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Ancient philosophy
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History of
Western philosophy

Western philosophy

Pre-Socratic
Ancient

Medieval
Renaissance
Modern

Contemporary

16th
17th
18th
19th
 20th Century

See also

Religious philosophy

Christian
Jewish
Islamic
Hindu
Buddhist

Eastern philosophy

Babylonian
Indian
Iranian

Chinese
Japanese

Korean

Western culture

Western world

v
t

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of
Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and
ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the
spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and
ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.

Contents
[hide]
1 Ancient Chinese philosophy
o 1.1 Schools of thought
 1.1.1 Hundred Schools of Thought
1.1.2 Early Imperial China
o 1.2 Philosophers
2 Ancient Greek philosophy
o 2.1 Philosophers
2.1.1 Presocratic philosophers
2.1.2 Classical Greek philosophers
2.1.3 Hellenistic philosophy
o 2.2 Hellenistic schools of thought
3 Ancient Indian philosophy
o 3.1 Vedic philosophy
o 3.2 Sramana Philosophy
o 3.3 Classical Indian philosophy
o 3.4 Ancient Indian philosophers
3.4.1 Philosophers of Vedic Age (2000-600 BCE)
3.4.2 Philosophers of Axial Age (600-185 BCE)
3.4.3 Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE-600 CE)
4 Ancient Iranian philosophy
o 4.1 Schools of thought
o 4.2 Philosophy and the Empire
o 4.3 Literature
5 Early Roman and Christian philosophy
o 5.1 Philosophers during Roman times
6 References

7 External links

[edit] Ancient Chinese philosophy

Main article: Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries
within the sinosphere, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

[edit] Schools of thought

[edit] Hundred Schools of Thought

Main article: Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from 770
to 221 BC, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this
period - known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States
period - in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the
Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were
developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this
period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present
day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by
itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the
methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin
Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools,
they are:

Confucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable and
perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-
cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of
virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one
should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of
upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.[1]
Legalism, which maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish;
accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline
from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the
state above all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the
common people.
Taoism, a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion,
moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the
relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei
(action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao),
is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.
Mohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that
"everyone is equal before heaven", and that people should seek to imitate heaven
by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded
as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be
based on one's perceptions one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing
instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human
capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian
emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.
Naturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized
the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the
founder of this school.[2]
Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian
communalism and egalitarianism.[3] The Agrarians believed that Chinese society
should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero
which was portrayed in Chinese literature as "working in the fields, along with
everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be
reached."[3]
The Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It
is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians.
The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.
The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which
focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political
 and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school
were good orators, debaters and tacticians.
The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for
instance, L Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called
Lshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various
schools and avoid their perceived flaws.
The School of "Minor-talks", which was not a unique school of thought, but a
philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and
originated from normal people on the street.
Another group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the
philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this
school was not one of the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.

[edit] Early Imperial China

The founder of the Qin Dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy,
quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the
emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official
doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the
introduction of Buddhism.

Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker
was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu
School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text
school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who
foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast,
there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in
ancient language (from this comes the denomination Old Text) that were so much more
reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and
considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal

The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the Xuanxue (mysterious learning), also called
Neo-Taoism. The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang
Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before
Not-Being (in Chinese, ming and wuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers,
like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of feng liu (lit. wind and
flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive
impulse.

Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern
and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and
acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was
even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his
philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its
rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th
century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But
probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had
an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.

[edit] Philosophers

Taoism
o Laozi (5th4th century BC)
o Zhuangzi (4th century BC)
o Zhang Daoling
o Zhang Jue (died 184 AD)
o Ge Hong (283 AD 343 AD)
Confucianism
o Confucius
o Mencius
o Xun Zi (c. 312 BC 230 BC)
Legalism
o Li Si
o Li Kui
o Han Fei
o Shang Yang
o Shen Buhai
o Shen Dao
Mohism
o Mozi
o Song Xing
Logicians
o Deng Xi
o Hui Shi (380 BC - 305 BC)
o Gongsun Long (c. 325 BC c. 250 BC)
Agrarianism
o Xu Xing
Naturalism
o Zou Yan (305 BC 240 BC)
Neotaoism
o Wang Bi
o Guo Xiang
o Xiang Xiu
School of Diplomacy
o Guiguzi
o Su Qin (380 BC -284 BC)
o Zhang Yi (bef. 329 BC309 BC)
o Yue Yi
o Li Yiji (268 BC - 204 BC)
School of the Military
o Sunzi (c. 500 BC)
 o Sun Bin (died 316 BC)

[edit] Ancient Greek philosophy

Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy

Graphical relationship among the various pre-socratic philosophers and thinkers; red
arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.

Raphael's School of Athens, depicting an array of ancient Greek philosophers engaged in

discussion.

