Tensor Calculus and Differential Geometry

Course Notes
Tensor Calculus and Differential Geometry

2WAH0
Luc Florack
March 21, 2017

Cover illustration: papyrus fragment from Euclids Elements of Geometry, Book II [8].
Contents
Preface iii
Notation 1
1 Prerequisites from Linear Algebra 3
2 Tensor Calculus 7
2.1 Vector Spaces and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Dual Vector Spaces and Dual Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 The Kronecker Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Inner Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Reciprocal Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Bases, Dual Bases, Reciprocal Bases: Mutual Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Examples of Vectors and Covectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8.1 Tensors in all Generality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8.2 Tensors Subject to Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.8.3 Symmetry and Antisymmetry Preserving Product Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8.4 Vector Spaces with an Oriented Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.8.5 Tensors on an Inner Product Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8.6 Tensor Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.8.6.1 Absolute Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

CONTENTS i
2.8.6.2 Relative Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8.6.3 Pseudo Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8.7 Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.9 The Hodge Star Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Differential Geometry 45
3.1 Euclidean Space: Cartesian and Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Tangent and Cotangent Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Exterior Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Affine Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 Levi-Civita Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.8 Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.9 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.10 Push-Forward and Pull-Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.11 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.11.1 Polar Coordinates in the Euclidean Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.11.2 A Helicoidal Extension of the Euclidean Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

ii CONTENTS
Preface
These course notes are intended for students of all TU/e departments that wish to learn the basics of tensor
calculus and differential geometry. Prerequisites are linear algebra and vector calculus at an introductory level.
Some appendices have been added to illustrate the generic potential of tensor calculus and differential geometry
in science and engineering. The treatment is condensed, and serves as a complementary source next to more
comprehensive accounts that can be found in the (abundant) literature. As a companion for classroom adoption
it does provide a reasonably self-contained introduction to the subject that should prepare the student for further
self-study.
These course notes are based on course notes written in Dutch by Jan de Graaf. Large parts are straightforward
translations. I am therefore indebted to Jan de Graaf for many of the good things. I have, however, taken the liberty
to skip, rephrase, and add material, and will continue to update these course notes (the date on the cover reflects
the version). I am of course solely to blame for the errors that might have been introduced in this undertaking.
Rigor is difficult to reconcile with simplicity of terminology and notation. I have adopted Jan de Graafs style
of presentation in this respect, by letting the merit of simplicity prevail. The necessary sacrifice of rigor is
compensated by a great number of interspersed caveats, notational and terminological remarks, all meant to
train the reader in coming to grips with the parlance of tensor calculus and differential geometry.
Luc Florack
Eindhoven, March 21, 2017.

iv
Notation
Instead of rigorous notational declarations, a non-exhaustive list of examples is provided illustrating the notation
for the most important object types used in these course notes:
Linear mappings: A , B, etc.

Matrices: A, B, etc.
Tensors: A, B, etc.
Vectors: a, b, etc.
Covectors: a, b, etc.
Basis vectors: ei , fi , etc. (for holonomic basis also /xi , /y i , etc.)
Basis covectors: ei , f i , etc. (for holonomic basis also dxi , dy i , etc.)

Vector components: ai , bi , etc.
Covector components: ai , bi , etc.

i ...i i ...i
Tensor components: Aj11 ...jpq , Bj11 ...jpq , etc.
2
1. Prerequisites from Linear Algebra
Linear algebra forms the skeleton of tensor calculus and differential geometry. We recall a few basic definitions
from linear algebra, which will play a pivotal role throughout this course.
Reminder
A vector space V over the field K (R or C) is a set of objects that can be added and multiplied by scalars, such
that the sum of two elements of V as well as the product of an element in V with a scalar are again elements of
V (closure property). Moreover, the following properties are satisfied for any u, v, w V and , K:
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w),
there exists an element o V such that o + u = u,
there exists an element u V such that u + (u) = o,
u + v = v + u,
(u + v) = u + v,
( + ) u = u + u,
() u = ( u),
1 u = u.
The infix operator + denotes vector addition, the infix operator denotes scalar multiplication.
Terminology
Another term for vector space is linear space.
Remark
We will almost exclusively consider real vector spaces, i.e. with scalar field K = R.
We will invariably consider finite-dimensional vector spaces.
Reminder
A basis of an n-dimensional vector spacePV is a set {ei }ni=1 , such that for each x V there exists a unique
n
n-tuple (x1 , . . . , xn ) Rn such that x = i=1 xi ei .
4 Prerequisites from Linear Algebra
Reminder
A linear operator A : V W , in which V and W are vector spaces over K, is a mapping that satisfies
the following property: A ( v + w) = A (v) + A (w) for all , K and v, w V .
The set L (V, W ) of all linear operators of this type is itself a vector space, with the following definitions of
vector addition and scalar multiplication: (A + B) (v) = A (v) + B(v) for all , K, A , B
L (V, W ) and v V .
Notation
The set of square n n matrices will be denoted by Mn .
Reminder
The determinant of a square matrix A Mn with entries Aij (i, j = 1, . . . , n) is given by
n n
X 1 X
det A = [j1 , . . . , jn ] A1j1 . . . Anjn = [i1 , . . . , in ] [j1 , . . . , jn ] Ai1 j1 . . . Ain jn .
j1 ,...,jn =1
n!
i1 , . . . , in = 1
j1 , . . . , jn = 1
The completely antisymmetric symbol in n dimensions is defined as follows:

+1 if (i1 , . . . , in ) is an even permutation of (1, . . . , n) ,
[i1 , . . . , in ] = 1 if (i1 , . . . , in ) is an odd permutation of (1, . . . , n) ,
0 otherwise .

Observation
Exactly n! of the nn index realizations in [i1 , . . . , in ] yield nontrivial results.
To determine det A, compose all n! products of n matrix entries such that the row labels as well as the
column labels of the factors in each product are all distinct. Rearrange factors such that the row labels are
incrementally ordered. Assign a sign 1 to each product corresponding to the permutation (even/odd) of
the column labels observed in this ordered form, and add up everything. Cf. the following example.
Example
Let A M3 be a 3 3 matrix:
A11 A12 A13
A = A21 A22 A23 .
A31 A32 A33
Carrying out the recipe yields Table 1.1:
product with row labels ordered sign of column label permutation

A11 A22 A33 [123] = +1
A12 A23 A31 [231] = +1
A13 A21 A32 [312] = +1
A13 A22 A31 [321] = 1
A11 A23 A32 [132] = 1
A12 A21 A33 [213] = 1
Table 1.1: det A = A11 A22 A33 +A12 A23 A31 +A13 A21 A32 A13 A22 A31 A11 A23 A32 A12 A21 A33 .
Prerequisites from Linear Algebra 5
Observation
For a general square matrix A Mn the following identities hold:
n
X
[i1 , . . . , in ] Ai1 j1 . . . Ain jn = [j1 , . . . , jn ] det A ,
i1 ,...,in =1
X n
[j1 , . . . , jn ] Ai1 j1 . . . Ain jn = [i1 , . . . , in ] det A ,
j1 ,...,jn =1
n
X n
X
[i1 , . . . , in ] [j1 , . . . , jn ] Ai1 j1 . . . Ain jn = n! det A .
i1 ,...,in =1 j1 ,...,jn =1
Products of completely antisymmetric symbols can be expressed in terms of determinants:

i1 j1 . . . i1 jn
[i1 , . . . , in ] [j1 , . . . , jn ] = det ... .. def i1 ...in
. = j1 ...jn ,

in j1 ... in j n
and, more generally,

n ik+1 jk+1 ... ik+1 jn
X
[i1 , . . . , ik , ik+1 , . . . , in ] [i1 , . . . , ik , jk+1 , . . . , jn ] = k! det .. ..
.

. .
i1 ,...,ik =1 in jk+1 . . . in jn
Example
[i, j, k] [`, m, n] = i` jm kn + im jn k` + in j` km im j` kn i` jn km in jm k` .
P3
i=1 [i, j, k] [i, m, n] = jm kn jn km .
P3
i,j=1 [i, j, k] [i, j, n] = 2kn .
P3
i,j,k=1 [i, j, k] [i, j, k] = 6.
Caveat
One often writes det Aij instead of det A. The labels i and j are not free indices in this case!
Reminder
The cofactor matrix of A Mn is the matrix A Mn with entries Aij given by
det A
Aij = .
Aij
The adjugate matrix of A Mn is a synonymous term for AT Mn .
Notation
Cofactor and adjugate matrix of A Mn are sometimes indicated by cofA and adjA, respectively.
6 Prerequisites from Linear Algebra
Notation
In any expression of the form Xii , with a matching pair of sub- and superscript i = 1, . . . , n, in which n = dim V
is the dimension of an underlying vector space V , the Einstein summation convention applies, meaning that it is
to be understood as an i-index-free sum:
n
def
X
Xii = Xii .
i=1
This convention applies to each pair of matching sub- and superscript within the same index range. Indices to
which the convention applies are referred to as spatial (or, depending on context, spatiotemporal) indices. Note
that matching upper and lower indices are dummies that can be arbitrarily relabelled provided this does not lead
to conflicting notation.
Observation
Each term in the polynomial det A contains at most one factor Aij for each fixed i, j = 1, . . . , n.
Aij 2 det A
As a result, Aij does not depend on Aij for fixed i, j = 1, . . . , n: = = 0.
Aij A2ij
d det A det A dAij dAij

If A : R Mn : t 7 A(t) is a matrix-valued function, = = Aij (chain rule).
dt Aij dt dt
AAT = AT A = det A I, or A adjA = adjA A = det A I, i.e. Ajk Aik = Aki Akj = det A ji .
If A is invertible, then AT = adjA = det A A1 .

Each entry Aij of A = cofA is a homogeneous polynomial of degree n1 in terms of the entries Aij of A.
Unlike A1 , A = cofA and AT = adjA are always well-defined, even if A is singular.

2. Tensor Calculus
2.1. Vector Spaces and Bases
Ansatz
An n-dimensional vector space V over R furnished with a basis {ei }.
Notation
Unless stated otherwise the Einstein summation convention applies to identical pairs of upper and lower indices.
def Pn
Thus if Xji is any collection of numbers, then Xii = i=1 Xii .
Terminology
The act of constraining one upper and one lower index to be equaland thus tacitly assuming summation, v.s.is
called an index contraction, or a trace.
Remark
Contracted indices are dummies that can be arbitrarily relabeled, as opposed to free indices. Thus for example
Xii = Xjj .
Remark

For each basis {ei } of V and each x V there exists a unique collection of real numbers xi such that
x = xi ei , recall chapter 1.
Terminology
The real numbers xi are referred to as the contravariant components of the vector x relative to the vector basis
{ei }.
Definition 2.1 The Kronecker symbol, or Kronecker-, is defined as

1 if i=j
ji =
0 if i 6= j .
Theorem 2.1 Let x = xi ei V and fj = Aij ei define a change of basis. If xi ei = y i fi , then
xi = Aij y j or, equivalently, y i = Bji xj ,
in which, by definition, Aik Bjk = ji .

8 Tensor Calculus
Caveat
Pay attention to the occurrence of the components Aij in the transformation of basis vectors ei and contravariant
components xi , respectively.
Observation

Given a smooth manifoldto
be defined laterwith a coordinate system xi , the collection of linear partial
derivative operators ei i /xi at any (implicit) fiducial point defines a vector space basis. Upon a
coordinate transformation xi = xi (xj ) the chain rule relates the corresponding bases by
j = Aij i ,
in which fj j /xj , and

xi
Aij = .
xj
This is formally identical to the basis transformation in Theorem 2.1 on page 7.
Notation
On a smooth manifold one often encounters vector decomposition relative to a coordinate basis, i.e. v = v i i .
(The fiducial point is implicit here.)
Terminology
The set {i } is called a coordinate (vector) basis, or a holonomic (vector) basis. By definition it spans the tangent
space of the manifold at the fiducial point.
Reminder
Basis vectors are labeled with lower indices.
Contravariant vector components are labeled with upper indices.
Remark
The distinction into upper and lower indices is relevant only if the indices are intrinsically constrained to take
values in the range {1, . . . , n}, where n = dim V .
2.2. Dual Vector Spaces and Dual Bases
Ansatz
An n-dimensional vector space V over R.
Definition 2.2 A linear functional on V is a linear mapping from V into R. In other words, f : V R is a linear
functional if for all x, y V , , R,
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) .
2.2 Dual Vector Spaces and Dual Bases 9
Remark
The set V consisting of all linear functionals on V can be turned into a vector space in the usual way, viz. let
f , g V and , R, define the linear combination f + g V by virtue of the identification
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
for all x V , recall chapter 1.
Definition 2.3 The dual space is the vector space of linear functionals on V : V = L (V, R).
Ansatz
An n-dimensional vector space V over R furnished with a basis {ei }, and its dual space V .
Remark
Each basis {ei } of V induces a basis ei of V as follows. If x = xi ei , then ei (x) = xi .

Result 2.1 The dual basis ei of V is uniquely determined through its defining property

ei (ej ) = ji .
Proof of Result 2.1. Let f V .
For any x = xi ei V we have f (x) = f (xi ei ) = f (ei )xi = f (ei )ei (x) = (f (ei )ei )(x) = (fi ei )(x)
with fi = f (ei ). This shows that the set {ei } spans V .
Suppose i ei = 0 V , then i = j ij = j ej (ei ) = (j ej )(ei ) = 0 R for all i = 1, . . . , n. This

shows that {ei } is a linearly independent set.
Assumption
vector space V (with basis {ei }) implies

In view of this result, it will henceforth be tacitly understood that agiven
the existence of its dual space V (with corresponding dual basis ei ).
Observation
The dual basis V has the same dimension as V .
Terminology
A linear functional f V is alternatively referred to as a covector or 1-form. The dual space V of a vector
space V is also known as the covector space or the space of 1-forms.
Remark
For each covector basis ei of V and each x V there exists a unique collection of real numbers {xi } such

that x = xi ei .
Terminology

The real numbers xi are referred to as the covariant components of the covector x relative to covector basis ei .
We end this section with the dual analogue of Theorem 2.1 on page 7:
10 Tensor Calculus
Theorem 2.2 The change of basis fj = Aij ei induces a change of dual vector basis
f j = Bij ei ,
in which Akj Bki = ji . Consequently, if x = xi ei = yi f i V , then
xi = Bij yj or, equivalently, yi = Aji xj .
Proof of Theorem 2.2.
Given fj = A`j e` and f i = Bki ek we obtain ji = f i (fj ) = Bki ek (A`j e` ) = Bki A`j ek (e` ) = Bki A`j `k =
Bki Akj , from which it follows that B = A1 .
Thus if we define xi ei = yi f i , then yj f j = yj Bij ei , whence xi = Bij yj .
Inversion yields the last identity.
Terminology
Theorem 2.1, page 7, defines the so-called vector transformation law.

