low income housing

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Table 44: Structural details of simply supported solid floor slabs

(Concrete grade, M 20, steel grade Fe = 415 N/mm2)
Thickness Cover to Effective Moment of Area of Practical arrangement of main steel Distribution steel
of slab, centre of depth, mm resistance main steel bar spacing, area of bar spacing,
mm steel, per metre required diameter, mm steel diameter, mm
mm width, per metre mm provided, mm
kNm width for 2
mm
balanced
design,
2
mm
75 19 56 2.86 246 8 200 251 8 280
90 19 71 4.60 312 8 160 314 8 300
100 19 81 5.99 356 8 140 359 8 300
110 20 90 7.39 396 10 195 402 8 300
120 20 100 9.13 440 10 175 448 8 300
130 20 110 11.04 484 10 160 490 8 300
140 20 120 13.14 528 10 145 541 8 290
150 21 129 15.19 567 12 195 579 8 275
160 21 139 17.64 611 12 185 611 8 260
170 21 149 20.27 655 12 170 665 8 245
180 21 159 23.08 699 12 160 706 8 230
190 21 169 26.07 743 12 150 753 8 220
200 21 179 29.25 787 12 140 807 8 200

Table 45: Safe distributed superimposed loads, excluding dead loads, for solid floor slabs, simply
supported at both ends
(Concrete grade M 20, steel grade Fe = 415 N/mm2)
2
Thickness of Safe superimposed load, kN/m for various spans
slab, mm 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
75 3.85 1.79
90 6.96 3.64 1.84
100 9.48 5.17 2.83 1.41
110 12.04 6.72 3.82 2.08
120 15.26 8.69 5.12 2.96 1.57
130 18.85 10.89 6.57 3.97 2.27 1.11
140 22.80 13.33 8.19 5.09 3.07 1.69
150 15.70 9.76 6.17 3.85 2.25 1.11
160 18.58 11.68 7.52 4.82 2.97 1.65
170 21.70 13.77 8.99 5.89 3.76 2.24
180 16.02 10.58 7.04 4.62 2.89
190 18.43 12.28 8.29 5.55 3.60
200 21.01 14.11 9.63 6.56 4.36

Table 46: Minimum dimensions required for a residential building

Description of work Minimum requirements
Plinth height 450 mm in general
150 mm in general
Head room 3.00 m for rooms
2
Area of living/bedrooms 12.00 m
2
Area of kitchen 8.00 m
Area of bath room 2.52 m (1.2 m 2.1 m)
2

Area of WC 1.2 m (1.00 m 1.20 m)

2

Windows 1/10 of floor area excluding doors in a dry hot climate 1/10 of floor
area excluding doors in a wet hot climate
Window openings in WC and bathroom 10 percent of floor area
2
Lighting area for staircase 1 m per floor height
Staircase width 1 m rise 190 mm
tread 250 mm

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Table 47: Classification of CC pipes according to IS:458-1988

Class Description Conditions under which normally used
NP1 Unreinforced concrete non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, above ground or in shallow trenches
NP2 RC light duty, non-pressure pipe For drainage and irrigation use, for culverts carrying light traffic
NP3 RC medium duty, non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, for culverts carrying medium traffic
NP4 RC heavy duty non-pressure pipes For drainage and irrigation use, such as, railway loading
P1 RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on gravity mains, the site test pressure not exceeding two-
2
of 2.0 kg/cm (20-m head) thirds of the hydrostatic test pressure
P2 RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on pumping mains, the site test pressure not exceeding half
2
of 4.0 kg/cm (40-m head) of the hydrostatic test pressure
P3 RC pressure pipes tested to a hydrostatic pressure For use on pumping mains, the site test pressure not exceeding half
2
of 6.0 kg/cm (60-m head) of the hydrostatic test pressure
Note: The uses are only by way of recommendations as a general guidance and the exact usage shall be decided by the engineer-in-charge.

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DESIGN FORMULAE
Simple design formulae for simply supported slabs/beams and short columns are given below. These
are meant for site engineers who on some occasions are required to carry out design of simple
buildings but are familiar with only the preliminary concepts of structural design. For framed
buildings and complicated structures a structural designer may be consulted.

