Biomechanics of the
Tennis Serve: Implications
for Strength Training
E. Paul Roetert, PhD,1 Todd S. Ellenbecker, DPT, MS, CSCS,2 and Machar Reid, PhD3
1
United States Tennis Association, Boca Raton, Florida; 2Physiotherapy Associates Scottsdale Sports Clinic,
Scottsdale, Arizona; and 3Tennis Australia, Melbourne, Australia
SUMMARY
THE DESIGN OF STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING PROGRAMS
SPECIFIC TO TENNIS HAS RE-
CEIVED SIGNIFICANT ATTENTION,
PARTICULARLY OVER THE PAST
25 YEARS. MUCH OF THE AVAIL-
ABLE RESEARCH IS BASED ON
OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE PHYS-
IOLOGICAL DEMANDS OF TENNIS.
LESS IS KNOWN ABOUT THE LINK
BETWEEN THE ACTUAL STROKES
(SERVES, FOREHANDS, AND
BACKHANDS) AND THE SPECIFIC
TRAINING METHODS NEEDED FOR
OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE OF
THESE STROKES. IN FACT, MOST
OF THE BIOMECHANICS LITERA-
TURE SPECIFIC TO TENNIS HAS
FOCUSED ON THE AREAS OF
PERFORMANCE, PHYSICAL
STRESS, AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN.
THIS REVIEW WILL FOCUS ON THE
GAMES MOST IMPORTANT
STROKE, THE SERVE, AND
RECOMMEND SPECIFIC
STRENGTH TRAINING EXERCISES
TO HELP OPTIMIZE PERFOR-
MANCE OF THIS STROKE.
INTRODUCTION
lthough tennis-specific lit-
A erature is available related to
biomechanics and tennis per-
formance (13,15,16,26,30) as well as
the sports physiological demands
(3,17,19,27) and strength and
conditioning program design
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association
(4,5,20,21,29,31,32), articles blending
these areas are not as readily available.
This article focuses on the design of
tennis-specific exercises based on the
physical demands of the tennis serve.
SERVICE
The technique of the tennis serve has
received more attention in the litera-
ture than the other strokes, probably
because it is the easiest stroke to study,
as it is initiated from a stationary
position, and the only stroke over
which the player has total control. As
can be seen in Figure 1, the serve
involves a summation of forces se-
quenced in a largely proximal to distal
(legs, trunk, and arm/racquet) fashion.
This requires a coordinated sequence
of movements with proper timing of
each segment (11).
KNEE FLEXION/EXTENSION
Figures 1bc feature the knee flexion
required to initiate the ground reaction
forces, representing the first stage of
the strokes kinetic link. A growing
body of research is available on the
ground reaction forces produced by
tennis players (2,13,37). For example,
Girard et al. (15) recently measured the
lower limb electromyogram and
ground reaction force profiles charac-
terizing the tennis serve and found that
more refined neuromuscular coordina-
tion patterns distinguished the serves
of elite players from those of their
lower level counterparts. Indeed, the
importance of knee flexion to the serve
has been consistently advocated by
researchers and coaches such that 110
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
to 120 of flexion has become a com-
monly referenced norm. Contempo-
rary work has also underlined the
importance of knee extension for the
development of high serving velocities
(25). In fact, Elliott (10) found that
power serves require the segments of
the kinetic chain to move in a co-
ordinated fashion starting with ground
reaction forces and leg drive, leading
to an upper arm external rotation
of approximately 170. It may seem
obvious and intuitive (i.e., players who
flex their knees must extend), but
coaches and physical conditioning
specialists will often observe otherwise.
Significantly, with Federerone of the
worlds premier serverswe see aggres-
sive knee flexion and extension of both
legs (Figure 1d). This supports the
value of closed chain exercise pre-
scription that promotes powerful
kneebut more so sequential triple
lower limb (ankle, knee, and hip)joint
extension as part of advanced strength
and conditioning programming. In
these exercises, as with the serve, the
sequential recruitment of the gastroc-
nemius, soleus, quadriceps, and gluteals
initially acts eccentrically (preparation
phase), then concentrically (accelera-
tion phase), and finally eccentrically
again (follow-through/landing phase).
Ground reaction forces transferred up
through the kinetic chain have been
shown to contribute between 50 and
KEY WORDS:
biomechanics; tennis; serve
35
Biomechanics of the Tennis Serve: Implications for Strength Training

Figure 1. Sequential motion of the tennis serve.