Theorem 2.2, page 10, defines the so-called covector transformation law.
Observation

Recall the observation on page 8. Given a smooth manifold with a coordinate system xi , and a coordinate
transformation xi = xi (xj ), the chain rule (at any fiducial point) states that
xj
dxj = Bij dxi in which Bij = .
xi
Identifying ei dxi and f j dxj , this is formally identical to the dual vector basis transformation in
Theorem 2.2. In particular we have, recall Result 2.1,
dxi (j ) = ji .
Notation
On a smooth manifold one often encounters covector decomposition relative to a coordinate basis, i.e. v = vi dxi .
(The fiducial point is implicit here.)
Terminology
The set {dxi } is called a coordinate (dual vector) basis, or holonomic (dual vector) basis. By definition it spans
the cotangent space of the manifold at the fiducial point.
Reminder
Basis covectors are labeled with upper indices.
Covariant components are labeled with lower indices.

2.3 The Kronecker Tensor 11
2.3. The Kronecker Tensor
Ansatz
Notation
Instead of a standard function notation for f V one often employs the bracket formalism hf , i V . Function
evaluation is achieved by dropping a vector argument x V into the empty slot: hf , xi = f (x) R. In particular
we have
hei , ej i = ei (ej ) = ji
for dual bases, recall Result 2.1 on page 9.
Definition 2.4 The bilinear map h , i : V V R : (f , x) 7 hf , xi is called the Kronecker tensor.
Remark
The general concept of a tensor will be explained in section 2.8.
Caveat
Do not confuse the Kronecker tensor with an inner product. Unlike the Kronecker tensor an inner product requires
two vector arguments from the same vector space.
Observation
The Kronecker tensor is bilinear:
f , g V , x V, , R : hf + g, xi = hf , xi + hg, xi,
f V , x, y V, , R : hf , x + yi = hf , xi + hf , yi.
Result 2.1 on page 9 shows that the components of the Kronecker tensor are given by the Kronecker symbol.
If f = fi ei V and x = xi ei V , then bilinearity of the Kronecker tensor implies hf , xi =

fi xj hei , ej i = fi xj ji = fi xi . Thus Kronecker tensor and index contraction are close-knit.
Remark
The components of the Kronecker tensor are independent of the choice of basis. (Verify!)
Given V , the assumption on page 9 implies that the Kronecker tensor exists.
Since V is itself a vector space one may consider its dual (V ) = V . Without proof we state that if V
(and thus V ) is finite-dimensional, then V is isomorphic to, i.e. may be identified with V . This does not
generalize to infinite-dimensional vector spaces.
Notation
The use of the formally equivalent notations f and hf , i for an element of V reflects our inclination to regard
it either as an atomic entity, or as a linear mapping with unspecified argument. The previous remark justifies the
use of similar alternative notations for an element of V , viz. either as x, say, or as h , xi V V .
12 Tensor Calculus
2.4. Inner Products
Ansatz
Definition 2.5 An inner product on a real vector space V is a nondegenerate positive symmetric bilinear mapping
of the form ( | ) : V V R which satisfies
x, y V : (x|y) = (y|x),
x, y, z V, , R : (x + y|z) = (x|z) + (y|z),
x V : (x|x) 0 and (x|x) = 0 iff x = 0.
Definition 2.5 will be our default. In the context of smooth manifolds it is referred to as a Riemannian inner
product or, especially in physics, as a Riemannian metric. Occasionally we may encounter an inner product on
a complex vector space. Below, z = a bi C denotes the complex conjugate of z = a + bi C.
Definition 2.6 An inner product on a complex vector space V is a nondegenerate positive hermitean sesquilinear
mapping of the form ( | ) : V V R which satisfies
x, y V : (x|y) = (y|x),
x, y, z V, , R : (x|y + z) = (x|z) + (y|z),
x V : (x|x) 0 and (x|x) = 0 iff x = 0.
Caveat
Note that for the complex case (x + y|z) = (x|z) + (y|z), whence the attribute sesquilinear.
The term inner product is used in different contexts to denote bilinear or sesquilinear forms satisfying
different sets of axioms. Examples include the Lorentzian inner product in the context of special relativity
(v.i.) and the symplectic inner product in the Hamiltonian formalism of classical mechanics.
Unlike with the Kronecker tensor, the existence of an inner product is never implied, but must always be
stipulated explicitly.
Definition 2.7 A Lorentzian inner product on a real vector space V is a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear map-
ping of the form ( | ) : V V R which satisfies
x, y V : (x|y) = (y|x),
x, y, z V, , R : (x + y|z) = (x|z) + (y|z),
x V y V such that (x|y) 6= 0.

2.4 Inner Products 13
Terminology
A vector space V endowed with an inner product ( | ) is also called an inner product space.
Ansatz
An n-dimensional inner product space V over R furnished with a basis {ei }.
Definition 2.8 The Gram matrix G is the matrix with components gij = (ei |ej ).
Remark
Clearly, G is symmetric. Another consequence of the definition is that G is invertible. For suppose G would
i j i j
j i j
x = x ei V, x 6= 0 such that gij x = 0. Consequently, 0 = x gij x =
be singular, then there exists
i
x (ei |ej ) x = x ei |x ej = (x|x). This contradicts Definition 2.5 on page 12.
Terminology
The components of the inverse Gram matrix G1 are denoted by g ij , i.e.
g ik gkj = ji .
An inner product, if it exists, can be related to the Kronecker tensor, as we will see below.
Ansatz
An n-dimensional inner product space V over R.
Theorem 2.3 There exists a bijective linear map G : V V such that
x, y V : (x|y) = hG(x), yi,

x V , y V : G1 (x)|y = hx, yi.

The matrix representations of G and G1 are given by the Gram matrix G and its inverse G1 , respectively,
recall Definition 2.8 on page 13.
For fixed x V define x V as the linear map x : V R : y 7 (x|y). Subsequently define the linear
map G : V V : x 7 G(x) x.
For the second part we need to prove invertibility of G. Suppose x V, x 6= 0, is such that G(x) = 0.
Then 0 = hG(x), yi = (x|y) for all y V , contradicting the nondegeneracy property of the inner product.
Hence G is one-to-one1 . Since dim V = n < it is also bijective, hence invertible.
To compute the matrix representation G of G, decompose x = xi ei , y = y i ei , and G(x) = G(xi ei ) =
xi Gij ej , with matrix components defined via G(ei ) = Gij ej .
By construction (first item above) and by virtue of bilinearity of the inner product and the definition
of the Gram matrix, we have hG(x), yi = (x|y) = xi y j (ei |ej ) = gij xi y j .
By definition of duality, we have hG(x), yi = Gij xi y k hej , ek i = Gij xi y k kj = Gij xi y j .
1 The terms one-to-one and injective are synonymous. A function f : D C is injective if it associates distinct arguments with
distinct values. If the codomain C of the function is replaced by its actual range f (D), then it is also surjective, and hence bijective.
14 Tensor Calculus
Since xi , y j R are arbitrary it follows that Gij = gij , recall Definition 2.8.
Consequently, the inverse G1 : V V has a matrix representation G1 corresponding to the inverse

Gram matrix: (G1 )ij = g ij .
Remark
Note the synonymous formulations: G(x) x hG(x), i (x| ). Recall the comment on notation,
page 11. Definition 2.9 below introduces yet another synonymous form.
The Riesz representation theorem, which states that for each x V there exists one and only one x V
such that hx, yi = (x|y) for all y V , is an immediate consequence of Theorem 2.3, viz. x = G1 (x).
Notation
We reserve boldface symbols for intrinsic quantities such as vectors, covectors, and (other) linear mappings,
in order to distinguish them from their respective components relative to a fiducial basis.
Definition 2.9 The conversion operators ] : V V and [ : V V are introduced as shorthand for G,
respectively G1 , viz. if v V , v V , then
def def
]v = G(v) V respectively [v = G1 (v) V .
Terminology
G is commonly known as the metric, and G1 as the dual metric. The operators ] : V V and [ : V V
are pronounced as sharp and flat, respectively.
Caveat
In the literature, the roles of sharp and flat are often reversed! Make sure to adhere to an unambiguous convention.
Result 2.2 Let v = v i ei V and v = vi ei V , then
]v = gij v i ej = vj ej = v V , with vj = gij v i ;
[v = g ij vi ej = v j ej = v V , with v j = g ij vi .
Proof of Result 2.2. This follows directly from the definition of ] and [ using
]ei = G(ei ) = gij ej V , respectively
[ei = G1 (ei ) = g ij ej V .
Notation
def
Unless stated otherwise we will adhere to the following convention. If v i R, then vj = gij v i . reversely, if
j def
vi R, then v = g ij vi .
2.5 Reciprocal Bases 15
Caveat
In the foregoing G L (V, V ) and G1 L (V , V ), with prototypes G : V V , resp. G1 : V V .
However, one often interprets the metric and its dual as bilinear mappings of type G : V V R, resp.
G1 : V V R. It should be clear from the context which prototype is implied. We return to this
ambiguity in section 2.8.
Reminder
In an inner product space vectors can be seen as covectors in disguise, vice versa.
2.5. Reciprocal Bases
Ansatz

Definition 2.10 The basis {ei } of V induces a new basis [ei of V given by [ei = g ij ej , the so-called recip-
rocal basis.
Definition 2.11 The basis ei of V induces a new basis {]ei } of V given by ]ei = gij ej , the so-called

reciprocal dual basis.
Caveat
Instead of [ei one sometimes writes ei for the reciprocal of ei .

Likewise, instead of ]ei one sometimes writes ei for the reciprocal of ei .
Since we conventionally label elements of V by lower indices, and elements of V by upper indices, we
will adhere to the notation employing the [ and ] operator.
Remark
The reciprocal basis is uniquely determined by the inner product.

The Gram matrix of the reciprocal basis is G1 , with components [ei |[ej

= g ik g j` (ek |e` ) =
g ik g j` gk` = g ij .

We have [ei |ej = g ik (ek |ej ) = g ik gkj = ji .
Terminology
The vectors [ei and ej are said to be perpendicular for i 6= j.
Remark

For each reciprocal basis [ei of V and each x V there exists a unique collection of real numbers {xi } such
that x = xi [ei .
Terminology
The real numbers xi are referred to as the covariant components of the vector x relative to the basis {ei }.
16 Tensor Calculus
Reminder
Reciprocal basis vectors are labeled with upper indices.

Covariant components are labeled with lower indices.
No confusion is likely to arise if we adhere to the notation using the [ and ] converters.
2.6. Bases, Dual Bases, Reciprocal Bases: Mutual Relations
Heuristics
Dual and reciprocal bases are close-knit. The exact relationship is clarified in this section.
Sofar, a vector space V and its associated dual space V have been introduced as a priori independent entities. V
and V are mutually connected by virtue of the interaction between their respective elements, recall Result 2.1
on page 9. One nevertheless retains a clear distinction between a vector (element of V ) and a dual vector (element
of V ) throughout. That is, there is no mechanism to convert a vector into a dual vector, vice versa.
An inner product provides us with an explicit mechanism to construct a one-to-one linear mapping (i.e. dual
vector) associated with each vector by virtue of the metric G, cf. Theorem 2.3 on page 13. An inner product also
enables us to construct a reciprocal basis that allows us to mimic duality within V proper. Interchangeability
of vectors and reciprocal vectors as well as that of vectors and dual vectors is governed by the Gram matrix G
and its inverse.
Ansatz
Observation
Result 2.3 on page 13 states that each vector x V induces a dual vector x = G(x) V . Let x = xi ei
relative to basis {ei } of V . Then2 x = xi ei relative to the corresponding dual basis {ei } of V . According to
Definition 2.10 on page 15 we also have x = xi [ei relative to the reciprocal basis {[ei } of V . Given xi R we
have xi = xi = gij xj .
Caveat
Notice the distinct prototypes of metric G : V V and linear map G : V V represented by the Gram
matrix G, i.e. ei = G ([ei ).
Notation
No confusion is likely to arise if we use identical symbols, xi xi , to denote both dual as well as reciprocal
vector components. The underlying basis ({ei }, respectively {[ei }), and thus the correct geometric interpretation,
should be inferred from the context. By default we shall interpret xi as dual vector components, henceforth
omitting the symbol, i.e. x = xi ei V .
2 For the sake of argument we temporarily write xi for dual, and xi for reciprocal vector components.
2.7 Examples of Vectors and Covectors 17
Reminder
A dual basis does not require an inner product, a reciprocal basis does.
A dual basis spans V , a reciprocal basis spans V .
In an inner product spacewith metric Gthe components of a vector x V relative to the reciprocal
basis are identical to the components of the dual vector x = G(x) relative to the dual basis.
Thus, in an inner product space with fixed metric G, one may loosely identify a vector x V and its dual
vector x V to the extent that x = G(x) and ( |x) = hx, i.
The metric and its dual, G, respectively G1 , provide the natural mechanism to toggle between elements
of V and V . Abbreviations: G(x) = ]x, G1 (x) = [x.
The Gram matrix and its inverse, G, respectively G1 , or rather the associated linear mappings G : V V
and G 1 : V V , provide natural mechanisms to toggle between elements of V and their reciprocals
in V .
2.7. Examples of Vectors and Covectors
It is important to learn to recognize covectors and vectors in practice, and to maintain a clear distinction through-
out. Some important examples from mechanics may illustrate this.
Example
Particle velocity v provides an example of a vector.

Particle momentum p provides an example of a covector.
The metric tensor allows us to relate these two: p = G(v) = ]v, or equivalently, v = G1 (p) = [p.
Example
Displacement x relative to a fiducial point in a continuous medium (or in vacuo) provides an example of a
vector.
Spatial frequency k provides an example of a covector.

