Raffles

Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
Theme 3.2: Sustainable Urban Development

1 (a) Explain why urban traffic congestion occurs in countries with lower levels of
development. [12]

3 main causes:
Excess traffic:
o *Too many people due to high natural increase and rapid rural to urban migration,
placing a large strain on transportation (important factor).
o Too many cars, lack of control of road use (road pricing), lack of control of car
ownership. E.g. Beijings lottery system limits car growth but indirectly results in
pent-up demand. Out of province vehicles also frequently travel into the city, with
little control.
o Informal transport, travelling at varying speeds, slowing down overall speed,
leading to congestion. E.g. Bangkoks Tuk Tuks weave in and out of traffic
recklessly, causing cars to slow down or brake suddenly.
Poor rules and regulations:
o Lack of adherence to the rules. May be due to a lack of effective enforcement.
o Corruption and bribery allows road users to ignore the rules and pay a bribe when
caught flouting traffic rules. E.g. Bribes are often given to traffic police in Malaysia.
o Cultural importance of certain VVIP vehicles in India frequently causes congestion.
E.g. In May 2017, India banned red beacon lights on top of VIP cars to ease misuse
of the siren.
Insufficient capacity:
o Lack of funding for expansion of current infrastructure. Limited roadway
expansion, even when expanded, toll charges dissuade road users.
o Lack of public transport, mass transit has a higher capacity, which can help to ease
congestion. Subway systems are very costly. E.g. The Government of Vietnam
spent US$133.86 million on Line 2A of the Hanoi Metro project, with Chinese
Official Development Assistance (ODA) at US$419 million. According to the
Minister of Transport, Vietnam had to buy 13 Chinese trains, and the Chinese
contractors in this project were poorly competent but could not be replaced due
to the ODA agreement.
o Lack of proper planning, e.g. Bangkoks lassiez faire attitude towards urban
planning, lacking a coherent plan, piecemeal strategies.

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
(b) Assess the challenges of measuring sustainable urban development. [20]
Introduction:
Sustainable urban development is development that improves the quality of life in a city
that includes economic, social and environmental/ecological components without leaving
a burden on the future generations (adapted from URBAN21 Conference, Berlin, July
2000).
Measuring sustainable urban development involves the use of indicators like the
Ecological Footprint Index; Global City Indicators; Happy Planet Index (HPI); Siemens
Green City Index; Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Indicators; Global Reporting
Initiative (GRI); Bellagio STAMP (Sustainability Assessment and Measurement Principles).

Idea 1: Subjectivity of certain indicators.
Need for sustainable urban development to capture tangible and intangible aspects.
Happy Planet Index (HPI). Looks at a few components such as well-being, life expectancy,
inequality and ecological footprint.

Evaluation: One main criticism of this index is that well-being is very subjective and highly
personal. There may be also some cultural biasedness in understanding well-being.
Interestingly, in the 2012 ranking, 9 out of the top 10 countries were from the Caribbean
region.

Idea 2: Challenge of measuring and keeping track.
Global City Indicators by the World Bank and the University of Toronto, measures 3 main
areas: City services; Quality of Life; Sustainability and resilience.
Decentralised i.e. cities themselves fill in the gap. Through the collection and analysis of
city data in a comparative format, elected officials and the public will be able to monitor
the performance of their cities over time based on a core set of indicators.
Evaluation: decentralisation allows cities to monitor and track their own performance,
rather than relying on external organisations to formulate a measurement every year.

Idea 3: Need for neutrality of sustainable urban development indicators.
Due to the different stakeholders and interest groups in the framework of sustainable
urban development, the neutrality of these indicators needs to be questioned.

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
The Siemens Green City Index is a report published by the Economist Intelligence Unit and
sponsored by Siemens. The report began in 2009 and covers more than 120 cities in
Europe, Latin America, Asia, North America and Africa.
Evaluation: TNCs may have their own agendas when constructing sustainable urban
development indicators. As such, these indicators cannot be solely taken at face value.
One way is to adopt the use of multiple indicators when measuring sustainable urban
development.
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is another example which can be used.

Idea 4: Need for a broad-based indicator to encompass all 3 aspects of sustainable urban
development.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were the eight international development
goals that had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations
in 2000. The UN publishes data for all countries in each of the 8 goals.
Evaluation: The MDG is a broad-based indicator, further broken down into 21 targets and
60 indicators, allowing for sustainable urban development to be fully captured.