[edit] Philosophers

[edit] Presocratic philosophers

Milesian School

Thales (624 BCca. 546 BC)

Anaximander (610-546 BC)
Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 585-c. 525 BC)
Pythagoreans

Pythagoras (582-496 BC)

Philolaus (470-380 BC)
Alcmaeon of Croton
Archytas (428-347 BC)
Heraclitus (535-475 BC)

Eleatic School
 Xenophanes (570-470 BC)
Parmenides (510-440 BC)
Zeno of Elea (490-430 BC)
Melissus of Samos (c 470 BCunknown)
Pluralists

Empedocles (490-430 BC)

Anaxagoras (500-428 BC)
Atomists

Leucippus (first half of 5th century BC)

Democritus (460-370 BC)
Metrodorus of Chios (4th century BC)
Pherecydes of Syros (6th century BC)

Sophists

Protagoras (490-420 BC)

Gorgias (487-376 BC)
Antiphon (480-411 BC)
Prodicus (465/450-after 399 BC)
Hippias (middle of the 5th century BC)
Thrasymachus (459-400 BC)
Callicles
Critias
Lycophron
Diogenes of Apollonia (c. 460 BC-unknown)

[edit] Classical Greek philosophers

Socrates (469-399 BC)

Euclid of Megara (450-380 BC)
Antisthenes (445-360 BC)
Aristippus (435-356 BC)
Plato (428-347 BC)
Speusippus (407-339 BC)
Diogenes of Sinope (400-325 BC)
Xenocrates (396-314 BC)
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Stilpo (380-300 BC)
Theophrastus (370-288 BC)

[edit] Hellenistic philosophy

Pyrrho (365-275 BC)

Epicurus (341-270 BC), see: Epicureanism
 Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331278 BC)
Zeno of Citium (333-263 BC)
Cleanthes (331-232 BC)
Timon (320-230 BC)
Arcesilaus (316-232 BC)
Menippus (3rd century BC)
Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC)
Chrysippus (280-207 BC)
Carneades (214-129 BC)
Clitomachus (187-109 BC)
Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BC)
Philo of Larissa (160-80 BC)
Posidonius (135-51 BC)
Antiochus of Ascalon (130-68 BC)
Aenesidemus (1st century BC)
Philo of Alexandria (30 BC45 AD)
Agrippa (1st century AD)

[edit] Hellenistic schools of thought

Cynicism
Eclecticism
Epicureanism
Neo-Platonism
Peripatetic School
Skepticism
Stoicism
Sophism

[edit] Ancient Indian philosophy

Main article: Indian philosophy

The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions : Sramana tradition
and Vedic tradition.

[edit] Vedic philosophy

Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas where questions related to laws of nature, the
origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic Hymn
of Creation (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet says:

"Whence all creation had its origin, he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, he,
who surveys it all from highest heaven, he knows--or maybe even he does not know."
In the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being
(Purusha). This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of
empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal
law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas).

Vedas
Upanishads
Hindu philosophy

[edit] Sramana Philosophy

Main articles: Jain philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Sramana

Jainism and Buddhism are continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas
cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated
renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa,
Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa.

[edit] Classical Indian philosophy

In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some
of the questions asked were:

What is the ontological nature of consciousness?

How is cognition itself experienced?
Is mind (chit) intentional or not?
Does cognition have its own structure?

The Six schools of Indian philosophy are:

Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Samkhya
Yoga
Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)
Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)

Other traditions of Indian philosophy include:

Hindu philosophy
Buddhist philosophy
Buddha
Jain philosophy
Crvka (Sanskrit: ) (atheist) philosophy. Also known as Lokyata, it is a
system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical
skepticism and religious indifference.It is named after its founder, Crvka, author
of the Brhaspatya-stras.

[edit] Ancient Indian philosophers

Main article: Timeline of Eastern philosophers#Indian philosophers

[edit] Philosophers of Vedic Age (2000-600 BCE)

Rishi Narayana seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.[4]

Seven Rishis Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha,
Viswamitra.[5]
Other Vedic Rishis Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.
Rishaba Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and
believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by
later followers.
Yajnavalkya one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought.
Angiras on of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka
Upanishad.
Uddalaka Aruni an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of
Chndogya Upaniad.
Ashvapati a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of
Chndogya Upaniad.
Ashtavakra an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored
Ashtavakra Gita.

[edit] Philosophers of Axial Age (600-185 BCE)

Kanada (c. 600 BCE), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave
theory of atomism
 Mahavira (599527 BCE) heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of
Jainism.
Gautama Buddha (563 BCE - 483 BCE), founder of Buddhist school of thought
Pini (520460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi
Kapila (c. 500 BCE), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy
Pingala (c. 500 BCE), author of the Chandas shastra
Chanakya (c.350 - c.275 BCE), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of
political science at the Takshashila University
Patajali (c. 200 BCE), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga
Sutras.
Bdaryaa (c. 200 BCE), author of Brahma Sutras, expounding Advaita Vedanta.
Shvetashvatara Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy
of Shaivism.