60% of the total force from the
proximal segments of the chain (19).
Kibler determined that during the
tennis serve approximately 51% of
kinetic energy was produced in the
trunk/legs with the shoulder contrib-
uting 13%, elbow 21%, and wrist
15% (19).
HIP AND TRUNK ROTATION
Figures 1ce highlight the hip and
trunk rotation, which represents the
next link in the sequence. In particular,
Figure 1c illustrates the preparatory or
throwing position common to many
elite servers. The alignment of the
shoulders is rotated beyond that of
the hips in the transverse plane,
creating a horizontal separation angle
of ;20 (27). Similar to where the
above knee flexion places the quadri-
ceps on eccentric stretch in preparation
for an explosive concentric drive
through the forward swing to impact,
this horizontal twisting helps to elicit
a stretch-shortening cycle response
with the musculature of the trunk.
The exaggerated vertical tilt of the
shoulders (lateral flexion) compared
with the hips helps position Federer to
laterally flex during the forward swing,
a form of trunk rotation known to
increase along with serve speed (1).
The extent to which Federer rotates in
the sagittal plane becomes evident in
Figure 1d, upon initiation of his leg
drive forward and upward. From the
perspective of the strength and condi-
tioning coach, knowledge of these

36 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009

3 types of trunk rotation and their
involvement in the serve is key. Often,
there is a misconception that player
preparation needs to only address
rotation in the transverse and sagittal
planes, yet the importance of lateral
trunk flexion to the serve is such that
it too needs to be challenged. Here,
a parallel can be drawn with the typical
core stability exercises prescribed to
players, which predominantly train
explosive trunk action through the
transverse and sagittal planes. Inclusion
of exercises for core stability that
include transverse, coronal, and sagittal
plane stresses is an important part of
a comprehensive strength and condi-
tioning program for tennis.
In light of this prominent role of the
trunk in the stroke, a strong core is
clearly important from both perfor-
mance and injury prevention points
of view. Roetert et al. (33) identified
a strength imbalance between the
muscles of the abdominal area and
the lower back. The abdominal
muscles work to accelerate and stabi-
lize the trunk during the serve (Figures
1be), while the muscles in the lower
back decelerate and stabilize the trunk
during the follow-through (Figure 1f ).
Kovacs et al. (24) stated that training
for tennis requires a strong understand-
ing not only of the acceleration aspects
of movement (as described above with
respect to the trunk) but also the need
for tennis-specific deceleration. Be-
cause of the aforementioned anterior-
posterior imbalance in tennis players as
well as a potential imbalance between
left and right sides, a series of low back
exercises (including exercises for the
left and right erector spinae) need to be
incorporated into training programs
along with abdominal exercises. Train-
ing the temporal and strength charac-
teristics of transversus abdominis,
lumbar multifidus, and the diaphragm
can also help to provide a base upon
which other muscles can effectively
contract. Ensuring that a core stability
program does not overemphasize the
abdominal or trunk flexor musculature
is important in light of this known
disproportionate trunk development.
As forces are transferred from the
trunk to the arm, we start to see an
integration of proximal force genera-
tion and distal movement (long-axis
rotation), a motion defined by coupled
scapular stabilization, glenohumeral
rotation, and forearm pronation (20)
creating a composite motion.
SHOULDER ROTATION
In Figures 1df, we can observe the
vigorous internal rotation of the shoul-
der that contributes to a high resultant
racquet head speed. In fact, during the
acceleration phase of the tennis serve,
the shoulder internal rotation angular
velocity can reach values greater than
2,500 (/s) (14). The magnitude of this
internal rotation can be indirectly
appreciated through the positions in
which the shoulder and the upper
arm find themselves in Figure 1d. These
positions are extreme and provide
further insight into the shoulder joint
kinetics that punctuate the serve, where
joint loading is related to serve speed
(27,35). The type of service backswing
that a player employs is also known to
affect the activation of the shoulder
musculature (18,29) and the loading
profile of the shoulder joint (10), which
in turn has implications for strength and
conditioning program design.
The muscles in front of the chest and
trunk (pectorals, abdominals, quadri-
ceps, and biceps) act as the primary
accelerators of the upper arm and
therefore racquet rotation to impact,
while the muscles in the back of the
body (rotator cuff, trapezius, rhom-
boids, and back extensors) act to
decelerate this racquet-upper limb
system during the follow-through (9).