Notation
Ac net area of concrete in a column, mm2

As area of inclined bars in a beam, mm2

Asc area of longitudinal steel in a column, mm2

Ast area of steel in tension in a beam or slab, mm2

Aw area of stirrup legs in a beam, mm2

jd length of lever arm, mm
n0
j lever arm factor, ( 1 - )
3

b width of rectangular beam, mm

bf effective width of flange in a T-beam, mm
bw breadth of web in a T-beam or L-beam, mm

fcb compressive stress at extreme concrete fibre of beam or slab, N/mm2

d effective depth of beam or slab, mm
d' distance of centroid of compression reinforcement from the extreme compression fibre of the
concrete section, mm
Df thickness of flange in a T-beam or L-beam, mm
fc stress in concrete in direct compression, N/mm2
fck characteristic compressive strength of concrete, N/mm2
fst tensile stress in reinforcement of beam or slab, N/mm2
fsc compressive stress in column bars, N/mm2
fw tensile stress in shear steel, N/mm2
fy characteristic strength of reinforcement, N/mm2
l0 distance between points of zero moment in the beam
M bending moment, Nmm
Mr moment of resistance of beam or slab, Nmm
Mu design moment for limit state design (factored moment), Nmm
2,800
m modular ratio, ( )
3 f cb

n depth of neutral axis, mm

n
no neutral axis factor, ( )
d

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 CementUsersGuide

P safe axial load on column, N

Pu design axial load for limit state design (factored load), N
Ast
p ratio of tensile reinforcement to area of concrete, ( )
bd
Qr moment of resistance factor
Qru moment resistance factor for limit state design
q shear stress, N/mm2
qu shear stress for limit state design, N/mm2
s spacing of stirrups, mm
f st
r ratio of stress in steel to concrete, ( )
f cb

S shear force, N
Sr shear resistance of inclined bars, N
Su design shear force for limit state design (factored shear), N
xu depth of neutral axis in limit-state design, mm
position of resultant compression in a T-beam or L-beam measured from the top of the beam,
mm
angle of inclination of bars bent up to provide shear resistance, degrees

c shear stress in concrete, N/mm2

Limit state method of design
In the method of design based on the limit state concept, the structure shall be designed to withstand
safely all the loads liable to act on it throughout its life; it shall also satisfy the serviceability
requirements, such as, limitations on deflection and cracking. The acceptable limit for the safety and
serviceability requirement before failure occurs is called a 'limit state'. The aim of design is to achieve
acceptable probabilities that the structure will not become unfit for the use for which it is intended,
that is, that it will not reach a limit state.

All relevant limit states shall be considered in design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and
serviceability. In general, the structure shall be designed on the basis of the most critical limit state
and shall be checked for other limit states. IS 456:2000 gives partial safety factors for different
combinations of loading and the same are given in Table 48.

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 CementUsersGuide
Table 48: Values of partial safety factor, gf for loads
Load
Limit state of collapse Limit states of serviceability
combination
DL IL WL DL IL WL
DL + IL 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
DL + WL 1.5 or 0.9* - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
DL + IL + WL 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Source: Table 18 of IS 456 : 2000
Notes: (i) While considering earthquake effects substitute EL for WL.
(ii) For the limit states of serviceability, the values of f given in this table are applicable for short terms effects. While assessing the
long terms effects due to creep, the dead and that part of the live load likely to be permanent may only be considered.
*This value is to be considered when stability against overtuning or stress reversal is critical.

Table 49: Design coefficients for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams
Concrete
fy = 250 N/mm2 fy = 415 N/mm2 fy = 500 N/mm2
grade
xu , max xu , max xu , max
Qru plimit Qru plimit Qru plimit
d d d
M 15 0.531 2.235 1.32 0.479 2.07 0.72 0.456 1.995 0.57
M 20 0.531 2.98 1.76 0.479 2.76 0.96 0.456 2.66 0.76
M 25 0.531 3.725 2.20 0.479 3.45 1.19 0.456 3.325 0.94
M 30 0.531 4.47 2.64 0.479 4.14 1.43 0.456 3.99 1.13
M 35 0.531 5.215 3.07 0.479 4.83 1.67 0.456 4.655 1.32
M 40 0.531 5.96 3.51 0.479 5.52 1.91 0.456 5.32 1.51
M-45 0.531 6.705 3.957 0.479 6.215 2.150 0.456 5.986 1.698
M-50 0.531 7.450 4.397 0.479 6.905 2.389 0.456 6.651 1.887

According to the limit state method the area of tensile reinforcement is given by the following
formulae:
Mu
Ast =
0.87 f y jd

where,
xu p 0.87 f y
=
d 100 0.36 f ck

j = 1 0.416xu

Rectangular section with compression reinforcement

Mu2 = Mu Mu, limit

plimit bd Mu2
Ast = +
100 0.87 f y (d d' )