The Kronecker tensor allows us to construct a scalar from these two: hk, xi R (phase).
Caveat
In practice one often refrains from a notational distinction between covectors and vectors, writing e.g. p
and k instead of p and k, as we do here.
By the same token it is a common malpractice to speak of the momentum vector p and the wave vector
k even if covectors are intended. (Of course, technically speaking covectors are vectors.)
18 Tensor Calculus
2.8. Tensors
2.8.1. Tensors in all Generality
Ansatz
A basis {ei } of V .
Definition 2.12 A tensor is a multilinear mapping of type

T : V ... V V ... V R
| {z } | {z }
p q
for some p, q N0 .
Notation
Recall Definition 2.12. The following notation will be used to indicate tensor prototypes:
def
T V . . . V V . . . V = Tpq (V ) .
| {z } | {z }
p q
Caveat
The ordering of arguments matters!

Thus the prototype may be specified with a different arrangement of linear spaces V and V .
Terminology

p
We refer to T Tpq (V ) sometimes as a q
-tensor.
T Tpq (V ) is referred to as a mixed tensor of contravariant rank p and covariant rank q.

If q 6= 0, T T0q (V ) is called a covariant tensor of rank q.
If p 6= 0, T Tp0 (V ) is called a contravariant tensor of rank p.
T T00 (V ) is called a scalar. We identify T with its value in this case, i.e. T R.
The words cotensor/contratensor are synonymous to covariant/contravariant tensor.
Example

1
Let T be a 2
-tensor, and x, x1 , x2 , y, y1 , y2 V , z, z1 , z2 V , and 1 , 2 R arbitrary. Then we have
T(1 z1 + 2 z2 , x, y) = 1 T(z1 , x, y) + 2 T(z2 , x, y);

T(z, 1 x1 + 2 x2 , y) = 1 T(z, x1 , y) + 2 T(z, x2 , y);
T(z, x, 1 y1 + 2 y2 ) = 1 T(z, x, y1 ) + 2 T(z, x, y2 ).
2.8 Tensors 19
Result 2.3 Special cases of low rank tensors:

0
A 0
-tensor is a scalar, i.e. T00 (V ) = R.

0
A 1
-tensor is a covector, i.e. T01 (V ) = V .

1
A 0
-tensor is a vector, i.e. T10 (V ) = V .
Proof of Result 2.3. The first case is a convention previously explained. The second case is true by Definition 2.2,
page 8, recall the terminology introduced on page 9. The third case is true by virtue of the isomorphism V = V ,
recall the remark on page 11.
Definition 2.13 The outer product f g : X Y R of two R-valued functions f : X R and g : Y R

is defined as follows:
(f g)(x, y) = f (x)g(y) for all x X, y Y .
Since both vectors as well as covectors can be interpreted as R-valued mappings, the following definition is a
natural one.

p
Definition 2.14 For each (p + q)-tuple of indices (i1 , . . . , ip , j1 , . . . , jq ) the mixed q
-tensor ei1 . . . eip
j1 jq
e . . . e Tpq (V ) is defined by

ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq (x1 ,. . ., xp , y1 ,. . ., yq ) = hx1 , ei1 i. . .hxp , eip ihej1 , y1 i. . .hejq , yq i ,
for all x1 ,. . ., xp V and y1 ,. . ., yq V .
Caveat
The symbol used in Definition 2.14 is related to, but should not be confused with the one used in
Definition 2.12. Mnemonic: ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq V . . . V V . . . V .
| {z } | {z }
p q
i ...i
Result 2.4 If T Tpq (V ) there exists a set of numbers tj11 ...jpq R such that
i ...i
T = tj11 ...jpq ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq ,
i ...i
viz. tj11 ...jpq = T(ei1 , . . . , eip , ej1 , . . . , ejq ).
Proof of Result 2.4. We have
T ei1 , . . . , eip , ej1 , . . . , ejq

k ...k
= t`11...`qp ek1 . . . ekp e`1 . . . e`q ei1 , . . . , eip , ej1 , . . . , ejq

k ...k
= t`11...`qp hei1 , ek1 i. . .heip , ekp ihe`1 , ej1 i. . .he`q , ejq i
k ...k i ` i ...i
= t`11...`qp ki11 . . . kpp j`11 . . . jqq = tj11 ...jpq .
20 Tensor Calculus
So, for general covector and vector arguments 1 , . . . , p V , v1 , . . . , vq V ,
i ...i
T ( 1 , . . . , p , v1 , . . . , vq ) = tj11 ...jpq 1,i1 . . . p,ip v1j1 . . . vqjq .
Terminology
If T T01 (V ) = V there exist numbers ti R such that T = ti ei , viz. ti = T(ei ). These are the
covariant components of T relative to basis {ei }.
If T T10 (V ) = V there exist numbers ti R such that T = ti ei , viz. ti = T(ei ). These are the
contravariant components of T relative to basis {ei }.
i ...i
If T Tpq (V ), the numbers tj11 ...jpq R are referred to as the mixed components of T relative to basis
{ei }.
Caveat
i ...i
Laziness has led to the habit of saying that T = tj11 ...jpq ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq is expressed relative to
basis {ei }, where it would have been more accurate to refer to the actual basis {ei1 . . .eip ej1 . . . ejq }.
Example
Recall Definition 2.4 on page 11. We have yet another notation for the Kronecker tensor h , i V V , viz.
h , i = ei ei = ji ei ej ,
in which we recognize the Kronecker symbol as the mixed components of the Kronecker tensor relative to basis
{ei }. To see this, insert an arbitrary covector y = yi ei V and vector x = xi ei V on the r.h.s. The result is
ei ei (y, x) = hy, ei ihei , xi = yj xk hej , ei ihei , ek i = yj xk ij ki = yi xj ji = yi xj hei , ej i = hy, xi .

Note that the Kronecker tensor is parameter free. For this reason it is sometimes called a constant tensor. Since
its coefficients ji do not depend on the chosen basis (an untypical property for tensor coefficients), they are said
to constitute an invariant holor.
Observation
Tpq (V ) constitutes a linear space subject to the usual rules for linear superposition of mappings, i.e. for all
S, T Tpq (V ) and all , R we declare
(S + T) ((co)vectors) = S((co)vectors) + T((co)vectors) ,
in which (co)vectors generically denotes an appropriate sequence of arbitrary vector and/or covector
arguments.
We have dim Tpq (V ) = np+q .
i ...i
Lexicographical ordering of the components tj11 ...jpq of tensors T Tpq (V ) establishes an isomorphism
p+q
with the column vector space Rn .
2.8 Tensors 21
Terminology
i ...i
The indexed collection of tensor coefficients tj11 ...jpq is also referred to as a holor.
Physicists and engineers are wont to refer to holors as tensors. In a mathematicians vocabulary the
(basis dependent) holor is strictly to be distinguished from the associated (basis independent) tensor,
i ...i
T = tj11 ...jpq ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq .
If {ei } is a basis of V , a basis of Tpq (V ) is given by {ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq }. But do recall the
caveat on page 20 concerning terminology.
Caveat
Parlance and notation in tensor calculus tend to be somewhat sloppy. This is the price one must pay for simplicity.
It is up to the reader to resolve ambiguities, if any, and provide correct mathematical interpretations.
Example
It is customary to think of the metric G L (V, V ) as a covariant tensor of rank 2. In order to understand this,
let us clarify a previous remark on page 15. For given metric G, define g V V = T02 (V ) as follows:
g : V V R : (v, w) 7 g(v, w) (G(v)) (w) (v|w) h]v, wi ,
recall the sharp operator, introduced on page 14.
Notation
Except when this might lead to confusion, no notational distinction will henceforth be made between such
distinct prototypes as g and G. We will invariably write G, whether it is intended as a covariant 2-tensor (g
in the example, implied when we write G(v, w)), or as a vector-to-covector converter (]-operator, implied
when we write G(v)).
The ]- and [-operators provide convenient shorthands for the (dual) metric if one wishes to stress its action
as a vector-to-covector (respectively covector-to-vector) converter.
Terminology
Irrespective of the intended interpretation, G will be referred to as the metric tensor.
Theorem 2.4 If S Tpq (V ), T Trs (V ), with

i ...i
S = sj11 ...jpq ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq and T = tji11...i j1 js
...js ei1 . . . eir e . . . e ,
r
i ...i i ...i
then S T Tp+r 1 p p+1 p+r j1
q+s (V ), with S T = sj1 ...jq tjq+1 ...jq+s ei1 . . . eip+r e . . . e
jq+s
.
Terminology
p+r
For S Tpq (V ), T Trs (V ), the tensor S T Tq+s (V ) is also referred to as the outer product or tensor
product of S and T.
Caveat
Notice that we have chosen to adhere to a default ordering of basis and dual basis vectors that span the tensor
product space, recall Definition 2.12, page 18. This boils down to a rearrangement such that the first p + r
arguments of the product tensor S T are covectors, and the remaining q + s arguments are vectors.
22 Tensor Calculus
Proof of Theorem 2.4. Apply Definition 2.13, page 19, accounting for the occurrence of multiplicative coeffi-
cients: ((f ) (g))(x, y) = ((f )(x))((g)(y)) = f (x)g(y). Further details are left to the reader (taking
into account the previous caveat).
Caveat
The tensor product is associative, distributive with respect to addition and scalar multiplication, but not commu-
tative. (Work out the exact meaning of these statements in formulae.)
Reminder
A mixed tensor T Tpq (V ) has contravariant rank p and covariant rank q.

i ...i
The holor tj11 ...jpq R of T Tpq (V ) is labeled with p upper and q lower indices.
Elements of the underlying basis {ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq } of Tpq (V ), on the other hand, are
labeled with p lower and q upper indices.
A holor depends on the chosen basis, the tensor itself (by definition!) does not. (We return to this aspect in
Section 2.8.6.)
The outer product of two tensors yields another tensor. Ranks add up.
2.8.2. Tensors Subject to Symmetries
Ansatz
Tensor spaces of type Tpq (V ).
Certain subspaces of Tpq (V ) are of special interest. For instance, it may be the case that the ordering of (co)vector
arguments in a tensor evaluation does not affect the outcome.
Remark
Recall a previous remark on page 8 concerning the convention for index positioning. In particular, in Defini-
tions 2.15 and 2.16 below, indices are used to label an a priori unconstrained number of arguments, whence the
upper/lower index convention is not applicable.
Notation
= {(1 ), . . . , (p )} denotes a permutation of the p ordered symbols {1 , . . . , p }.

(i ), i = 1, . . . , p, is shorthand notation for the i-th entry of .
Definition 2.15 Let = {(1), . . . , (p)} be any permutation of labels {1, . . . , p}, then T T0p (V ) is called a
symmetric covariant tensor if for all v1 , . . . , vp V
T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) = T(v1 , . . . , vp ) .

2.8 Tensors 23
Likewise, T Tp0 (V ) is called a symmetric contravariant tensor if for all v1 , . . . , vp V
T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) = T(v1 , . . . , vp ) .
Notation
) T0p (V ).
W
The vector space of symmetric covariant p-tensors is denoted p (V
Wp
The vector space of symmetric contravariant p-tensors is denoted (V ) Tp0 (V ).
Wp
Alternatively one sometimes writes p (V ) = V S . . . S V and
W
(V ) = V S . . . S V .
| {z } | {z }
q p
Example
An example of a symmetric covariant p-tensor on Rn is given by the set of p-th order partial derivatives of a
sufficiently smooth function f C p (Rn , R) at a fiducial point:
p f (0)
Dp f (0) = ei1 . . . eip .
xi1 . . . xip
Notation
For simplicity we write fi1 ...ip (0) for the partial derivatives in the above expression.
The fiducial point (origin in this example) is often suppressed in the notation.
Caveat
The derivative tensor field Dp f : Rn T0p (V ) : x 7 Dp f (x)as opposed to the isolated tensor Dp f (0)
T0p (V )fails to be a tensor field unless one replaces partial derivatives by covariant derivatives. (We return to
this later.)
It may also happen that an interchange of two arguments causes the outcome to change sign.
Definition 2.16 Let sgn () denote the sign of the permutation , i.e. sgn () = 1 if it is even, sgn () = 1 if
it is odd. T T0p (V ) is called an antisymmetric covariant tensor if for all v1 , . . . , vp V and any permutation
= {(1), . . . , (p)} of labels {1, . . . , p},
T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) = sgn ()T(v1 , . . . , vp ) .
Likewise, T Tp0 (V ) is called an antisymmetric contravariant tensor if for all v1 , . . . , vp V
T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) = sgn ()T(v1 , . . . , vp ) .
Notation
) T0p (V ).
V
The vector space of antisymmetric covariant p-tensors is denoted p (V
Vp
The vector space of antisymmetric contravariant p-tensors is denoted (V ) Tp0 (V ).
Vp
Alternatively one sometimes writes p (V ) = V A . . . A V and
V
(V ) = V A . . . A V .
| {z } | {z }
q p
24 Tensor Calculus
It is convenient to admit tensor ranks p < 2 in this notation by a natural extension.
Assumption
W W0 V V0
0 (V
)= (V ) = 0 (V ) = (V ) = R. (This is consistent with Definitions 2.15 and 2.16 if we set
= id, sgn = 1 on the empty index set ).
1 (V ) = 1 (V ) = V . (This follows from Definitions 2.15 and 2.16, with = id, sgn = 1 on {1}).
W V
W1 V1
(V ) = (V ) = V . (This follows from Definitions 2.15 and 2.16, with = id, sgn = 1 on {1}).
2.8.3. Symmetry and Antisymmetry Preserving Product Operators
Ansatz

W V Wp Vp
Tensor spaces of type p (V ), p (V ), (V ), (V ).
The outer product, recall Definition 2.13 on page 19 and in particular Theorem 2.4 on page 21, does not preserve
W
(anti)symmetry.
V For this reason alternative product operators are introduced specifically designed for p (V ),
p (V ), and their contravariant counterparts.
Definition 2.17 For every v1 , . . . , vk V we define the antisymmetric covariant k-tensor v1 . . . vk

V
k (V ) as follows:
v1 . . . vk (x1 , . . . , xk ) = dethvi , xj i for all xj V .

Example
Let v, w V , x, y V , then

hv, xi hv, yi
(v w) (x, y) = det = hv, xihw, yi hw, xihv, yi .
hw, xi hw, yi
Alternatively,
v w = v w w v .
A more general result will be given on page 28.
Terminology
The infix operator is referred to as the wedge product or the antisymmetric product.
Observation
e1 . . . ek (e1 , . . . , ek ) = dethei , ej i = 1.

ei1 . . . eik (ej1 , . . . , ejk ) = ji11 ...i

k
...jk , recall the completely antisymmetric symbols on page 5, cf.
ei1 . . . eik (ej1 , . . . , ejk ) = ji11 . . . jikk .