Isokinetic testing results identify the
resultant imbalances between internal
and external rotator strength on the
dominant side of the body (6,8). Elliott
et al. (11) indicated that training must
be such that the muscles surrounding
these joints are strengthened both in
eccentric and concentric movement
patterns to help protect the region
from injury (7).
Finally, the muscles responsible for
controlling forearm pronation and wrist
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
flexion, the most distal joint actions in
the forward swing sequence, also need
to be conditioned for repeated high
speed performance. Appropriate exer-
cises for wrist and forearm strengthen-
ing include standard wrist curls for
flexion/extension and radial and ulnar
deviation as well as forearm rotations
for pronation and supination with a
counterbalanced weight (bar with
weight at one end only).
APPLICATION OF TENNIS
BIOMECHANICS TO TRAINING
The information presented earlier in
this article provides the framework
for the development of strength and
conditioning programs specific to ten-
nis. The aim of this final section of the
article will be to discuss and recom-
mend strength and conditioning exer-
cises that train key muscles used during
the tennis serve and that would have
an impact on improving the players
ability to accelerate and promote
explosiveness for optimal serve perfor-
mance. As has been discussed, these
exercises provide a training stimulus
for the entire body as the lower body,
trunk, and upper extremities all form
links within the bodys kinetic chain.
While it is beyond the scope of this
article to provide a complete list and
discussion of strength and conditioning
exercises for tennis, the reader is
referred to 2 sources for more extensive
development on this topic (23,30).
Figure 2ac shows a whole body
exercise commonly referred to as
a medicine ball squat thrust that can
be used on or off court with a medicine
ball. This exercise simulates the knee
flexion and subsequent extension that
elite players use during the serve and
emphasizes the concept of eccentric
preload of the quadriceps followed
by explosive knee extension. In addi-
tion to the lower-body work that is
performed, the player is aggressively
extending the hip and lower back by
activating the gluteal and erector
spinae musculature. Multiple sets of
this exercise are recommended with an
emphasis on proper body positioning
as pictured and the coordination (and
37
Biomechanics of the Tennis Serve: Implications for Strength Training
Figure 2. (a) Medicine ball squat thrust (start). (b) Medicine ball squat thrust (middle).
(c) Medicine ball squat thrust (finish).
therefore summation) of the lower-
body, trunk, and upper-body segments
to launch the medicine ball as high and
straight up into the air as possible.
One of the key regions of the body
requiring emphasis in the tennis player
is the core. As mentioned earlier, core
training should encompass all 3 planes:
sagittal, coronal (frontal), and trans-
verse. An example of a core exercise
sequence that would encompass these
planes includes the sit-up with medicine
ball pass (sagittal), seated medicine ball
rotations on exercise ball (transverse),
side plank (coronal), and side plank
with unilateral simultaneous row. Sig-
nificantly, these 4 exercises also provide
a training stimulus, using movement
patterns that closely simulate the tennis
serve.
The sit-up with medicine ball pass
(Figure 3) uses a medicine ball and
partner and involves the player doing
a sit-up with a medicine ball while
passing the ball to a partner to provide
an overload concentrically to the
Figure 3. Sit-up with medicine ball pass.
38 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
Figure 4. Seated medicine ball rotation.
gluteal activation required to stabilize
the rest of the body. Figure 6 shows
a variation where a unilateral row is
performed while the body remains in
abdominal muscles. Upon returning the stabilized plank position.
to the starting position, the player
Recent research has examined the
catches the return toss from the
range of motion (excursion) of the
partner providing an eccentric over-
trunk and angular velocity of the trunk
load to the abdominals as the player
during core exercise performance in
decelerates back to the starting posi-
athletes (36). They found exercises
tion of the exercise. This exercise can
similar to the sit-up with rotation and
be performed with many variations
seated medicine ball toss use 50 to 60
including the use of a physioball to
of differential rotation, which is similar
provide an unstable training surface, as
to the rotation used during overhead
well as the involvement of a diagonal
throwing sport activities. Additionally,
or rotational component to stress the
velocities used during these exercises
oblique musculature.