Mu2
Asc =
(fsc f cc )(d d')

For d'/d upto 0.2

fcc = 0.446fck, and

fsc = 217.5 N/mm2 for mild steel bars

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 CementUsersGuide

fsc values for high-yield strength deformed bars are as under:

d'/d fy = 415 N/mm2fy = 500 N/mm2

0.05 355 424
0.10 353 412
0.15 342 395
0.20 329 370
Singly reinforced T or L-shaped beam sections
For Df < 0.2d
Mu, limit = 0.36fckbwxu,max (d0.416xu,max) + 0.446 fck (bf bw)Df (d Df / 2)
For T-beams, bf = + bw + 6Df
For L-beams, bf = + bw + 3Df
For Df > 0.2d

Mu, limit = 0.36 fckbwxu,max (d 0.416 xu,max) + 0.446 fck bw d2(bf/bw1)yf(1 yf /2d) / d
Where
yf 0.15x u,max 0.65Df
= +
d d d

Mu
Ast =
0.87 f y jd

xu p 0.87 f y
where, =
d 100 0.36 f ck

j = 1 0.416xu
Columns
For the design of short columns (columns having a ratio of effective column length to least lateral
dimension less than 12) subjected to axial loads only, the following formula applies:

Pu = 0.4fckAc + 0.67fyAsc
Shear
The design shear strength of concrete in beams without shear reinforcement is given in Table 50.

For slabs and rectangular sections

Su
qu =
bd

Spacing of stirrups
0.87f y A w d
s=
Su

If qu > c max ,

then shear reinforcement is to be provided for:

Sus = Su c bd

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Maximum shear stress, c max

Concrete M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 grade

c max, 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0 N/mm2

0.85 0.8 f ck ( 1 + 5 1)
c max =
6

where = 0.8 fck/6.89 p, but less than 1.0,

p = 100 Ast/bwd

Shear resistance of inclined bars

Su = 0.87fyAssin

Table 50: Design shear strength of concrete, c, N/mm2

As Concrete grade
100
bd M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above
0.15 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30
0.25 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.43 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.64 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.50 0.68 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.71 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.71 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.71 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.71 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
3.00 and above 0.71 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01
Source: Table 19 of IS 456:2000
Note: The term As is the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues at least one effective depth beyond the section being
considered except at support where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used provided the detailing conforms to 26.2.2 and 26.2.3
of IS 456:2000.

Table 51: Factors for development length of bars for limit state method
Mild steel bars conforming to Grade 1 of High yield strength deformed bars conforming
Concrete grade
IS:432 (Part 1) to IS:1786 (Grade Fe 415)
tension bars compression bars tension bars compression bars
M 20 45 37 47 38
M 25 39 32 41 33
M 30 37 29 38 31
M 35 32 26 34 27
M 40 and above 30 24 30 24
Note: Development length = factor diameter of bar

Working stress method

Slabs and rectangular beams
Slabs and rectangular beams, which are reinforced only in tension and which are subjected to pure
bending, are designed using the following formulae:

no = 2 pm + ( pm)2 pm
1
=
f
1 + st
mf cb

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 CementUsersGuide
m
=
m+r
n
jd = (1- 0 )d
3
2M
fcb =
jn0bd 2
2 pf st
fcb =
n0
M
fst =
Ast jd
M
=
pjbd 2
1 n
= mfcb 0

n0

Mr = Qrbd2
)bd2
f cb n0
= n0 (1 -
2 3
)bd2
n0
= pfst (1 -
3
= fstAstjd

Control over deflection is an important criteria in the design of slabs and beams. Broadly speaking,
for simply supported beams and slabs having spans upto 10 m the vertical deflection limits may
generally be assumed to be satisfied, provided the span to depth ratio is not greater than 20. Also a
simply supported or continuous beam shall be so proportioned that the clear distance between the
lateral restraints does not exceed 60b or (250b2/d), whichever is less, where b is the width of the
compression face between the lateral restraints and d is the effective depth of the beam. For more
clarity on this aspect, reference may be made to clause no 23.2 and 23.3 of IS 456 : 2000.

Table 52 gives design coefficients as applicable for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams.

Also included are three tables from IS 456:2000 namely, permissible stresses in steel
reinforcement, permissible stresses in concrete, and permissible shear stress in concrete, Tables 53,
54 and 55.