2.8 Tensors 25
Observation
Furthermore, the wedge product is associative, bilinear and antisymmetric (whence nilpotent, vice versa), i.e. if
u, v, w V , , R, then
(u v) w = u (v w).
(u + v) w = u w + v w.
u (v + w) = u v + u w.
u u = 0, or, equivalently, u v = v u.
A similar symmetry preserving product exists for symmetric tensors. To this end we need to introduce the
symmetric counterpart of a determinant.
Definition 2.18 The operator perm assigns a number to a square matrix in a way similar to det, but with a +
sign for each term, recall page 4:
n n
X 1 X
perm A = |[j1 , . . . , jn ]| A1j1 . . . Anjn = |[i1 , . . . , in ] [j1 , . . . , jn ]| Ai1 j1 . . . Ain jn .
j1 ,...,jn =1
n!
i1 , . . . , in = 1
j1 , . . . , jn = 1
Remark
The formal role of the completely antisymmetric symbols in the above expressions is to restrict summation to
relevant terms. The absolute value discards minus signs for odd parity terms, recall the last line in the observation
made on page 4.
Terminology
The operator perm is called the permanent.
Example
Analogous to Table 1.1 on page 4 we have for a 3 3 matrix A,
perm A = A11 A22 A33 +A12 A23 A31 +A13 A21 A32 +A13 A22 A31 +A11 A23 A32 +A12 A21 A33 .
Definition
W 2.19 For every k-tuple v1 , . . . , vk V we define the symmetric covariant k-tensor v1 . . . vk
k (V ) as follows:
v1 . . . vk (x1 , . . . , xk ) = perm hvi , xj i .

Example
Let v, w V , x, y V , then

hv, xi hv, yi
(v w) (x, y) = perm = hv, xihw, yi + hw, xihv, yi .
hw, xi hw, yi
Alternatively,
v w = v w + w v .
Terminology
The infix operator is referred to as the vee product or the symmetric product.
26 Tensor Calculus
Observation
The vee product is associative, bilinear and symmetric, i.e. if u, v, w V , , R, then
(u v) w = u (v w).
(u + v) w = u w + v w.
u (v + w) = u v + u w.
u v = v u.
Observation
dim T0p (V ) = np .
{ei1 . . . eip | 1 i1 < i2 < . . . < ip1 < ip n} is a basis of

V
p (V ).
{ei1 . . . eip | 1 i1 i2 . . . ip1 ip n} is a basis of p (V ).

W
For p 2, dim p (V ) + dim p (V ) dim T0p (V ), with strict equality iff p = 2.

V W
Caveat
It is customary to suppress the infix operator in the notation.
Theorem 2.5 Cf. the observations above. We have

V n W n+p1
dim p (V ) = and dim p (V ) = .
p p
As for the first identity, a strictly increasing ordering of labels in a product of the form ei1 . . . eip can
be realized in exactly as many distinct ways as one can select p items out of n different objects.
V V
In particular, if p > n, then dim p (V ) = 0, i.e. p (V ) = {0}.
As for the second identity, the number of ways in which a non-decreasing ordering of labels in a product
of the form ei1 . . . eip can be realized can be inferred from the following argument3 . Any admissible
ordering of labels can be represented symbolically by a sequence of p dots , split into subsequences of
equal labels separated by n 1 crosses , each of which marks a unit label transition. Examples, taking
n = 5, p = 7:
e1 e1 e2 e4 e4 e4 e5
e1 e1 e2 e2 e2 e2 e3
There are exactly (n + p 1)! permutations of the n + p 1 symbols in such sequences, with exactly p!,
respectively (n 1)! indistinguishable permutations among the identical symbols , respectively , in any
given realization.
3 Courtesy of Freek Paans.

2.8 Tensors 27
Remark
V W
V between p (V ) and p (V ) with respect to dimensionality scaling with p. In
Notice the qualitative differences
the former case we have dim p (V ) = 0 as soon as p > n = dim V , i.e. no nontrivial antisymmetric tensors
with ranks p exceeding vector space dimension n exist. In contrast, nontrivial symmetric tensors do exist for any
rank.
Example
Vp
Let B p and Bp denote bases for ), in Euclidean 3-space V = R3 .
V
(V ), respectively p (V
p Bp dim p Bp dim
0 {1} 1 0 {1}
1 2 3 1
1 {e1 , e2 , e3 } 3 1 1 e , e , e 3
2 {e1 e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e3 } 3 2 e e2 , e1 e3 , e2 e3 3
3 {e1 e2 e3 } 1 3 e1 e2 e3 1
Observation
Definitions 2.17, page 24, and 2.19, page 25, are straightforwardly complemented by similar ones applicable to
(anti)symmetric contravariant tensors.
Definition 2.20 The linear operator S : T0p (V )

W
p (V
), given by
1 X
(S (T)) (v1 , . . . , vp ) = T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) ,
p!
in which summation runs over all permutations of the index set {1, . . . , p}, is called the symmetrisation map.
Observation
If T = ti1 ...ip ei1 . . . eip T0p (V ), then S (T) = t(i1 ...ip ) ei1 . . . eip
W
p (V ), in which
def 1 X
t(i1 ...ip ) = t(i1 )...(ip ) .
p!
) is symmetric, then T = S (T).

W
If T = p (V
The symmetrisation map is a projection, i.e. it is idempotent: S S = S .
1 1 X
These observations explain the normalization factor , since 1 = 1.
p! p!
Observation
The -product is particularly convenient in the context of the symmetrisation operator, for we have
1 i1
S (ei1 . . . eip ) = e . . . eip .
p!
T U = U T.
W
The case p = 0, q > 0 is covered by defining U = U for all R, U q (V ).
Rule of thumb: The action of p!S on a -product amounts to a formal replacement S .
28 Tensor Calculus
The following result generalizes the example given on page 25:
(p + q)!
S (T U).
W W
Result 2.5 Let T p (V ) and U q (V ), then T U =
p!q!
Definition 2.21 The linear operator A : T0p (V )

V
p (V ), given by
1 X
(A (T)) (v1 , . . . , vp ) = sgn ()T(v(1) , . . . , v(p) ) ,
p!
is referred to as the antisymmetrisation map.
Observation
If T = ti1 ...ip ei1 . . . eip T0p (V ), then A (T) = t[i1 ...ip ] ei1 . . . eip
V
p (V ), in which
def 1 X
t[i1 ...ip ] = sgn ()t(i1 )...(ip ) .
p!
) is antisymmetric, then T = A (T).

V
If T = p (V
The antisymmetrisation map is a projection, i.e. it is idempotent: A A = A .
Recall a previous remark on the normalization factor (page 27).
Observation
The -product is particularly convenient in the context of antisymmetrisation, for we have

1 i1
A (ei1 . . . eip ) = e . . . eip .
p!
V
The case p = 0, q > 0 is covered by defining U = U for all R, U q (V ).
Rule of thumb: The action of p!A on a -product amounts to a formal replacement A .
The following result generalizes the example given on page 24.
(p + q)!
A (T U).
V V
Result 2.6 Let T p (V ) and U q (V ), then T U =
p!q!
Notation
The Einstein summation convention,

V recall page 7, is usually adapted in the context of antisymmetric
tensors. In general, if T p (V ), then we may use either of the following equivalent decompositions:
X
T = ti1 ...ip ei1 . . . eip = ti1 ...ip ei1 . . . eip ,
i1 ,...,ip
X
T = t|i1 ...ip | ei1 . . . eip = ti1 ...ip ei1 . . . eip .
i1 <...<ip
2.8 Tensors 29
Observation
1
Note that t|i1 ...ip | ei1 . . . eip = p! ti1 ...ip e
i1
. . . eip , recall the previous observation.
Proof of Result 2.6. Let T = t|i1 ...ip | ei1 . . . eip and U = u|ip+1 ...ip+q | eip+1 . . . eip+q , with antisymmetric
holors ti1 ...ip and uip+1 ...ip+q . Then
1
TU = t|i1 ...ip | u|ip+1 ...ip+q | ei1 . . . eip+q =ti ...i ui ...i ei1 . . . eip+q
p!q! 1 p p+1 p+q
? (p + q)! (p + q)!
= ti1 ...ip uip+1 ...ip+q A ei1 . . . eip+q = A (T U) .
p!q! p!q!
Notice that all p + q indices can be assumed to be distinct. In step we have used the fact that there are precisely
p! (respectively q!) orderings of p (respectively q) distinct indices. In step ? we have used the previous observation
on the relationship between wedge product and antisymmetrised outer product. The last step exploits linearity of
A.
), then T U = (1)pq U T.
V V
Result 2.7 Let T p (V ) and U q (V
Proof of Result 2.7. Cf. the proof of Result 2.6. To change the positions of the p basis covectors ei1 , . . . , eip in
the product ei1 . . . eip+q so as to obtain the reordered product eip+1 . . . eip+q ei1 . . . eip requires
p (one for each eik , k = 1, . . . , p) times q (one for each ei` , ` = p + 1, . . . , p + q) commutations, each of which
brings in a minus sign.
Remark
V V
If p + q > n = dim V , then T U = 0 p+q (V ). Indeed, k (V ) = {0} for all k > n.
Remark
Both S as well as A are idempotent: S S = S , respectively A A = A . Thus they are, by definition,

projections from T0p (V ) onto p (V ), respectively onto p (V ).
W V
Note that we have not defined the property of (anti)symmetry for a genuine mixed tensor.
Most definitions also apply to the covariant and contravariant parts of a mixed tensor separately, i.e. treating
the mixed tensor as a covariant tensor by freezing its covector arguments, respectively as a contravariant
tensor by freezing its vector arguments.
A (say covariant) 2-tensor can always be decomposed into a sum of a symmetric and antisymmetric 2-
tensor, viz. T = S + A, with S = S (T) and A = A (T), i.e. S(v, w) = 21 (T(v, w) + T(w, v)) and
A(v, w) = 21 (T(v, w) T(w, v)). This is consistent with the dimensionality equality for p = 2 in the
observation on page 26.
A general tensor is typically neither symmetric nor antisymmetric, nor can it be split into a sum of a
symmetric and antisymmetric tensor, recall the dimensionality inequality in the observation on page 26.
The metric tensor G is symmetric, and so is its inverse, the dual metric tensor G1 .
Both the -product as well as the -product obey the usual rules for associativity, and distributivity with
respect to tensor addition and scalar multiplication.
30 Tensor Calculus
Example
Let V = R3 , furnished with standard basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }. One conventionally denotes

e1 = e2 = e3 = .
x y z
It is then customary to denote the corresponding dual basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } of V by
e1 = dx e2 = dy e3 = dz .
Let u = ui ei , v = v i ei , w = wi ei V be arbitrary vectors. Then we have
dx(v) = hdx, vi = v1 ,
dy(v) = hdy, vi = v2 ,
dz(v) = hdz, vi = v3 .
Example
Notation as in the previous example.
v1 w1

hdx, vi hdx, wi
(dx dy) (v, w) = det = det = v 1 w2 v 2 w1 ,
hdy, vi hdy, wi v2 w2
v1 w1

hdx, vi hdx, wi
(dx dz) (v, w) = det = det = v 1 w3 v 3 w1 ,
hdz, vi hdz, wi v3 w3
v2 w2

hdy, vi hdy, wi
(dy dz) (v, w) = det = det = v 2 w3 v 3 w2 .
hdz, vi hdz, wi v3 w3
Example
Notation as in the previous example.
1
v1 w1

hdx, ui hdx, vi hdx, wi u
(dx dy dz) (u, v, w) = det hdy, ui hdy, vi hdy, wi = det u2 v2 w2
hdz, ui hdz, vi hdz, wi u3 v3 w3
= u1 v 2 w3 + u3 v 1 w2 + u2 v 3 w1 u3 v 2 w1 u1 v 3 w2 u2 v 1 w3 .
Notice that sofar no inner product has been invoked in any of the definitions and results of this section. With the
help of an inner product certain straightforward modifications can be made that generalize foregoing definitions
and results. The underlying mechanism is that of the conversion tools provided by Definition 2.9 on page 14.
Ansatz

W V Wp Vp
Tensor spaces of type p (V ), p (V ), (V ), (V ).
2.8 Tensors 31
Observation
Recall Theorem 2.3, page 13, 2.9 page 14, and Result 2.2, page 14. An inner product on V induces an
VpDefinitionW p
inner product on the spaces (V ) and (V ), as follows. For any v1 , . . . , vk , x1 , . . . , xk V , set
(v1 . . . vk |x1 . . . xk ) = deth]vi , xj i, respectively
(v1 . . . vk |x1 . . . xk ) = perm h]vi , xj i.

V W
Likewise for the spaces p (V ) and p (V ):

v1 . . . vk |x1 . . . xk = dethvi , [xj i, respectively

v1 . . . vk |x1 . . . xk = perm hvi , [xj i,
for any v1 , . . . , vk , x1 , . . . , xk V .
Section 2.8.5 covers tensors on an inner product space in more generality.
2.8.4. Vector Spaces with an Oriented Volume
Ansatz

A fixed basis {ei } of V .
V
A nonzero n-form n (V ).
Terminology
If (e1 , . . . , en ) = 1 then is called the unit volume form.
Observation
V
We have dim n (V ) = 1.
V
Consequently, if 1 , 2 n (V ), then 1 and 2 differ by a constant factor R.
For the unit volume form we have, according to the observation on page 28,
1
= e1 . . . en = [i1 , . . . , in ] ei1 . . . ein = [i1 , . . . , in ] A ei1 . . . ein .

n!
The A -operator on the right hand side may be dropped, since its effect is void when
V combined with
antisymmetric coefficients. We conclude that the covariant components of n (V ) are given by
i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ].
Caveat
The identification i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] holds only relative to the fixed basis used above to construct . We refer
to section 2.8.6 for a basis independent evaluation.
Observation
Thus = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein = i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein . This shows the convenience of the two variants of
Einstein summation.
32 Tensor Calculus
V
Definition 2.22 Let (V, ) denote the vector space V endowed with the n-form n (V ).
(V, ) is called a vector space with an oriented volume.
(V, ) is said to have a positive orientation if (e1 , . . . , en ) > 0.
(V, ) is said to have a negative orientation if (e1 , . . . , en ) < 0.
Terminology
The use of attributes positive and negative in this context is usually self-explanatory, e.g.
V
given a fixed basis {ei } of V one refers to n (V ) as a positive volume form if (e1 , . . . , en ) > 0,
and
V
given a basic volume form n (V ) one refers to {ei } as a positively oriented basis if (e1 , . . . , en ) >
0, etc.
Notation
Instead of (V, ) we shall simply write V . The existence and nature of an oriented volume should be clear from
the context.
Observation
Using Definition 2.17 on page 24 we may write, for x1 , . . . , xn V ,
1
he1 , xn i

he , x1 i ...
j
(x1 , . . . , xn ) = dethe , xi i = det .. ..
,

. .
hen , x1 i . . . n
he , xn i
which clearly reveals the role of the Kronecker tensor (and thus of the dual vector space V ) in the definition
of . Consistent with a foregoing observation it follows that the covariant components of = i1 ...in ei1
. . . ein are given by i1 ...in = (ei1 , . . . , ein ) = [i1 , . . . , in ] (e1 , . . . , en ) = [i1 , . . . , in ] dethej , ei i =
[i1 , . . . , in ] det ij = [i1 , . . . , in ].
Definition
V 2.23 Let a1 , . . . , ak V for some k {0, . . . , n}, then we define the (n k)-form ya1 y . . .yak
nk (V ) as follows:
(ya1 y . . .yak ) (xk+1 , . . . , xn ) = (a1 , . . . , ak , xk+1 , . . . , xn ) .