[edit] Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE-600 CE)

Gotama (c. 2nd3rd century CE), wrote Jaimini, author of Purva Mimamsa
Sutras.
Dignga (c. 500), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic.
Asanga (c. 300), exponent of the Yogacara
Bhartrihari (c 450510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory
Bodhidharma (c. 440528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism
Siddhasena Divkara (5th Century CE), Jain logician and author of important
works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyyvatra (on Logic) and Sanmatistra
(dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of
knowledge)
Vasubandhu (c. 300 CE), one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school.
Kundakunda (2nd Century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas
dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of
Pacstikyasra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasra (Essence of
the Scripture) and the Samayasra (Essence of the Doctrine)
Nagarjuna (c. 150 - 250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path)
school of Mahyna Buddhism.
Umsvti or Umasvami (2nd Century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit,
Tattvrthastra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form
acceptable to all sects of Jainism.

[edit] Ancient Iranian philosophy

Zarathustra as depicted in Raffael's The School of Athens beside Raffael who appears as
the ancient painter Apelles of Kos ().
Main article: Iranian philosophy

See also: Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)

While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the
two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by
fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society
and their view on the role of man in the universe. The first charter of human rights by
Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the
questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of
thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.[6][7]

[edit] Schools of thought

Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many
works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in
Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by
Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagh- Ztspram
("Selections of Ztspram") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas
which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his "direct teachings".[8]

Zoroastrianism
o Zarathustra
o Jamasp
o Ostanes
o Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan[9]
o Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan[10]
o Adurbad Emedan[11]
o Avesta
o Gathas
Anacharsis
Pre-Manichaean thought
o Bardesanes[12][13]
Manichaeism
o Mani (c. 216 AD 276 AD)
 o Ammo[14]
Mazdakism
o Mazdak the Elder[15]
o Mazdak (died c. 524 or 528 AD)
Zurvanism
o Aesthetic Zurvanism
o Materialist Zurvanism
o Fatalistic Zurvanism

[edit] Philosophy and the Empire

Political Philosophy
o Tansar
University of Gundishapur
o Borzouye
o Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri
Emperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses
o Paul the Persian

[edit] Literature

Pahlavi literature

[edit] Early Roman and Christian philosophy

See also: Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy

[edit] Philosophers during Roman times

Plotinus
Cicero (106-43 BC)
Lucretius (94-55 BC)
Seneca (4 BC65 AD)
Paul of Tarsus (c. 5 AD-c. 67 AD)
 Musonius Rufus (30 AD100 AD)
Plutarch (45-120 AD)
Epictetus (55-135 AD)
Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD)
Clement of Alexandria (150-215 AD)
Alcinous (philosopher) (2nd century AD)
Sextus Empiricus (3rd century AD)
Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century AD)
Ammonius Saccas (3rd century AD)
Plotinus (205-270 AD)
Porphyry (232-304 AD)
Iamblichus (242-327 AD)
Themistius (317-388 AD)
Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD)
Proclus (411-485 AD)
Damascius (462-540 AD)
Boethius (472-524 AD)
Simplicius of Cilicia (490-560 AD)
Philoponus of Alexandria (490-570 AD)

[edit] References
1. ^ Lo, Ping-cheung (1999), Confucian Ethic of Death with Dignity and Its
Contemporary Relevance, Society of Christian Ethics,
http://arts.hkbu.edu.hk/~pclo/e5.pdf
2. ^ "Zou Yan". Encyclopdia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
3. ^ a b Deutsch, Eliot; Ronald Bontekoei (1999). A companion to world
philosophies. Wiley Blackwell. p. 183.
4. ^ The significance of Purusha Sukta in Daily Invocations by Swami
Krishnananda
5. ^ P. 285 Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary By S. Devadas Pillai
6. ^ Philip G. Kreyenbroek: "Morals and Society in Zoroastrian Philosophy" in
"Persian Philosophy". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and
Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.
7. ^ Mary Boyce: "The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy".
Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam.
Routledge, 2009.
8. ^ An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia. From Zoroaster to 'Umar Khayyam. S.
H. Nasr & M. Aminrazavi. I. B. Tauris Publishers, London & New York, 2008. ISBN
978-1845115418.
9. ^ Zurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma. Robert Charles Zaehner. Biblo and Tannen,
1972. ISBN 0-8196-0280-9.
10. ^ Sasanian Iran - intellectual life. A. Tafazzoli and A. L. Khromov in: History of
Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilization. B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang
Guand-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi. Unesco, 1996. ISBN-10: 9231032119.
 11. ^ Sasanian Iran - intellectual life. A. Tafazzoli and A. L. Khromov in: History of
Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilization. B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang
Guand-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi. Unesco, 1996. ISBN-10: 9231032119.
12. ^ Mansour Shaki. Falsafa. Philosophy in the pre-Islamic period. Encyclopaedia
Iranica. Volume IX. 1999. ISBN 0-933273-35-5.
13. ^ Prods Oktor Skjaervo. Bardesanes. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Volume III. Fasc. 7-
8. ISBN 0-7100-9121-4.
14. ^ David A. Scott. Manichaean Views of Buddhism in: History of Religions. Vol.
25, No. 2, Nov. 1985. University of Chicago Press.
15. ^ Yarshater, Ehsan. 1983. The Cambridge history of Iran, volume 2. p.995-997

[edit] External links

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This page was last modified on 3 September 2012 at 17:56.

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