Shear
For slabs and rectangular beams

S
q =
bd
For spacing of stirrups
f w Awd
s =
S
For shear resistance of inclined bars
Sr = Asfwsin
Columns
For the design of short columns (columns having a ratio of effective column length to least lateral
dimension less than 12) subjected to axial loads only, the following formula applies
p = fcAc + fscAsc

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Table 52: Design coefficients for singly reinforced slabs and rectangular beams
Mild Steel bars High yield deformed bars,
Concerete, fcb, fc, Modular
Upto 20-mm bars Over 20-mm bars (Fe = 415 N/mm2)
grade N/mm2 N/mm2 ratio, m
n j Or n j Or n j Or
M 15 5.0 4 18.667 0.4 0.867 0.867 0.418 0.861 0.899 0.289 0.904 0.652
M 20 7.0 5 13.333 0.4 0.867 1.213 0.418 0.861 1.259 0.289 0.904 0.913
M 25 8.5 6 10.980 0.4 0.867 1.473 0.418 0.861 1.529 0.289 0.904 1.109
M 30 10.0 8 9.333 0.4 0.867 1.733 0.418 0.861 1.798 0.289 0.904 1.304
M 35 11.5 9 8.116 0.4 0.867 1.993 0.418 0.861 2.068 0.289 0.904 1.500
M 40 13.0 10 7.179 0.4 0.867 2.253 0.418 0.861 2.338 0.289 0.904 1.696
M 45 14.5 11.0 6.437 0.4 0.867 2.513 0.418 0.861 2.878 0.289 0.904 1.891
M 50 16.0 12.0 5.833 0.4 0.867 2.773 0.418 0.831 2.878 0.289 0.904 2.087

Table 53: Permissible stresses in concrete

2
Permissible stress in compression, N/mm Permissible stress(avg.) in bond
Grade of concrete for plain bars in tension,
Bending cbc Direct cc
N/mm bd
2

M 10 3.0 2.5 -
M 15 5.0 4.0 0.6
M 20 7.0 5.0 0.8
M 25 8.5 6.0 0.9
M 30 10.0 8.0 1.0
M 35 11.5 9.0 1.1
M 40 13.0 10.0 1.2
M 45 14.5 11.0 1.3
M 50 16.0 12.0 1.4
Notes: (i) The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 21)
(ii) The permissible bond stress given in the above table shall be increased by 25 percent for bars in compression
(iii) In case of deformed bars conforming to IS:1786-1985, the bond stresses given above may be increased by 60 percent

Table 54: Permissible stresses in steel reinforcement

2
Permissible stresses, N/mm
Type of stress in steel Medium tensile steel High yield strength deformed
reinforcement MS bars conforming to grade I
conforming to IS:432(Part I)- bars conforming to IS:1786-
of IS:432(Part I)-1982
1982 1985 (grade Fe 415)
Tension, st or sv
140 Half the guaranteed yield stress
(a) upto and including 20 mm 230
subject to a maximum of 190
(b) over 20 mm 130 230
Compression in column bars,
sc 130 130 190

Compression in bars in a beam

or slab when the compressive The calculated compressive stress in the surrounding concrete multiplied by 1.5 times the modular
resistance of the concrete is ratio or , whichever is lower
taken into account
Compression in bars in a beam
or slab when the compressive
resistance of the concrete is not
taken into account
(a) upto and including 20 mm 140 Half the guaranted yield stress 190
(b) over 20 mm 130 subject to a maximum of 190 190
Note: The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 22); for detailed notes, please refer to the standard

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Table 55: Permissible shear stress in concrete

Permissible shear stress in concrete, c, N/mm grade of concrete
2
100 As
bd M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above
0.15 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.20
0.25 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23
0.50 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32
0.75 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
1.00 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.42
1.25 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.46
1.50 0.42 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.49
1.75 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.52 0.52
2.00 0.44 0.49 0.51 0.53 0.54 0.55
2.25 0.44 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.56 0.57
2.50 0.44 0.51 0.55 0.57 0.58 0.60
2.75 0.44 0.51 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62
3.00 and above 0.44 0.51 0.57 0.60 0.60 0.63
Notes: (i) The above table is reproduced from IS 456 : 2000 (Table 23)
(ii)As is that area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues at least one effective depth beyond the section being
considered except being considered at supports where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used provided the detailing
conforms to clause 26.2.2 and 26.2.3 of IS 456 : 2000.