2.8 Tensors 33
Observation
A trivial rewriting of the previous observation allows us to rewrite Definition 2.23 on page 32 as follows:
1
he , a1 i . . . he1 , ak i he1 , xk+1 i . . . he1 , xn i

(ya1 y . . .yak ) (xk+1 , . . . , xn ) = det .. .. .. ..

.

. . . .
hen , a1 i . . . hen , ak i hen , xk+1 i . . . hen , xn i
V
The holor of ya1 y . . .yak nk (V ) for given a1 , . . . , ak V is established as follows:
ai11 . . . aikk (yei1 y . . .yeik ) eik+1 , . . . , ein

(ya1 y . . .yak ) eik+1 , . . . , ein =
= ai11 . . . aikk (ei1 , . . . , ein ) = i1 ...in ai11 . . . aikk ,
i
in which we have used the decompositions ap = app eip for p = 1, . . . , k together with multilinearity.
i
By the same token, expanding also xq = xqq eiq for q = k + 1, . . . , n, we obtain
i
(ya1 y . . .yak ) (xk+1 , . . . , xn ) = i1 ...in ai11 . . . aikk xk+1
k+1
. . . xinn .
Remark
V
An oriented volume n (V ) on a vector space V does not require an inner product.
) exists by virtue of the existence of the dual space V .
V
An oriented volume n (V
If (e1 , . . . , en ) = 1, then = e1 . . . en .
More generally, if (e1 , . . . , en ) = 1, then ye1 y . . .yek = ek+1 . . . en .
The following example explains the terminology of a volume form.
Example
V
Let the notation be as in the examples on page 30 and following. The space 3 (V ) is spanned by
{ = dx dy dz}, which, according to the previous example, is given by
(u, v, w) = u1 v 2 w3 + u3 v 1 w2 + u2 v 3 w1 u3 v 2 w1 u1 v 3 w2 u2 v 1 w3 .
This is the (signed) volume of a parallelepiped spanned by the (column vectors corresponding to the) vectors
u, v, w. The result is positive (negative) if the ordered triple u, v, w has the same (respectively opposite) orien-
tation as the basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }.
The example suggests that similar interpretations hold for forms of lower degrees. This is indeed the case, as the
next example shows.
34 Tensor Calculus
Example
3 3
V V
The spaces 1 (R ) and 2 (R ) are spanned by {dx, dy, dz} and {dx dy, dx dz, dy dz}, respectively.
According to the example on page 30 we have
hdx, vi = v 1 hdy, vi = v 2 hdz, vi = v 3 .
One recognizes the (signed) 1-dimensional volumes (lengths) of the parallel projections of the vector v
onto the x, y, respectively z axis. Recall the examples on page 17 for a physical interpretation in terms of
particle kinematics or wave phenomena.
According to the example on page 30 we have
1
w1

hdx, vi hdx, wi v
(dx dy) (v, w) = det = det = v 1 w2 v 2 w1 .
hdy, vi hdy, wi v2 w2
This is clearly the (signed) 2-dimensional volume (surface area) of the parallelogram spanned by v and w
as it exposes itself from a perspective along the z direction, i.e. the area of the parallelogram after projection
along the z axis onto the x-y plane, cf. Fig. 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Illustration of (dx dy) (v, w) as the area of the cast shadow of a solar panel onto the ground (x
y-plane) when lit from above (along z-direction). Note that (v w) (dx, dy) = (dx dy) (v, w) provides an
equivalent interpretation of the same configuration.
2.8.5. Tensors on an Inner Product Space
Ansatz
Heuristics
The same mechanism that allows us to toggle between vectors and dual vectors in an inner product space, viz. via
the ]- and [-operator associated with the metric G, also allows us to establish one-to-one relationships between
Tpq (V ) and Trs (V ), provided total rank is the same: p + q = r + s. This implies thatin an inner product
spacetensor types can be ordered hierarchically according to their total ranks, and that, given fixed total rank, a
tensor can be represented in as many equivalent ways as there are ways to choose its covariant and contravariant
rank consistent with its total rank. The basic principle is most easily understood by an example.
2.8 Tensors 35
Example
Let us interpret the metric G as an element of T02 (V ), as previously discussed. We may consider the following
four equivalent alternatives:
G : V V R : (v, w) 7 G(v, w);
def
H : V V R : (v, w) 7 H(v, w) = G([v, [w);
def
I : V V R : (v, w) 7 I(v, w) = G([v, w);
def
J : V V R : (v, w) 7 J(v, w) = G(v, [w).
Note that G T02 (V ), H T20 (V ), I T11 (V ), J T11 (V ). If {ei } is a basis of V , then

G = gij ei ej = ]ei ei = ei ]ei ;
H = g ij ei ej = [ei ei = ei [ei ;
I = ji ei ej = ei ei = [ei ]ei ;
J = ij ei ej = ei ei = ]ei [ei .
Caveat
The above example declines from the strict ordering of the spaces V and V in the domain of definition of a
tensor, as introduced

in Definition 2.12 on page 18. This explains the existence of two distinct tensors, I 6= J, of
equal rank 11 . Note that I(v, w) = J(w, v).
Definition 2.24 Recall Result 2.2 on page 14 and Definition 2.12 on page 18. For any p, q N0 we define the
covariant representation ]T T0p+q (V ) of T Tpq (V ) as follows:
]T(v1 , . . . , vp+q ) = T(]v1 , . . . , ]vp , vp+1 , . . . , vp+q ) for all v1 , . . . , vp+q V .
Likewise, the contravariant representation [T Tp+q

0 (V ) of T Tpq (V ) is defined as follows:
[T(v1 , . . . , vp+q ) = T(v1 , . . . , vp , [vp+1 , . . . , [vp+q ) for all v1 , . . . , vp+q V .
In general, a mixed representation of T Tpq (V ) is obtained by toggling an arbitrary subset of (dual) vector
spaces V and V in the domain of definition of the tensor by means of the metric induced {], [}-mechanism in a
similar fashion.
36 Tensor Calculus
Example
Suppose T T12 (V ) is given relative to a basis {ei } of V by T = ti jk ei ej ek . Let u = ui ei , v = vj ej ,
w = wk ek , u = ui ei , v = v j ej , w = wk ek . Then ]T = tijk ei ej ek and [T = tijk ei ej ek . In terms
of components:
T(u, v, w) = ti jk ui v j wk ,
]T(u, v, w) = T(]u, v, w) = tijk ui v j wk , (2.1)
ijk
[T(u, v, w) = T(u, [v, [w) = t ui vj wk .
The remaining five mixed representations are
T1 (u, v, w) = T(u, [v, w) = tij k ui vj wk ,

T2 (u, v, w) = T(u, v, [w) = ti j k ui v j wk ,
T3 (u, v, w) = T(]u, [v, [w) = ti jk ui v j wk , (2.2)
T4 (u, v, w) = T(]u, [v, w) = ti j k ui v j w k ,
T5 (u, v, w) = T(]u, v, [w) = tij k ui v j wk ,
making up the total of 23 = 8 different representations of the rank-3 tensor T, corresponding to the number of
possibilities to toggle the arguments of the tensors 3 slots.
Caveat
The example shows that one quickly runs out of symbols if one insists on a unique naming convention for all
distinct tensors that can be constructed in this way, especially for high ranks. One could opt for a systematic
labeling, e.g. using a binary subscript to denote which argument requires a toggle (1) and which does not (0). In
that case we would have, in the above example, T = T000 , ]T = T100 , [T = T011 , T1 = T010 , T2 = T001 ,
T3 = T111 , T4 = T110 , T5 = T101 .
Other labeling policies are possible, e.g. using a similar 3-digit binary code to denote argument type, 0 for a
vector and 1 for a covector, say. This would lead to the following relabeling: T = T100 , ]T = T000 , [T = T111 ,
T1 = T110 , T2 = T101 , T3 = T011 , T4 = T010 , T5 = T001 .
Conventions like these are, despite the mathematical clarity they provide, rarely used. One often simply writes T
for all cases, relying on the particular tensor prototype for disambiguation (function overloading).
Notation
By abuse of notation one invariably uses the same symbol, T say, to denote any of the (covariant, con-
travariant, or mixed) prototypes discussed above.
By the same token the space Tk (V ) = p+q=k Tpq (V ) collectively refers to all tensors of total rank k.
S
If a particular prototype T Tpq (V ) is intended it should be clear from the context.
Instead of the potentially confusing notation tji11...i

...js for a mixed holor one often writes t
r i1 ...ir
j1 ...js , i.e. one
with a manifest ordering of indices.
Observation
The invocation of the ]-operator to a vector argument of the tensor is reflected in the holor as an index
lowering.
The invocation of the [-operator to a dual vector argument of the tensor is reflected in the holor as an index
raising.
2.8 Tensors 37
Caveat
Recall that ]ei = G(ei ) = gij ej , respectively [ei = G1 (ei ) = g ij ej . Thus, at the level of (dual) basis
vectors, ] raises, and [ lowers indices!
Notice the way indices are raised or lowered in a mixed holor, viz. such as to respect the index ordering, cf.
a previous remark on mixed holor notation.
Reminder
In an inner product space, tensor (holor) indices can be raised or lowered with the help of the (dual) metric
tensor.
As a rule of thumb, consistency of free index positioning determines whether and how to use metric and
dual metric components, gij or g ij , in an expression involving ] or [.
2.8.6. Tensor Transformations
2.8.6.1. Absolute Tensors
Ansatz

A linear space of mixed tensors, Tpq (V ).
Recall that a holor depends on the chosen basis, but the corresponding tensor itself does not. This implies that
holors transform in a particular way under a change of basis, which is characteristic for tensors. In fact, in the
literature tensors are often defined by virtue of the tensor transformation law governing their holors. Here we
present it essentially as a result.
Result 2.8 Let fj = Aij ei define a change of basis, with transformation matrix A. Define B = A1 , i.e. AB = I,
or in terms of components, Aik Bjk = ji . Then
i ...i def i ...i
T = tj11 ...jpq ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq = tj11 ...jpq fi1 . . . fip f j1 . . . f jq ,
iff the holor adheres to the tensor transformation law,

i ...i ` i k ...k
tj11 ...jpq = A`j11 . . . Ajqq Bki11 . . . Bkpp t`11...`qp .
Proof of Result 2.8. Suppose f i = Cji ej . Then, by definition of duality,

def def
ji = hf i , fj i = hCki ek , A`j e` i = Cki A`j hek , e` i = Cki A`j `k = Cki Akj ,
whence C = A1 = B. Bilinearity of the Kronecker tensor has been used in . Consequently,
ei = Bi` f` and ej = Ajk f k .

38 Tensor Calculus
Substitution into the basis expansion of T yields the stated result for the respective holors.
Remark
i ...i
The homogeneous nature of the tensor transformation law implies that a holor equation of the form tj11 ...jpq = 0
holds relative to any basis if it holds relative to a particular one.
Example
With the same notation as used in Result 2.8 we have for a vector v = v i ei = v i fi :
v i = Bji v j ,
also referred to as vector transformation law. Recall Theorem 2.1 on page 7.
Example
Let df = i f ei V denote the gradient of a scalar function f C 1 (Rn ), interpreted as a dual (!) vector and
evaluated at a fixed point. The interpretation of this is as follows. If v = v i ei V , then

hdf , vi = i f v i = (f |v) ,
the directional derivative of f along v. The equality marked by holds only if V is an inner product space, in
which case we identify f = [df V .
According to the tensor transformation law we have df = i f f i , with f i = Bji ej , and
i f = Aì ` f .
Notice the analogy with infinitesimal calculus. Indeed, a change of coordinates, x 7 x = (x), induces a
reparametrization df = i f dxi = i f dxi , in which
f f x` def x`
if = = = Aì ` f with Aì = ,
xi x` xi xi
by the chain rule.
Caveat
One should distinguish between the new variable x and the coordinate transformation function that relates it to
the original variable x by x = (x). In practice one often treats x either as a variable or as a function (i.e. x ),
depending on context. Likewise for x and 1 .
Example
Recall the observation on page 10, which confirms the tensor transformation law for the dual basis vectors dxi :
xi j
dxi = dx = Bji dxj ,
xj
with B = A1 , cf. the previous example.
Caveat
Compare the latter example of the transformation law for a basis dual vector, dxi = Bji dxj , to the one on page 38
for the components (holor) of a vector, v i = Bji v j . The apparent formal correspondence has led practitioners
of tensor calculus (mostly physicists and engineers) to interpret the dual basis vector dxi as the components
of an infinitesimal displacement vector. This misinterpretation is, although potentially confusing, harmless and
indeed justified to the extent that it is consistent with the stipulated tensor transformation laws for basis dual
vectors, respectively regular vector components.
2.8 Tensors 39
2.8.6.2. Relative Tensors
Recall the unit volume form introduced in section 2.8.4. On page 31 it was anticipated with a modest amount
of foresight that the holor i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] depends on the chosen basis. Heuristically this is clear from
the geometric interpretation provided by the example on page 33 in terms of the volume of the parallelepiped
spanned by the basis vectors. Let us scrutinize the situation more carefully.
Ansatz

