Chapter 1

Energy Storage Elements

Ha Hoang Kha, Ph.D
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: hhkha@hcmut.edu.vn
 Content

1) Capacitor
- Ideal and practical model
- Current, voltage, power and energy formulas
- Continuity of capacitor voltage

2) Inductor
- Ideal and practical model
- Current, voltage, power and energy formulas
- Continuity of current voltage

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 2 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Capacitors and Inductors

Two new passive components are introduced. They are both

considered to be energy-storage devices:
Capacitor (F: Farad) stores energy in an electric field
Inductor (H: Henry) stores energy in a magnetic field

+ v(t) _ _
+ v(t)

i(t) C i(t) L

Capacitor symbol Inductor symbol

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 3 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 1. Capacitor
The simplest type of capacitor is a parallel plate capacitor. Consider
the result of placing a voltage across two parallel plates as shown
below. Electrons are attracted to the
- - - positive terminal of the
source leaving a depletion of
electrons and a positively
++ ++++
charged plate.
++++++++
Charge = +Q
++++++++
+
_ Total Charge = (+Q) + (-Q) = 0
_ _ _ _ _ _
_
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ Electrons are repelled by the
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ negative terminal of the source
leaving an abundance of
- - - electrons and a negatively
charged plate.
Charge = -Q

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 4 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Capacitor current
Capacitor current is found as follows:

dq d dv
i = Cv C
dt dt dt
dv Key relationship: This is sort
i C of like Ohms Law for a
dt
capacitor.
Capacitance symbol
The capacitor is a passive device so the relationship above depends on
the use of passive sign convention. The general symbol for a
capacitor is shown below. Note that the symbol looks like two parallel
plates. + v(t) _

i(t) C
Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 5 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
 Various types of capacitors

Mylar Capacitor (0.22F, 100V)

Axial Electrolytic Capacitor (47F,

Metalized Polyester
25V)
Ceramic Disc Capacitor
Capacitor
Monolithic (2F, 200V)
Ceramic Capacitor
(0.22F,
(22nF)
1000V) Radial Electrolytic Capacitor (47F,
25V)

DIP Capacitor Snap In Capacitor Super Capacitor Photo Flash Capacitor

(2.2nF, 50V) (330F, 400V) (1F, 2.5V) (150F, 300V)
Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 6 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
 Key capacitor relationships

t
dv 1
i C
dt
v(t)
C0 i(t)dt v(0)

1
p(t) v(t) i(t) W CV 2
2
Series Capacitance Use KVL to show that
1
Ceq (for series capacitors)
1 1 1

C1 C2 CN
(Series capacitors combine like parallel resistors)
Parallel Capacitance Use KCL to show that

Ceq C1 C2 CN (for parallel capacitors)

(Parallel capacitors combine like series resistors)
Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 7 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
 Example

Example: Find i(t) through the capacitor shown if v(t) = 6e-2t V.

_ +
v(t)

i(t)
2mF

Example: Find v(t) across the capacitor shown if i(t) = 10cos(400t) A.

+ v(t) _

i(t) 22 F

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 8 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Leakage Resistance

If an ideal capacitor is charged to a certain voltage and is then open-

circuited, it should maintain its voltage (and stored energy) forever.
Actual capacitors will lose their voltage over time (some in a few
seconds and others may take several hours). This is due to a very
small leakage current which flows through the dielectric. This effect is
modeled by adding a leakage resistance in parallel with the capacitor
as shown below.
C
Typical Values of Leakage
Resistance
Rleakage Ceramic capacitor - 1000 M
Mica capacitor - 1000 M
Capacitor Model Polyester-film capacitor - 100 M
Electrolytic capacitor - 1 M

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 9 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Continuity of capacitor voltage

Continuity of capacitor voltage: The energy stored in

a capacitor is continuous since the voltage in a
capacitor is continuous.