Minimum reinforcement
In slabs, for mild steel bars, 0.15 percent of the total cross-sectional area, in either direction; for high
strength deformed bars or welded fabric, this value can be reduced to 0.12 percent
0.85bd
In beams, tension reinforcement, Ast =
fy
0.4bs
shear reinforcement, Aw =
0.87 f y
maximum Ast = 0.04bD
spacing of stirrups, should not be greater than 0.75d
In columns, minimum longitudinal reinforcement is four 12-mm diameter bars in rectangular
columns and six 12-mm diameter bars in circular columns. This reinforcement should be less than 0.8
percent of the cross-sectional area of the columns. If the column has a larger cross-sectional area than
that required to support the load, the minimum percentage of steel shall be based upon the area of
concrete required to resist the direct stress and not upon the actual area.
Longitudinal reinforcement in column shall be not more than 6 percent of its cross-sectional area
of the column.
Diameter of lateral ties in columns shall be not less than one-fourth of the longitudinal bar and in no
case less than 6-mm diameter.
The pitch of ties should be least of the following:
(i) least dimension of column
(ii) sixteen times the column main bar diameter
(iii) 300 mm
Cover to reinforcement
For details, see page 49 under the topic "Durability".

Minimum wall reinforcement

Minimum vertical reinforcement shall be 0.12 percent of the gross concrete area, for deformed bars
not larger than 16 mm and with fy equal to or greater than 415 N/mm2, or for welded wire fabric.
For other types of bars, the minimum vertical reinforcement shall be 0.15 percent.

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Minimum horizontal reinforcement shall be 0.20 percent of the gross concrete area, for deformed
bars not larger than 16 mm and with fy equal to or greater than 415 N/mm2, or for welded wire fabric.
For other types of bars, the minimum horizontal reinforcement shall be 0.25 percent.

Spacing of wall reinforcement bars shall not be more than 450 mm. For walls having thickness
greater than 200 mm, vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall be provided in two grids, one near
each face of the wall. If the vertical reinforcement is greater than one percent, transverse
reinforcement (links) shall be provided as for columns.

Minimum reinforcement in footings

Minimum reinforcement shall be as for slabs. For footing sections thicker than one metre, minimum
reinforcement shall be 360 mm2 per metre length in each direction on each face.

Table 56: Factors for development length of bars by working stress method
High yield strength deformed bars
Mild steel bars conforming to IS 432 (Part I)
Concrete grade conforming to IS 1786 (grade Fe 415)
tension bars compression tension compression
upto 20 mm over 20 mm
M 15 59 55 44 60 40
M 20 44 41 33 45 30
M 25 39 37 29 40 27
M 30 35 33 26 36 24
M 35 32 30 24 33 24
M 40 and above 30 30 24 30 24
Note: Development length = factor diameter of bar

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CONVERSION FACTORS
To convert Into Multiply by -
meters yards 1.0936 0.9144
meters feet 3.28084 0.3048
meters inches 39.3701 0.0254
millimetres inches 0.03937 25.4000
square metres square yards 1.19599 0.83613
square metres square feet 10.7639 0.092903
square metres square inches 1550.00 0.00064516
square centimetres square inches 0.1550 6.4516
cubic metres cubic feet 35.3147 0.028317
cubic metres gallons (Imp) 219.969 0.00454609
cubic centimetres cubic inches 0.061024 16.3871
kilograms pounds (avoirdupois) 2.20462 0.4535924
grams pounds (avoirdupois) 0.00220462 453.5924
grams ounces (avoirdupois) 0.035274 28.3495
tonnes tons 0.98421 1.01605
tonnes tons (short) 1.10231 0.90718
kilometres per hour centimetres per second 27.7778 0.036000
kilometres per hour miles per hour 0.62137 1.60934
kilometres per hour feet per second 0.91134 1.09728
grams per cubic centimetre hundred weights per cubic yard 15.0496 0.066447
grams per cubic centimetre pounds per cubic foot 62.428 0.0160185
grams per cubic centimetre pounds per cubic inch 0.0361273 27.6799
kilograms per cubic metre pounds per cubic foot 0.0624 16.018
kilograms per litre pounds per cubic foot 62.428 0.0160185
kilograms per metre pounds per yard 2.01591 0.496055
kilograms per metre pounds per foot 0.67197 1.48816
kilograms per metre pounds per inch 0.055997 17.8580
kilograms per square millimetre pounds per square inch 1422.33 0.00070307
kilograms per square millimetre tons per square inch 0.63497 1.57488
kilograms per square millimetre tons per square foot 91.436 0.0100366
tonnes per square metre tons per square foot 0.091436 10.937
kilograms per square centimetre pounds per square inch 14.2233 0.070307
kilograms per square metre pounds per square foot 0.20482 4.8824
kilogram metres foot pounds 7.2313 0.1382
To obtain From - Multiply by

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