The unit volume form = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein = i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein
V
n (V ), with i1 ...in =
[i1 , . . . , in ].
The following lemma allows us to compute the holor of relative to an arbitrary basis, given its canonical form
[i1 , . . . , in ] relative to a fiducial basis, via Result 2.8, page 37.
Lemma 2.1 Let = i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein n (V ), with i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] relative to basis {ei } of V ,
V
and fj = Aij ei , so that ei = Aij f j . Setting = i1 ...in f i1 . . . f in , we have
j1 ...jn = Aij11 . . . Aijnn i1 ...in = det A j1 ...jn .
Proof of Lemma 2.1. In accordance with Result 2.8, page 37, we have
= i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein = i1 ...in Aij11 . . . Aijnn f j1 . . . f jn .
This proves the first identity. Using i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ], together with an observation made on page 5 in the
context of the determinant, this may be rewritten as
= det A [j1 , . . . , jn ] f j1 . . . f jn .
This establishes the proof of the last identity.
Observation
Note that det A is the volume scaling factor of the transformation with matrix A.
If (e1 , . . . , en ) = 1, then (f1 , . . . , fn ) = det A.
Heuristics
Clearly, the constant antisymmetric symbol fails to define an invariant holor of a tensor. The definition of the
holor in terms of the antisymmetric symbol requires us to single out a preferred basis relative to which it holds,
i.e. the fiducial basis {ei } has a preferred status among all possible bases. The question arises whether it is
possible to give an invariant expression for the holor, i.e. one that holds in any basis, so that all bases are treated
on equal foot and no a priori knowledge of a preferred one is needed. This is indeed possible. There are two ways
to remedy the problem:
1. without the help of an inner product (Result 2.9), respectively
2. with the help of an inner product (Definition 2.25 and Result 2.10).
40 Tensor Calculus
Result 2.9 Recall Result 2.8, page 37, for notation. If
= |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein = |i1 ...in | f i1 . . . f in ,
and, by definition,
def 1
i1 ...in = (det A) Aji11 . . . Ajinn j1 ...jn ,
then i1 ...in i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] is an invariant holor.
Terminology
This adapted transformation law is also known as the relative tensor transformation law. The attribute
relative refers to the occurrence of (a power of) the Jacobian determinant.
By virtue of the relative tensor transformation law governing its holor, is referred to as a relative tensor.
Strictly speaking this terminology refers to its holor definition!
Proof of Result 2.9. Using an observation on page 5 we find
def 1 1
i1 ...in = (det A) Aji11 . . . Ajinn j1 ...jn = (det A) Aji11 . . . Ajinn [j1 , . . . , jn ]
1
= (det A) [i1 , . . . , in ] det A = [i1 , . . . , in ] = i1 ...in .
Remark
In Lemma 2.1 on page 39 the holor i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] is transformed according to the absolute tensor
transformation law, recall Result 2.8 on page 37.
In Result 2.9 the holor i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] is transformed according to the relative tensor transformation
law.
There is no inconsistency, since in the former case no form invariance was presumed, i.e. in the former case
the definition i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] holds only relative to a fiducial basis {ei }, whereas in the latter case
the same definition holds relative to any basis.
2.8.6.3. Pseudo Tensors
Ansatz

The unit volume form = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein = i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein
V
n (V ), with i1 ...in =
[i1 , . . . , in ].
Notation
For brevity one denotes the determinant of the Gram matrix, gij = (ei |ej ), by g = det gij , recall page 5
concerning a remark on the use of indices, and Definition 2.8 on page 13.
2.8 Tensors 41
Definition 2.25 The Levi-Civita tensor is the unique unit n-form of positive orientation:

= g e1 . . . en = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein .
Observation

i1 ...in = g [i1 , . . . , in ] = gi1 ...in relative to the fiducial basis {ei }.
= i1 ...in ei1 . . .ein = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . .ein , recall page 7 and page 28 for the summation conventions
employed.
Relative to an orthonormal basis we have = .
Vn
Theorem 2.6 The contravariant representation of the Levi-Civita tensor, [ (V ), recall Definition 2.24 on
page 35, is given by [ = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein , with holor representation
1
i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] .
g
Proof of Theorem 2.6. It suffices to prove the validity of the holor representation by index raising:
1
i1 ...in = g i1 j1 . . . g in jn j1 ...jn = g i1 j1 . . . g in jn g [j1 , . . . , jn ] = [i1 , . . . , in ] .
g
In the last step we have made use of the fact that g i1 j1 . . . g in jn [j1 , . . . , jn ] = det g ij [i1 , . . . , in ], an observation
made on page 5, together with the fact that det g ij = 1/ det gij .
Observation
1 1
i1 ...in = [i1 , . . . , in ] = i1 ...in relative to the fiducial basis {ei }.
g g
[ = i1 ...in ei1 . . . ein = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein , recall page 7 and page 28 for the conventions
employed.
Relative to an orthonormal basis we have [ = [.
Result 2.10 Recall Result 2.8, page 37, for notation. Let
= |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein

relative to basis {ei }, with i1 ...in = g [i1 , . . . , in ]. Moreover, let
= |i1 ...in | f i1 . . . f in
relative to {fi } with fi = Aji ej . Then the pseudotensor transformation law,
def
i1 ...in = sgn (det A)Aji11 . . . Ajinn j1 ...jn ,

renders the holor form invariant, in the sense that i1 ...in = g [i1 , . . . , in ].
42 Tensor Calculus
Proof of Theorem 2.10. By virtue of the transformation properties of gij , recall Result 2.8 on page 37, one obtains
g ij = Aki A`j gk` ,
whence p
g = |det A| g .
By definition of the pseudotensor transformation law we have, using an observation on page 5,
def
i1 ...in = sgn (det A)Aji11 . . . Ajinn j1 ...jn = sgn (det A) Aji11 . . . Ajinn g [j1 , . . . , jn ]
p
= sgn (det A) det A g [i1 , . . . , in ] = |det A| g [i1 , . . . , in ] = g [i1 , . . . , in ] .
Terminology
The Levi-Civita tensor is referred to as a pseudotensor, because its holor (!) transforms according to the
pseudotensor transformation law of Result 2.10, page 41, not the absolute tensor transformation law of
Result 2.8, page 37. Notice the dependence on the orientation of the basis.
In the literature the Levi-Civita tensor is often identified with the relative tensor , recall page 40 for
terminology.
The following definition is based on an earlier observation, recall page 5.
Definition 2.26 The generalised Kronecker, or permutation symbol, is defined as
ji11 ji1k

... +1 if (i1 , . . . , ik ) even permutation of (j1 , . . . , jk ) ,
ji11 ...ik
= det ... .. = 1 if (i1 , . . . , ik ) odd permutation of (j1 , . . . , jk ) ,

...jk .
0 otherwise .

jik1 ... ik
jk
Observation
j1 ...jn i1 ...in = j1 ...jn i1 ...in = ji11 ...in

...jn .
i ...i
`1 ...`k j1 ...jnk `1 ...`k i1 ...ink = `1 ...`k j1 ...jnk `1 ...`k i1 ...ink = k!j11 ...jnk
nk
.
1 i1 ...in j1
For the matrix A of a mixed tensor A T11 (V ) we have det Aij = A . . . Ajinn .
n! j1 ...jn i1
2.8.7. Contractions
Ansatz
A linear space of mixed tensors, Tpq (V ).
2.9 The Hodge Star Operator 43
Definition 2.27 Let T T11 (V ). The trace, tr T R, of T is defined as follows:
tr T = T(ei , ei ) .
Remark
The tr -operator is applicable to any mixed tensor T Tpq (V ) provided p, q 1, viz. by arbitrarily fixing
p 1 covector and q 1 vector arguments.
Without frozen arguments one may interpret tr T as a mixed tensor tr T Tp1
q1 (V ).
The tr -operator lowers both covariant and contravariant ranks by one.
Caveat
In general, the notation tr T is ambiguous for T Tpq (V ), unless T is symmetric with respect to both
covector as well as vector arguments. (This is manifest if p = q = 1.)
One could decorate the tr -operator with disambiguating subscripts and superscripts so as to indicate the
covector/vector argument pair it applies to. This is hardly ever done in the literature. Instead, ambiguities
should be resolved from the context.
2.9. The Hodge Star Operator
Ansatz

The Levi-Civita tensor = ge1 . . . en = |i1 ...in | ei1 . . . ein n (V ).
V
V V
Definition 2.28 Let a1 , . . . , ak V . The Hodge star operator : k (V ) nk (V ) is defined as follows:

1 = for k = 0,
(]a1 . . . ]ak ) = ya1 y . . .yak for k = 1, . . . , n,
followed by linear extension.
Remark
V V
The Hodge star operator establishes an isomorphism between k (V ) and nk (V ), recall the dimensionality
argument on page 26:
V n n V
dim k (V ) = = = dim nk (V ) .
k nk
44 Tensor Calculus
Observation
i
The holor of the tensor (]a1 . . . ]ak ) for fixed ap = app eip , with p = 1, . . . , k, is obtained as follows:
ai11 . . . aikk ( (]ei1 . . . ]eik )) eik+1 , . . . , ein

( (]a1 . . . ]ak )) eik+1 , . . . , ein =
def
ai11 . . . aikk (yei1 y . . .yeik ) eik+1 , . . . , ein

=
= ai11 . . . aikk (ei1 , . . . , ein ) = i1 ...in ai11 . . . aikk .
i
By the same token, expanding also xq = xqq eiq for q = k + 1, . . . , n, we obtain
i
( (]a1 . . . ]ak )) (xk+1 , . . . , xn ) = i1 ...in ai11 . . . aikk xk+1
k+1
. . . xinn .
Result 2.11 Alternatively, we may rewrite Definition 2.28 as follows:

1 = 1 for k = 0,
a1 . . . ak = y[a y . . .y[ak for k = 1, . . . , n.
In this case we find, setting ap = apjp ejp for p = 1, . . . , k, and using ej = g ij ]ei ,
a1 . . . ak = a1j1 . . . akjk ej1 . . . ejk

eik+1 , . . . , ein eik+1 , . . . , ein
= g i1 j1 . . . g ik jk a1j1 . . . akjk ( (]ei1 . . . ]eik )) eik+1 , . . . , ein

def i1 j1
. . . g ik jk a1j1 . . . akjk (yei1 y . . .yeik ) eik+1 , . . . , ein

= g
= g i1 j1 . . . g ik jk a1j1 . . . akjk (ei1 , . . . , ein )
= i1 ...in g i1 j1 . . . g ik jk a1j1 . . . akjk .
Observation
As a rule of thumb, in order to compute the holor of the Hodge star of a general antisymmetric cotensor of
rank k, the holor of which has free
V indices i1 , . . . , ik , say, raiseVall indices and contract with the antisymmetric
i1 ...in -symbol. That is, if A k (V ), then the holor of A nk (V ) is given by
def 1
Aik+1 ...in = (A) eik+1 , . . . , ein = i1 ...in g i1 j1 . . . g ik jk Aj1 ...jk .

k!
In other words,
A = Aik+1 ...in eik+1 . . . ein = A|ik+1 ...in | eik+1 . . . ein .
Remark
Taking k = 0 in the above observation is consistent with 1 = .

Taking k = n shows that = 1.
3. Differential Geometry
3.1. Euclidean Space: Cartesian and Curvilinear Coordinates
In this chapter we consider tensor fields, i.e. tensors, in the widest sense as introduced in Chapter 2, attached to all
points of an open subset Rn and considered as smoothly varying functions of those points. The space Rn
represents n-dimensional Euclidean space, i.e. classical space endowed with a flat, homogeneous and isotropic
structure as we usually take for granted [8, 9, 10].
Terminology
Recall Definition 2.5, page 12. The terminology n-dimensional Euclidean vector space is synonymous to
n-dimensional (real, positive definite) inner product space.
Definition 3.1 An n-dimensional Euclidean space E is a metric space, i.e. an affine space equipped with a dis-
tance function d : E E R, furnished with a mapping + : E V E, in which V is an n-dimensional
Euclidean vector space, such that
p
for all x, y E there exists a unique v V such that y = x + v, and d(x, y) = (v|v);
for all x, y E and all v V d(x + v, y + v) = d(x, y);
for all x E and all u, v V (x + u) + v = x + (u + v).
Heuristics
Roughly speaking, a Euclidean space is a Euclidean vector space V that has forgotten its origin, or for which
any point may be taken as origin.
Observation
p
The distance function naturally arises from the inner product: d(x, y) = (y x|y x), in which y x denotes
the vector v V such that y = x + v.
Caveat
Both E and V are usually written as Rn . It should be clear from the context whether a Euclidean space or a
Euclidean vector space is meant.
A point in x E Rn can be represented by its Cartesian coordinates xi R relative to a (globally defined)

Cartesian coordinate system or standard basis {ei }, i = 1, . . . , n, in the usual way: x = xi ei . Here ei Rn is
the coordinate vector with an entry 1 in i-th position and with remaining n 1 entries equal to 0. It is sometimes
convenient to consider (curvilinear) coordinates on (an open subset of) Rn .
46 Differential Geometry
Definition 3.2 Let E Rn be an open subset. A system of n functions y : Rn : x 7 y(x),

is called a (curvilinear) coordinate system if it is one-to-one and differentiable, with non-degenerate Jacobian
determinant:
y i
det j 6= 0 .
x
Notation
By abuse of notation one writes y i = y i (xj ), where it is understood that the y i on the left hand side is the
i-th coordinate of a point y Rn , whereas the same symbol on the right hand side denotes a function of n
variables, viz. all xj , j = 1, . . . , n.
Likewise, the symbol y in y = y(x) is to be interpreted as a point in = y() Rn (left hand side),
respectively as an n-dimensional function of x Rn (right hand side).
Terminology
The function y : : x 7 y(x) is referred to as a (coordinate) chart of .