were approximately 50% of the veloc-
Figure 4 shows the seated medicine ity of the pelvis and lower torso used
ball rotation exercise that places the during throwing. Additional research
player in a seated position on a physio- also guides the strength and condition-
ball. The player, along with a partner, ing professional on proper timing of
performs rotational tosses emphasizing core exercises in the training program.
the preload of the trunk musculature A common belief has been that core
during the backswing of the exercise training, and for that matter rotator cuff
immediately followed by explosive and scapular training, should not be
acceleration of the ball back to the performed prior to skill training (i.e.,
partner. Both a forehand and a back- on-court training) due to the possible
hand motion can be used with cross- interference with optimal on-court
court (diagonal) and down the line performance due to fatigue of key
(straight ahead) tosses being employed stabilizing musculature. Research has
as appropriate. provided support to the notion of
Figures 5 and 6 show the side plank
and side plank with unilateral row
exercises. These exercises engage crit-
ically important muscles that stabilize
the trunk and lower and upper extrem-
ities. The athlete assumes the side
plank position as pictured, ensuring
a proper straight-line alignment with-
out bowing or inferior dipping of the
midsection. By resting on the elbow,
the athlete uses high levels of scapular
stabilization in addition to the core and Figure 5. Side plank.

Figure 6. Side plank with unilateral row.
performing core exercises after a work-
out rather than prior to exercise.
Navalta and Hrncir (26) have shown
that the performance of core exercises
during a recovery period following
training can actually serve to clear
lactate and provide a useful benefit to
the elite tennis player following an
extended period of on-court training.
Thus, the benefit of core muscle activa-
tion and strength training can be coupled
with lactate clearance and facilitation of
recovery, underlining this sequence as
preferable for these important exercises
in a tennis players program.
For the upper extremity, biomechani-
cal research has identified the powerful
concentric muscle activation required
to produce racquet head acceleration
on the serve. This includes explosive
internal rotation of the shoulder, fore-
arm pronation, and wrist flexion. To
simulate this portion of the service
motion, a 90/90 wall plyometric can be
used, focusing on rapid internal rota-
tion of the shoulder and wrist flexion to
propel the medicine ball into the wall
explosively (Figure 7). While this drill
activates the subscapularis, latissimus
dorsi, pectoralis major, and teres major,
the key internal rotators of the shoul-
der, it also loads the wrist flexors and
pronators (25). It is critically important
to point out that this exercise does
focus on internal rotation strength
development. Research has repeatedly
shown that tennis players do have very
high levels of internal shoulder rotation
strength and that often a tennis-specific
imbalance is present in the dominant
shoulder whereby the internal rotators
are overly developed relative to the
posterior rotator cuff (external rotators)
the player catches the ball and quickly
returns it back to the floor using
a snapping type motion.
SUMMARY
This article has summarized key bio-
mechanical variables inherent in an
elite-level tennis serve. It has high-
lighted the key movement patterns
and muscle activations of the serve and
in so doing provided the framework
for the exercises recommended for the
tennis player. Inclusion of these key
training exercises in a tennis players
strength and conditioning program
Figure 7. 90/90 wall plyometric.
can ensure development of the key
muscles responsible for force develop-
(6,8). Care must be taken to ensure that ment and transfer in the elite-level
internal rotation exercises such as the tennis serve.
90/90 wall plyometric are used only
among players with optimal external/
internal rotation muscular balance. E. Paul Roetert
is managing direc-
Finally, to improve distal upper ex- tor of the United
tremity muscular explosiveness, the States Tennis
wrist snap plyometric is recommended Associations
in addition to the standard wrist curl Coaching
program to provide a rapid concentric Education and
and eccentric training stimulus. This Sport Science
exercise (Figure 8) consists of placing department.
the player in a seated position with
a small hand-sized medicine ball. The
ball is rapidly thrown using only a wrist
flexion motion (the elbow remains
fixed in approximately 90 of elbow Machar Reid is
flexion) toward the ground whereby the sport science
manager for Tennis
Australia (TA)
and is a high
performance TA
coach.
Todd
Ellenbecker is
a physical thera-
pist, clinic director,
and national
director of
Clinical Research
Physiotherapy
Associates
Scottsdale Sports
Clinic and the
director of Sports Medicine ATP Tour and
Chairman USTA Sport Science
Figure 8. Wrist snap plyometric. Committee.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 39
Biomechanics of the Tennis Serve: Implications for Strength Training
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