Idea 5: Need for flexibility when measuring sustainable urban development.
The flexibility of the indicator may be important at times, due to the lack of available data.
The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) supports the development of consistent and quality
systems for sustainability reporting globally. The GRI produce guidelines on the contents,
quality and scope for sustainability reporting for organisations working across various
sectors.
Rather than a one-sized fit all indicator, the GRI is flexible because it allows on the firms
or cities to report on aspects which concerns them.
Evaluation: Though seemingly ideal, the GRI may at times result in a biased indicator of
sustainable urban development, allowing its users to mask certain less sustainable
practices, while over-emphasising other insignificant aspects.

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
*Writing a Good Conclusion:
Summarise what you have discussed by highlighting your topic sentences from all your
different paragraphs, excluding the introduction.
Perhaps determine which idea/factor/cause/impact, etc. is the most crucial and explain
why.
Provide a deeper insight/alternative perspective, etc. not considered in your essay.
o E.g. The need for the use of multiple sustainable urban development indicators to
ensure objectivity.
o OR, Whilst indicators could lead to greater transparency and accountability, they
could also result in more conflicts when the development process is skewed
towards the interests of the powerful few, or those who are more politically
organised. Emphasis needs to be placed on enhancing participatory methods for
monitoring and evaluating all kinds of policy and projects, that is, assessing change
through processes that include people being affected by impacts or affecting those
outcomes.
o OR, sustainable urban development indicators will become more important
overtime as the worlds population becomes increasingly urbanised. In order to
achieve meaningful sustainable development, sustainable urban development will
be a more effective tool of measurement.

Markers comments:
Students often have poor content knowledge of sustainable urban development
indicators, often confusing them with urban liveability indicators, resulting in generic
answers with either inaccurate or lack of examples.
Ideas discussed be relevant to sustainable urban development and not general challenges
of measuring any form of development or data collection/doing research.
Avoid asking rhetoric questions in your essay. Address the question directly instead of
asking the marker meaningless rhetorical questions.
There is a need for an introduction, and more importantly conclusion for any 20 mark essay
question.
Time-management is still a challenge for some students, who have clearly spent too much
time for the 12 mark essay and insufficient time for the 20 mark essay.

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
Theme 1: Tropical Environments

Water Balance in the USA
2 The drainage basin water balance is of growing importance for many countries. The
USA is facing a serious water shortage, especially in its major cities. Resource 1 shows
average annual precipitation levels in the USA, 2000 to 2010. Resource 2 shows water
withdrawals per day in the USA in 2010. Resource 3 shows the trends in population and
freshwater withdrawals from drainage basins in the USA, 1950 to 2005 and Resource 4
shows average flow of the Colorado River, USA at its mouth, 1905 to 2005.

(a) With reference to Resource 1, describe the pattern of average annual
precipitation. [4]
Varied across the country (giving an average is not helpful in this
case)
The eastern part of the US receives higher average annual
precipitation (500 2000) than the western part (0 499)
Maximum precipitation in the south east from Louisiana to Florida
(1000 2000)
Decreases towards the west to a minimum (0 249)
Anomaly on the north western coast (1000 2000)
(b) Using Resources 1 and 2, identify two states in USA most likely to suffer from
water shortages. Support your answer with data from the two resources.
[4]
California: receives an average of 250mm, one of the lowest in the
country, but withdrawal is one of the highest in the country 20 000
to 45 000 million gallons/day
Colorado: receives around 500 999mm of ppt but withdrawal is one
of the second highest 10 000 million gallons/day
(c) With reference to Resource 3, compare the trends in groundwater and
surface water withdrawals. [5]
There must be at least one contrasting trend
Similarities:
Both increased from 1950 2005 (be more specific!)
Groundwater doubled from 40 billion gallons/day to 80 billion
gallons/day
Freshwater increased less than double from 140 billion gallons/day
to 250 billion gallons/day

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
Both experienced a reversal in trend from 1980 1985 when
withdrawals declined
Difference:
Groundwater is always less than surface water (approximately 3
times less)
From 1985 1990, there was an increase in groundwater while
surface water withdrawals declined
Surface water withdrawal increased slightly from 1990 2005 but not
for groundwater which fluctuated
(d) With reference to Resource 3, describe the relationship between population
growth and freshwater withdrawals. [5]
There is a positive relationship between population growth and freshwater
withdrawals
As population increases, the amount of freshwater withdrawn also increases
The trend is stronger between 1950 1980 than 1980 - 2005
Population increases in a linear fashion to a peak of 300 million in 2005 but
withdrawals increased to a peak of 360 billion gallons/day in 1985 before
fluctuating around 340 billion gallons/day from 1990 - 2005