Ideal switch open at t = 0

t = 0 : the time just before the switching action
t = 0+ : the time just after the switching action

Continuity of capacitor voltage: is expressed as

VC(0+) = VC(0-)

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 10 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Example

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 11 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Example

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 12 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Example

The switch had been closed for a long time before it was opened
at t = 0.
dVC (0 ),
Determine VC (0 ), IC (0 ), VC (0 ), IC (0 ), and for the circuit shown below.
dt

t=0

4 IC(t)
+
6V _+
2F VC(t) 2
_

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 13 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 2. Inductor
An inductor is a passive device created by wrapping wire around a core. When
time-varying current passes through the coil a magnetic field is created and a
voltage is induced across the coil. Inductors are also called chokes or
coils. windings (N = 5.5 turns in this
magnetic magnetic flux, f
field lines diagram)
core

+ v(t) -
i(t)
A current, i(t) is passed A voltage, v(t) is induced
through the windings across the windings

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 14 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Example of Real Inductors

Variable choke
3.5mH bobbin choke
with adjustable
ferrite
220uH drum choke

346uH inductor (toroid)

390uH choke coil

4mH high-current choke

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 15 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
 Key inductor relationships

t
di 1
+ v(t) _ v L i(t) v(t)dt i(0)
dt L0
i(t) L 1 2
p(t) v(t) i(t) W Li
Inductor symbol 2
Series Inductance KVL can be used to show that:
Leq L1 L2 LN (for series inductors)

(Series inductors combine like series resistors)

Parallel Inductance KCL can be used to show that:

1
Leq (for parallel inductors)
1 1 1

L1 L2 LN
(Parallel inductors combine like parallel resistors)
Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 16 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.
 Example
Example: Find i(t) through the inductor shown if v(t) = 2e-40t V. Assume that
there is no initial energy stored in the inductor.
+ v(t) _

i(t)
200mH
Example: Find v(t) across the inductor if i(t) = 10cos(400t) mA.
_ v(t) +
i(t)
40mH
Example: The toroidal inductor shown has L = 46 H and is rated for a
maximum current of 2A. What is the maximum energy that could be stored in
the inductor?

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 17 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Non-ideal effects in inductors
Resistors and capacitors typically act quite closely to their ideal models.
Inductors, however, often do not. There are numerous non-ideal effects in
inductors, including: coil resistance, eddy currents, hysteresis, L varies
somewhat with current (it should be a constant), L varies somewhat with
frequency (it should be constant).

Additionally, inductors are often bulky compared to capacitors. In some

cases, circuits with capacitors or inductors can be used to perform the same
function. In these cases, capacitor circuits are preferred due to the
problems with inductors listed above.

Inductor models often include a series coil resistance, as shown below.

+ v(t) _ Typical values of Rcoil:
i(t) L
From a few ohms (small inductors)
Rcoil to hundreds of ohms (large iron-
Common inductor model core inductors).

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 18 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Continuity of Inductor Current

An inductors current cannot change instantaneously.

This is sometimes expressed as IL(0+) = IL(0-)

Example: The circuit below was in steady state before the switch
opened at t = 0. Find i(0-), i(0+), v(0-), v(0+), and di(0+)/dt.
t=0
3 i(t)
+
v(t) 2H
18 V +
_ _ 6

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 19 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Sketch v(t), p(t), and w(t) if the graph of i(t) shown below represents
the current through a 2H inductor.

i(t)
8mA

t[ms]
2 4

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 20 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Inductor: (Nilsson, p. 218)

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 21 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Inductor: (Nilsson, p. 218)

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 22 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Sketch i(t), p(t), and w(t) if the graph of v(t) shown below
represents the voltage across a 100 F capacitor.

v(t)
10 V

6 8
t[s]
2 4

-10 V

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 23 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Capacitor: (Nilsson, p. 221)

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 24 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.

 Homework

Capacitor and Inductor: (Nilsson, p. 223)

Fundamentals of Circuit Analysis 25 H. H. Kha, Ph.D.