The inverse function x : : y 7 x(y) is referred to as a parametrization of .
One generically refers to such coordinate charts and parametrizations as coordinate system x and coor-
dinate system y, respectively.
Observation
By the inverse function theorem it follows that the function x : is differentiable, with
y i xk
= ji .
xk y j
Example
Let = R2 \{(x, 0) | x 0} and = R+ (0, 2). Adhering to conventional notation by setting (y 1 , y 2 ) =
(r, ) and (x1 , x2 ) = (x, y) , we may parametrize as follows,

x(r, ) = r cos
y(r, ) = r sin
The parameters are known as polar coordinates. The coordinate chart is obtained by inversion:
p

r(x, y) = x2 + y 2
arctan y/x (x > 0, y > 0)

arctan y/x + 2 (x > 0, y < 0)

(x, y) = arctan y/x + (x < 0)
/2 (x = 0, y > 0)

3/2 (x = 0, y < 0)

Caveat
Note that in the above example we have carefully avoided to include the nonnegative x-axis. (We could have
excluded any other half line originating at the origin.) In practice one admits the nonnegative x-axis, for which
one then sets (r, ) = (x, 0), at the price of a discontinuity in the function . By the same token the origin is often
admitted, with r = 0, and undefined. These extensions are relatively harmless violations of the requirements
of differentiability and injectivity in Definition 3.2, page 46, and rarely pose problems in practice.
3.2 Tangent and Cotangent Bundle 47
Notation
Euclidean n-space is a special instance of an n-dimensional manifold, to be defined later. In anticipation of future
generalization we will henceforth use the symbol M to indicate a general n-dimensional manifold whenever
appropriate, reserving the symbol E for Euclidean n-space.
(Until further notice, you may identify M with Euclidean space E.)
3.2. Tangent and Cotangent Bundle
Ansatz
An n-dimensional manifold M.
Definition 3.3 The tangent space at x M, TMx , is a copy of Rn endowed with a vector space structure and
attached to point x M.
Remark
The definition can be stated in intrinsic terms by defining TMx as the span of n tangent vectors of a family
of mutually transversal curves intersecting at x M. A special case is obtained by considering the n local
coordinate curves induced by the coordinate system at x M.
Terminology
In the latter case the basis is referred to as a coordinate basis or holonomic basis, in which case the i-th coordinate
basis vector ei is also often written as i , recall the observation on page 8.
Definition 3.4 The tangent bundle, TM = xM TMx , is the union of tangent spaces over all x M.
Observation
We may identify TM = M Rn , i.e. each element of the tangent bundle consists of a vector v Rn
together with a base point x M (where it is at).
In order to identify the base points explicitly, one often incorporates the projection map, : TM M :
(x, v) 7 x, into the definition of the tangent bundle.
Thus in particular (TMx ) = {(x, v) | x M fixed, v Rn arbitrary} = x and (TM) =

{(x, v) | (x, v) M Rn arbitrary} = M.
Notation
Recall Definition 3.3. The cotangent space at x M is denoted by T Mx .

Recall Definition 3.4. The cotangent bundle is written as T M = xM T Mx .
3.3. Exterior Derivative
Ansatz
The tangent bundle TM over an n-dimensional manifold M.
Definition 3.5 Let k = i1 ...ik dxi1 . . . dxik k (TM) be an antisymmetric covariant tensor field of rank
V
k, or k-form for brevity, with x M. The exterior derivative of is the (k + 1)-form given by
d k = di1 ...ik dxi1 . . . dxik

V
k+1 (TM) ,
def
with df = i f dxi for any sufficiently smooth scalar field f : M R.
Caveat
We have loosely identified M Rn via an implicit choice of coordinates. Strictly speaking this can be done for
sufficiently small neighbourhoods of any fiducial point x M and a corresponding open set of Rn .
Observation
One readily verifies the following properties:
d n = 0 for any n n (TM).
V
def
d2 k = dd k = 0 for any k and k = 0, . . . , n, in other words: d2 = 0.
V
k (TM)
One sometimes writes d instead of d.
Exterior derivatives are often used in combination with the Hodge star to extract derivatives from a k-form field
in some desired format. Note that d increases the rank of a k-form by 1, whereas converts a k-form into an
(nk)-form. The following example illustrates this up to first order derivatives.
Example
In the following examples, = 1 dx + 2 dy + 3 dz T M, with i C (M) and dim M = 3. For
simplicity the manifold is assumed to be Euclidean, and identified with R3 in Cartesian coordinates (in which
the inner product defining Gram matrix equals the identity matrix). Using 1 = dx dy dz, dx = dy dz,
dy = dx dz, dz = dx dy, dx dy = dz, dx dz = dy, dy dz = dx, dx dy dz = 1, we
obtain the following results:
= 3 dx dy 2 dx dz + 1 dy dz;
d = (x 2 y 1 ) dx dy + (x 3 z 1 ) dx dz + (y 3 z 2 ) dy dz;
d = (x 2 y 1 ) dz (x 3 z 1 ) dy + (y 3 z 2 ) dx;
d = (x 1 + y 2 + z 3 ) dx dy dz;
d = x 1 + y 2 + z 3 ;
et cetera.
Special cases arise if = df for some f C (M), a so-called exact 1-form.
3.4 Affine Connection 49
3.4. Affine Connection
Ansatz
Recall the observation on page 8 concerning the formal notation for vector decomposition relative to a coordinate
basis, v = v i i . Also recall from infinitesimal calculus that for a scalar function f C (M) we may define the
differential df = i f dxi T M. This suggests that we interpret a vector as a directional derivative operator, as
follows.
Definition 3.6 Let f C (M) be a scalar function, and v = v i i TM. Then

def def
vf = hdf , vi = v i i f .
So, when acting on a scalar field it is tacitly understood that we make the formal identication v = hd , vi.
Definition 3.7 An affine connection on a manifold M is a mapping : TM TM TM : (v, w) 7

v w, also referred to as the covariant derivative of w with respect to v, with the following properties. Let
v, v1 , v2 , w, w1 , w2 TM, f, f1 , f2 C (M), and , 1 , 2 R, then
1. f1 v1 +f2 v2 w = f1 v1 w + f2 v2 w for all f1 , f2 C (M),

2. v (1 w1 + 2 w2 ) = 1 v w1 + 2 v w2 , for all 1 , 2 R,
3. v (f w) = f v w + v f w for all f C (M). Here we have defined v f vf .
Thus the covariant derivative of a local frame vector (i.e. basis vector of the local tangent space) is a vector within
the same tangent space. Consequently it can be written as a linear combination of frame vectors.
Definition 3.8 The Christoffel symbols kij are defined by ej ei = kij ek .
Caveat
1. Conventions for the ordering of the lower indices of the Christoffel symbols differ among literature sources.
As a rule of thumb I put the differentiation index in second position.
2. The Christoffel symbols are not the components of a tensor, v.i.
To see how the Christoffel symbols transform, consider a vector and dual covector basis transformation:
ek = S`k e` resp. ej = Tjm em .
The matrices T and S are the mutually inverse Jacobian matrices:
xi xi
Tji = resp. Sji = .
xj xj
Set
k
ij = ek , ej ei

Substitute the transformations, apply first and third rule of Definition 3.7, ej = Tj` e` , respectively e` (Ti` ek ) =
` Tik ek + Ti` e` ek , use the definition of the Christoffel symbols, e` ek = m k` em , and finally the chain rule,
j = Tj` ` , to obtain the following result:
Result 3.1 The components of the Christoffel symbols in coordinate system x are given relative to those in coor-
dinate system x by
k
ij = S`k Tjm Tin `nm + j Ti` .

Thus the tensor transformation law, recall Result 2.8 on page 37, fails to hold due to the inhomogeneous term,
which arises after any non-affine coordinate transformation.
Remark
k
For any fixed point on the manifold you can solve the system of equations ij = 0 by slick choice of Jacobian
matrix, i.e. by transforming to a suitable local coordinate system. However, in general it is not possible to achieve
this globally, unless the manifold happens to be flat (zero Riemann curvature, v.i.).
Using the above definitions one can easily prove the following.
Result 3.2 Let v = v i ei , w = wi ei TM be two vector fields. Then

v w = v i Di wj ej .
Here we have defined the components of the covariant derivative Di wj i wj + jki wk .
Definition 3.9 See Definition 3.7. The affine connection can be extended to arbitrary tensor fields by generalizing
the product rule, viz. for any pair of tensor fields, T Tpq (TM) and S Trs (TM), say, we require
v (S T ) = v S T + S v T .
Observation
Recall the linear trace operator from Definition 2.27. For a covector field z T M and a vector field w TM
we have hz, wi = tr (z v). Observe that (v )hz, wi = v hz, wi = hv z, wi + hz, v wi, implying the
product rule Di (zj wj ) = Di zj wj + zj Di wj .
i ...i
Result 3.3 See Result 3.2. Let T = Tj11...jqp ei1 . . .eip ej1 . . .ejq and w = wi ei be a tensor, respectively
vector field on M, then
i ...i
v T = v i Di Tj11...jqp ei1 . . . eip ej1 . . . ejq .
Here we have defined the components of the covariant derivative
i ...i i ...i ki ...i i i ...i k i ...i i ...i
Di Tj11...jqp i Tj11...jqp + iki1 Tj1 ...j
2
q
p
+ . . . + kip Tj11...jqp1 kj1 i Tkj12 ...jpq . . . kjq i Tj11...jq1
p
k.
With this definition the covariant derivative operator Di satisfies the product rule for general holor products.
Terminology
With affine geometry one indicates the geometrical structure of a manifold endowed with an affine connec-
tion. Note that this does not require the existence of a metric. Without a Riemannian metric, M is referred
to as an affine space or affine manifold.
If a metric (induced by an inner product on each TMx ) does exist we are in the realm of Riemannian
geometry. Endowed with a Riemannian metric, M is called a Riemannian space or Riemannian manifold.
We refer to section 3.7 for further details.
3.5 Lie Derivative 51
Assumption
Recall Definition 2.8, page 13. It is assumed that, if TMx is an inner product space for every x M, local
bases are chosen in such a way that the coefficients of the Gram matrix, gij (x) = (ei |ej )x , vary smoothly
across the manifold: gij C (M). (This is guaranteed if the basis is holonomic.)
Similar assumptions will henceforth be implicit in the case of tensor fields in general.
Notation
The x-dependency of tensor fields is tacitly understood and suppressed in the notation.
3.5. Lie Derivative
Ansatz
Definition 3.10 The Lie derivative of w V with respect to v V is defined as
Lv w = [v, w] ,
in which the so-called Lie bracket is defined by the commutator
[v, w] f = v(wf ) w(vf ) = v i i wj wi i v j j f .

for any smooth function f .
Observation
Lv w is itself a vector, with components [v, w]i = v j j wi wj j v i .

No connection is involved, since only derivations of R-valued functions are considered.
Each term separately in the subtraction does not constitute a vector (it fails to satisfy the covariance re-
quirement), but the difference does.
The Lie-bracket is antisymmetric.
The Lie-bracket satisfies the Jacobi identity: [u, [v, w]] + [w, [u, v]] + [v, [w, u]] = 0.
3.6. Torsion
Ansatz

An affine connection.
Definition 3.11 Notation as before. The torsion tensor is given by
T(v, w) = v w w v [v, w] .
Remark
The torsion tensor thus reveals the difference between a commutator of ordinary derivatives, as in the Lie deriva-
tive, and of covariant derivatives induced by the affine connection.
Observation
Recall that v w = v i (i wj + wk jki )j , from which you derive the components of the torsion tensor:
j k i j
T(v, w) = Tki v w j with Tki = jik jki .
Observation
The torsion tensor is antisymmetric: T(v, w) = T(w, v).
3.7. Levi-Civita Connection
Ansatz

A Riemannian metric g T M T M.
An important result is that a Riemannian geometry induces a unique torsion-free connection.
Definition 3.12 Recall Definition 3.10, page 51 and Definition 3.11, page 52. A metric connection or Levi-Civita
connection on a Riemannian manifold (M, g) satisfies the following properties:
z (g(v, w)) = g(z v, w) + g(v, z w) for all v, w, z TM.

T(v, w) = 0 for all v, w TM.
Observation
The first requirement is tantamount to the product rule: z (v w) = z v w + v z w for all v, w, z TM.
Terminology
The product rule is variously phrased as covariant constancy of metric, preservation of metric, metric
compatibility, et cetera, and can be condensely written as z g = 0 for all z TM.
The second requirement is referred to as the requirement of zero torsion.
Theorem 3.1 Recall Definition 3.12. The Levi-Civita connection is uniquely given by the Christoffel symbols
1 k`
kij = g (i g`j + j gì ` gij ) .
2
3.8 Geodesics 53
Proof of Theorem 3.1. The proof is based on (i) the general properties of an affine connection, recall Definition 3.7
on page 49, and (ii) the defining properties of the Levi-Civita connection, Definition 3.12, page 52.
Here are the details. Show that relative to a basis the first condition of Definition 3.12 is equivalent to Dm gij = 0,
then cyclicly permute the three free indices; subtract the two resulting expressions from the given one. The result
is
m gij i gjm j gmi = gi` `jm `mj + g`j ìm `mi g`m ìj + `ji .

Subsequently, according to Definition 3.11 on page 52 and the subsequent observation on page 52, the second
condition of Definition 3.12 is equivalent to
ìj = `ji .
Apply this to the previous equality. Contraction with 12 g km on both sides, using the fact that g ik gkj = ji ,
finally yields the stated result.
Observation
A metric connection is symmetric:
kij = kji .
Recall that this is not necessarily the case for an affine connection in general.
3.8. Geodesics
Definition 3.13 The covariant differential Dv T11 (TM) of a vector field v = v i i TM is defined as
Dv = k vdxk .
Observation
If we define Dv = Dv j j , then Dv j = dv j + jki v k dxi = Di v j dxi , with Di v j = i v j + jki v k .
Remark
The definition can be extended to arbitrary tensor fields T Tpq (TM):
i ...i
DT = DTj11...jqp dxj1 . . . dxjq i1 . . . ip ,
i ...i i ...i
with DTj11...jqp = Di Tj11...jqp dxi , recall Result 3.3.
Heuristics
The conceptual advantage of a (covariant) differential over a (covariant) derivative is that the former is applicable
to vectors known only along a curve, whereas the latter requires us to specify a vector field on a full neighbour-
hood, as the following definition illustrates.
Definition 3.14 A geodesic is a curve with covariantly constant tangent, or a curve obtained by parallel
transport of its tangent vector at any fiducial point. In other words, if v(t) = xi (t)i for t I = (t0 , t1 ), then
Dv(t) = 0 for all t I.