(e) Account for the changes in the flow of the Colorado River shown in Resource
7. [7]
Describe changes briefly:
Long term decline from a maximum flow of 33 000 cubic metres in
1906 to zero over a period of years in the later half of the 20th
century. Baseflow was absent from 1955 onwards
Natural factors:
o Climate change. Changes in climate increased aridity,
reducing precipitation. Reduction in vegetation cover as a
result of drought will increase overland flow into river
channel. Reduced infiltration and baseflow due to rainsplash
effect. More precipitation will reach the channel during
storms but channel will be dry soon after
o El Nino is acceptable
Human factors:
o Increased population growth leading to withdrawal for
agriculture (irrigation), industry and residential use. Growth
of cities Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, Phoenix, Tucson, San
Diego, and Los Angeles

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
o Building of the Hoover Dam in 1936 caused the sharp drop in
discharge but there are 15 dams along the main river and
hundreds more along its tributaries
o Intermittent discharge from 1975 onwards due to recognition
of the negative impacts of zero flow

Theme 3.2: Sustainable Urban Development

Slums in India

3 Resource 6 shows an urban slum along a railway track in India. Resource 7 shows a
model of a self-help housing scheme in India. Resource 8 shows victims of crime in
urban slums across India. Resource 9 shows traffic congestion in Mumbai, India.

(a) Describe the hazards of living in an urban slum shown in Resource 6. [4]
Must be observable
Overcrowded, houses are packed side by side; increased spread of
diseases due to close spatial proximity.
Built using make-shift materials, corrugated iron sheets, wooden
planks, some use brick; increased risk of collapse due to poor building
standards.
Dangerous due to proximity to railway tracks; increased risk of injury
and death by moving trains.
Illegally tapped electricity; increased fire hazard due to poor wiring.
*Lies on a marginal land, zone of disamenity; lack of any government
investment (under-bounding).

Not valid:
Lack of sanitation
Crime
Risk of eviction must be linked to lack of infrastructure seen from
illegal tapping of electricity

(b) With reference to Resource 6, explain why the poor choose to move to
urban slums. [4]
Better infrastructure available in urban slums as compared to rural
areas

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
Push factors from rural areas no electricity, sanitation, education,
healthcare
Lack of jobs or subsistence farming in rural areas
Jobs in the informal economy in urban areas not regulated by the
state
Chain migration in order to join their families
As a result of natural disasters

Not valid
Cheap housing, must be explained together with push factors
Access to transport, must be explained together with job opportunities

(c) With reference to Resource 7, explain the challenges of implementing the
self-help housing scheme in India. [4]
Distinguish between
implementation and maintenance (upkeep)
provision of funds vs. labour
Cost challenges:
Materials may be basic but large numbers of poor make it a
costly project.
Lack of broader infrastructure, linked to cost:
Lack of main sewage lines to connect the toilet to. They may still
rely on pit-latrines.
Lack of piped potable water and electricity. Residents may still
have to depend on rainwater collection or dig wells. Electricity
generators may also not be affordable to the poor.
Labour challenges:
Residents may not be skilled enough to build a high-quality
housing. Need to be trained before proceeding with self-help
housing scheme.
Social challenges:
If resettlement is needed, people may be reluctant to move
away from proximity to CBD and jobs
Residents may be working multiple jobs and unable to afford
time to build the houses

(d) With reference to Resource 8, suggest two reasons why certain groups may
be more vulnerable to crime than others. [4]

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Raffles Institution
YR 6 2017 H2 Geography
Term 2 CT Answers
Women and children are the most vulnerable to all 3 categories of
crime than men.
Children are more vulnerable than women to kidnappings and
abductions: 100 vs. 80 cases per day.
Women more vulnerable to sex related (70 vs 30)
Both are vulnerable to domestic violence (70 vs 65)
Reasons:
Physically weaker. Women and children may not be as strong as men to
resist violence or defend themselves.
Ineffective and corrupted law enforcement. Slum dwellers cannot
afford bribes when demanded.
Caste system and poverty. Law enforcers may not be bothered to
pursue culprits or investigate the offences even when reported, or
when culprit comes from a higher caste.
Patriarchal society where men are considered to be of a higher standing
within the family and in wider society.
Economic dependence of women on men as sole breadwinners. May
end up more subservient to the men.
Parents work long hours, little supervision for children who may be
unaware of danger
Cannot accept lack of education unless answer specifies it is public
awareness campaigns

(e) Using Resource 9 and your own knowledge, assess the strategies to ease
traffic congestion in countries with lower levels of development. [9]
Strategies must be categorized (at least 3):
o Reducing demand (quota for cars)
o Increasing capacity (building more roads)
o Policy approach (banning animals, enforcement)
o Traffic management (real-time traffic data, bus lanes)
o Urban planning (building light rail, mixed use development)
Link to reducing congestion must be clear
Need for real-life examples to evaluate strengths and weaknesses
Must highlight challenges specific to LDCs:
o Lack of funding
o Lack of enforcement
o Growing urban population

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