Remark
It is tacitly understood that i TMx(t) indicates the coordinate basis vector at point x(t).
One often identifies v(x(t)) with v(t). It should be clear from the context which of these prototypes is
applicable.
Observation
Dv(t)
We may write Dv(t) = dt.
dt
In terms of components we have Dv k (t)/dt = 0, or xk + kij xi xj = 0.
Terminology
The latter second order ordinary differential equation is known as the geodesic equation.
Heuristics
A geodesic generalizes the concept of a straight line, and can in general be seen as the straightest line
between any two sufficiently close points on the geodesic.
This should not be confused with the shortest line, for this would require the additional notion of a
length or distance on the manifold (i.e. a Riemannian metric).
3.9. Curvature
Definition 3.15 For v, w TM the (antisymmetric) curvature operator, R(v, w) : TM TM : u 7 R(v, w)u, is
defined as
R(v, w) = [v , w ] [v,w] .
Observation
Alternatively, in order to obtain a scalar valued mapping, we would need a covector field bz T M besides the
three vector field arguments u, v, w TM involved in Definition 3.15. This naturally leads to the definition of a
fourth order mixed tensor field.
z T M, the Riemann curvature tensor is defined as

Definition 3.16 For u, v, w TM, b
z , R(v, w)ui .
z, u, v, w) = hb
R(b
3.10 Push-Forward and Pull-Back 55
Observation
z = z dx , u = u , v = v ,
In order to find the components of the Riemann curvature tensor, write b

z, u, v, w) = R z u v w , in which
w = w . Then, using previous result, you find R(b

R = hdx , R( , ) i = + .

Instead of R the holor is often written as R in order to stress that the first slot of the tensor is
intended for the covector argument.
Note that R( , ) = [ , ] [ , ] = [ , ], i.e. the curvature operator and, a fortiori, the
Riemann curvature tensor apparently capture the intrinsic non-commutativity of covariant derivatives.
3.10. Push-Forward and Pull-Back
Ansatz
A smooth mapping : M N : x 7 y = (x) between manifolds.

A smooth scalar field f : N R : y 7 z = f (y).
A smooth vector field v TM.
A smooth covector field T N.
Definition 3.17
The pull-back f C (M) of f C (N) under is defined such that f = f .

The push-forward v TN of v TM under is defined such that v(f ) = v( f ).
The pull-back T M of T N under is defined such that h , viM = h, viN .
Terminology
The terminology reflects the direction of the mappings involved between (tangent or cotangent bundles over)
the respective manifolds.
Remark
Note that the dimensions of the manifolds M and N need not be the same.
Observation
By decomposing v = v Ja ya T N it follows that the components of the push-forward are given by

y a
the Jacobian matrix of the mapping: Ja = x . (Note: = 1, . . . , m = dim M, a = 1, . . . , n = dim N.)
By the same token, decomposing = a Ja dx TM, it follows that the components of the pull-back
are given by the same Jacobian.
3.11. Examples
3.11.1. Polar Coordinates in the Euclidean Plane
Example
Starting out from a Cartesian coordinate basis at an arbitrary point of the Euclidean plane E (i.e. Euclidean
2-space),
1 0
ex = , ey = ,
0 1
we obtain the local polar coordinate basis (recall the example on page 46) by transformation, as follows:
xj xj
ei = i = j = ej .
xi xi
Here we identify x = (x, y), x = (r, ), with

x(r, ) = r cos
y(r, ) = r sin .
Recall that the Jacobian matrix and its inverse are given by
x` xk
Ti` = resp. S`k = ,
xi x`
or, in explicit matrix notation (upper/lower index = row/column index):
x
p y
cos r sin x + y2
2
Ti` = = ,

sin r cos y
p x
x2 + y 2
!
x y
cos sin p p
S`k = sin cos =
x + y2
2 x2 + y 2
.
y x
r r 2
x + y2 2
x +y 2
Consequently, writing r and for index values 1 and 2, respectively,

ex cos
er = cos sin = cos ex + sin ey = ,
ey sin

ex r sin
e = r sin r cos = r sin ex + r cos ey = .
ey r cos
Note that the polar basis depends on the base point of the tangent plane, whereas the Cartesian basis is identical
in form at all base points.
3.11 Examples 57
Example
Cartesian coordinates x = (x, y) in the Euclidean plane E induce a local basis for each TEx relative to which
all `nm vanish identically (`, m, n = 1, . . . , 2). In terms of polar coordinates, x = (r, ), we find, according to
Result 3.1 on page 50:
k
ij = S`k j Ti` .
From the previous example it follows that for any (row) index k = 1, 2 and (column) index i = 1, 2,
! !
k
cos sin

cos r sin
0 0
ir = sin cos = 1 ,
r sin r cos 0
r r r
r
! !
k
cos sin

cos r sin
0
i = sin cos = 1 .
sin r cos 0
r r r
In other words,
1 1 r k
r = , r = , = r , all other ij = 0.
r r
Consequently,
1 1
r e = e , er = e , e = rer , all other ej ei = 0.
r r
This can be immediately confirmed by inspection of the (partial derivatives of the) coordinates of the polar basis
vectors relative to the standard (Cartesian) basis, recall the previous example.
3.11.2. A Helicoidal Extension of the Euclidean Plane
Example
Consider two coordinatizations of 3-space, x = (x, y, ), and x = (, , ), related as follows1 :

x(, , ) = cos + sin (x, y, ) = x cos y sin
y(, , ) = sin + cos or (x, y, ) = x sin + y cos
(, , ) = , (x, y, ) = .

The Jacobian matrices are given by

` cos sin sin + cos
x
Ti` = i
= sin cos cos sin ,
x 0 0 1
respectively
k cos sin
x sin y cos
x
S`k = = sin x cos y sin .
cos
x`
0 0 1
k
Again, recalling Result 3.1 on page 50: ij = S`k Tjm Tin `nm + j Ti` . There are different ways to proceed,

depending on our assumptions about the `nm -symbols in (x, y, )-space. Here we pursue the simplest option,
ignoring the remark in footnote 1, and assume `nm = 0, i.e. (x, y, ) is identified with a Cartesian coordinate
triple in Euclidean 3-space. In this case we may evaluate the Christoffel symbols as in the previous example:

cos sin x sin y cos cos sin sin + cos
k
i = sin cos x cos y sin sin cos cos sin ,

0 0 1 0 0 1

k
i = sin cos x cos y sin sin cos cos sin ,

0 0 1 0 0 1

k
i = sin cos x cos y sin sin cos cos sin .

0 0 1 0 0 1
A tedious but straightforward computation then reveals that

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
k k k
i = 0 0 1 i = 0 0 0 i = 1 0 ,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
k k k
i.e. all ij = 0, except = 1 , = 1 , = 1 , = 1 , = , = . Note that ij ji = 0,
consistent with the fact that torsion vanishes identically by construction.
1 We interpret this space as an extension of Euclidean 2-space E by attaching to each point a copy of the periodic circle S = {
[0, 2) mod 2} as an independent dimension. The parametrization can then be seen as a shift-twist transformation, whereby the Cartesian
basisvectors ex and ey of the underlying Euclidean 2-space E (at any fiducial point) are rotated in accordance to the periodic translation in
e -direction (generating S).
3.11 Examples 59
Example
In the spirit of the previous example we consider a 3-space M, with coordinates (x, y, ). However, we now
introduce the following Riemannian metric g T M T M:
g(x, y, ) = dx dx + dy dy + (x2 + y 2 )d d .
Note that the metric is form invariant under the reparametrization of the previous example:
g(, , ) = d d + d d + ( 2 + 2 )d d .
The induced Levi-Civita connection in (x, y, )-coordinates (and therefore also in (, , )-coordinates) follows
from Theorem 3.1, page 52. In matrix notation we have for the metric and its dual, respectively,

1 0 0 1 0 0
G= 0 1 0 and G1 = 0 1 0 .
2 2 2 2
0 0 x +y 0 0 1/(x + y )
The fact that metric and its dual are diagonal greatly simplifies the computation, for we have that
1 kk
kij = g (i gkj + j gki k gij ) (no summation over k).
2
Moreover, by virtue of the fact that the coefficients gab are constants for a, b = 1, 2, the above matrix (with row
index i and column index j, and k fixed) will have a null 2 2 block in the upper left part:

0 0
kij = 0 0 (row index i, column index j, k fixed.)

Finally, the (dual) metric coefficients do not depend on . By direct computation, taking these simplifying
remarks into account, we obtain

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 x
1
xij = 0 0 0 yij = 0 0 0 ij = 2 0 0 y .
x + y2
0 0 x 0 0 y x y 0
Note that kij kji = 0, consistent with the fact that torsion always vanishes in the case of the Levi-Civita
connection.
Example
Rotational invariance in the xy plane of the previous example suggests the use of cylinder coordinates x =
(r, , ) instead of x = (x, y, ):
x(r, , ) = r cos
y(r, , ) = r sin
(r, , ) = .

To this end we once again invoke Result 3.1, page 50:

k
ij = S`k Tjm Tin `nm + j Ti` .

The Jacobian matrices are given by

` cos r sin 0
x
Ti` = = sin r cos 0 ,
xi 0 0 1
respectively
x/(x2 + y 2 ) y/(x2 + y 2 )

k 0
k x
S` = = y/(x2 + y 2 ) x/(x2 + y 2 ) 0 .
x`
0 0 1
Bibliography
[1] R. Abraham, J. E. Marsden, and T. Ratiu. Manifolds, Tensor Analysis, and Applications, volume 75 of
Applied Mathematical Sciences. Springer-Verlag, New York, second edition, 1988.
[2] D. Bao, S.-S. Chern, and Z. Shen. An Introduction to Riemann-Finsler Geometry, volume 2000 of Graduate
Texts in Mathematics. Springer-Verlag, New York, 2000.
[3] M. Berger. A Panoramic View of Riemannian Geometry. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003.
[4] R. L. Bishop and S. I. Goldberg. Tensor Analysis on Manifolds. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1980.
Originally published by The Macmillan Company in 1968.
[5] M. P. do Carmo. Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces. Mathematics: Theory & Applications.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1976.
[6] M. P. do Carmo. Riemannian Geometry. Mathematics: Theory & Applications. Birkhauser, Boston, second
edition, 1993.
[7] E. Cartan. Lecons sur la Geometrie des Espaces de Riemann. Gauthiers-Villars, Paris, second edition, 1963.
[8] Sir Thomas L. Heath. The Thirteen Books of Euclids Elements, volume 1 (Books I and II). Dover Publica-
tions, Inc., New York, second edition, 1956.
[9] Sir Thomas L. Heath. The Thirteen Books of Euclids Elements, volume 2 (Books IIIIX). Dover Publica-
[10] Sir Thomas L. Heath. The Thirteen Books of Euclids Elements, volume 3 (Books XXIII). Dover Publica-
[11] J. Jost. Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, fourth edition, 2005.
[12] J. J. Koenderink. Solid Shape. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1990.
[13] A. P. Lightman, W. H. Press, R. H. Price, and S. A. Teukolsky. Problem Book in Relativity and Gravitation.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1975.
[14] D. Lovelock and H. Rund, editors. Tensors, Differential Forms, and Variational Principles. Dover Publica-
tions, Inc., Mineola, N.Y., 1988.
[15] C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne, and J. A. Wheeler. Gravitation. Freeman, San Francisco, 1973.
[16] H. Rund. The Hamilton-Jacobi Theory in the Calculus of Variations. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Com-
pany, Huntington, N.Y., 1973.
[17] M. Spivak. Calculus on Manifolds. W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1965.
[18] M. Spivak. Differential Geometry, volume 15. Publish or Perish, Berkeley, 1975.

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Course Notes

March 21, 2017

1 Prerequisites from Linear Algebra 3

2.1 Vector Spaces and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Dual Vector Spaces and Dual Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.3 The Kronecker Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4 Inner Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.5 Reciprocal Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Bases, Dual Bases, Reciprocal Bases: Mutual Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.7 Examples of Vectors and Covectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.8.1 Tensors in all Generality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.8.2 Tensors Subject to Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.8.3 Symmetry and Antisymmetry Preserving Product Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.8.4 Vector Spaces with an Oriented Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.8.5 Tensors on an Inner Product Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.8.6 Tensor Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.8.6.1 Absolute Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.8.6.2 Relative Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.8.6.3 Pseudo Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.9 The Hodge Star Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.1 Euclidean Space: Cartesian and Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.2 Tangent and Cotangent Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.3 Exterior Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.4 Affine Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.5 Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.7 Levi-Civita Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.10 Push-Forward and Pull-Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.11.1 Polar Coordinates in the Euclidean Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.11.2 A Helicoidal Extension of the Euclidean Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Eindhoven, March 21, 2017.

Linear mappings: A , B, etc.

Basis vectors: ei , fi , etc. (for holonomic basis also /xi , /y i , etc.)

Basis covectors: ei , f i , etc. (for holonomic basis also dxi , dy i , etc.)

Covector components: ai , bi , etc.

The completely antisymmetric symbol in n dimensions is defined as follows:

Exactly n! of the nn index realizations in [i1 , . . . , in ] yield nontrivial results.

product with row labels ordered sign of column label permutation

Products of completely antisymmetric symbols can be expressed in terms of determinants:

and, more generally,

The adjugate matrix of A Mn is a synonymous term for AT Mn .

d det A det A dAij dAij

If A is invertible, then AT = adjA = det A A1 .

Unlike A1 , A = cofA and AT = adjA are always well-defined, even if A is singular.

2.1. Vector Spaces and Bases

Definition 2.1 The Kronecker symbol, or Kronecker-, is defined as

Theorem 2.1 Let x = xi ei V and fj = Aij ei define a change of basis. If xi ei = y i fi , then

xi = Aij y j or, equivalently, y i = Bji xj ,

in which, by definition, Aik Bjk = ji .

in which fj j /xj , and

Basis vectors are labeled with lower indices.

Contravariant vector components are labeled with upper indices.

2.2. Dual Vector Spaces and Dual Bases

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

for all x V , recall chapter 1.

Proof of Result 2.1. Let f V .

Suppose i ei = 0 V , then i = j ij = j ej (ei ) = (j ej )(ei ) = 0 R for all i = 1, . . . , n. This

vector space V (with basis {ei }) implies

in which Akj Bki = ji . Consequently, if x = xi ei = yi f i V , then

xi = Bij yj or, equivalently, yi = Aji xj .

Proof of Theorem 2.2.

Thus if we define xi ei = yi f i , then yj f j = yj Bij ei , whence xi = Bij yj .

Inversion yields the last identity.